f
ENCTCLOPMDIA BRITANNICA;
D I C T I 6 NARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;
Conftru&ed on a Plan,
BY WH 1CH
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefted into the Form of Diftinft
TREATISES or SYSTEM S,
*
COMPllUE ND1NO
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
AVI) FULL EXPLAN AT IONS GIVEN OF THE
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,,
WHETHER RELATING TO
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Civil, Military, Commercial,
Including Elucidations of the mod important Topics relative to Religion, Morals, .
Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life :
TOGETHER WITH
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rirers, drc.
throughout the Worlds
A General Histort, Ancient znA Modernt of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;
AND
An Account of the Li v es of the mod Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
Compiled from the ivritirgs of tie btji Authors, inftvor.d languages ; the mojl approved Diflienaries, as -well of general fc sen ^ as of its parti¬
cular hrancbes ; the Tranfailions, Journals, and Memoirs, of Ltarr.ed Societies, both at home and abroad', the MS. Lclduret of
Etniaent Profeffors on differentfcitnces ; and a variety of Original Materials, furnijhcd hi an Extenfn e Contfpondence.
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V O L. XV.
JNDOCTl DtSC'jtNT, JET AMENT MKMINISS S PKRITI.
EDINBURGH.
PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARQ^HAR,
MDCCXCVII,
<2nteret> in Stationer* pH in Ccrnw of tfje 98 of parliament.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
P L A
Plant. "|3 LANT is defined to be, an organical body, defti-
—»-v * IT tute of fenfe and fpontaneous motion, adhering to
another body in fuch a manner as to draw horn it its
nourifhment, and having a power of propagating itfclf
by feeds.
The vegetation and economy of plants is one of thofe
fubjefts in which our knowledge is extremely circum-
fcribed. A total inattention to the llrufture and eco¬
nomy of plants is the chief reafon of the fmall progrefs
that has been made in the principles of vegetation, and
of the initability and fluftuation of our theories con¬
cerning it; for which reafon we ihall give a fhort de-
fcription of the ftruftnre of plants, beginning with the
feed, and tracing its progrefs and evolution to-a ftate of
maturity.
i. Of Seedt.~\ The feeds of plants are of various
figures and fixes. Moll of them are divided into two
lobes; though fome, as thofe of the crefs-kind, have
fix ; .and others, as the grains of corn, are not divided,
but entire. *
But as the elfential properties of all feeds are the
fame, when confidered with regard to the principles of
vegetation, our particular defcriptions fhall be limited
to one feed, viz. the great garden-bean. Neither is the
choice of this feed altogether arbitrary; for, after it be¬
gins to vegetate, its parts are more confpicilous than
many others, and conlequently better calculated for in-
veftigation.
This feed is covered with two coats or membranes.
,e outer coat is extremely thin, and full of pores;
ut may be eafily feparated from the inner one (which
is much thicker), after the bean has been boiled, or lain
a few days in the foil. At the thick end of the bean
there is a fmall hole vifible to the naked eye, immedi-
Platc ately over the radicle or future root, that it may have
CCCXCiV a free paflage into the foil (fig. I. A). When thefe
coats are taken off, the body of the feed appears, which
is divided into two fmooth portions or lobes. The
Jmoothnefs of the lobes is owing to a thin film or cu¬
ticle with which they are covered.
At the balls of the bean is placed the radicle or fu¬
ture root (fig. 3. A). The trunk of the radicle, juft
as it enters into the body of the feed, divides into two
capital branches, one of which is inferted into each
Plate I°be, and fends off fmaller ones in all direAions through
CCCXC1. whole fiibftance of the lobes (fig. 4. AA). Thefe
ramifications become fo extremely minute towards the
edges of the lobes, that they require the fineft glaffes
Vpl. XV. Part I.
P L A
to render them vifible. To thefe ramifications Grew t
and Malpighi have given the name offemmal root; be- ’
caufe, by means of it, the radicle and plume, before
they are expanded, derive their principal nouriftunent.
The plume, bud, or germ (fig. 3.), isincloied in two PI*te
fmall correfponding cavities in each lobe. Its colourCCCXCly
and confidence is much the fame with thofe of the ra¬
dicle, of which it is only a continuation, but having a
quite contnuy direction ; for the radicle defcends into
the earth, and divides into a great number of fmaller
branches or filaments; but the plume afcends into the
open air, and unfolds itfelf into all the beautiful va¬
riety of Item, branches, leaves, flowers, fruit, &c. The
plume in corn fhoots from the fmaller end of the grain,
and among maltfters goes by the name of acroj'pire.
The next thing to be talten notice of is the fubftance
or parenchymatous part of the lobes. This is not a
mere concreted juice, but is curioufly organized, and
coniifts of a vaft number of fmall bladders refembling
thofe in the pith of trees (fig. 4.)
Befides the coats, cuticle, and parenchymatous parts,
there is a fubftance perfeAly diftincl from thefe, diilri-
buted in different proportions through the radicle, plume,
and lobes. This inner fubftance appears very plainly' in
a tranfverfe fe&ion of the radicle or plume. Towards
the extremity of the radicle it is one entire trunk; but
higher up it divides into three branches; the middle
one runs dire&ly up to the plume, and the other two
pafs into the lobes on each fide, and fpread out into a
great variety of fmall branches through the whole bo¬
dy of the lobes (fig. 4.) This fubftance is very' pro- piats
perly termed the feminal root: for when the feed is fown, CCCXCf*
the moifture is firft abforbed by the outer coats, which
are everywhere furnifhed with fap and air-veffels; from
thefe it is conveyed to the cuticle; from the cuticle it
proceeds to the pulpy part of the lobes; when it has
got thus far, it is taken up by the mouths of the fmall
branches of the feminal root, and paffes from one branch
into another, till it is all colleAed into the main trunk,
which communicates both with the plume and radicle,
the two principle involved organs of the future plant.
After this the fap or vegetable food runs in two oppo-
fite diredtions: part of it afcends into the plume, and
promotes the growth and expanfion of that organ ; and
part of it defcends into the radicle, for nourifhing and
evolving the root and its various filaments. Thus the
plume and radicle continue their progrefs in oppofite di-
re&ions till the plant arrives at maturity.
It
P L A [
Plant. It is here worth remarking, that every plant is really
poffefled of two roots, both of which are contained in
the feed. The plume and radicle, when the feed is firft
depofited in the earth, derive their nourifhment from the
feminal root; but, afterwards, when the radicle begins
to Ihoot out its filaments, and to abforb fome moifture,
not, however, in a fufficient quantity to fupply the ex
2 ] P L A
renchymatous part of the radicle, but greatly augment¬
ed. The bark is of very different fizes. In moft trees
it is exceeding thin in proportion to the wood and pith.
On the other hand, in carrots, it is almoft one-half of
the femidiameter of the root * and, in dandelion, it is
nearly twice as thick as the woody part.
The bark is compofed of two fubflances ; the paren-
Planf.
igencies of the plume, the two lobes, or main body of chyma or pulp, which is the principal part, and a few
the feed, rife along with the plume, affume the appear- woody fibres. The parenchyma is exceedingly porous,
ance of two leaves, refembling the lobes of the feed in and has a great refemblance to a fponge ; for it fhrivels
fize and fhape, but having no refemblance to thofe of Confiderably when dried, and dilates to its former di-
the plume, for which reafon they have got the name of menfions when infufed in water. Thefe pores or vef-
fels are not pervious, fo as to communicate with each
other; but confift of diftinA little cells or bladders,
fcarcely vifible without the afliftance of the microfcope.
difftmilar haves.
Thefe difiimilar leaves defend the young plume from
the injuries of the weather, and at the fame time, by
abforbing dew, air, &c. afiifl the tender radicle in nou-
rilhing the plume, with which they have ftill a connec¬
tion by means of the feminal root above defcribed. But
when the radicle or fecond root has defcended deep
enough into the earth, and has acquired a fufficient
number of filaments or branches for abforbing as much
aliment as is proper for the growth of the plume; then
the feminal or diffimilar leaves, their utility being en¬
tirely fuperfeded, begin to decay and fall off.
Fig. I. A, the foramen or hole in the bean through
CCCXCIV tjie ra(iicle fhoots into the foil.
Fig. 2. A tranfverfe feftion of the bean; the dots
being the branches of the feminal root.
Fig. 3- A, the radicle. B, the plume or bud.
Fig. 4. A, a longitudinal fe&ion of one of the lobes
Plate
In all roots, thefe cells are conftantly filled with a thin
watery liquor. They are generally of a fpherical figure ;
though in fome roots, as the buglofs and dandelion, they
are oblong. In many roots, as the horfe-radifh, peony,
afparagus, potatoe, &c. the parenchyma is of one uni¬
form ftru&ure. But in others it is more diverfified,
and puts on the fhape of rays, running from the centre
towards the circumference of the bark. Thefe rays
fometimes run quite through the bark, as in lovage;
and fometimes advance towards the middle of it, as in
melilot and moft of the leguminous and umbelliferous
plants. Thefe rays generally ftand at an equal diftance
from each other in the fame plant; but the diftance va¬
ries greatly in different plants. Neither are they of
equal fizes: in carrot they are exceedingly fmall, and
of the bean a little- magnified, to fhow the fmall bladders fcarcely difcernible ; in melilot and chervil, they are
of which the pulpy or parenchymatous part is compo- thicker. They are likewife more numerous in fome plants
fed. ■’ * e —-.i- r r ^-i-
Figs. 5. 6. A, a tranfverfe feftion of the radicle. B,
a tranfverfe fe&ion of the plume, fhowing the organs or
veffels of the feminal root.
F'ig. 4. A view of the feminal root branched out up¬
on the lobes.
Fig. 7. The appearance of the radicle, plume, and fe-
Plate
CCCXCl.
CCCXCIV minai root, when a little further advanced in growth.
than in others. Sometimes they are of the fame thick-
nefs from one edge of the bark to the other; and fome
grow wider as they approach tow ards the fkin. The
veffels with which thefe rays are amply furnifhed, are
fuppofed to be air-veffels, becaufe they are always found
to be dry, and not fo tranfparent as the veffels which
evidently contain the fap.
In all roots there are ligneous veffels difperfed in dif-
Havipo- thus briefly defcribed the feed, and traced its ferent proportions through the parenchyma of the bark.
evolution°into three principal organic parts, viz. the ha-neons veffels run lona-itudinallv throuerh the
plume, radicle, and feminal leaves, w'e (hall next take an
anatomical view of the root, trunk, leaves, &c
2. Of the root.] In examining the root of plants,
the firft thing that prefents itfelf is the (kin, w-hich is
of various colours in different plants. Every root, after
it has arrived at a certain age, has a double (kin. The
firft is coeval with the other parts, and exifts in the
feed: but afterwards there is a ring fent off from the
bark, and forms a fecond fkin ; e. g. in the root of the
dandelion, towards the end of May, the original or
outer (Ivin appears (Inivelled, and is eafily feparated
from the new one, which is frelher, and adheres more
firmly to the bark. Perennial plants are fupplied in
this manner v/ith a new (kin every year; the outer one
always falls oft in the autumn and winter, and a new
one is formed from tlte bark in the fucceeding fpring.
The (kin has nuffterous cells or veffels, and is a conti¬
nuation of the parenchymatous part of the radicle.
However, it does not confift folely of parenchyma; for
the microfcope (hows that there are many tubular lig¬
neous veffels interfperfcd through it.
When the (kin is removed, the true cortical fubftance
=ox bark appears, which is alfo a continuation of the pa-
Fhefe ligneous veffels run longitudinally through the
bark in the form of fmall threads, which are tubular, as
is evident from the rifing of the fap in them when a
root is cut tranfverfcly. Thefe ligneous fap-veffels do
not run in direct lines through the bark, but at fmaU
diftances incline towards one another, in fuch a manner
that they appear to the naked eye to be inofculated;
but the microfcope difcovers them to be only contigu¬
ous, and braced together by the parenchyma. Thefe
braces or coarftations are very various both in fize and
number in difterent roots ; but in all plants they are
moft numerous towards the inner edge of the bark..
Neither are thefe veffels fingle tubes; but, like the
nerves in animals, are bundles of 20 or 30 fmall conti¬
guous cylindrical tubes, which uniformly run from the
extremity of tire root, without fending off any branches
or fuffering any change in their fize or (hape.
In fome roots, as parfnep, efpecially in the ring next
the inner extremity of the bark, thefe veffels contain a
kind of lymph, which is fweeter than the fap contained
in the bladders of the parenchyma. Prom this circum-
ftance they have got the name of lymph-duUs. .
Thefe lymph-du&s fometimes yield a mucilaginous
lymph, as in the comphrey; and fometimes a white
milky
P L A
Phnt. milky glutinous lymph, as in the angelica, fonchus,
b—— burdock, fcorzoners, dandelion, &c. The lymph-dufts
are fuppofed to l>e the veffels from which the gums and
balfams are fecerned. Tlie lymph of fennel, when ex-
pofed to the air, turns into a clear tranfparent balfam ;
and that of the fcorzonera, dandelion, &c. condenfes in¬
to a gum.
The lituation of the vefiels is various. In fome plants
they Hand in a ring or circle at the inner edge of the
bark, as in afparagus ; in others, they appear in lines
or rays, as in borage; in the parfnep, and feveral
other plants, they are moil confpicuous towards the outer
edge of the bark ; and in the dandelion, they are difpo-
fed in the form of concentric circles.
The wood of roots is that part which appears after
the bark is taken off, and is firmer and lefs porous than
the bark or pith. It confiits of two diflindl fubftances,
viz. the pulpy or parenchymatous, and the ligneous.
The wood is conne&ed to the bark by large portions of
the bark inferted into it. Thefe infertions are moitly in
the form of rays, tending to the centre of the pith, which
are eaiily difcernible by the eye in a tranfverfe feftion of
moft roots. Thefe infertions, like the bark, conliil of
many veffels, moftly of a round or oval figure.
The ligneous veffels are generally difpofed in collateral
rows running longitudinally through the root. Some
of thefe contain air, and others fap. The air-vejfe/s are
fo called, becaufe they contain no liquor. Thefe air-
veffels are diftinguifhed by being whiter than the others.
The pith is the centrical part of the root. Some
roots have no pith, as the ilramonium, nicotiana, &c.;
others have little or none at the extremities of the roots,
but have a confiderable quantity of it near the top. The
pith, like every other part of a plant, is derived from
the feed; but in fome it is more immediately derived
from the bark : for the infertions of the bark running
in betwixt the rays of the wood, meet in the centre, and
conftitute the pith. It is owing to this circumftance,
that, among roots which have no pith in their lower
parts, they are amply provided with it towards the top,
as in columbine, lovage, &c.
The bladders of the pith are of very different fizes,
and generally of a circular figure. Their pofition is
more uniform than in the bark. Their fides are not
mere films, but a compofition of fmall fibres or threads;
which gives the pith, when viewed with a microfcope,
the appearance of a piece of fine gauze or net-work.
We {hall conclude the defcription of roots with ob-
ferving, that their whole fubftance is nothing but a con¬
geries of tubes and fibres, adapted by nature for the ab-
forption of nourhhment, and of courfe the extenfion and
augmentation of their parts.
Plate Fig* 8. A tranfverfe fe&ion of the root of worm-
CC^'XCIV wood as it appears to the naked eye.
Fig. 9. A fedlion of fig. 8. magnified. AA, the
{kin, with its veffels. BBBB, the bark. The round
holes CCC, &c. are the lymph-dudts of the bark : AU
the other holes are little cells and fap-veffels. DDD,
parenchymatous infertions from the bark, with the cells,
&c. EEEE, the rays of the wood, in which the holes
are the air-veffels. N. B. This root has no pith.
3. Of the ‘Trunk, Stall, or Stemf In defcribing the
trunks of plants, it is neceffary to premife, that what¬
ever is faid with regard to them applies equally to the
branches.
P L A
The trunk, like the root, confifls of thfce parts, viz. Phmt.
the bark, wood, and pith. Thefe parts, though fub- v 1,1“*
ftantially the fame in the trunk as in the root, are in
many cafes very different in their texture and appear¬
ance.
The {kin of the bark is compofed of very minute
bladders, interfperfed with longitudinal woody fibres,
as in the nettle, thiftlc, and moft herbs. The outlide
of the {kin is vifibly porous in fome plants, particularly
the cane.
The principal body of the bark is compofed of pulp
or parenchyma, and innumerable veffels much larger
than thofe of the {kin. The texture of the pulpy part,
though the fame fubftance with the parenchyma in
roots, yet feldom appears in the form of rays running to¬
wards the pith ; and when thefe rays do appear, they
do not extend above half way to the circumference.
The veffels of the bark are very differently fituated, and
deftined for various purpofes in different plants. For
example, in the bark of the pine, the inmoft are lymph
dufts, and exceedingly fmall; the outmoft are gum or
refiniferous veffels, deftined for the fe<-retion of turpen¬
tine ; and are fo large as to be diftinctly vifible to the
naked eye.
The wmod lies between the bark and pith, and con-
fifts of two parts, viz. a parenchymatous and ligneous.
In all trees, the parenchymatous part of the wmod,
though much diverfified as to fize and c^nfiftence, is uni¬
formly difpofed in diametrical rays, or infertions run¬
ning betwixt fimilar rays of the ligneous part.
The true wmod is nothing but a congeries of old dried
lymph-dufts. Between the bark and the wood a new
ring of thefe diufts is formed every year, which gradu¬
ally lofes its foftnefs as the cold feafon approaches, and
towards the middle of winter is condenfed into a folid
ring of wrood. Thefe annual rings, which are dillin&ly
vifible in moft trees when cut through, ferve as natural
marks to diftinguilh their age (fig. 10. li.) The rings Plate
of one year are fometimes larger, fometimes lefs, thanCCCXClV
thofe of another, probably owing to the favourablenefs
or ui.favourablenefs of the feafon.
The pith, though of a different texture, is exadlly of
the fame fubftance with the parenchyma of the bark, /
and the infertions of the wood. The quantity of pith
is various in different plants. Inftead of being increafed
every year like the wrood, it is annually diminifhed, its
veffels drying up, and affuming the appearance and ftruc-
ture of wood ; inlomuch that in old trees there is fcarcc
fuch a thing as pith to be difcerned.
A ring of fap-veffels are ufually placed at the outer
edge of the pith, next the wood. In the pine, fig, and •
walnut, they are very large. The parenchyma of the
pith is compofed of fmall cells or bladders, of the fame
kind with thofe of the bark, only of a larger fize. The
general figure of thefe bladders is circular; though in
fome plants, as the thiftle and borage, they are angu¬
lar. Though the pith is originally one connected
chain of bladders, yet as the plant gfows old they {hri-
vel, and open in different direftions. In the walnut, af¬
ter a certain age, it appears in the form of a regular
tranfverfe hollow diviiion. In fome plants it is alto¬
gether wanting ; in others, as the fonchus, nettle, &c.
there is only a tranfverfe partition of it at every' joint.
Many other varieties might be mentioned ; but thefe
mull he left to the cbfervation of the reader.
A 2 Fig.
[ 3 1
P L A [4
PUnt. Fig. 10. A tranfverfe feAion of a branch of a(h, as
'-ll '“v it appears to the eye. a a
Plate Ficr ii The fame feftion magnified. AA, the
CCCXC‘Vbark!!' BBB, an arched ring of Ip-vcffcls next the
{kin CCC, the parenchyma of the bark with its cells,
and another arched ring of fiip-veffels. DD, a circu¬
lar line of lymph-duds immediately below the above
arched ring. EE, the wood. F, the firft year’s growth.
G, the fecond. H, the third year’s growth III, the
true wood. KK, the great air-veflels.. LL, the kfier
ones. MMM, the parenchymatous infertions ot the
bark reprefented by the white rays. NO, the pith,
with its bladders or cells. ,
4. Of the Leaves.] The leaves of plants confiit ot
the fame fubftanee with that of the trunk. They are
full of nerves or woody portions, running in all direc¬
tions, and branching out into innumerable Imall threads,
interwoven with the parenchyma like fine lace or
gaThe Ikin of the leaf, like that of an animal, is full of
pores, which both ferve for perfpiration and for ab-
forption of dews, >, &c. Thefe pores or orifices ditter
both in {hape and magnitude in different plants, winch
is the caufe of that variety of texture or gram peculiar
to every plant.
The pulpy or parenchymatous part conhits ot very
minute fibres, wound up into fmall cells or bladders.
Thefe cells are uf various fizes in the fame leaf.
All leaves, of whatever figure, have a marginal fibre,
by which all the reil are bounded. The particular fhape
of this fibre determines the figure of the leaf.
The vefiels of leaves have the appearance of inofcu-
lating; but, when examined by the microfcrope, they
are found only to be interwoven or laid along each
other. , . ...
What are called air-veffels, or thofe winch carry no
fap, are vifible even to “the naked eye in fome leaves.
When a leaf is (lowly broke, they appear like fmall
woolly fibres, connected to both ends of the broken
Plate r Tig. 14. The appearance of the air-veffels to th* eye,
jcecxcsr in a vine-leaf drawn gently afunder.
Fig. 15. A fmall piece cut off that leaf.
Fig. 16. The fame piece magnified, in which the vef-
fels have the appearance of a ferew.
Fig. 17. The appearance of thefe veffels as they exiit
in the leaf before they are ffretched out.
c. Of the Ffttnuer.] It is needlefs here to mention
any thing of the texture, or of the veffels, &c. oi flowers,
as they are pretty fimilar to thofe of the leaf. It would
be foreign to our prefent purpofe to take any notice of
the charaaers and diftinaions of flowers. Thefe be¬
long to the fcience of Botany, to which the reader is
referred. „
There is one curious faa, however, which mult not
be omitted, viz. That every flower is perfectly formed
in its parts many months before it appears outwardly;
that is, the flowers which appear this year are not pro¬
perly (peaking the flowers of this year, but of the laft.
For example, mezereon generally flowers in January;
but thefe flowers were completely formed in the month
of Auguft preceding. Of this faa any one may fatisfy
himfelf by feparating the coats of a tulip-root about the
beginning of September ; and he will find that the two
innermoii form a kind of cell, in the centre of winch
Plant.
} p L A
(lands the young flower, which is not to make its ap¬
pearance till the following April or May. Fig. 18. v -
exhibits a view of the tulip-root when diffeaed in Sep¬
tember, with the young flower towards the bottom.
6. Of the Fruit.] In deferibing the ftruaure of fruits,
a few examples (hall be taken from fuch as are mod ge¬
nerally known.
A pea-, beiides the fkin, which is a produaion of the
(kin of the bark, confills of a double parenchyma or pulp,
fap, and air-veffels, calculary and acetary.
The outer parenchyma is the fame iubftance conti¬
nued from the bark, only its bladders are larger and
more fucculent.
It is everywhere interfperfed with fmall globiues or
grains, and the bladders refpea thefe grains as a kind oi
centres, every grain being the centre of a number of
bladders. The fap and air-veffels in this pulp are ex¬
tremely fmall.
Next the core is the inner pulp or parenchyma, which
confifts of bladders of the fame kind with the outer, only
larger and more oblong, correfponding to thofe of the
pi;fp, from which it feems to be derived. This inner
pulp is much fourer than the other, and has none of the
fmall grains interfperfed through it; and hence it has
got the name of acetary.
Between the acetary and outer pulp, the globules or
grains begin to grow larger, and gradually unite into a
hard ftony body, Specially towards the corculum or ftool
of the fruit; and from this circumftance it has been call¬
ed tha calculary.
Thefe grains are not derived from any of the orgam-
cal parts of the tree ; but feem rather to be a kind of
concretions precipitated from the fap, iinular to the pre¬
cipitation from wine, urine, and other liquors.
The core is a roundifii cavity in the centre of the
pear, lined w ith a hard woody membrane, in which the
feed is inclofed. At the bottom of the core there is a
fmall duft or canal, which runs up to the top of the
pear ; this canal allows the air to get into the core, for
the purpofe of drying and ripening the feeds. .
Fig. i 9. a tranfverfe feftion of a pear, as it appears piate
to the naked eye. A, the (kin, and a ring of fap-vef-CCCXCVl
fels. B, the outer parenchyma, or pulp, with its vef¬
fels, and ligneous fibres interfperfed. C, the inner pa¬
renchyma, or acetary, with its veffels, which are larger
than the outer one. D, the core and feeds.
Fig. 20. a piece cut off fig. 19*
FJg. 21. is fig. 20. magnified. A A A, the fmall
grains or globules, with the veffels radiated from them.
Fig. 22. a longitudinal fe&ion of the pear, (bow¬
ing a different view of the fame parts with thofe of
fig. 19. A the channel, or du&, which runs om
the top of the pear to the bottom of the core.
In a lernouy the parenchyma appears in three different
forms. The parenchyma of the rind is of a coarfe tex¬
ture, being compofed of thick fibres, woven into large
bladders. Thofe neared the furface contain the effen-
tial oil of the fruit, which burfts into a flame when the
(kin is fqueezed over a candle. From this outmod pa¬
renchyma nine or ten infertions or lamellae are produ¬
ced, which run between as many portions of the pulp,
and unite into one body in the centre of the fruit, which
coirefponds to the pith in trunks or roots. At the bot¬
tom and top of the lemon, this pith evidently joins with
the rind, without the intervention of any lamellae. This
j circumdance
p l a r
Plant, circumftance lliows, that the pith and bark are actually
tan i • • connefted in the trunk and roots of plants, though it is
difficult to demonftrate the conne&ion, on account of
the clofenefs of their texture, and the minutenefs of
their fibres. Many veffels are d'.fperfed through the
whole of this parenchyma; but the largefl ones Hand
on the inner edge of the rind, and the outer edge of
the pith, juft at the two extremities of each lamella.
The fecond kind of parenchyma is placed between
the rind and the pith ; is divided into diftinft bodies
by the lamella:and each of thefe bodies forms a large
bag. .
Thefe bags contain a third parenchyma, which is
a clufter of fmaller bags, diftinft and unconne&ed with
each other, having a fmall ftalk by which they are fix¬
ed to the large bag. Within each of thefe fmall bags
are many hundreds of bladders, compofed of extreme¬
ly minute fibres. Thefe bladders contain the acid juice
of the lemon.
P’ate F'g* i 2. a longitudinal fe&ion of a lemon. A A A,
jCCCXCV. the rind with the velfels which contain the effential oil.
B B, the fubftance correfponding to the pith, formed
by the union of the lamellae or infertions. C C, its
continuation and conneftion with the rind, independent
of the infertions. -n u -n
Fig. 13. a tranverfe fe&ion of the lemon. B B B,
See. the nine pulpy bags, or fecond parenchyma, pla¬
ced between the rind and the pith ; and the. clufter of
fmall bags, which contain the acid juice, inclofed in
the large ones. C C, the large veftels that furround
the pith. D D, two of the large bags laid open, {bow¬
ing the feeds, and their connexion with the lamellae or
membranes which form the large bags.
Of the Perforation of Plants, and the quantity of
vnotflure daily imbibed by them, — Ihefe curious, particulais
have been determined with great accuracy by Dr Hales.
The method he took to accomplifh his purpofe was as
follows.—In the month of July, commonly the warmeft
feafon of the year, he took a large fun-flower three feet
and an half high, which had been purpofely planted in
a flower-pot when young. He covered the pot with
thin milled lead, leaving only a fmall hole-^o pieferve a
communication with the external air, and another by
which he might occafionally fupply the plant with wa¬
ter. Into the former he inferted a glafs tube nine
inches long, and another {horter tube into the hole by
which he poured in the water; and the latter was kept
clofe Hopped with a cork, except when there was occa-
fion to ufe it. The holes in the bottom of the pot were
alfo flopped up with corks, and all the crevices {hut
with cement.—Things being thus prepared, the pot and
pi: were weighed for 15 feveral days ; after which the
plant was cut off clofe to the leaden plate, and the
ftump well covered with cement. By weighing, he
found that there perfpired through the unglazed porous
pot two ounces every 12 hours; which being allowed
for in the daily weighing of the plant and pot, the
greateft perfpiration, in a warm day, was found to be
one pound 14 ounces; the middle rate of perfpiration,
one pound four ounces ; the perfpiration of a dry warm
night, without any fenfible dew, was about three
ounces; but when there was any fenfible though fmall
dew, the perfpiration was nothing ; and when there
was a large dew, or fome little rain in the night,
5 ] p L A
the plant and pot v/as increafed in weight two or three
ounces.
In order to know what quantity was perfpired from
a fquare inch of furface, our author cut off all the
leaves of the plant, and laid them in five feveral par¬
cels, according to their feveral fizes; and then mea-
fured the furface of a leaf of each parcel, by laying
over it a large lattice made with threads, in which each
of the little fquares were J of an inch ; by numbering
of which, he had the furface of the leaves in fquare
inches; which, multiplied by the number of leaves in
the correfponding parcels, gave the area of all the
leaves. By this method he found the furface of the
whole plant above ground to be 6 6 fquare inches,
or 39 fquare feet. He dug up anothei lun-flower of
nearly the fame fize, which had eight main roots,
reaching 15 inches deep and fidewife, from the ftun.
It had befides a very thick bufh of lateral roots from
the eight main roots, extending every way in a hemi-
fphere about nine inches from the Item and main roots.
In order to ellimate the length of all the roots, he took
one of the main roots with its laterals, and meafured.
and weighed them ; and then weighed the other feven
with their laterals ; by which means he found the fum
of all their lengths to be 1448 feet. Suppofing then
the periphery of thefe roots at a medium to be o. 1 31
of an inch, then their furface will be 2276 fquare
inches, or 15.8 fquare feet; that is, equal to 0.4 of
the furface of the plant above ground. From calcula¬
tions drawn from thefe obfervations, it appears, that a
fquare inch of the upper furface of this plant perfpires
tst part of an inch in a day and a night; and that a
fquare inch of the furface underground imbibed -jV of
an inch in the fame time.
The quantity perfpired by different plants, however,
is by no means equal. A vine-leaf perfpires only t£t
of an inch in 12 hours ; a cabbage perfpires fg of an
inch in the fame time ; an apple-tree T£-T in 1 2 hours ;
and a lemon T in 12 hours.
Oj the circulation of the Sap in Plants. — Concerning
this there have been great difputes ; fome maintaining,
that the vegetable fap has a circulation analogou* t(5
the blood of animals ; while others affirm, that it only
afeends in the day-time, and defeends again in the
In favour of the doftrine of circulation it has
Plan
night.  ft I  - ---
been urged, that upon making a tranfverfe incifion in¬
to the tr unk of a tree, the juice which runs out proceeds
in greater quantity from the upper than the lower part ;
and the fwelling in the upper lip is alfo much greater
than in the lower. It appears, however, that when two
fimilar incifions are made, one near the top and the
other near the root, the latter expends much more fap
than the former. Hence it is concluded, that the juice
afeends by one fet of veffels and defeends by another.
But, in order to {how this clearly, it would be necef-
fary firft to prove that there is in plants, as in animals,
fome kind of centre from which the circulation begins,
and to which it returns; but no fuch centre has been
difeovered by any naturalift; neither is there the leaft
provifion apparently made by nature whereby the fap
might be prevented from defeending in the very fame
veffels through which it afeends. In the la&eal veffels*
of animals, which we may fuppofe to be analogous to
the roots of vegetables, there are valves which effe£tual-
ly
Vlant
^ Veritable
Statics, vol,
i. p. 14».
P L A [
ly prevent tlie chyle when once abforbed from returning
into the inteftines; but no fuch thing is obferved in the
veflels of vegetables: whence it mult be very probable,
that when the propelling force ceafes, the juice defeends
by the very fame velfels through which it afeended. —
This matter, however, has been cleared up almoll as
well as the nature of the fubject will admit of by the
experiments of Dr Hales Thefe experiments are fo
numerous, that for a particular account of them we mult
refer-to the work itfelf; however, his reafonmg againlt
the circulation of the fap will be fufficiently intelligible
without them. “ We fee (fays he), in many of the
foregoing experiments, what quantities of moilture
trees daily imbibe and perfpire: now the celerity of the
fap mull be very great, if that quantity of moilture
mult, molt of it, afeend to the top of the tree, then de*
feend, and afeend again, before it is carried off by per-
fpiration.
“ The defedt of a circulation in vegetables feems in
fome meafure to be fupplied* by the much greater quan¬
tity of liquor, which the vegetable takes in, than the
animal, whereby its motion is accelerated; for we find
the fun-flower, bulk for bulk, imbibes and perfpires 17
times more frelh liquor than a man, every 24 hours.
“ Befides, Nature’s great aim in vegetables being
only that the vegetable life be carried on and maintain¬
ed, there was no occafion to give its fap the rapid mo¬
tion which was neceffary for the blood of animals.
“ In animals, it is the heart which fets the blood in
motion, and makes it continually circulate; but in ve¬
getables we can difeover no other cailfe of the fap’s
motion but the Itrong attradtion of the capillary fap-
veffels, allifted by the brilk undulations and vibrations
caufed by the fun’s warmth, whereby the fap is car¬
ried up to the top of the talleft trees, and is there per-
fpired off through the leaves : but when the furface of
the tree is greatly diminifhed by the lofs of its leaves,
then alfo the perfpiration and motion of the fap is
proportionably dimmifhed, as is plain from many of the
foregoing experiments: fo that the afeending velocity
of the fap is principally accelerated by the plentiful
perfpiration of the leaves, thereby making room for
the fine capillary veffels to exert their vaftly attracting
power, which perfpiration is effected by the brilk rare¬
fying vibrations of warmth ; a power that does not
feem to be any ways well adapted to make the lap de-
feend from the tops of vegetables by different veffels to
the root.
“ If the fap circulated, it mult needs have been
feen defeending from the upper part of large galhes
cut in branches fet in water, and with columns of wa¬
ter prefling on their bottoms in long glafs tubes. In
both which cafes, it is certain that great quantities of
water paffed through the Item, fo that it mult needs
have been feen defeending, if the return of the fap
downwards were by trufion or puliion, whereby the
blood in animals is returned through the veins to the
heart; and that puliion, if there were any, mult necef-
farily be exerted with prodigious force, to be able to
drive the fap through the liner capillaries. So that, if
there be a return of the fap downwards, it mult be by
attraction, and that a very powerful one, as we may
fee by many of thefe experiments. But it is hard to
conceive what and where that power is which can be
equivalent to that provifion nature has made for the at-
6 ] P L A
cent of the fap in confequence of the great perfpira¬
tion of the leaves.
“ The inltances of the jeffamine-tree, and of the
pafiion-tree, have been looked upon as Itrong proofs of
the circulation of the fap, becaufe their branches,
which were far below the inoculated bud, were gilded:
but vve have many vifible proofs in the vine, and other
bleeding trees, of the fap’s receding back, and pulhing
forwards alternately, at different times of the day and
night. And there is great reafon to think that the fap
of all other trees has fuch an alternate, receding, and
progreflive motion, occafioned by the alternacies of day
and night, warm and cool, moill and dry.
“ For the fap in all vegetables does probably recede
in fome meafure from the tops of the branches, as the
fun leaves them; becaufe its rarefying power then
ceafing, the greatly rarefied fap, and air mixed with it,
will condenfe, and take up lefs room than they did, and
the dew and rain will then be Itrongly imbibed by the
leaves; whereby the body and branches of the vegetable
which have been much exhaufted by the great evapora¬
tion of the day, may at night imbibe fap and dew
from the leaves; for by feveral experiments, plants were
found to increafe confiderably in weight, in dewy and
moiit nights. And by other experiments on the vine,
it was found that the trunk and branches of vines were
always in an imbibing ftate, caufed by the great perfpi¬
ration of the leaves, except in the bleeding feafon; but
wrhen at night.that perfpiring pow-er ceafes, then the
contrary imbibing power will prevail, and draw the fap
and dew from the leaves', as well as moiffure from the
roots.
“ And we have a farther proof of this by fixing mer¬
curial gages to the Items of feveral trees which do
not bleed, whereby it is found that they are always
in a ftrongly imbibing ftate, by drawing up the mer-
cury feveral inches: whence it is eafy to conceive,
how fome of the particles of the gilded bud in the ino¬
culated jeffamine may be abforbed by it, and thereby
communicate their gilding miafma to the fap of other
branches; efpecially when, fome months after the
inoculation, the Itock of the inoculated jeffamine is
cut off a little above the bud; whereby the flock,
which was the counteracting part to the item, being
taken away, the item attracts more vigoroufly from
the bud.
“ Another argument for the circulation of the fap is,
that fome forts of the grafts will infeft and canker the
flocks they are grafted on : but by mercurial gages
fixed to frefh-cut Items of trees, it is evident that thofe
Items were in a ftrongly imbibing ftate ; and confe-
quently the cankered flocks might very likely draw fap
from the graft, as well as the graft alternately from
the flock; juft in the fame manner as leaves ,and
branches do from each other, in the viciflitudes of day
and night. And this imbibing power of the flock is
fo great, where only fome of the branches of a tree
are grafted, that the remaining branches of the flock
will, by their Itrong attraction, ftarve thofe grafts ; for
which reafon it is ufual to cut off the greateft part of
the branches of the flock, leaving only a few fmall ones
to draw up the lap.
“ The inftance of the ilex grafted upon the Englifh
oak, feems to afford a very confiderablc argument
agamfl a circulation. For, if there were a free uni¬
form
Plane.
t// of PL A^A I\ S.
rjate CCCXCW.
P L A [
Plant, form circulation of the fap through the oak. and ilex,
—v  why ftiould the leaves of the oak fall in winter, and
not thofe of the ilex ?
« Another argument againfl an uniform circulation
of the fap in trees, as in animals, may be drawn from an
experiment, where it was found by the three mercunal
gages fixed to the fame vine, that while fome of its
branches changed their ftate of protruding fap into a
Hate of imbibing, others continued protruding fap ; one
nine, and the other thirteen days longer.”
To this reafoning of Dr Hales we fhall fubjoin an
experiment made by Mr Muftel of the Academy of
Sciences at Rouen, which feems decifive againft the
doftrine of circulation. His account of it is as fol¬
lows.—“ On the 12th of January I placed feveral
ftirubs in pots againft the windows of my hot-houfe,
fome within the houfe and others without it. Through
holes made for this purpofe in the panes of glafs, I
pafled a branch of each of the fhrubs, fo that thofe on
the infide had a branch without, and thofe on the out-
fide one within ; after this, I took care that the holes
fhould be exactly clofed and luted. This inverfe ex¬
periment, I thought, if followed clofely, could not fail
affording fufficient points of comparifon, to trace out
the differences, by the obfervation of the effe&s.
“ The 20th of January, a week after this difpofi-
tion, all the branches that were in the hot-houfe be¬
gan to difclofe their buds. In the beginning of Fe¬
bruary there appeared leaves; and towards the end of
it, (hoots of a conliderable length, which prefented the
young flowers. A dwarf apple-tree, and feveral rofe-
trees, being fubmitted to the fame experiment, fiiowed
the fame appearance then as they commonly put on in
May; in (hort, all the branches which were within the
hot-houfe, and confcquently kept in the warm air, were
green at the end of February, and had their (hoots in
gicat forwardnefs. Very different were thofe parts of
the fame tree which were without and expofed to the
cold. None of thefe gave the leaft fign of vegetation ;
and the froft, which was intenfe at that time, broke a
role-pot placed on the outfide, and killed fome of the
branches of that very tree w'hich, on the infide, was
every day putting forth more and more (hoots, leaves,
and buds, fo that it was in full vegetation on one fide,
whilft frozen on the other.
“ The continuance of the froft occafioned no change
in any of the internal branches. They all continued in
a very bride and verdant ftate, as if they did not belong
to the tree which, on the outfide, appeared in the ftate
of the greateft fuffering. On the i ah of March, not-
withftanding the feverity of the feafon, all was in full
bloom. The apple-tree had its root, its ftem, and part
of its branches, in the hot-houfe. Thefe branches were
covered writh leaves and (lowers; but the branches of
the fame tree, which were carried on the outfide, and
expofed to the cold air, did not in the leaft partake of
the aftivity of the reft, but were abfolutely in the fame
ftate which all trees are in during winter. A rofe-tree,
in the fame pofition, (bowed long (hoots with leaves and
buds; it had even (hot a vigorous branch upon its
ftalk ; whilft a branch which paffed through to jjie
outfide had not begun to produce any thing, but was
in the fame ftate with other role-trees left in the
ground. This branch is four lines in d? Her, and
18 inches high. _
7 ] p L A
“ The rofe-tree on the outfide was in the fame ftate; Plant-
but one of its branches drawn through to the infide of v
the hot-houfe was covered with leaves and rofe-buds.
It was not without aftonifhment that I faw this branch
(hoot as brifkly as the rofe-tree which was in *he hot-
houfe, whofe roots and ftalk, expofed as they were to
the warm air, ought, it (hould feem, to have made it
get forwarder than a branch belonging to a tree, whofe
roots, trunk, and all its other branches, were at the very
time froft-nipped. Notwithftanding this, the branch
did not feem affetted by the ftate of its trunk; but the
adfion of the heat upon it produced the fame effedl as
if the whole tree had been in the hot-houfe.”
0/the Perpendicularity of Plants.—This is a curious
phenomenon in natural hiftoiy, which was firft obferved
by M. Dodart, and publifhed in an effay on the affectation Sciences, axu
of perpendicularity obferved in the (terns or (talks of all 1708,
plants, in the roots of many, and even in their branch¬
es, as much as pofiible. Though almoft all plants rife
a little crooked, yet the (terns (hoot up perpendicularly,
and the roots fink down perpendicularly: even thofe,
which by the declivity of the foil come out inclined, or
thofe which are diverted out of the perpendicular by
any violent means, again redrefs and ftraighten themfelves
and recover their perpendicularity, by making a fecond
and contrary bend or elbow without rectifying the firft.
We commonly look upon this affeCtation without any
furprife; but the naturalift who knows what a plant is,
and how it is formed, finds it a fubjeCt of aftonidiment.
Each feed we know contains in it a little • plant, al¬
ready formed, and needing nothing but to be unfolded;
the little plant has its root; and the pulp, wdiich is ufu-
ally feparated into two lobes, is the foundation of the
firft food it draws by its root when it begins to ger¬
minate. If a feed in the earth therefore be difpofed fo
as that the root of the little plant be turned downwards,
and the ftem upwards, and even perpendiculary up¬
wards, it is eafy to conceive that the little plant
coming to unfold itfelf, its ftalk and root need only fol¬
low the dire&ion they have to grow perpendicularly.
But we know that the feeds of plants, whether fown of
themfelves or by man, fall in the ground at random ;
and among the great variety of fituations with regard
to the ftalk of their plant, the perpendicular one up¬
wards is but one. In all the reft, therefore, it is ne-
ceffary that the ftalk reCtify itfelf, fo as to get out of
the ground : but what force effeCts this change, which
is unqueftionably a violent aCtion ? Does the ftalk find
a lefs load of earth above it, and therefore go naturally
that way where it finds the leaft obftacle ? Were this fo,.
the little root, when it happens to be uppermoft, muft
alfo follow that direction, and mount up.
To account for two fuch different- aCtions, M. Dodart
fuppofes that the iibres of the (talks are of fuch a na¬
ture as to be contracted and (hortened by the heat of
the fun, and lengthened out by the moillure of the
earth; and, on the contrary, that the fibres of the roots
are contracted by the moifture of the earth, and length¬
ened by the heat of the fun. When the plantule there¬
fore is inverted, and the root at the top, the fibres
which compofe one of the branches of the root are not
alike expofed to the moifture of the earth, the low^er
part being more expofed than the upper. The lower
muft of courfe contraCl the mod; and this contraction is
again promoted by the lengthening of the upper, where¬
on i
P L A [8
P!ar.t. on the fun afts with the greateft force. This branch
■‘‘"v of the root mutt therefore recoil towards the earth,
and, infinuating through the pores thereof, mutt get
underneath the bulb, &c. By inverting this reafoning
we difcover how the ftalk comes to get uppermott.
We fuppofe then that the earth attracts the root
to itfelf, and that the fun contributes to its defcent;
and, on the other hand, that the fun attrafts the Item,
and the earth contributes to fend it towards the fame.
With refpeft to the ftraightening of the {talks in the open
air, our author imagines that it arifes from the impref-
fion of external caufes, particularly the fun and rain.
For the upper part of a {talk that is bent is more expo-
fed to the rain, dew, and even the fun, &c. than the
under; and thefe caufes, in a certain {trmSture of the fi¬
bres, both equally tend to ftraighten the part moil expofed
by the {hortening they fuccefiively occafion in it; for
moilture fhortens by fwelling and heat by dilfipating.
What that ftru£ture is which gives the fibres fuchdifrerent
qualities, or whereon it depends, is a myilery as yet be¬
yond our depth.
M. de la Hire accounts for the perpendicularity of
the ftems or {talks of plants in this manner: he fuppo-
fes that the root of plants draws a coarfer and heavier
juice, and the item and branches a finer and more vola¬
tile one. Molt naturalifts indeed conceive the root to
be the itomach of the plant, where the juices of the
earth are fubtilized fo as to become able to rife through
the ftem to the extremity of the branches. This diffe¬
rence of juices fuppofes larger pores in the roots than
the {talk, &c. and, in a word, a different contex¬
ture. This difference mult be found even in the little
invifible plant inclofed in the feed: in it, therefore, we
may conceive a point of reparation ; fuch as, that all on
one fide, for example the root, {hall be unfolded by the
grofler juices, and all on the other fide by the more
fubtile ones. Suppofe the plantule, when its parts be¬
gin to unfold, to be entirely inverted, the root at the
top, and the ftalk below; the juices entering the root
will be coarfeft, and when they have opened and en¬
larged the pores fo as to admit juices of a determinate
weight, thofe juices prelfing the root more and more
will drive it downwards ; and this will increafe as the
root is more extended or enlarged : for the point of
feparation being conceived as the fixed point of a lever,
they will acf by the longer arm. The volatile juices at
the fame time having penetrated the ftalk, will give it a
diredfion from below upwards ; and, by reafon of the
lever, will give it more and more every day. The little
plant is thus turned on its fixed point of reparation till
it become perfectly efedf.
When the plant is thus erefted, the ftalk fhould ftill
rife perpendicularly, in order to give it the more firm
biding, and enable it to withftand the effort of wind
and weather. M. Parent thus accounts for this effeft :
If the nutritious juice which arrived at the extremity
of a riling ftalk evaporate, the weight of the air which
encompalfes it on all fides will make it afeend vertically:
but if, inftead of evaporating, it congeal, and remain
fixed to that extremity whence it was ready to go off,
the weight of the air will give it the fame direftion ; fo
that the ftalk will have acquired a fmall new part ver¬
tically laid over it, juft as the flame in a candle held in
any way obliquely to the horizon ftill continues vertical
by the prefibre of the atmofphere. The new drops of
]
p L A
juice that fucceed will follow the fame dire&ion ; and
as all together form the ftalk, that muft of courfe be ver-
tical, unlefs feme particular circumftance intervene.
The branches, which are at lirft fuppofed to proceed
laterally out of the ftalk in the firft embryo of the plant,
though they ftiould even come out in an horizontal di¬
rection, muft alfo raife themfelves upwards by the con-
ftant direction of the nutritious juice, which at firil
fcarce meets any refiftance in a tender fupple branch;
and afterwards, even though the branch grow more
firm, it will aCt with the more advantage ; fiiice the
branch, being become longer, furnifties it with a longer
arm or lever. The {lender aCtion of even a little drop
becomes very confiderable by its continuity, and by the
afiiftance of fuch circumftances. Hence may we ac¬
count for that regular fituation and direction of the
branches, fince they all make nearly the fame conftant
angle of 450 w’ith the ftem, and with one another.
M. Aftruc accounts for the perpendicularity of the
ftems, and their redrelling themfelves, thus: 1. He
thinks the nutritious juice arifes from the circum¬
ference of the plant, and terminates in the pith : And,
2. That fluids, contained in tubes either parallel or ob¬
lique to the horizon, gravitate on the lower part of the
tubes, and not at all on the upper. Hence it follows,
that, in a plant placed either obliquely or parallel to the
horizon, the nutritious juice will aCl more on the lower
part of the canals than on the upper; and by this
means they will infinuate more into t'* canals commu¬
nicating therewith, and be collected more copioufly
therein : thus the parts on the lower fide will receive
more accretion and be more nourifhed than thofe on the
upper, the extremity of the plant will therefore be obli¬
ged to bend upwards.
This principle brings the feed into its due fituation
at firft. In a bean planted upfide down, the plume
and radicle mav be feen with the naked eye {hooting at
firft diteClly for about an inch ; after which they begin
to bend, the one downward, and the other upward.
The fame is the cafe in a heap of barley to be made in¬
to malt, or in a quantity of acorns laid to fprout in a
moiit place, &c. Each grain of barley and each acorn
has a different fituation ; and yet every fprout tends di-
reCtly upward, and every root downward, and the cur-
vity or bend they make is greater or lels as their fitua¬
tion approaches more or lefs to the direction wherein
no curvature at all would be neceflary. But two fuch
oppofite motions cannot poffibly arife without fuppoling
feme difference between the two parts: the only one we
know of is, that the plume is fed by a juice imported
to it by tubes parallel to its fides, whereas the radical
imbibes its nouriftiment at every pore in its furface.
When the plume therefore is either' parallel or inclined
to the horizon, the nutritious juice, feeding the lower
parts more than the upper, will determine its extremes
to turn upward, for the reafons before given. Ou the
contrary, when the radicle is in the like fituation, the
nutritious juice penetrating through the upper part more
copiouf y than through the under, there will be a great¬
er accretion of the former than of the latter; and the
radicle will therefore be bent downwards, and this mu¬
tual curvity of the plume and radicle muft continue till
fuch time as their fides are no:»Jibed alike, which can¬
not be till they are perpendicular.
Of the Food of Plants,.—This hath been fo fully
difeufled
Plant.
P L A [
Plants. jJifcnfTed under the article Ac At CULTURE f, that lit¬
tle remains to be faid upon the fubjed in this place.
The method of making dephlogiilicated or vital air de
novo, is now fo much improved, that mimberlefs expe¬
riments may be made with it both on animals and vege¬
tables. It appears, indeed, that thefe two parts of the
creation are a kind of counterbalance to one another; and
the noxious parts or excrements of the one prove falutary
food to the other. Thus, from the animal body conti¬
nually pafs off certain effluvia,which vitiate orpblo2iJitcate
the air. Nothing can be more prejudicial to animal life
than an accumulation of thefe effluvia: ©n the other
hand, nothing is more favourable to vegetables than
thofe excrementitious effluvia of ammals; and according¬
ly they greedily abforb them from the earth, or from
the air* With refpta to the excrementitious parts of
living vegetables, the cafe is reverfed. The pureft
air is the common effluvium which paffes off from vege¬
tables ; and this, however favourable to animal life, is
by no means fo to vegetable j whence we have an ad¬
ditional proof of the doArine concerning the food ot
plants delivered under the article AgricULTURF..
With regard to the effeAs of other kinds of air on
vegetation, a difference of fome confccpience took place
between Dr Prieffley and Dr Percival. The former,
In the firft volume of his Experiments and Obfervations
on Air, had afferted that fixed air Js fatal to vegetable
as well as to animal life. This opinion, however, was
oppofed by Dr Percival, and the contrary one adopted
<by Dr Hunter of York in the Georgieal Eifays, vol. v.
The experiments related by thefe two gentlemen would
indeed have been decifive, had they been made withfuffi-
cient accuracy. That this was the cafe, however. Dr
Prieftley denies j and in the 3d volume of his Treatife on
Air has fully deteAed the mi'ftakes in DrPercivaTs Expe¬
riments ; which proceeded in faA from his having ufed,
not fixed air, but common air mixed with a frnall quan¬
tity of fixed air. His experiments, when repeated with
the pureft fixed air, and in the moft careful manner,
were always attended with the fame effeA, namely, the
killing of the plant.
It had alfo been aflerted by Drs Percival and Hun¬
ter, that water impregnated with fixed air was more
favourable to vegetation than fimple water. This opi¬
nion was likewife examined by Dr Prieftley : however,
his experiments were indecifive ; but feem rather unfa¬
vourable to'the ufeof fixed air than otherwife.
Another very remarkable faA with regard to the
food of plants has been difeovered by Dr Prieftley {
namely, that fome of them, fuch as the willow, com-
frey, and duck-weed, are nouriftied by inflammable
VrUfthen aIr* The firft, he fays, flouriffles in this fpecies of air
*fir‘vol. V.fo remarkably, that, “ it may be faid to feed upon it
with great avidity. This procefs terminates in the
change of what remains of the inflammable air into
.phlogifticated air, and fomeriWes into a fpecies of air
as good as common air, of even better; fo that it muft
be the inflammable principle in the air that the plant
takes, converting it, no doubt, into its proper rrourrfh-
ment.”
What the followers-of Stahl call phlogifticated air
and inflammable air, are fo clofely allied to each other,
that it is no wonder they ftiould ferve promifcuoufly for
the food of plants. The reafon why both are not agree-
dole To all kinds of plants, moll probably is the different
Voi. XV. Part I.
*>•»»
9 ] P L A
quantity of phlogiftic matter contained in them, and the
different aAion of the latent fire they contain : for all
plants do not require an equal quantity of nourilhmenti
and fuch as require but little, will be deftroyed by ha¬
ving too much. The aAion of heat alfo U effentially
neceffary to vegetation ; and it is probable that very
much of this principle is abforbed from the air by ve¬
getables. But if the air by which plants are partly nop-
rilhed contains too much of that principle, it is very
probable that they may be deftroyed from this caufe as
well as the other; and thus inflammable air,which con¬
tains a vaft quantity of that aAive principle, may de-
ftroy fuch plants as grow in a dry foil, though it pre-
ferves thofe which grow’ in a wet one. See Vegeta-
T10N*
Dijfemination of Plants.—So great are the prolific
powers of the vegetable kingdom, that a fingle plant
almoft of any kind, if left to ilfelf, would, in a fflort
time, over-run the wdiole word. Indeed, fuppofing the
plant to have been only a fingle annual, w’ith two feeds
it would, in 20 years, produce more than a million of
its own fpecies ; what numbers then muft have been pro¬
duced by a plant whofe feeds are fo numerous as many
of tbofe writh w’hich we are acquainted ? See Natural
Hiflory, feA. iii. p. 654, &c. In that part of our work
we have given particular examples of the very prolific
nature of plants, which we need not repeat here ; and
we have made fome obfervations on the means by which
they are carried to diftant places. This is a very curi¬
ous matter of faA, and as fuch vve {hall now give a
fuller account of it.
If nature had appointed no means for the fcattering
of thefe numerous feeds, but allowed them to fall down
in the place where they grew’, the young vegetables
muft of neceflity have choaked one another as they grew
up, and not a fingle plant could have arrived at perfec¬
tion. But fo many ways are there appointed for the
diffemination of plants, that we fee they nt>t only do not
hinder each others growth, but a fingle plant will in a
fhort time fpread through different countries. The moft.
evident means for this purpofe are,
1. The force of the air.—That the efficacy of this
may be the greater, nature has raifed the feeds of ve¬
getables upon ftalks, fo that the wind has thus an op¬
portunity of aAing upon them w ith the greater advan¬
tage. The feed-capfules alfo-open at the apex, left the
ripe feeds Ihould drop out without being widely difper-
fed by tire wind. Others are furni/hed with wings, and
a pappous dowrn,4)y which, after they come to maturi¬
ty, they are carried up into the air, and have been know’n
to fly the diftance of 50 miles: 138 genera are found
to have winged feeds.
2. Income plants the feed-veffels open v/ith violence
when the feeds are ripe, and thus throw them to a con-
fiderable diftance ; and we have an enumeration of 50
genera whofe feeds are thus difperfed.
3. Other feeds are furniihed with hooks, by which,
wdien ripe, they adhere to the coats of animals, and are
carried by them to their lodging places. Linnxt* rec¬
kons 50 genera armed in this manner.
4. Many feeds are difperfed by means of birds and
Other animals; who pick up the berries, and afterwardR
ejeA the feeds uninjured. Thus the fox diffeminates
the privet, and man many fpecics of fruit. The plant*
found growing upon walls and houfes, on the tops of
B nigh
riant*.
P L A [ *o ] P L A
Plant*.
{icadcm.
high rocks, &c. are moftly 'brought «thert: by 'birds
and it is univerfally known, that by manuring a fit'ld
with new dung, innumerable weeds will ip ring up
wbicli did not exift: there before: 193 fpecies are rec¬
koned up which may he difTeminated in this manner.
The growth of other feeds is promoted by ani¬
mals in a different way. While feme are eaten, others
are fcattered and trodden into the ground by them.
The fquirrel gnaws the cones of the pine, and many
of the feeds fall out. When the loxica eats off their
bark, almoft his only food, many of their feeds arc
committed to the earth, or mixed in the morafs with
mofs, where he had retired. The glandularia, when
fhe hides up her nuts, often forgets them, and they
ffrike root. The fame is obfervable of the walnut;
mice colleft and bury great quantities of them, and be¬
ing afterwards killed by different animals, the nuts ger¬
minate.
6. We are aftonifhed to find moffes, fungi, byffus,
and mucor, growing everywhere; but it is for want of
refle&ing that their feeds are fo minute that they are
almoft invifible to the naked eye. They float in the air
like atoms, and are dropped everywhere, but grow only
in thofe places where there was no vegetation before; and
bence wTe find the fame moffes in North America and in
Europe.
7. Seeds are alfo difperfed by the ocean, and by ri¬
vers. “ In Lapland (fays Linnseus), we fee the mofl
evident proofs how far rivers contribute to depofite the
feeds of plants. I have feen Alpine plants growing up¬
on their fhores frequently 36 miles diffant from the
Alps ; for their feeds falling into the rivers, and being
carried along and left by the ftream, take root there.—
We may gather likewife from many circumftances how
much the fea furthers this bufinefs. — In Rofiagia, the
iiland of Graefcta, Oeland, Gothland, and the fhores of
Scania, there are many foreign and German plants not
yet naturalized in Sweden. The centaury is a German
plant, whofe feeds being carried by the wind into the
lea, the waves landed this foreigner upon the coafts of
Sweden. I was aftonifhed to fee the veronica maritima,
a German plant, growing at Tornea, which hitherto had
been found only in Grsefoea: the fea was the vehicle by
which this plant was tranfported thither from Germany;
or pofiibly it was brought from Germany to Graefcea,
and from thence to Tornea. Many have imagined, but
erroneoufly, that feed corrupts in water, and lofes its
principle of vegetation. Water at the bottom of the
fea is feldom warm enough to deftroy feeds; we have
feen water cover the furface of a field for a whole win¬
ter, while the feed which it contained remained unhurt,
unlefs at the beginning of fpring the waters were let
down fo low by drains, that the warmth of the fun-
beams reached to the bottom. Then the feeds germi¬
nate, but prefently become putrefeent; fo that for the
rell of the year the earth remains naked and barren.
Rain and flipwers carry feeds into the cracks of the riant*,
earth, ft reams, and rivers; which laft, conveying them
to a diftance from their native places, plant them in a
foreign foil."
8. Laftly, feme feeds aflift their proje&ion to a di¬
ftance in a very furprifing manner. The crupina, a fpe¬
cies of centaury, has its feeds covered over with ere&
briftlcs, by whofe afliftance. it creeps and moves about in
fuch a manner, that it is by no means to be kept in the
hand. If you confine one of them between the Hock¬
ing and the foot, it creeps out either at the lleeve or
neck band, travelling over the whole body. If the
bearded oat, after harveft, be left with other grain in
the barn, it extricates itfelf from the glume ; nor does
it ftop in its progrefstill it gets to the walls of the build¬
ing. Hence, fays Linnaeus, the Dalecarlian, after he
has cut and carried it into the bam, in a few days finds
all the glumes empty, and the oats feparate from them ;
for every oat has a fpiral arifta or beard annexed to it,
which is contrafted in wet, and extended In dry weather.
When the fpiral is contrafted, it drags the oat along with
it: the arifta being bearded with minute hairs pointing
downward, the grain neceflarilyfollows it; but when it ex¬
pands again, the oat does not go back to its former place,
the roughnefs of the beard the contrary way preventing
its return. If you take the feeds of equifetum, or femf
thefe beirig laid upon paper, and viewed in a microfcope,
will be feen to leap over any obftacle as if they had feet;
by which they are feparated and difperfed one from ano¬
ther ; fo that a perfon ignorant of this property would
pronounce thefe feeds to be fo many mites or fmall infefts.
We cannot finilh this article without remarking, that
many ingenious men ( a) believe that plants have a power
of perception. Of this opinion we lhall now give an.
account from the fecond volume of the Manchefter
Tranfaftions, where we find feme /peculations on the per¬
ceptive power of vegetables by Dr Percivaly who attempts
to (how, by the feveral analogies of organization, life,
inftinft, fpontaneity, and felf-motion, that plants, like
animals, are endued with the powers both of perception
and enjoyment. The attempt is ingenious, and is in-
genioufiy fupported, but in our opinion fails to con¬
vince. That there is an analogy between animals and
vegetables is certain ; but we cannot from thence con¬
clude that they either perceive or enjoy. Botanifts have,
it is true, derived from anatomy and phy/ologyy almoft all
the terms employed in the defeription of plants. But
we cannot from thence conclude, that their organization,
tho’ it hears an analogy to that of animals, is the fign of
a living principley if to this principle we annex the idea
of perception ; yet fo fully is our author convinced of ti t
truth of it, that he does not think it extravagant to
fuppofe, that, in fome future period, perceptivity may
be difeovered to extend even beyond the limits now afk
figned to vegetable life. Corallines, madrepores, mille-
pores, and fpunges, were formerly confideredas foffil bo¬
dies;
(a) The ingenious Dr Bell held this opinion, as appears from the clofe of his The/s de Phyfio/ogia Phntarum,
which was publilhed at Edinburgh, June 1777, and a tranfiation of which by Dr Currie we find in the fecond
volume of the Manchefter Tranfaftions, where our readers will alfo find memoirs of its author. Dr Currie in¬
forms us, that Dr Hope, the late excellent profeflbr of botany in Edinburgh, in his courfe of leftures, ufed to.
fpeak of Dr Bell with the higheft efteem; but did not approve of the idea which he entertained refpefting the
iteUng or perception of plants.
P L A ~ [ i
Plant*, dies: but the experiments of Count Marfigll evinced,
that they are endued with life, and led him to clafs them
with the maritime plants. And the obfervations of El¬
lis, Juflieu, and Peyfonel, have {ince raifed them to the
rank of animals. The dete&ion of error, in long efta-
bliflied opinions concerning one branch of natural know¬
ledge, juftifies the fufpic.on of its exiftence in others,-
which are nearly allied to it. And it will appear from
the profecution of our inquiry into the inftinfds, fpon-
taneity,. and felf-moving power of vegetables, that the
fufpicion is not without foundation.
He then goes on to draw a comparifon between tbe
inftin&s of animals and thofe of vegetables: the calf, as
foon as it comes into the world, applies to the teats of
the cow; and the duckling, though hatched under a hen,
runs to the water.
“ Inftin&s analogous to thefe (fays our author), ope¬
rate with equal energy on the vegetable tribe. A feed
contains a germ, or plant in miniature, and a radicle,
or little root, intended by nature to fupply it with nou-
rilhment. If the feed be fown in an inverted pofition,
ftill each part purfues its proper dire&icn. The plumula
turns upward, and the radicle ftrikes downward into
the ground. A hop-plant, turning round a pole, follows
the courfe of the fun, from fouth to weft, and foon dies,
when forced into an oppofite line of motion: but re¬
move the obftacle, and the plant will quickly return to
its ordinary pofition. The branches of a honey-fuckle
fhoot out longitudinally, till they become unable to bear
their own weight; and then ftrengthen themfekes, by
changing their form into a fpiral: when they meet with
other living branches, of the fame kind, they coalefce, for
mutual fupport, and one fpiral turns to the right and
the other to the left; thus feeking, by an inftinftive im-
pulfe, feme body on which to climb, and increafing the
probability of finding one by the diverfity of their
courle: for if the auxiliary branch be dead, the other
uniformly winds itfelf round from the right to the left.
“ Thel'e examples of the inftin<ftive economy of vege¬
tables have been purpofely taken from fubje&s familiar
To our daily obfervation. But the plants of warmer cli¬
mates, were we fufticiently acquainted with them, would
probably furnifh better iiluftrations of this acknowledged
power of animality : and I ftiall briefly recite the hifto-
i ] P Li A
ry of a very carious exotic, which has been delivered ter
us from good antbority; and confirmed by the obierva-
tions of feveral European botanifts4,,
The Doiftor then goes on to give a defeription of the
dtonta mufcipula [b)y for which fee vol. vi. p. 32. and
concludes, that if he has furniihed any prefumptive
proof of the inftin&ive power of vegetables, it will necef-
filrily follow that they are endued with fome degree of
fpontaneity. More fully to evince this, however, the
Do&or points out a few of thofe phenomena in the vege¬
table kingdom which feem to indicate fpontaneity.—
“ Several years ago (fays he), whilft engaged in a courfc
of experiments to afeertain the influence of fixed air on
vegetation, the following fa& repeatedly occurred to me.
A fprig of mint, fufpended by the root, with the head
downwards, in the middle glafs veflel of Dr Nooth’s
machine, continued to thrive vigoroufiy, without any
other pabulum than what was fupplied by the ftream of
mephitic gas to which it was expofed. In 24 hours
the ftem formed into a curve, the head became ere&, and
gradually afeended towards the mouth of the veflel; thus
producing, by fucceflive efforts, a new and unulual con¬
figuration of its parts. Such exertions in the fprig of
mint, to re&ifyits inverted pofition, and to remove from a
foreign to its rfetural element, feems to evince evolition to
avoid what was evil, and to recover what had been experi¬
enced to be good. If a plant, in a garden-pot, be placed
in a room which has no light except from a hole in the;
wall, it will (hoot towards the hole, pafs through it into
the open air, and then vegetate upwards in its proper
dire&ion. Lord Karnes relates, that, * amongll the
ruins of New Abbey, formerly a monaftery in Galloway,
there grows on the top of a wall a plane tree, 20 feet
high. Straitened for nourifhment in that barren fitua-
tion, it feveral years ago dire&ed roots down the fide of
the wall till they readied the ground ten feet below:
and now the nouriftiment it afforded to thefe roots, du¬
ring the time of defeending, is amply repaid; having
every year fince that time made vigorous fhoots. From,
the top of the wall to the furface of the earth, thefe
roots have not thrown out a fimple fibre, but are now
united into a pretty thick hard root.
“ The regular movements by which the fun-flower pre-
fents its Iplendid dilk to the fun have been known t<y
B 2 naturalifts,
(b) Dr Watfon, the prefent bifhop of Landaff, who has efpoufed the fame fide of the queftion with Dr Per-*
cival (fee the ^th vol. of his Chemical Ejjhys}, reafons thus on the motions of vegetables. “ Whatever can
produce any effed (fays he) upon an animal organ as the impad of external bodies, heat and cold, the vapour
of burning fulphur, ot volatile alkali, want of air, &c. are found to ad alfo upon the plants called fenjitive. But/
not to infill upon any more inftanees, the mufcular motions of the dionara mitfcipula lately brought into Europe’
from America, feem far fuperior in quicknefs to thofe of a variety of animals. Now to refer the mufcular mo¬
tions of fhell-filh and zoophytes to an internal principle of volition, to make them indicative of the perceptivity
ot the being, and to attribute the more notable ones of vegetables to certain mechanical dilatations and contrac-
nons of parts occafioned by external impulfe, is to err againft that rule of philofopfiizing which afiigns the fame
•-autes lor effeds of the fame kind. The motions in both cafes are equally accommodated to the prefervation of
the being to which they belong, are equally diftind and uniform, and ihoukl be equally derived from-mechanifm.
or equally admitted as criterions of perception.
“ I am fenfible that thefe and other fimilar motions of vegetables fnay by fome be confidered as analogous to
rne automatic or involuntary motions of animals; but as it is nbt yet determined amongft the phyfiolngifts, whe-
ir • T1011011 t^ie h€art» the periftaltic motion of the bowels, the contradions obtervable upon external im-
pu e m the mufcles of animals deprived of their heads and hearts, be attributable to an irritability unaccompanied:
wit perceptivity, or to an uneafy fenfntion, there feems to be no teafon for entswig into (o obfeure a difquifi--
ion ; especially fince irritability, if admitted as the caufe of the motions of vegetables, mull a fortiori be admit-
ted as the cauie of the leis exquifite and difcernible motions of beings univerfiJlv referred to the animal kingdom.’1.
Ptanta.
SSM “re^nal^wha^ This curious ihruh.
the cekiluJ luminary.
4 But one, the lofty follower of the fun,
1 Sad when he fets, (huts up her yellow leaves,
1 Drooping all night; and when lie warm returns,
4 Points her enamour’d bofom to his ray/
Summer,line 2to.
which was unknown to Linnseus, is a native of the Eait
Indies, hut has been cultivated in feverai botanical gar-
dens here. I had an opportunity of examining it in the
colle&ion of the late Dr Brown. See Hudysarum.—
I cannot better comment on this wonderful degree ot
vegetable animation thai in the words of Cicero, /mi¬
nimum ejl amne quod pulfu agitatur externo ; quod autem eft
animaly id motn cietur interiore et fuo.
u I have thus attempted, with the brevity preferibed
Dr Percival next touches on motion; he mentions co-
$ See P^. rdhnes, feapens|, 0^e[.s’^ ^n^theThe^e^nn by the laws of this fociety, to extend our views of ani-
Mituh, Of- of motion in a very imall ? • , • a,e^ natUre • to gratify the mind with the contempk>
cies ot coral, wmen uic i fea-nrafs. power, and bemficence of God. In an undertaking ne-
Now if felf-moving faculties like thefe indicate ani- juOification, independently of fuccefs. _ Truth, indeed,.
Now it M moving to vegetables, obliges me to acknowledge, that I review my fpeculaT
ttmin annual or fuperior degre^ ? The tions with much diffidence; and diat I dare not pre-
wat lily L trPund de?p or (hallow in which it grows, fume to expeft they will produce any permanent con¬
ges ^ its flower-rten/ tiU they reach the open air, vision in others becaufe I
tt,. V1rnla feeundans may perform without injury opinion in myfclri lor, to ule the language ot liui),
,‘ts proper office. About feven in the morning the (talk AV/io ,—/<>, Jum /eye, u/m/iur ,• «»/»> tdrun,, aj.
erects nfeU'.andthe flowers rife above the furface of the jnfio mam ilia Miliir.—iiul this feeptieilm is peihaps
water in this flute they continue till four in the after- to be aferibed to the influence of habitual preeoiicen-
mwn when the Hulk becomes relaxed, and the flowers tious, rather than to a deficiency of reafonable proof.
^ and clofe. The motions of the feufitive plant have For befides the various arguments which havebeen adva
been long noticed with admiration, as exhibiting the ced m tavour of vegetable perceptivity, >t may be fui-
moft obnous figns of perceptivity. And if we admit ther urged, that the hypotliefis recommends itfelf by its
filch motions as criteria of a like power in other be- confonance to tbofe higher analogies of nature, winch
ings hx attribute them in this inflaice to mere mecha- lead us to conclude, that the greatefi poffible lum of
nifm actuated folely by external impolfe, is to deviate happmefs-exifts in the umverfe. 1 lie bottom of the
from the founded rule of phUofophiiing, which direfl* Oceania overfpread with plants of the mofl luxuriant
us not to multiply caufes when the efteAs appear to be raagnituck. Imraanfe regions of tlw earth are covered
the fame Neither will the laws of elc-aricity better with perennial fore Is. Nor arc the Alps, or the An-
foTve the 'phenomena of this animated vegetable : for its. des, dettitute of herbage, though buried in deeps of fuow.
kaves are equally affeiled by the contaa of ekaric and And can it be imagined that inch ptofulion of life fub-
nonSearie bodies; thow no change in their fenfibility fills without Uie leaft fenfation or enjoyment! Let us
whether the atmofphere be dry or moift ; and iurtantly rather, with humble reverence, fuppofe, that vegetifl les
rlofe when the vapour of volatile alkali or the fumes of participate, in feme low degree, ot the common allot,
burning fulphur are applied to them. The powers of raent of vitality ; and that our great Creator hath ap-
chemical fl/muli to produce contractions in the fibres of portioned good to all living things, ‘ ... number, weight,
rids plant may perhaps lead fume philofophers to refer and mealure.” See **»•'*“ “ M“U>SA> Vl°-
them to the vis in/itar or irritability, which they affign. njf.a Mufapula? Vegetable Motion% of.. _
To certain parts of organ^.ed matter, totally diftin^from. To thefe. ingenious and ipinted obkrvations, we (hall
and independent of, any fentient energy. Hut the hy- tuhjom nothing of our own but leave our readers to-
nnihefis h evidentW a- Wccifm, and refutes itfelf. For determine for themfe vcs(c). bpeculaaons of tins kind.
?he princeO Suability can only be proved by the when carried on by lober men w.l never be produd.ve
experience of irritations, and the idea of irritation in- of bad confequences j but by the fubtle-feepUc, or the
experience oi , Dlore unwary inquirer, they may he made the engine of
V - But there is a fjWof the order of decandm, very dangerous errors. By this we do not meaatom--
f C Wn the 2d volume of Tranftaions of the Linnsan Society, we find Dr PerdvalVreafoning very ably combated,,
as far as he draws his confequences- from the external motions of plants ; where it is argued, that theie motions*
though in fcme refpetts funilar to thofe of animals, can and ought to be explained, without concluding drat they
are endowed either with perception or volition. Mr Townfon concludes his paper in thefe wordsr When all.
is confidered (lays he), I think we (hall place this opinion amongil the many ingenious flights of the imagina¬
tion and foberly follow that blind impulfe which leads us naturally to give ienfation and perceptivity to _animali
Ufe/and to deny it to vegetables; and lb ftiU fay with Ariflotle, and our great mailer Lmnsuv Vegetable creft
• ur.t ‘-5s vivunt; animal'u* creftunty vivuet, & fcntiunP”
Plants.
Withering
Uitanical
l rrung!-
F L A [ 1
finuate that the fpirit of inquiry fhould be fupprcifed,
' becaufe that fpirit, in the hands of weak or ot wicked
men, may be abufed. By thofe, however,
the bad confequences that may be drawn, and indeed
that have been drawn, ’from the opinions we have now
triven an account of, our caution will not be deemed
impertinent. See Physiology pajfim, and particularly
n3 42, and note (a), p. 678. ...
Plants growing on Animals. See Insects giving roc
to Plants.
Sexes of Plants. See Sexes, and Botany, lett. v.
Colours of Plants. See Colour of Plants.
Colours extraSed from Plants. See CoLOUR-mahng,
Method of Drying awl Preferring Plants for Bota-
nifls.— Many methods have been devifed for the pic*
fervation of plants-: we (hall relate only thofe that have
been found moft fuccefsful.
Firll prepare a prefs, which a workman will make
by the following directions. Take two planks of a
."•*"5- wood not liable to warp. The planks mull be two
U/, Intnd. jncheg thickj j8 inches }ong> an(i 12 inches broad. Get
four male and four female fcrews, fuch as are common¬
ly ufed for fecuring falh-windows. Let the four female
fcrews be let into the four corners of ene of the planks,
and correfponding holes made through the lour corners
of the other plank for the male fcrews to pafs through,
fo as to allow the two planks to be fcrewed tightly to¬
gether. It will not be amifs to face the bearing of the
male fcrews upon the wood with iron plates ; and if the
iron plates went acrofs from corner to corner of the
wood, it would be a good fecurky againft the warp-
Secondly, get half a dozen quires of large foft fpon-
r-y paper (fuch as the llationers caR hhjfom blotting pa¬
per is the heft), and a few ftieets of ftrong pafteboard.
The plants you wifh to preferve fhould be gathered
m a dry day, after the fun hath exhaled the dew ; ta¬
king particular care to collect them in that date there¬
in their generic and fpecilic characters are moft confpt-
cuous. Carry them home In a tin-box nine inches
long, four inches and a half wide, and one Inch and a
half deep. Get the box made of the thinneft tinned
iron that can be procured ; and let the lid open upon
hinges. If any thing happens to prevent the immediate
ufe of the fpeeimens you have collefted, they v> ill be
kept frelh two or three days in this box much better
than by putting them in water. When you are going
to preferve them, fuffer them to lie upon a table until
they become limber; and then they ftioufd be laid upon’
a pafteboard, as much as poflible in their natural form,,
but at the fame time with a particular view to their ge¬
neric and fpecific changers. For this purpofe it will
be advifable to feparate one of the flowers, and to dii-
play the generic cliartiCler. It the fpecific character de¬
pends upon the flower or upon the root, a pai ticular
difplay of that will be likewife neceflaxy. When the
plant is thug difpofed upon the pafteboard, coyer it witlr
eight or ten layers of fpongy paper, and put it into the
prefs. Exert only a fmall degree of p re flu re for the*
firft two or three days ; then examine it, unfold any un¬
natural plaits, reClify any miftakes, and, after putting
frefh paper over it, ferew the prefs harder. In about
three day’s more feparate the plant from the palltboard,
3 ] P L A
if it Is fufficiently firm to allow of a change of pjice;
put it upon a frefti pafteboard, and, covering it with
frelh blollbgi-paper, let it remain in the prefs a few days
longer. The prefs (hould Hand in the iun-ftune, or
within the influence of a fire.
When it is perfeCtiy dry, the ufual method is to fa¬
llen it down, with pafte or gum-water, on the right-
hand inner page of a ftieet of large ftrong writing-
paper. It requires fome dexterity to glue the plant
neatly down, fo that none of the gum or pafte may
appear to defile the paper. Prefs it gently again for
a day or two, with a half (beet of bloffom-paper be¬
twixt the folds of the writing-paper. When it is quite
dry, write upon the left-hand inner page of the paper
the name of the plant ; the fpecific charader ; the
place where, and the time when, it was found; and
any other remarks you may think proper. Upon the
back of the fame page, near the fold of the paper,
write the name of the plant, and then place it in your
cabinet. A fmall quantity of finely powdered arfenic,
or corrofive fublimate, is ufually mixed with the pafte
or gum-water, to prevent the devaftations ot inleds ;
but the feeds of ftaves-acre finely powdered will an-
fvver the fame purpofe, without being liable to cor¬
rode or to change the colour of the more delicate
plants. Some people put the dried plants into the
(beets of writing paper, without fattening them down
at all; and others only fallen them by means ot fmaU
flips of paper, patted acrofs the item or branches.
Where the fpcefes of any genus are numerous, and the
fpecimens are fmall, feveral of them may be put into-
one (beet-of paper. • ... 1
Another more expeditious method is to take the
plants out of the prefs after the firft or fecond day p
let them remain upon th« palteboard ; cover them with
five or fix leaves of bioflbm paper, and iron them with
a hot fmoothing iron until they are perfectly dry. If-
the iron is too hot, it will change the colours ; but fome
people, taught by long praftice, will fucceed very hap¬
pily. This is quite the bell method, to treat the orchis
and other (limy mucilaginous plants.
Another method is to take the plants when mih ga¬
thered, and, inilead of putting them into the prefs, im¬
mediately to fatten them down to the paper with ftrong:
gum water : then dip a cameUiair pencil into fpirit-var-
S(h, and varmftv the whole furfaee of the plant two or
three times over.- This method fucceeds very -well with
plants that .are readily laid flat, and it - preferves their,
colours better than any other. The fpirit.varndh is made
thus. To a- quart of highly readied fpirit of wine put
five ounce# of gum fandarach ; two ounces of maftich in
drops ; 1 n? ounce of pale gum ekmi, and. one ounce oF
oil of (pike-lavender. - Let it (land in a warm place, and
(hake it frequently to expedite the iolution of the*
Plar.tt
gums. * , .tier
Where no better convenience can be haci,' the Ipe-
cimens may be diipofed fyttematically in a large iolio
book ; but a vegetable cabinet is upon aft accounts more
eligible. In Plate CCCXCVII. there is a feAion of a
cabinet, in the true -proportions-it ought to be mader
for containing a complete collection ot Britifh plants.
By live afiiftance of this drawing, and the adjoining
fcale, a workman will readily make one. The drawer*
muft have backs and fides, but no other front than a.
P L A f *4 1 P L A
fmail ledge. Each drawer will be 14 inches wide, and
—   jo inches from the back to the front, after allowing half
an inch for the thicknefs of the two fides, and a quarter
of an inch for the thicknefs of the hack. The fides of
the drawers, in the part next the front, mull be Hoped
off in a Terpentine line, fomething like what the work¬
men call an ogee. The bottoms of the drawers muff be
made to Hide in grooves cut in the uprights, fo that no
fpace may be loll betwixt drawer and drawer. After
allowing a quarter of an inch for the thicknefs of the
bottom of each drawer, the clear perpendicular fpace in
each muff be as in the following table.
I. Two tenths of an inch.
II. One inch a;'d two-tenth-s.
III. Pour inch, and l:x tenth*.
IV. i'wo inches and three-
tenths.
V. Seven inches and eight
tenths.
VI. Two inches and two-
tenths.
VII. Two tenths of an hich.
VII. One inch and four-tenths.
IX. I'wo-terth* of an inch.
X. Two inches and eight-
tenths.
XI. One inch and two-tenths.
XH. Three inches and live-
tenths,
XII f. Two inches and feur-
tenths.
XIV. Three inches and eight
tenths.
XV. Three inches and four
tenths.
XVI. One inch and three
tenths.
XVII. Two inches ami eight
tenths.
XVIII. Six-tcrnhs of an inch.
XIX. Ten inches
XX. One inch and nine-
fen ths.
XXI. Four inches and fowr
tenth*.
XXII. Two inches and fix-
tenths.
XXIII. One inch and two-
tenths.
XXIV. Seventeen inches.
This cabinet (huts up with two doors in front; and
the whole may Hand upon a bafe, containing a few
drawers for the reception of duplicates and papers.
Foffil Plants. Many fpecies of tender and herba¬
ceous plants are found at this day, in great abundance,
buried at confiderable depths in the earth, and convert¬
ed, as it were, into the nature of the matter they lie
;unong ; foffil wood is often found very little altered,
and often impregnated with fubftances of almoft all the
different folfil kinds, and lodged in all the feveral ffrata,
fometimes firmly imbedded in hard matter ; fometimes
loofe : but this is by no means the cafe with the tenderer
and more delicate fubjefts of the vegetable world. Thefe
•are ufually immerfed either in a black iff flaty fwbfhmce,
'found lying over the ftrata of coal, elfe in loofe nodules
of ferruginous matter of a pebble-like form, and they
are always altered into the nature of the fubftance they
lie among: what we meet with of thefe are principally
of the fern kind ; and what is very fingular, though a
very certain truth, is, that thefe are principally the
ferns of American growth, not thofe of our own climate.
The moil frequent fofiil plants are the polypody, fpleen-
wort, ofmund, trichomanes, and the feveral larger and
fmaller ferns; but befides thefe there are alfo found pieces
of the equifetum or horfe-tail, and joints of the ftellated
plants, as the clivers, madder, and the like; and thefe
have been too often miftaken for flowers; fometimes there
are alfo found complete graffes, or parts of them, as alfo
reeds, and other watery plants ; fometimes the ears ’of
corn, and not unfrequently the twigs or bark, and im-
preffions of the bark, and fruit of the pine or fir kind,
which have been, from their fcaly appearance, miftaken
for the Ikins of fifties ; and fometimes, but that very
rarely, we meet with moffes and fea-plants.
Many of the ferns not unfrequently found, are of
very fingular kinds, and fome fpecies yet unknown t<r PUatr
us ; and the leaves c« fome appear fet at regular diftan- —
ces, with round protuberances and cavities. The ftones
which contain thefe plants fplit readily, and are often
found to contain, on one fide, the impreflion of the
plant, and on the other the prominent plant itfelf:
and, befide all that have been mentioned, there have
been frequently fuppofed to have been found with us-
ears of common wheat, and of the maize or Indian corn;
the firft being in reality no other than the common end-
moft branches of the firs, and the other the thicker
boughs of various fpecies of that and of the pin£ kind,
with their leaves, fallen off; fuch branches in fuch a
ftate cannot but afford many irregular tubercles and pa¬
pillae, and, in lome fpecies, fuch as are more regularly
difpofed.
Thefe are the kinds moft obvious in England ; and
thefe are either immerfed in the fiaty ftone which confti-
tutes whole ftrata, or in flatted nodules, ufually of about
three inches broad, which readily fplit into two pieces
on being ftruck.
They -are moft common in Kent, on coal-pits near
Newcaftle, and the foreft of Dean in Gloucefterffire ;
but are more or lefs found about almoft all our coal-pits,
and many of our iron mines. Though thefe feem the
only fpecies of plants found with us, yet in Germany
there are many others, and thofe found in different fub¬
ftances. A whitiff ftone, a little harder than chalk,
frequently contains them: they are found alfo often in
a grey flaty ftone of a firmer texture, not unfrequently
in a blackiff one, and at times in many others. Nor
are the bodies themfelves lefs various here than the mat¬
ter in which they are contained : the leaves of trees are
found in great abundance, among which thofe of the
willow, poplar, whitethorn, and pear trees, are the
moft common; fmail branches of box, leaves of the
olive-tree, and ftalks of garden thyme, are alfo found
there ; and fometimes ears of the various fpecies of'
corn, and the larger as well as the fmaller mofles in great
abundance.
Thefe ftem the tender vegetables, or herbaceous plants,
certainly found thus immerfed in hard ftone, and buried
at great depths in the earth : others of many kinds there
are alfo named by authors ; but as in bodies fo imper-
fe& errors are eafily fallen into, thefe feem all that can
be afeertained beyond mere conjecture.
Plants^ method of prefervmg them in their original
Jhape and colour* Waff a fufficient quantity of fine (and,
fo as perfeftly to feparate it from all other fubftances *
dry it; pafs it through a fieve to clear it from any grof*
particles which would not rife in the waffing: take an
earthen veffel of a proper fize and form, for every plant
and flower which you intend to preferve ; gather your
plants and flowers when they are in a ftate of perfection,
and in dry weather, and always with a convenient por¬
tion of the ftalk : heat a little of the dry fand prepared
as above, and lay it in the bottom of the veffel, fo as
equally to cover it; lay the plant or flower upon it, fo
as that no part of it may touch the fides of the veffel:
f.ft or (bake in more of the lame fand by little upon it,
fo that the leaves may be extended by degrees, and with¬
out injury, til) the plant or flower is covered about two
inches thick : put the veffel into a ftove, or hot-houfe,
heated by little and little to the 50th degree ; let it
6 ftand
TLA
f 15 1
P ly A
Plant ftand a or tw0’ or Per^al's mor<:* according to
11 the thicknefs and fr.cculence of the flower or plants
iantago. then gently fliake the fand out upon a (heet of paper,
■‘"■’V”'' and take out the plant, w-hich . you will find in all its
beauty, the lhape as elegant, and the colour as vrvid as
when it grew.
Some flowers require certain little operations to pre¬
serve the adherence of their petals, particularly the tulip j
with refpeft to which it is neceflary, before it is buried
•in the fand, to. cut the triangular fruit which rifes in the
middle of the flower; for the petals will then remain
,more firmly attached to the ftalk.
A hortus ficcus prepared in this manner would be
•one of the moil beautiful and uftful curiofitie* that
can be.
Moving Plant. See Hedysahum.
Sea Plants. See S&a Plants-
Senjttive Plant. See Mimosa and SENstrirs Plant.
Plant Lice 1 Vine-fretters, or Pucerom. See Aphis.
PLANTA, a plant. See Plant.
Planta Faminea, a female plant, is one which bears
female flowers only. It is oppofed to a male plant,
which bears only male flowers ; and to an androgynous
one, which bears flowers of both fexes. Female plants
are produced from the fame feed with the male, and ar¬
range themfclves under the clafs of dioecia in the fexual
method.
PLANTAGENET, the furname of the kings of
England from Henry II. to Richard III. inclufive. An¬
tiquarians are much at a lofs to account for the origin
of this name ; and the beil derivation they can find for
it is, that Folk, the firit earl of Anjou of that name,
being flung with remorfe for fome wicked adlion, went
in pilgrimage to Jerusalem as a work of atonement;
where, being foundly fcourged with broom twigs, which
grewT plentifully on the fpot, he ever after took the fur-
name of Plantagentt or broomjlalky which w as retained
by his noble pofterity.
PLANTAGO, plantain; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants.
To this genus Linnasus has joined the coronopus and
pfyllium of Tournefort. The firll of thefe is called
kart [horn, the latter Jleanvort. Of thefe there are feveral
diftinA fpecies, and fome varieties; but as they are rare¬
ly cultivated in gardens, we fhall not enumerate them
here, and fiiall only mention fuch of them as grow na¬
turally in Britain. Of the plantain there are the fol¬
lowing forts : The common broad-leaved plantain, call¬
ed nveylread; the great hoary plantain, or lambs-tongue;
the narrow-leaved plantain, or ribwort; and the follow’-
ing varieties have alfo been found in England, which
are accidental; the befom-plantain and rofe-plantaiu.
The plantains grow naturally in paftures in moft parts
of England, and are frequently very troublefome weeds.
The common plantain and ribwort plantain are both
ufed in medicine, and are fo well known as to need no
defeription. They are faid to be (lightly aftringent ;•
and the green leaves are commonly applied to frefh
wounds by the common people.
Of the coronopus, or buckfliorn plantain, there are two
varieties growing in England, viz. the common buckf-
horn, which grows plentifully on heaths everywhere ;
«ind the narrow-leaved Welch fort, which is found upon
inany of the Welch mountains. • The firft of thefe was
Piatwer-
(hip.
formerly cultivated as a falad herb in gardens, but has Pknuam
been long banilhed from thence for its rank difagreeable
flavour; it is fometimes ufed in medicine.—There has
been one fpecies of pfyllium or fleawort found grow¬
ing naturally in England, which is uled in medicine.
It was found in the earth thrown out of the bottom
of the canals which wrere dug for the Chelfea water¬
works, where it grew in great plenty. The feeds of
it muft have been buried there fome ages; for no per-
fon remembers any of the plants growing in that neigh¬
bourhood before. The feeds of this fpecies are fometimes
ufed, as they are imported from the fouth of France.
PLANTAIN. See Plantago.
PiANTAtN-Tree. See Musa.
PLANTATION, in the Weft Indies, denotes a-
fpot of ground which a planter, or perfon arrived in a
new’ colony, pitches on to cultivate for his owm ufe, or
is afligned for that purpofe. However, the tenn plan*
tation is often ufed in a term fynonymous with colony.
See Colony.
PLANTERSHIP, in a general fenfc, the bufinefe
of a planter.
Plantershie, in the Weft Indies, denotes the ma*
nagement of a fugar plantation, including not only the
cultivation of the cane, but the various procefles for the
extraftion of the fugar, together with the making of fu-
gar-fpirits. See Rum, Saccharum, and Sugar.
To effefr a defign fo comprehenfive, it is neceflary for
a planter to underftand every branch of the art preciiely,
and to ufe the utmoft attention and caution both in the
laying dowm and executing of his plans. It is there¬
fore the duty of a good planter to infpcdl every part of
his plantation with his own eyes; to place his provifions,
ftores, and utenfils, in regular order, and in fafe repofi-
tories; that by prefervin^ them in perfc&ion, all kinda
of vvafte may be prevented.
But as negroes, cattle, mules, and horfes, are as it
were the nerves of a (ugar-plantation, it is expedient to
-treat that fubjedt with fume accuracy.
0/ Negroes. Cattle, Sec.] In tlie firft place, then, as
it is the intereft of every planter to preferve his negroea-
in health and (Length ; fo every adt of cruelty is not lefo
repugnant to the mailer’s real profit, than it is contraty
to the laws of humanity: and if a manager confiders his
own cafe and his employer’s intereft, he will treat all
negroes under his care with due benevolence ; for good
difeipline is by no means inconfiftent with humanity :
the contrary, it is evident from experience, that he
who feeds his negroes wtU, proportions their labour to
their age, fex, and ftrength, and treats them w-ith kind-
nefs and good nature, will reap a much larger produdl,
and with infinitely more cafe and feli-fatisfadtion, than
the moft cruel talkmafter, who ftarves his negroes, or
chailifes them with undue feverity. Every planter then Martin
who wifties to grow rich with eale, mud be a good eco- PUntcr/hip*
nomift ; muft feed bis negroes with the moft wholefoxne
food, fufficient to preferve them in health and vigour.
Common experience points out the methods by which a
planter may preferve his people in health and ftrength.
Some of his moft fruitful land (hould be allotted to each
negro in proportion to his family, and a fulficicnt por¬
tion of time allowed for the cultivation of it; but be-
caufe fuch allotment cannot in long droughts produce;
enough for his comfortable fuppart, it is the incumbent
duty
A r 16 ] P L A
TUM*. diity of s good planter to have always his (lores well
fr*?' filled with Guinea corn, yams, or eddoes, bdides pota-
toes growing in regular fucceflion: for plenty begets
cheerfulnefs of heart, as well as ftrength of body; by
which more work is effefted in a day by the lame hands
( than in a week when enervated by want and feverity.
Scanty meals mav fuftain life; but it is evident, that
more is requilite to enable a negro or any other perfon
to go through the neceffary labours. He, therefore,
who will reap plentifully, muft plant great abundance of
provifions as weU as fugar-canes *, and it is nature’s eco¬
nomy fo to fruAify the foil by the growth of yams,
plantains, and potatoes, as to yield better harvefts of fu-
gar, by that very means, than can be produced by many
other arts of cultivation. Plantains are the principal
fupport of all the negroes in Jamaica; and are ahb much
cultivated, at great expence of manure, in Barbadoes ;
but ought not to be folely depended upon in climates
fubieA to hurricanes. A celebrated planter and econo-
mill of the laft mentioned illand, who raifed an immenfe
fortune from very imall beginnings only by planting, af¬
firmed, that he fed conftantly at lead 300 negroes out
of 12 acres of plantains. How that excellent produce
came to be fo long negleAed in fome of the iflands it is
hard to guefs; but at prefent the negleA feems to be
founded upon a vulgar error, that plantains cannot thrive
i:i any other than low moift foils. In fuch places, no
doubt, they flourilh mod luxuriantly; but yet they
' thrive and bear fruit abundantly on mountains and in
marihes, and in the dried black mould upon marie or
rocks, and even in {harp gravelly foils, as may be evinced
by numberlefs indances.
However plenty of wh ole fo m e food may be condu¬
cive to health, there are alfo otuer means, equally necef¬
fary' to drength and the longevity of negroes, well worth
the planter’s attention : and thofe are, to choofe airy
dry lituations for their houfes; and toobferve frequently
that they be kept clean, in good repair, and perfeAly
water-tight; for nadinefs, and the inc.emencies of wea¬
ther, generate the mod malignant difeafes. If thefe
houfes are fituated alfo in regular order, and at due
didances, the fpaces may at once prevent general deva-
dations by fire, and furnifii plenty of fruits and pot¬
herbs,‘to pleafe an unvitiated palate, and to purify the
blood. Thus then ought every planter to treat his ne¬
groes with tendernefs and generofity, that they' may be
induced to love and obey him out of mere gratitude, and
become teal good beings byr the mutation of his beha¬
viour ; and therefore a good planter, for his own eafc
and happinefs, will be careful of fetting a good ex¬
ample. . .
Having thus hinted the duties of a planter to his
negroes, let the next care be of cattle, mules, and horfes.
The planters of Barbadoes (who are perhaps the mod
fkilful of all others, and exaA to a nicety in calculations
of profit and lofs), are, w'ithrefpeA to their cattle, the
mod remifs of any in all the rflands ; as if the carriage of
canes to the mill, and of plantation-produce to the mar¬
ket, w as not as eflential as any other branch of planter-
ihip. At Barbadoes, in particular, the care of thefe
animals is of more importance ; becaufe the foil, worn
out by long culture, cannot yield any produce without
plenty of dung. Somexplanters are neverthelefs fo in-
genioufiy thrifty, as to carry their canes upon negroes
he,jKls; aAing in that refpeA diametrically oppofite to
their own apparent intered, which cannot be ferved riaatw*
more effeAually than by faving the labour of human
hands, in all cafes where the labour of brutes can be
fubdituted; and for that end, no means of preferring
thofe creatures in health and drength ought to be ne¬
gleAed.
The fird care therefore is to provide plenty and va¬
riety of food. In crop-time, profufion of cane-tops may
be had for the labour of carriage; but they will be more
wholefome and nutritious if tedded like hay by the fun’s
heat, and fweated by laying them in heaps a few days
before they are eaten. In this ftafon of abundance,
great ricks of cane-tops (the butt ends turned inwards)
fhould be made in the mod convenient comer of each
field, to fupply the want of padurage and other food :
and thefe are very wholefome if chopped into fmall parts,
and mixed fometimes with common fait or fprinklei
with melafies mixed with water: but yet the cattle re¬
quire change of food to preferve them in drength; fuch
as Guinea com, and a variety of grafs, which every foil
produces with a little care in moid weather; and indeed
this variety is found neceflary in all climes.
But fince that variety is not to be had during thofe
fevere droughts to which hot climates are liable, and
much lefs in thofe fmall iilands which cannot fernifh
large traAs of meadow’-lands for hay, the only refource
is the fodder of cane-tops or tedded Guinea-corn leaves ;
which are very nutritious, and may be prefewed in per-
feAion for more than a whole year, provided the tops
or Guinea-corn are well tedded for three or four hot
days as they lie fpread in the field ; and then, being tied
into bundles or {heaves, muft lie in the hot fun for three
or four days more, when they may be fit to be put up
into ricks. The beft method of making them is in an
oblong figure, about 30 feet in length, and 16 or 18
feet wide ; feven feet high at the fides, and from thence
{loping like the roof of an houfe, the ridge of which
muft be thatched very carefully; for the Tides may be
fecured from wet by placing the bundles with the butts
upwards towards the ridge, in courfes, and lapping the
upper over the lower courfe.
The beft method of forming thofe ricks is to place
the ftrft courfe of bundles all over the bafe one way ;
the fecond courfe reverfely; and fo alternately till the
rick be finiflied.
When cattle are to be fed with this fodder, it muft be_
dbferved to take ■down the bundles from the top, at the
weft end of the rick, to the bottom ; for all thefe ricks
muft ftand eaft and weft lengthwife, as well to fecure
them from being overturned by high winds, as for
the convenience preferving them from wet, which can¬
not be done when ricks are made round. By this
■hufbandry, an herd of cattle may be kept in ftrength,
either in fevere droughts, or in wet feafons when grafs
is purgative; and thus the neceflity or expence of
large paftures may be totally faved. The hay-knife
nfed in England for cutting hay, anfwera for cutting
ricks of tops.
The method of tedding Guinea-corn to make a kind
of hay, will require a little explanation here. When
Guinea corn is planted in May, and to be cut down in
July, in order to bear feed that year, that cutting, ted¬
ded properly, will make an excellent hay, which cattle
prefer to meadow-hay. In like manner, after Guineah
corn has done bearing feed, the after crop will iurnilh *
5 great
%** ‘\T>11* f *•
(hip.
p i, a r i
f >Mt abimJance 0? that klnu of foiJer which w ill keep
well in ricks for two or three years. _
The next care of a planter is to provide (hade for his
cattle; either by trees where they are fed in the heat
of the day, if his foil requires not dung; or by building
a flat (hade over the pen where cattle are confined for
making it. That fuch faades are effentially neceflary
to the well-being of all animals in hot weather, is appa¬
rent to every common obferver, who cannot fail of fee¬
ing each creature forfaking the moit luxuriant pailures
iimhe heat of the day for the fake of fhade ; thus con¬
vincing the owners, by inflinftive argument, that fhade
is almoft as neceflary to the well-being of the brute
creatures as food. Yet, notwithftandiug that demon-
flration from the unerring courfe of nature, throughout
all our iflands'(except in a very few inflances), thefe
poor creatures are expofed to the fcorching fun-beams
without mercy. Such inhuman negleft is not always
to much the effeft of inattention as of a miftaken no¬
tion that fliades are impedimental to the making ot
much dung; but a flatrlhade, covered with cane-trafli,
may be fo made as to let rain pafs through it without
adnufiion of fun-beams. 1 his will do for cattle ; but
mules, which are fpirited creatures, and work them-'
felves by draught into a foaming heat, fhould be put in¬
to a warm (table, until quite cool: for turning them
loofe to pafture wrhen fo hot, is probably the caufe of
their deftru&ion by the glanders.
If the care of providing fhade for brute creatures is
fo much the duty and interefl of their owners, how
much more is it agreeable to the laws of humanity to
provide fhade for human creatures travelling upon the
high-roads in this hot climate? Nothing furely of fo
much beauty cofts fo little expence as planting cocoa-
nut or fpreading timber trees in avenues along the high¬
ways, if each proprietor of the lands adjoining hath any
xafte of elegance, or feeling for other men: but both
thofe kinds of trees will yield alfo great profit to the
proprietor, by furnifhing him with timber, when per¬
haps not otherwife to be had; or with a delicious milk,
fitted by nature to cool the effervefixnce of the blood
i i this hot region; and alfo to improve the fpirits made
from fugar to the delicacy and foftnefs of arrack. Co¬
coa-nut and cabbage-trees are both very beautiful and
fhady, bearing round heads of great expanlion, upon
natural trunks or pillars of elegant proportion, and of
Inch an height as to furnifh a large fhade, with a free '
circulation of air equally refrefhing to man and bead.
The common objection of injury to canes by the
roots of fuch trees growing on their borders, may be
calilv removed by digging a fmall trench between the
canes and trees, which may intercept their roots, and
oblige them to feek fuftenance in the common road.
I.et it alfo be confidered, befides the benefits above fug-
gelled, that the planter will thus beautify his eftate to
the vefemblance of a moil fumptuous garden. And
probably that very beauty might not only render the
illands more healthful to the inhabitants, by preferving
Vol. XV. Part I.
7 ] P L A
them from fevers kindled by the burning fun-beams, PCnW
but alfo much more fruitful by making the weather more a ^
feafonable: for as, by cutting down all its woods, an hot ~
country becomes more fubjett to exceflive droughts; fo,
bv replanting it in the manner above deferibed, tins in¬
convenience would probably be prevented.
Let then the planter be kind not only to his fellow-
creatures but merciful to his beads; giving them plenty
and variety of wholefome food, clear water, cool fhade,
and a clean bed, bleeding them after a long courfc of
hard labour, currying their hides from filth and ticks ( a );
affording them fait and other phylic when u^ceffiry ;
prcte&ing them from the flaying rope-lafhes of a cruel
driver (who needs no other inffrument than a goad) ;
proportioning their labour to their (Length ; and by
every art rendering their work as eafy as poflible. ihe
general management of planters is not, perhaps, more
defe&ive in any other refpeft than in this : for, by
miring the cattle unequally, and by the drivers id con-
duft in writhing to the right and left, the poor creatures
are fatigued by' much needlefs labour. An horfe ought
therefore to be harnefled before them as a leader. This
docile creature, by being led in a ftraight line, willfoon
learn to be an unerring guide, and the cattle will fol¬
low in the fame dire&ion with united (Length, and con-
fequently with more effeft and iefs fatigue to each indi¬
vidual.
The Portuguefe of Madeira, by their poverty and
fcantinefs of pafture, breed the fmalleft kind of cattle ;
and yet one yoke of them will draw' a much greater
weight than a pair of our largefl oxen, foltrly by an
equal exertion of their joint flrength. That equality
or evennefs yf draught is preferved by boring girnblet
holes through their horns, within two inches of the
points, and running a thong of leather through thofe
holes, fo as to tie the horns of each pair at fix inches
dulance from each other. By this ligature the pair of
cattle are abfolutely hindered from turning different
w'ays, and draw' in an even dire&ion w ith united force.
Thus it appears evidently from reafon, as well as from
experience, that the labour of our beads may, by a little
contrivance, be rendered more eafy and efFe&ual.
Of the Culture .of .various Soils. In the Britifh fugar-
colonies there is as great a variety of foils as in any
country of Europe ; fome naturally very rich or fruit¬
ful, yielding a luxuriant product with little labour or
culture. This fruitful foil is of three kinds : u loofe
hazel mould mixed with fand, like that of St Chrillo-
pher’s, and is the bed in the known world for produ¬
cing fugar in great quantity, and of the bed quality.
The brick mould of Jamaica is fomewhat of the fame
nature, and next in value ; and then the various mix¬
tures of mould and gravel, to be found in veins or plats
over all the other iflands. When any of thefe foils are
exhauded of their fertility by long and injudicious cul¬
ture, they may be redored by any kind of dung well
rotted; for thefe (b) w'arm foils cannot bear hot un-
rotten dune-, without being laid fallow for a confider-.
C able
(a) One pound of native fulphur, a quart of lamp-oil, and the like quantity Oa hog s-laul, intimately mixed
and made into an ointment, is a cure for the mange, lice, &c.
(b) Thefe foils, which are naturally loofe and upon marie, Mr Martin calls hot f ils ; and thefe, he fuvs, have
been
P L A r 18
flinter- a^Jg time afic'r it. Another improvement is by fea-
hind or fea-weed; nr by digging in the cane-trafh
iiito fteep lands, and by letting it lie to rot for fome
months. A third method is, by ploughing and laying
it fallow; and the fourth method (the beil of all), is
by folding the fallows by fheep. But this can be prac-
tifed only where there are extenfive paftures; nor can
the plough be employed where the foil abounds with
large Hones. In that cafe, however, the former me¬
thod of digging in trafh will be nearly as effeftual,
though more expenfive, by hand-labour or hoe-plough-
»ng., . .
The next bed foil for producing good fugar is a
mould upon clay, which if (hallow requires much cul¬
ture and good labour, or its produce will be fmall in
quantity, though of a flrong grain and bright colour,
fo as to yield mod; profit to the refiner of any fugar,
except that produc*d from an hazel or gravelly foil, as
before-mentioned. All the black-mould foils upon marie
are generally fruitful, and will take any kind of dung ;
but yield not fo drong or large-grained fugar. Marie,
however, of a white, yellow, or blue colour, or rich
mould from wadies, or allies of every kind, are excellent
for every drong foil, as the chief ingredient in the corn-
pod of dung: either, of them will do alone for diff
lands; but the yellow and chocolate marie are the moll
foapy, and the riched kind of manure (except fine
mould) for all dift lands. If thefe are ■well opened,
pulverized by culture, and mixed with hot dung, or
any kind of loofe earth or marie, they will produce as
plentifully as lighter foils: and all kinds of clay-foils,
except that of a white colour, have thefe two advanta¬
ges above the fined gravel foils, that they do not fcorch
foon by dry weather, and never grow weary' of the fame
manure, as mod other foils do.
The extraordinary hand-labour bedowed in making
dung, may be faved by the art of caving, now in gene¬
ral ufe in England. Ten mules or horfes, and two light
tumbrels with broad wheels, and ten able negroes, may,
by the common ufe of fpades, diovels, and light mat¬
tocks, or grubbing hoes, make more dung than 60 able
negroes can do in the prefent methods.
If marie litffe upon rifimg ground, or in hillocks, as it
often does, the pit is to be opened at the foot of the
declivity; which being dug inwards, till the bank is
three feet high, then it is to be caved thus. Dig an
hollow fpace of I 2 or 18 inches deep under the foot of
the bank ; then dig into each fide of it another perpen¬
dicular cut of the fame depth, and i8 inches wide from
the top of the bank to the bottom: that being finilhed,
make a fmall trench a foot or two from the brink of
the bank; pour into it water till full; and when that
is done, fill it again, till the water foaking downward
makes the marie feparate and. fall down all at once.
This may be repeated till the pit rifes to 50 feet high ;
and then many hundreds of cart-loads of marie may be
thrown down by four negroes in two hours j from
whence it may be carted into cattle-pens of laid out up¬
on lands, as occafion requires. Five or fix negroes with
Ipades or (hovels will keep two or three tumbrels em-
]
P L A
ployed, according to the diffance of cartage : and thus
as much dung may be made by ten negro men as will
dung richly at lead 70 or 80 acres of land every vear, '
and laid out alfo with the afiidance of cattle-carts : An
improvement highly worth every planter’s confideration,
when negroes and feeding them are fo expenfive ; and
this is no fpeculation, but has been confirmed by prac¬
tice. In level lands, the fame operation may be as ef-
feftual, provided the mouth of the pit be opened by
gradual defeent to any depth : but when marie is to be
found on the fides of hills, the operation is lefs laborious
for the horfes. But if the furface of the marle-pits
(as it often happens) be covered with clay or diff foil,
fo that the water cannot quickly foak from the trench
above ; in that cafe, pieces of hard wood, made like
piles, four feet long, and four inches fqr«re, pointed at
one end, and fecured at the other fquare head by an iron
clamp, may be driven by heavy mauls into the trench,
as fo many wedges, which will make the caved part
tumble down: but a fkilful eye mud watch the lad ope¬
ration, or the labourers may be buried or hurt.
But then day-foils that are level, and fubjed to be
drowned, or to retain water in flagnated pools, can ne¬
ver be made fruitful by any kind of manure, without
being fird well drained: for water lying upon any foil
will mod certainly transform it to a diff unfruitful clay;
as appears evidently by the bogs of Ireland, the fens of
Lincoln and Cambridge (hire, and even by the ponds of
Barbadoes fituated in the deeped and lighted black
mould ; for that fine foil being wafhed into thofe ponds,
becomes the diffed black clay, not fit even for an ingre¬
dient in dung, until it has been laid dry, and expofed to
the fun for a whole year : but when thefe bogs and fens
are well drained, they become the mod fruitful foils.
Natural clay the celebrated Boerhaave thinks the fatted
of all foils; but then it mud be opened by culture,
marie, or fandy manures. It is hard to conjecture how
the opinion prevailed in the Britifh plantations, that
fandy gut-mould wras mod unfit for clay-foils, as being
the means of binding them to the compaCtnefs of brick;
whereas it is proved, from long experience, to be one of
the bed means of opening clay-foils, and rendering them
abundantly fruitful. Brick is made of clay alone; no
fand being ufed in it, farther than to fprinkle the
board, on which it is moulded into (hape. From re¬
peated experience it appears, that a mixture of fand in
gut-mould is the bed of all manure for diff and barren
clay-lands ; provided they be well drained, by throwing
the whole foil into round ridges of j 2 feet wride, with
furrow s of three feet wide between each ridge. And
this is done with little more hand-labour than that of
hoe-ploughing well in the common way. For if a piece
of land be marked in lines at feven feet and a half di¬
dance from each other, and the labourers are fet in to
hoe-plough at the fecond line, hauling back each clod 12
inches; half the ridge, and near half the furrow, is made
at the fame time : and thus a piece of land may be
round-ridged, and the furrows all made at once, by the
common operation of hoe-ploughing, provided the dig¬
ger drives his hoe up to the eye at every droke. Hoe-
ploughing
Planter.
been much injured in fome of the iflands by dung hadily made with marie: but if the fediment of lees were
thrown into thefe pens, after being turned over, it would much improve the dung.
P L A • [ i
ptarfter- plongKing in clay-foils that have lain long under water,
fliip. is indeed hard labour ; but it will every year grow the
—v  lighter by being* well-drained by round-ridging : and in
the meanwhile the labour may be rendered much more
eafv by the plough condufted by the lines above de-
fcribed. As therefore fandy mould is the bed manure
for itiff clay ; lb, by parity of reafon, confirmed by long
experience/ ftiff clay is the bell manure for fandy or
chaffy foils.
The method of round-ridging before defcribed, is, by
feveral years experience, found the moll effential im¬
provement of flat clayey foils : and yet there are fome
who will prefer fpeculatjon to ocular dcmonflration, fan¬
cying that all kinds of ridges will cany off the mould
in heavy rains. The fa£l is otherwife in clay-foils : and
plain reafon, without experience, vouches, that where
great confluxes of water are divided into many fmall rills,
the force is broken ; and therefore lefs mould carried
off the land. Another obje&ion made to round-ridge-
ing is, that by digging much clay to form the fides of
the ridge, the foil is impoverilhed: but this objeflion
Hands good only againft thofe ridges which are raifed
too high, and made too broad ; but if land is ridged in
the manner before dire&ed, that is, 12 feet broad, and
not above fix or eight inches higher in the middle than
at the fides, the objedlion vanilhes. Ridges were never
propofed for light foils or fteep lands ; and even in flat
foils upon loam they fhould be made with great cau¬
tion, became loam melts aiuay by wnt r. T But there are
poachy lands of a white clay, even upon fmall defcents,
too retentive of water ; thefe may certainly be impro¬
ved much by ridges of 12 feet wide, as above defcribed,
without fear of wafhes.
But fuppofing, as the obje&ion urges, that a little
clay fhould be turned up at the fides of fuch ridges, can
it not be manured fomewhat more than the o*her parts
with marie or fandy mould, fo as to become equally
good with any other part of the foil ? And is not this
well worth the labour, fince round-ridging not only im¬
proves the foil by draining it to a furprifing degree, but
adds one-fifth part to the depth of the flaple? And will
not a ridge made a little rounding, throw off the water
much better than, a flat ridge ?
The general maxim of not burning cane-tralh (which
may be called the JIubble of cane-hinds) upon any kind
of foil, is furely a great miftake ; as may be evinced by
obferving the contrary practice of the bell hufbandmen
in England, where burn-baiting or baftard burn-baiting,
is found by experience an admirable method of fertili¬
zing cold, ftiff, or clayey lands. It mull indeed be a
conftant praftice, not only for the fake of contributing
to warm and divide the foil, but as the only effedlual
means of deftroying pernicious infers, and weeds of va¬
rious kinds, fuch as French weed, wild peafe, and wild
vines.
Soon after the difufe of burning trafh upon our lands
in the iflands, the blaft made its full appearance with in¬
credible devaftation : to revive that practice therefore
feems to be the moft obvious means of expelling it. It
8
9 1 P L A
may be prefumed that the difufe of burning tralh was ^
founded upon the miftaken notion of burn-baiting,  ’‘"P'
which is turning up ti thick fod of very dry, light, and
fhallow foils, and burning the whole fuperficies or itaple
to allies. This praftice the writers upon hufbandry
condemn univerfally, and very juffly: for though by thii
praftice the land will produce two or three crops more
plentifully than ever, yet the foil is blown away by the
w'ind, and the fubftratum being generally an hungry
gravel or chalk, can never be reftored to fertility by the
common arts of hulbandry. But furely this has no re-
femblance to our fuperficial burning of the little tralh
w*e can fpare from dung : and though this method of t
burn-baiting light and Iballow foils be juftly condemned,
yet the bell writers recommend that very practice in
cold, moill, and heavy foils, as is obferved above ; and
long experience juilifies it.
Deep mould upon clay or loam being fubjeft to the
grub-worm (c), will not take any kind of dung, till
perfectly rotten, except that of the fheep-fold ; which
is the bell manure for all kinds of light foils, and is of
all others the leaft expenftve, as not requiring hand-la¬
bour. But the ufe of the fold is impracticable in any
illand not abounding with large favannas or Iheep-pa-
ftures, as in Jamaica.
Thofe foils therefore which are fubjeft to the grub,
and mull be fertilized by common dung, which is a
proper neft: for the mothet-bectle to depofite its eggs,
mull be tt'ell impregnated with the brine of diffolved
fait, after the dung is firft cut up ; two large hoglheads
of fait wfill make brine enough for a dung-pen of 50 feet
fquare. ^
This cure for the grub is a late difeovery; and which,
has been attended with fuccefs, fo far as. the experi¬
ment is made. But though it proves effeftual to de-
ftroy that pernicious infeft in plant-canes, it probably
will not be fufficient to fave rattoons, w-ithout a new
application of fait in powder ; becaufe the firft brine
mull be waflied away by the time when rattoons
fpring up.
The planter who would fave his rattoons from the
grub ought therefore to cut off the heads of his ftools
with (harp hoes three inches below' the furface of the
foil, and then ftrew* an handful of fait round each ftool,
and cover it up to a level with fine mould taken from the
edges.
In foils where there is no grub, and the planter wiftt- .
es to have very good rattoons, let him, as foon as his
canes are cut, draw* all the trafh from the ftools into the
alternate fpaces, if planted in that manner ; or into the
furrow's, if his land be round-ridged ; and then cut off
the head of his ftools w'ith fharp hoes, as above direCled.
Experience has fhowm the advantage of this pra&ice,
and reafon demonftrates the great benefit of the rattoon-,
fprouts rifing from three inches below the furface, in-
ftead of fuperficial fhoots which come to novhing, and
only ftarve the ftrong fprouts. Befides, the Hubs which
are left upon the ftools after the canes are cut, canker,
and rot the ftools ; which is one reafon why good rat-
C 2 • toons
(c) This pernicious infecl is moft apt to engender in dung made from mill-trafli, which therefore never ought
to be put into dung-compoft or Hill-ponds ; but after being burnt, the afhes w'ill be as good as any other kind.
Round-ridging, with manure of unwret afhes, iea-fand, or lime, or dry marie, kills the grub.
TLA [ i
anter. toons are uncommon in foils long cu tivateo. i et it is
the opinion of fome, that by hoe-ploughing and even
dunging rattoons, the produce might be as good pbnt-
canes, which would lave the labour of holing and plant¬
ing fo often as planters commonly do.
Fallowing is of incredible advantage to every foil,
not only by being divided into the nniiuteft parts, but
alfo by imbibing thofe vegetative powers with which
the air is impregnated by the bountiful hand of 1 ro-
vidence, whenever rain falls. What thofe powers are
has been explained under the articles Agriculture
and Plant ; and experience evinces, that the tender
vegetables of the earth are envigorated more by the
fmalleft ihower of rain, than by all the water which
human art can bellow. Let it therefore be a eonftant
maxim of the planter, never to plant his ground until
the foil is well mellowed by fallowing, even though he
bellows upon it a due proportion of dung: we fay a
due proportion'; for too much will force up rank canes,
which never yield good fugar; and though fome advan¬
tage may be reaped- from the rattoons, yet it will be
found by experience not to compenfate the lofs by the
plants. In llony or lleep foils, where, the plough can¬
not be ufed, or where a fufficient {Length of cattle can¬
not be fupported for that purpofe, hand-labour or hoe-
ploughing mull be fubftituted: but even in that cafe,
much labour may be faved by fpreading the dung ac¬
cording to the Englilh hufbandry, and digging it into
the foil. To evince this truth, let any planter com¬
pute his negroes labour ox dillributing dung by balkets,
and by fpreading it with dung-forks ; and then judge
for himfelf by one fmgle experiment which is the moll
profitable.
But if fome planter? are fo devoted to the old cullom
©f dillributing dung by balkets inllead of wheel-barrows
in level ground, or hand-barrows in uneven land, by
which three times the labour may be accomplilhed in
the fame time and by the fame hands ; let them at leall
fave much of their hand-labour, by the following me¬
thod of laying out dung, before the dillribution by
. balkets.
In holing a piece of land, let a fpace be left after 80
holts from the firll interval, and then the like fpace af¬
ter 80 holes throughout the whole plat, which {paces
mull run exaclly parallel to the intervals on the right
and left of the holes. Into thefe fpaces the dung may
be carted, even before it be rotten (d), at the moll lei-
fure times, and covered with mould or cane-tralh, to pre¬
vent exhalation; and in fuch quantity as will fulfice on¬
ly to dung a row of 40 holes, from the point oppolite
to each fide of it. In the intervals at each fide of the
cane-piece, which are parallel to thofe fpaces, there mull
be dung enough carted to manure a row of 40 holes,
and covered in like manner.
By thus placing the dung or gut-mould, it is evident
o ] P L A
at the fiifl fight, that the farthefl dillance cannot be Wanter.
above 40 holes in diilributing the dung: and in cafe
it be not fufficiently rotten for prefent ufe, it may be ^
diltributed even in dry weather, and covered by the
bank ; which will both prevent its fpirit from exhala¬
tion, and occalion it to rot fooner, which is no final!
advantage. Moreover, by being thus laid out at the
moll leifuro times, and covered with the banks, the
dung will be more intimately mixed with the foil, and
therefore continue to nourilh the plant for a longer time
than if laid as ufual at the bottom of the holes. A
farther advantage of thus dillributing the dung, and co¬
vering it, refults from the more expeditious planting the
land after a Ihort or fudden Ihower: for the labour ox
covering the dung, and uncovering it when the land is
planted, however it may appear in fpeculation, is in
practice a trifle ; and befidcs all the other advantages art-
fing by the dillribution of dung from the fpaces above
deferibed, this is not the leaft, that not a bank is trod¬
den under foot. But it is evident, that by dillributing
the dung with bafkets in the prelent method, the loll is
much trampled under foot; and by that means, the very
end of hoe-ploughing, or loofening the foil, is much de¬
feated. In like manner, by the prefent method of hoe-
ploughing, the fame ill efFe£t is produced; for as the
negroes hoe-plough or dig the foil directly forward, fo
they mud neceffarily tread the ground as fall as they
dig it : whereas by putting the labourers to dig fidc-
wife, no one puts a foot upon the foil after it is dug ;
and by lining the land before it is hoe-ploughed, each
negro may have an equal fhare to dig. The only diffi¬
culty of Ixoe-ploughing fidewife is in firll fetting the
negroes to that work ; but it may be done without lofs
of time when working in a contiguous field. Whether
hoe-ploughing before or alter the land be holed for
canes is mod eligible, exper’ence mud determine ; but
certainly both operations will be mod effectual: and
therefore it will be advifable (1:), firll to plough the
foil where the land will admit the plough ; and where
it will not, to hoe-plough it with or without dung, as
requilite ; then let it lie fallow till perfectly mellowed ;
then hole and plant it; and indead of weeding in the
ufual manner, let the weeds in all the fpaces be dug in¬
to the foil: but as this is not tcy be done fo well with
the hoe, it is fubmitted to future experience, whether
the dexterous ufe of fpades, as in England, will not an-
fvver the purpofe much better, and with equal dilpatch.
But whatever method is preferred, moll certain it is,
that by loofening the foil in all the fpaces between the
young canes after being come up, their fibres will more
eafily expand on every fide, and acquire more nutri¬
tion to invigorate their growth. But where the plant¬
er grudges this labour, by thinkipg it needlefs in a rich
loofe foil, he, may difpatch more weeding-work by the
Dutch hoe than by any other; which being fallenecl
4 upon--
(d) In order to make dung rot the fooner, much labour is bellowed in digging a^d turning it over by
hoes: but two-thirds of that labour may be faved by the ufe of hay-knives ; fix of which, ufed dexterotilly, will
cut up a pen in lefs time than 60 negroes can do by hoes: but hay-knives cannot be ufed where gritty mould is,
ufed in pens.i
(e) Deep and loofe foils may be ploughed with a finall ffrength of cattle or mules: but lliff lands in hot cli¬
mates require more llrength of cattle than can be maintained in the fmall pallures of the planters; for if thofe
ffrong foils are either too wet or too dry (as is generally the cafe), ploughing is impracticable.
I5, l a r
upon the end cf a ftick, is puihed forward under the
roots of the imall weeds, in inch a manner as to cut
them up a little below the furface of the toil, and will
do more execution at one Ihove than can be done at
three ftrokes of the common hoe : but there is yet ano¬
ther practice of the horfe-hoe plough, whereby all weeds
growing in rows between beans and peafe, are extirpa¬
ted with incredible cafe and expedition. It is a very
Simple machine, drawn by one or two horfes, conliilmg
of a pair of low wheels turning upon a common axis ;
from whence two fquare irons are let down at equal
diftances, and triangular hoes made at the ends, the
points of the triangles being placed forward, and fo hx-
cd as to cut all weeds an inch below the furface, in the
fame manner as the Dutch garden hoe above-mentioned.
-By this machine a man and a boy, with two horfes or
mules, will clear perfectly all the Ipaces of a field of ten
acres in two days, and may be of admirable ufe in all
loofe and dry foils in the fugar-iflands: for wfiile two
horfes or mules draw in the fpace before each otticr,
the wheels pafs on the outfide of each row- of canes,
without doing the leaft injury, while the plough-holder
attends to his bufuiefs. In fluff foils which require
draining, neither the horfe-hoe plough nor the Dutch
hoe can be proper ; or any other inflrument fo effectual
as the fpade ufed in the manner above hinted, where the
itaple is deep.
But where the ft2pie of land is fhallow, care muft
be taken not to dig much below it, according to the uni-
verfal opinion of all the heft writers, fupported by the
experience of 100 years. Yet fome good planters are
fallen into the contrary practice, and dig up ftift clay far
below the ftaple. This, Mr Martin fays, was clone in
his own lands, during his abfence, by injudicioufly
ploughing below' the ftaple ; and fo injured the foil, that
all the arts of culture for many years hardly retrieved its.
former fertility. Indeed, where the ftaplc is fhallow'j
upon a fat clay, the turning up a little of it at a time,
from the bottom of the cane-holes, and mixing it with
vich hot dung, made of marie, or fancy mould, which may
take off its cohefive quality, will in due time, and by
long fallow, convert it into good foil: but if ftift’ clay
be turned up, without any fuch mixture, in large quan¬
tities, it will infallibly difappoint the operator’s hopes :
for though folid <4ay will moulder, by expofure, to a
feeming fine earth, yet it will return to its primitive ft,ate
very foon after being wret, and covered from the external
air, if not divided, as above fuggefted.
After all, the common horfe-hoeing plough drawn by
two mules in a line before each other, or the hand-hoe in
common ufe, will anfwer the purpofe very well, where
the lands are planted in Mr Tub’s method; that is, where
the fpaces are equal to the land planted, in the following
manner.
Suppofe fix feet planted in two row's of canes, and fix
feet of land left as a fpace unplanted ; and fo a w'hole
piece of land, planted in alternate double row's (f), with
equal fpaces, may be hoe-ploughed w ith eafe, as before
hinted ; and that at any time during the growth of canes,
when it is meft convenient to the planter, w hich is a
1
21 ] ' P L A
confiderable advantage ; and yet it is the ieaft of all at- Pbr ter.
tending this method of culture : for, by leaving thefc . 
fpaces, the canes will have both more air and fun : by
hoe-ploughing them, the roots of each double row will
have large room for expanfion, and confequently, by
gaining more nutriment, will grow more luxuriantly :
by thefe fpaces the canes may be cleaned from the Waft
with much more eafe and convenience \ ?.nd will ferv*?
as proper beds to plant great corn, without the leall in¬
jury to the canes ; as w'eil as to contain the trafh taken
off the land, wdiere, by rotting, and being hoe-ploughed
into the foil, it will wonderfully enrich it, and wfill
fit it to be planted immediately after the canes in the
neighbouring double rows are cut dowm. Betides all
thefe admirable advantages of planting the land in al¬
ternate double row’s with equal fpaces, the canes, when
at full age, may be eafily ftripped of their trafh, and by
that means the juice rendered fo mature as to yield dou¬
ble the produce, and much better fugars than unftripped
canes. This method of culture may be recommended for
all kinds of foil : for as by this praftice the rank luxu¬
riant canes will be more matured, fo the poor foils will
be rendered more fruitful ; and as the roots of the canes
which expand into thefe fpaces will be kept moiil by
being covered with rotten trafh, fo they muft bear dry
weather much longer in the burning foils. In thofe low
lands w’hich require draining by furrows, the alternate
double rows and fpaces muft be made crofs the ridges; by
which means thofe fpaces, being hoe-ploughed from the
centre to the iides, will be always preferved in a proper
ftate of roundnefs. By this method of planting, the
cranes may be fo w'ell ripened as to yield double the
quantity of fugar of canes planted in the clofe manner ;
which faves half the labour of Cartage, half the time of
grinding and boiling, and half the fuel, beiides yielding
finer fugar.
Yet, how well foever the method of planting in Angle
or double alternate rows has fucceeded in the loofe and
ftift foils, experience has fhown that it is a wrong prac¬
tice in ftiff lands that are thrown into round or flat
ridges : for thefe being moft apt to crack, the fun-beams
penetrate fbon to the cane-roots, flop their grow'th, and
have an ill influence upon the fugar. It is therefore ad-
vifable to plant fuch lands full, but in large holes, of 4
feet, by 5 feet towards the banks : after the plant-canes
are cut, to dig out one, and leave tw’o rows Handing,
hoe-ploughing the fpaces after turning all the trafh into,
furrows till almoll rotten : for if the trafli is drawn up¬
on the hoe-ploughed fpaces, they w'ill hardly ever moul¬
der, at kail not till the trafh is quite rotten. This is
an infallible proof from experience of how little advan¬
tage trafh is to the foil, unlefs it be in great droughts,
to keep out the intenfe fun-beams : for, in all other re-
fptets, it prevents that joint operation of the fun and
air in mouldering and frudtitying the foil, as has been
proved by repeated experiments.
But in flat ftiff foils that are properly drained by
round-ridging, no culture prevents cracking fo efle&ually
as hoe-ploughing into them a quantity of loofe marie,
of which that of a chocolate or v>f a vcllow colour is
belt 4
(f) In fUff lands, the Angle alternate rows of four feet diflance, as preventive of much labour in weeding, .art
found belt ; and alio yield more fugar by the acre ; and are kfs apt to be aifedted by drought*
P L A l 22
•Planter, bed ; ami it will be ftill much better, by lying upon the
land, in fmall heaps, or in cane-holes, for fome time,
^ to imbibe the vegetative powers of the air before it is
intimately mixed with the foil.
As to the manner of planting canes, the general
practice of allowing four feet by live to an hole,, and
two frefh (g) plants, is found by common experience
.to be right and good in alternate rows. But the follow¬
ing precautions are neceflfary to be obferved, bird,.let
all the cane-rows run call and weft, that the trade-wind
may pafs freely through them ; becaufe air and funftiine
are as conducive to the growth and maturation of fugar-
canes as of any other vegetable. Secondly, let not any
acceffion of mould be drawn into hills round the young
canes, except where water ftagnates (h) ; becaufe the
fibres which run horizontally, and near the furtace, are
much broken and fpoiled by that practice. Thirdly, let
the fugar-canes be cut at their full maturity ; which, in
v a dry loofe foil, is generally at the end of I 4 or 15
months after being planted ; but in cold clay-foils, not
till 16 or 17 months. Fourthly, as the cane-rows run
eaft and weft in as proper a diredftion as poflible for cart¬
age to the fugar work, fo canes muft be cut the con¬
trary' way if the planter expefts any great produce from
his rattoons : for by beginning to cut canes at the part
of his field moft remote from the works, the carts Can¬
not often pafs over the fame traeft, and confequently the
cane-ftools cannot be injured, more efpecially if he takes
due care to cut the canes very clofe to their roots ; for,
by leaving a long ftub (which muft perifh) the cane-
ftools are much injured. It may be obje&ed to the prac¬
tice of the cutting canes tranfverfely to the rows, that
the negroes labour will not be fo equally divided : but
let every man confider both fules of the queftion, and
be determined by his own experience ; and then he will
be convinced, that it matters very little which way he
. cuts ftraight (landing canes ; but in cafes where the fu¬
gar-canes lean, or are lodged by preceding high winds,
it is a point of great importance to place the labourers
fo as to cut the canes firft at the roots, and then, draw¬
ing them, cut off: the tops : for thus by two ftrokes
each cane will be cut ; and twice the quantity cut in the
fame time, and by the fame hands, more than by cutting
in any other direAion. In round ridged land, it is pro¬
per to cut canes in the fame direction of the ridges,
throwing the tops and trafh into the furrows to render
the cartage eafy, and to preferve the ridges in their
proper form.
It is almoft needlefs to fuggeft the expediency of plan¬
ning the cane-pieces of a plantation in exa£t fquares, fo
that the intei-vals may interfeft at right angles; lince
,.fuch regularity is not only more beautiful, more fafe in
cafe of accidental fires, and a better difpofition of the
whole for dividing and planting one third or fourth part
of a plantation every year, but alfo much ealier guarded
by a few watchmen : for one of thefe walking in a line
1 PL A
from eaft to weft, and the other from north to ftmth, i krtin,
look through every avenue, where the moft fubtle thief 1 lantinfr
cannot efcape the watchful eye. And if the intervals ’ ' ''
furrounding the boundary of a regular plantation be
made 2 4 feet wide, the proprietor will receive ample re-
compenfe for fo much land, by the fecurity of his canes
from fires kindled in the neighbourhood, and by plant¬
ing all that land in plantain-trees, which may at once
yield food and (hade to the watchmen, who by that
means can have no excufe for abfence from their proper
ftations. But as fuel grows very fcarce in moft of our
iflands, it is alfo expedient to plant a logwood or flower-
fence in all the boundaries of every plantation, which,
being cut every year, will furntfh good (tore of faggots.
Logwood makes the ftrongeft and quickeft of all fences,
and agrees with every foil: the cuttings make excellent
oven-fuel.
So much for the general operations of planterfhip*
according to the approved directions of Mr Martin.
For the particular cultivation of the fugar-canes, the
extraction of the fugar, and the diftillation of nun, fee
the articles Saccharum, Sugar, and Rum.
PLANTIN (Chriftopher), a celebrated printer, was
born near Tours in 1^3, and bred to an art which he
canied to the higheft degree of perfection. He went
and fettled at Antwerp ; and there ereCted a printing-
office, which was conlidered not only as the chief orna¬
ment of the town, but as one of the moft extraordinary
edifices in Europe. A great number of ancient authors
were printed here ; and thefe editions were valued not
only for the beauty of the characters, but alfo for the
correCtnefs of the text, with regard to which Plantin
was fo very nice, that he procured the moft learned men
to be correctors of his prefs. He got immenfe riches
by his profeffion; which, however, he did not hoard
up, but fpent like a gentleman. He died in 1.98, aged
65 years ; and left a moft fumptuous and valuable libra¬
ry to lu’s grandfon Balthafar.
PLANTING, in agriculture and gardening, is fet-
ting a tree or plant, taken from its proper place, in a
new hole or pit; throwing frefh earth over its root, and
filling up the hole to the level of the furface of the
ground.
The firft thing in planting is to prepare the ground
before the trees or plants are taken out of the earth,
that they may remain out of the ground as fhort a time
as poflible ; and the next is, to take up the trees or plants,
in order to their being tranfplanted. In taking up the
trees, carefully dig away the earth round the roots, fo
as to come at their feveral parts to cut them off; for if
they are torn out of the ground without care, the roots
will be broken and bruifed, to the great injury of the
trees. When you have taken them up, the next thing
is to prepare them lor planting by pruning the roots
and heads. And firft, as to the roots; all the fmall
fibres are to be cut off, us near to the place from whence
they
(g) It is an odd fancy that ftale plants grow heft, when both reafon and experience-vouch that the moft fuccu-
lent plants are bell : one good plant in the centre of a large hole is fufficient when the land is full holed.
(h) The ilagnation of water in pools (ufual in ftiff level lands) is the moft injurious circumftance attending it;
for that, by long duration, will concert the finell mould into ftiff clay. The proprietor of fuch a foil muft therefore
.grudge no labour to drain it well; and yet by fuch eafy gradation as to present the mould from being wafhed away
by great floods, in cafe the under ftratum be a loam.
p l a . r 2
tine, they arc produced as may be, except they are to be re-
planted immediately after they are taken up. Then
prune off all the bruifed or broken roots, all fuch as are
irregular and crofs each other, and all downright roots,
efpecially in fruit-trees: fhorten the larger roots in pro¬
portion to the age, the ftrength, and nature of the tree;
obferving that the walnut, mulberry, and fome other
tender-rooted kinds (hould not be pruned fo clofe as the
more hardy forts of fruit and foreft trees: in young
fruit-trees, fuch as pears, apples, plums, peaches, &c,
that are one year old from the time of their budding or
grafting, the roots may be left only about eight or nine
inches long ; but in older trees, they muff be left of a
much greater length : but this is only to be underftood
of the larger roots ; for the fmall ones muff be chiefly
cut quite out, or pruned very ftiort. The next thing
is the pruning of their heads, which muff be different¬
ly performed in different trees; and the defign of the
trees muff alfo be confidered. Thus, if they are defign-
ed for walls or efpaliers, it is beft to plant them with the
greateft part of their heads, which fhould remain on till
they begin to flioot in the fpring, when they muff be
cut down to five or fix eyes, at the fame time taking
care not to difturb the roots. But if the trees are de-
figned for flandards, you fliould prune off all the fmall
branches clofe to the place where they are produced, as
alfo the irregular ones which crofs each other; and after
having difplaced thefe branches, you fhould alfo cut off
all fuch parts of branches as have by any accident been
broken or wounded ; but by no means cut off the main
leading fhoots which are neceffary to attract the fap from
the root, and thereby promote the growth of the tree.
Having thus prepared the trees for planting, you muff
now proceed to place them in the earth : but firft, if the
trees.have been long out of the ground, fo that the fibres
of the roots are dried, place them eight or ten hours in
water, before they are planted, with their heads eredt,
and the roots only immerfed therein ; which will fwell the
dried vefl'els of the roots, and prepare them to imbibe
nourifhment from the earth. In planting them, great
regard fhould be had to the nature of the foil: for if
that be cold and moiff, the trees fhould be planted very
fhallow; and if it be a hard rock or gravel, it will be
better to raife a hill of earth where each tree is to be
planted, than to dig into the rock or gravel, and fill it
up with earth, as is too often pradtifed, by which means
the trees are planted as it were in a tub, and have but
little room to extend their roots. The next thing to
be obferved is, to place the trees in the hole in fuch a
manner that the roots may be about the fame depth in
the ground as before they were taken up ; then break
the earth fine with a fpade, and fcatter it into the hole,
fo that it may fall in between every root, tha: there may
lie no hollownefs. in the earth : then having filled up the
hole, gently tread down the earth with your feet, but
do not make it too hard; which is a great fault, efpeci¬
ally if the ground be ftrong or wet. Having thus plant¬
ed the trees, they fhould be faftened to flakes driven in¬
to. the ground to prevent their being difplaced by the
wind, and fome mulch laid upon the iurface of the
ground about their roots; as to fuch as are planted
agamft walls, their roots fhould be placed about five or
fix inches from the wall, to which their heads fliould be
nailed to prevent their being blown up by the wind. The
kafoas for planting are various; according to the diffe-
3 1 pl A ;
rent forts of trees,or the foil in which they are planted. Plantinir.
For the trees whofe leaves fall off in winter, the beft v *
time is the beginning of Odtober, provided the foil be
diy; but if it be a very wet foil, it is better to defer it
till the latter end of February, or the beginning of
March : and for many kinds of evergreens, the begin¬
ning of April is by far the beft feafon ; though they
may be fafely removed at midfummer, provided they are
not to be carried very far; but fhould always make
choice of a cloudy wet feafon.
In the fecond volume of the papers, &c. of the Bath
Society there is a letter ou planting wafle grounds. The
gentleman who writes it informs us, that in the county
of Norfolk, where he refides, there were about f o or 70
years ago vaff trafts of uncultivated ground, which \vere;
then thought totally barren. “The weftern parts of it (fays
he) abounded with fand of fo light a texture, that they
were carried about by every wind; and in many places
the fands were fo loofe that no grafs could grow upon
them. Art and induftry, however, have now fo altered
the face of this once Arabian defert, that it wears a
very difterent appearance. Moft of thefe trafts are ei¬
ther planted or rendered very good corn-land and fheep-
walks.
“ About 30 years fince, the fides of many of our
little fand-hills were fown with the feeds of French furze,
and when a wet feafon followed, they fucceeded very
well, and grew fo fad, that once in three or four years
they are cut for fuel, and fell at a good price at Thet-
ford, Brandon, Hrrling, Swaffham, and places adjacent.
This excited fome public fpirited gentlemen, among
whom was the late Mr Buxton of Shadwell-Lodge, near
Thetford, to attempt the planting of Scotch and fpruce
firs, and other hardy foreft-trees. At firft they found
fome difficulty from the extreme loofenefs of the fand.
But as there is in all this part of the country fine white
and yellow marie, at about three feet depth below the
fand, they very judicioufly thought that incorporating
it with the fand in the holes where their yoimg trees
were planted, would infure fuccefs; nor were they dif-
appointed. The method fucceeded beyond expedtation ;
the plantations throve exceedingly, and the roots foon
reached below the fand, after which they were out of
danger. This excited them to further attempts.
“ On the fpots where they intended to raife new plan¬
tations from feeds and acorns, they laid on a thick coat
of marie and clay, which after being rough fpread, and
lying a winter in that ftate, was made fine, and plough-
ed*fn juft before planting. By thefe means the foil be¬
came fixed, and in a little time covered with grafs and
herbag« ; fo that there are now vail plantations of firs, -
oak, and foreft-trees, in the moil healthy and vigorous
ftate, where within my memory ten acres of land would
not maintain a lingle iheep three months.
“ But the benefit of plantations, whether of ihrubs*
copfe, or trees, is not confined to the immediate advan- *
tage, or even the future value of the wood. By annual^
ly fliedding a great number of leaves, which the v/inds
difperfe, and the rains wafb into the foil, it is confider-
ably improved ; and whenever fuch copfes have been
ftubbed up, the ground (however unfruitful before plant¬
ing) has thereby been fo enriched as to bear excellent
crops for many years, without the additional help of
manure. How much land-owners are interefted in plant¬
ing wafte or barren fpots I need not mention ; and no*
iPhntlng
II
Plalhing.
P L A T 5
tliioff but a degree of indolence or ignorance unpardon¬
able in this enlightened age could induce them to negledt
<t ]sjature has furniflied irs with plants, trees, and lhrul\ ,
adapted to almolt every foil and fituation ; and as the
laws of vegetation are now much better underftood than
formerly, it is a reproach to>thofe whofe pra&ice does
not keep pace with their knpwlcdge in making the bell
ufe of her bounty. Let no man repine and fay the land
is barren ; for tbofe fpots which appear to be fo, owe
that appearance to human negligence. Induftry and
nrt might foon render an eighth part of this kingdom
nearly as valuable *s the reft, which now remains in a
Hate unprofitable to the owners, and difgraceful t.i
community.” _
Rrverfe Planting, a method of planting m which
the natural polition of the plant or Ihoot is inverted ;
the branches being fet into the earth, and the root
reared into the air. Dr Agricola mentions this mon-
llrous method of planting, which he founc. to fuccecd
very well in moft or all forts of fruit-trees, timber-trees,
&c! Bradley affirms, that he has feen a lime-tree in
Holland growing with its firft roots in the air, which
had (hot out branches in great plenty, at the fame time
tlmt its firft branches produced roots and fed the tree.
Mr Fairchild of Hoxton has pra&ifed the fame with
us, and gives the following directions for performing it:
Make choice of a young tree of one ihoot, of alder, elm,
willow, or any other tree that ealily takes root by lay¬
ing ; bend the flioot gently down into the earth, and fo
let it remain until it has taken root. Then dig about
the firft; root, and raife it gently out of the ground, till
the item be nearly upright, and ftake it up. Then prune
the roots, now eredted in the air, from the bruifes and
wounds they received in being dug up ; and anoint the
pruned parts with a compofition of two ounces ot tur¬
pentine, four ounces of tallow, and four ounces of bees
wax, melted together, and applied pretty warm. After¬
wards prune off all the buds or (hoots that are upon the
item, and drefs the wounds with the fame compofition,
4.0 prevent any collateral (bootings, that might fpoil the
beauty of the (lem.
PLANUDES (Maximus), a Greek monk of Con-
ftantinople, towards the end of the 14th century, who
publifhed a collection of epigrams intitled Anthologia ;
a Greek tranfiation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes; a Life
of ATop, which is rather a romance than a hiftory ; and
feme other works. We know nothing more of him,
than that he fuffered fome perfecution on account ofliis
attachment to the Latin church.
PLASHING o/'Hedgf.s, is an operation thought
by fome perfons to promote the growth and conti¬
nuance of old hedges; but whether the faft be fo or
not will admit of ibme difpute. See Hedges, n° 29,
37, &c.
It is performed in this manner: The old ftnbs muft
be cutoff, &c. within two or three inches of the ground;
and .lie bell and longell oi the middle-fixed (hoots mult
be left to lay down. Some of the llrongeft of thefe
muft allb he left to anfwerthe purpofe of (lakes. Thefe
are to be cut off to the height at which the hedge is
intended to be left; and they are to (land at ten feet
diitance one from another : when there are not proper
(hoots for thefe at the due diftances, their places muft
be fupplied with common itakes of dead wood. The
hedge is to be firft thinned, by cutting away all but ?
thofe (hoots which are intended to be ufed either as
(lakes, or the other work of the plaftiing: the ditch is _
to be cleaned out with the fpade ; and it muft be now
dug as at firft, with (loping (ides each way ; and when
there is any cavity on the bank on which the hedge
grows, or the earth has been wafued away from the
roots of the (hrubs, it is to be made good by facing it,
as they exprels it, with the mould dug from the upper
part of the ditch : all the reft of the earth dug out of
the ditch is to be laid upon the top of the bank : and
the owner (hould look carefully into it that this be done;
for the workmen, to fpare themfelves-trouble, are apt to
throw as much as hey can upon the face of the bank ;
which being by this means overloaded, is foon walhed
off into the ditch again, and a very great part of the
work undone; whereas what is laid on the top of the
bank always remains there, and makes a good fence of
an indifferent hedge.
In the plafhing the quick, two extremes are to be
avoided ; -thefe are, the laying it too low, and the lay¬
ing it too thick. The latter makes the lap run all into
the (hoots, and leaves the pl.iffies without lufficient nou-
rifhment ; which, with the thicknefs of the hedge, final¬
ly kills them. The other extreme of laying them too
high, is equally to be avoided ; for this carries up all
the nourifhment into the plaflies, and lo makes the (hoots
fmall and weak at the bottom, and confequcntly the
hedge thin. Tliis is a common error in the north of
England. The bed hedges made anywhere in England
are thofe in Hertfordftiire ; for they are phfhed in a
middle way between the two extremes, and the Cattle
are by that prevented both from cropping the young
(hoots, and from going through ; and a new and vigo¬
rous hedge foon forms itfeh.
When the (hoot is bent down that is intended to he
plafhed, it muft be cut half way through with the bill :
the cut muft be given (loping, fomewhat downwards,
and then it is to be wound about the (lakes, and after
this its fuperfluous branches are to he cut off as they
(land out at the fides of the hedge. If for the firft year or
two, the field where a new hedge is made can be plough¬
ed, it will thrive the better for it; but if the (tubs are
very old, it is bed to cut them quite down, and to ie-
cure them with good dead hedges on both (ides, till the
(hoots are grown up from them (Irong enough to plafh;
and wherever void fpaces are feen, new fets are to be
planted to fill them up. A new hedge railed from fets
in the common way, generally requires plaftiing in about
eight or nine years after.
PLASSEY, is a grove near the city of Muxadab in
India, famous for a battle fought between the Engiifh
under Lord Clive and the native Hindoos under the
Nabob Surajah Dowlah. The Britiih army -c&nfifted
of about •; 2 00 men, of whom the Europeans did not
exceed yoo; while that of the Nabob confided of ; 0,000
foot, and 1 S,ooo horfe. Notwithllanding this great
diiproportion, however, Lord Clive effectually routed
the Nabob and his forces, with the lofs of 3 European*
and 26 Seapoys killed, and Europeans and 40 Sea-
pop wounded. The Nabob’s lofs was eftimated at
about 200 men, beiides oxen and elephants. See
Clive. _
PLASTER, or Emplaster, in pharmacy, an ex¬
ternal application of a harder confidence than an oint-
„ ment:
| Rafter.
P L A [ 2c ] P L A
ment; to be fpread, according to tbe different c’rcum-
ftances of the wound, place, or patient, either upon li¬
nen or leather. See Pharmacy, n° 613—635.
Plaster, or Plnifler, in building, a compofition of
lime, fometimes with fand, &c. to parget, or cover the
nudities of a building. See Pargeting and Stuc¬
co.
Pljstfr of Paris, a preparation of feveral fpecies of
gypfum dug near Mount Maitre, a village in the neigh¬
bourhood of Pam ; whence the name. See Alabas¬
ter, Gypsum, and Chemistry, n° 635, See.
The bell fort is hard, white, fhining, and marbly ;
known by the name of pi after-ftone or target of Mount
Ma'itre. It will neither give fire with ftee!, nor ferment
with aquafortis ; but very freely and readily calcines in
the fire into a fine plailer, the ufe of which in building
and calling ftatues is well known.
The method of reprtfenting a face truly in plader of
Paris is this: The perfon whofe figure is deigned is
laid on his. back, with any convenient thing to keep oft'
the hair. Into each noftril is conveyed a conical piece
of ftiff paper, ppen at both ends, to allow of refpiration.
Thefe tubes being anointed with oil, are fupportedby
the hand of an aififlant; then the face is lightly oiled
over, and the eyes being kept Unit, ahbafier frelh cal¬
cined, and tempered to a thinnifh conlillence with wa¬
ter, is by fpoonfuls nimbly thrown all over the face, till
it lies near the thicknefs of an inch. This matter grows
fenfibly hot, and in about a quarter of an hour hardens
into a kind of ftony concretion ; which being gent¬
ly taken off, reprefents, on its concave furface, the mi-
nuteft part of the original face. In this a head of
good clay may be moulded, and therein the eyes are to
be opened, and other neceffary amendments made. This
fecond face being anointed with oil, a fecond mould of
calcined alaballer is made, confifting of two parts joined
lengthwife along the ridge of the nofe ; and herein may
be call, with the fame matter, a face extremely like the
original.
If finely powdered alaballer, or plafter of Paris, be
put into abafon over a fire, it will, when hot, affume
the appearance of a fluid, by rolling in waves, yielding
to the touch, fteaming, 3tc. all which properties it again
lofes on the departure of the heat; and being thrown
upon paper, will not at all wet it, hut immediately dii-
cover itfelf to be as motionlefe as before it was let over
the fire ; whereby it appears, that a heap of fuch little
bodies, as are neither fpherical nor otherwife regularly
ftiaped, nor fmall enough to be below the difeernment
of the eye, may, without fufion, be made fluid, barely
by a fufficiently ftrong and various agitation of the par¬
ticles which compofe it; and moreover lofe its fluidity
immediately upon the ceffation thereof.
Two or three fpoonfuls of burnt alabafter, mixed up
thin with water, in a fliort time coagulate, at the bot¬
tom of a veffel full of water, into a hard lump, notwith-
flanding the water that furrounded it. Artificers ob-
ferve, that the. coagulatuig property of burnt alabafter
wall be very much impaired or loft, if the powder be
kept too long, efpecially if in the open air, before it is
made ufe of; and when it hath been once tempered
with water, and fuffered to grow hard, they cannot, by
any burning or powdering of it again, make it fervice-
able for their purpofe as before.
Vol. XV. Part I.
This matter, when wrought into veffcls, &c. is frill Rafter,
of fo loofe and fpongy a texture, that the air has eafy —~w~—
paffage through it. Mr Boyle gives an account, afnong
his experiments with the air-pump, of his preparing a
tube of this plafter, clofed at one end and open at the
other ; and on applying the open end to the cement, as
is ufually done with the receivers, it was found utterly
impoffible to exhauft all the air out of it; for frefh air
from without preffed in as faff as the other, or internal
air, was exhauiled, though the fidesof the tube were of
a confi«krable thicknefs. A tube of iron was then put
on the engine ; fo that being filled with water, the tube
of plafter of Paris was covered with it; and on ufing
the pump, it was immediately feen, that the water paffed
through into it as ealily as the air had done, when that
was the ambient fluid. After this, trying it with Ve-
nice turpentine inftead of water, the thing fucceeded
very well; and the tube might be perfe&ly exhaufted,
and would remain in that ftate feveral hours. After
this, on pouring iome hot oil upon the turpentine, the
cafe was much altered ; for the turpentine melting with
this, that became a thinner fluid, and in this ftate ca¬
pable ot palling like water into the pores of the plafter.
On taking away the tube after this, it was remarkable
that the turpentine, which had pervaded and filled its
pores, rendered it tranfparent, in the manner that wa¬
ter gives tranfparency to that lingular Hone called oculus
munJ’t. In this manner, the weight of air, under pro¬
per management, will be capable of making feveral forts
of glues penetrate plafter of Paris; and not only this,
but baked earth, wood, and all other bodies, porous
enough to admit water on this occafion.
Plafter of Paris is ufed as a manure in Pennfylvania, as
we find mentioned in a letter from a gentleman in that
country inferted in the 5th volume of the Bath SocietyPa-
pers, and which we lhall infert here for the fatisfadion
and information of our agricultural readers. “ The bell
kind is imported from hills in the vicinity of Paris : it is
brought down the Seine, and exported from Havre de
Grace. I am informed there are large beds of it in the
Bay of Fundy, fome of which I have feen nearly as good
as that from I ranee; neverthelefs fcveral cargoes brought
from thence to Philadelphia have been ufed without effed.
It is probable this was taken from the top of the ground,
and by the infl uence of the fun and atmofphere difpoffeffed
of the qualities neceffary for the purpoles of vegetation.
The lumps compofed of flat fhining fpecula are preferred
to thofe which are formed of round particles like fand: the
fimple method of finding out the quality is to pulverize
fome, and put it dry into an iron pot over the fire, when
that which is good will foon boil, and great quantities
of the fixed air efcape by ebullition. It is pulverized
by firft putting it in a ftamping-mill. The finer its pul¬
verization the better, as it will thereby be more gene¬
rally diffufed.
“ It is bell to fow it in a wet day. The moll ap¬
proved quantity for grafs is fix bufhels per acre. No
art is required in fowing it more than making the dif-
tribution as' equal as poffible on the fward of grafs. It
operates altogether as a top manure, and therefore (houTd
not be put on m thefpring until the principal frofts are
over and vegetation hath begun. The general time for
fowing with us is in April, May, June, July, Auguft,
and even as late as September. Its efietls will gene-
H • rally
' • P L A t 26
Flatter rally appear in 10 or 15 days; after which the growth
II . of the grafs will be fo great as to produce a large bur-
pla0ic‘ den at the end of fix weeks after fowing. _
^ » « It muft be fown on dry land, not fubjeil to be
overflown. I have fown it on fand, loam, and clay, and
it is difficult to fay on which it has beft anfwered, al¬
though the efteft is fooner vifible on fand. It has been
ufed as a manure in this ftate for upwards of twelve years.
Its duration may, from the bell information I can col-
left, be eftimated from feven to twelve years ; for, like
other manure, its continuance very much depends on
the nature of the foil on which it is placed. .
“ One.of my neighbours fowed fome of his grais
ground fix years ago, another four years ago ; a great
part of my own farm was fown in May 1788. We
regularly mow two crops, and pafture in autumn; no
appearance of failure, the prefent crop being full as
good as any preceding. I have this feafon mowed fifty
acres of red clover, timothy grafs, white clover, &c.
•which was plaftered lafl May, July, and September:
many who faw the grafs eftimated the produce at two
tons per acre, but I calculate the two crops at three
tons. Several ftripes were left in the different fields with¬
out plafter; thefe were in a meafure unproduftive, be¬
ing fcarce worth mowing. In April 1788, I covered
a piece of grafs land upwards of two inches thick with
barn manure ; in the fame worn-out field I fowed pla¬
fter, to costraft it with the dung. I mowed the dung¬
ed and plaftered land twice lalt year and once this; in
every crop the plafter lias produced the moft. You
will remember, in all experiments with clover, to mix
about one-third timothy grafs feed; it is of great ad¬
vantage in ferving as a fupport for the clover; it very
mucji facilitates the curing of clover, and when cured is
a fuperior fodder. The plafter operates equally as well
on the other graffes as on clover. Its effeft is laid to
be good on wheat, if fown in the fpring; but I cannot
fay this from experience. On Indian corn I know its
operation to be great; we ufe it at the rate of a table-
fpoonful for a hill, put in immediately after dreffing.
“ From fome accurate experiments -all year made
and reported to our Agricultural Society, it appears
that nine bufhels of additional corn per acre were pro¬
duced by this method of ufing plafter.”
PLASTERING. See Pargetting.
PLASTIC, denotes a thing endowed with a for¬
mative power, or a faculty of forming or fafliioning a
mafs of matter after the likenefs of a living being.
Plastic-Nature, a certain power by which, as an
inftrument, many philofophers, both ancient and modern,
have fuppofed the great motions in the corporeal world,
and the various procefles of generation and corruption,
to be perpetually carried on.
Among the philofophers of Greece, fuch a power
was almoft univerfally admitted. It feems, indeed, to
have been rejefted only by the followers of Democritus
and Epicurus, who talk as if they had thought gravity
dfential to matter, and the fortuitous motion of atoms,
which they held to have been from eternity, the fource
not only of all the rtgular motions in the univerfe, but
alfo of the organization of all corporeal fyItems, and
even of fenfation aud inttlfeflion, in brutes and in men.
It is needlefs to fay, that thofe men, whatever they
might profefs, were in reality atheifts ; and Democritus,
it. is univerfally known, avowed his atheifim.
Plaftic.
3 p L A J
The greater part of the philofophers who held the ^
exiftence of a plaftic nature, confidered it not as an ~
a?ent in the ftrift fenfe of the word, but merely as an ih-
ftrument in the hand of the Deity ; though even among
them there were fome who held no fuperior power, and
were of courfe as grofs atheifts as Democritus himfelf
Such was Strata of Lampfacus. This man was origi¬
nally of the peripatetic fchool, over which he prelidcd
many years, with no fmall degree of reputation for
learning and eloquence. He was the firft and chief af-
fertor of what has been termed Hylozoic atheifm ; a fyf-
tem which admits of no power fuperior to a certein na¬
tural or plajlic life, ejfential, ingtnerable, and incorruptibl,
inherent in matter, but without fenfe and confcioufnefs.
That fuch was his doftrine we learn from Cicero, who
makes Pelleivs the Epicurean fay, ii Nec audiendus
Strata qui Phyficus appellatur, qui omnem vim divinam
inNaturalitam efle cenfet, quie caufas gignendi, augen-
di, minuendive habeat, fed careat omni fenfu J.” That Natm
Strato, in admitting this plaftic principle, differed wide-. '
ly from Democritus, is apparent from the following ac-
count of him by the fame author : “ Strato Lampfacenus
neo-at opera deorum fe uti ad fabricandum mundum,
qmecunque fint docet omnia effe effefta natura, nec ut
ilia, qui afperis, et levibus, et hamatis uncinatifque cor-
poribus concreta haec effe dicat, interjefto inani ; fomnia d
cenfet haec effe Democriti, non docebtis fed optantis J
That the rough and fmooth, and hooked and crook- ^-. 38.
ed, atoms of Democritus, were indeed dreams and do¬
tages, is a poiition which no man will controvert ; but
furely Strato was himfelf as great a dreamer when he
made fenfation and intelligence refult from a certain pla¬
ftic or fpermatic life in matter, which is itfelf devoid of
fenfe and confcioufnefs. It is, indeed, inconceivable, to
ufe the emphatic language of Cudworth, “ how any
one in his fenfes ffiould admit fuch a monftrous paradox
as this, that every atom of duff has in itfelf as much
wifdom as the greateft politician and moft profound phi-
lofopher, and yet is neither confcious nor intelligent!” It
is to be obferved of Strato likewife, that though he at¬
tributed a certain kind of life to matter, he by no means
allowed of one common life as ruling over the whole ma¬
terial univerfe. He fuppofed the feveral parts of matter
to have fo many feveral plaftic lives of their own, and
feems % to have attributed fomething to chance in the 1
production and prefervation of the mundane fyftem.
In denying the exiftence of a God, perpetually di-]ii,.i. Cap.j>
refting his plaftic principle, and in fuppofing as many
of thefe principles as there are atoms of matter, Strato
deviated far from the doftrine of Ariftotle. The great
founder of the peripatetic fchool, as well as his apoftate
difciple, taught that mundane things are not effefted by
fortuitous mechanifm, but by fuch a nature as afts regu¬
larly and artificially for ends ; yet he never confiders this
nature as the liigheft principle, or fupreme Numen, but
as fubordinate to a perfeft mind or intelleft ; and he
exprefsly affirms, that “ wind, together with nature,
formed or fafhioned this univerfe.” He evidently con-
fiders mind as the principal and intelligent agent, and
nature as the fubfervient and executive inftrument. In¬
deed, we are ftrongly inclined to adopt the opinion of
the learned Mofheim, who thinks that by nature Ari-.
ftotle meant nothing more than that or ^
animal heat, to which he attributes immortality, and g.
which he exprefsly fays J that all things are full. Be nimai. lib.
3. this tin cap-if*
PLA [27] PLA
l/laftic. this as it may, he always joins God and nature toge-
V ^  ther, and affinns that they do nothing in vain. The
fame doftrine was taught before him by Plato, who af¬
firms that “ nature, together with reafon, and accord¬
ing to it, orders all things.” It mult not, however, be
concealed, that Plato feems to have attributed intelli¬
gence to the principle by which he fuppofed the world
I to be animated; for Chalcidius, commenting on the
■iscS'-ja* Timseus j], thus expreffes himfelf: “ Hasc eft ilia ratio-
nabilis anima mundi, quae gemina juxta meliorem natu-
ram veneratione tutelam praebet inferioribus, divinis dif-
pofitionibus obfequens, providentiam nativis impertiens,
aeternorum fimilitudine propter cognationem beata.” —
ii)# Dog- Apuleius, too, tells us||,“ 111am coeleftem animam, fon-
«l « Plato- tem animartim omnium, optimam virtutem efie genetri-
ccm, fubferviri etiam Fabricatori Deo, et praelto efle ad
omnia inventa ejus.” Plato pronunciat.
This dodtrine of Plato has been adopted by many
moderns of great eminence both for genius and for
learning. The celebrated Berkeley bilhop of Cloyne,
after giving the view of Plato’s anima mundiy which the
reader will find in our article Motion, n° ic, thus re-
*\'irh n° conimends the ftudy of his philofophy * : “ If that phi-
? lofopher himfelf was not readonly, but ftudied alfo with
care, and made his own interpreter, I believe the pre¬
judice that now lies againft him would foon wear off,
or be even converted into high effeem, for thofe exalt¬
ed notions, and fine hints, that fparkle and fliine
throughout his writings ; which feem to contain not on¬
ly the moll valuable learning of Athens and Greece, but
alfo a treafure of the moil remote traditions and early
fcience of the eaft.” Cudworth, and the learned author
of Anctent Metat>hyjicsy are likewife ftrenuous advocates
for the Ariftotelian doctrine of a plallic nature diffufed
through the material wrorld; (fee Metaphysics,
.np 200, 201, 202.) : and a notion veiy fimilar has late¬
ly occurred to a writer who does not appear to have bor¬
rowed it either from the Lyceum or the Academy.
This writer is Mr Young, of wdiofe aS'tve fubjlance, and
its agency in moving bodies, fome account has been
given elfewhere, (fee Motion). As a mere unconfci-
ous agent, immaterial, and, as he expreffes himfelf, im-
mental, it bears a ftriking refemblance to the plajlic na¬
ture or vegetable life of Cudworth : but the author holds
It to be not only the principle of motion, but alfo the
bafis or fubjb atum of matter itfelf; in the produftion of
which, bycertain motions, it maybe faidto be moreflridtly
plajlic than the hy/anhical principle, or visgenitrix, of any
other philofcpher with whofe writings we have any ac¬
quaintance. Though this opinion be firigular, yet as its
author is evidently a man who thinks for himfelf, unawed
by the authority of celebrated names, and as one great
part of the utility of filch works as ours confifts in their
ferving as indexes t^Tciehce and literature, we (hall lay
before our readers a fliort abftracl of the reafonings by
I which Mr Young endeavours to fupport his hypothefis,
and we (hall take the liberty of remarking upon thofe
reafon ings as we proceed.
- ftp v The author, alter a (hort introduftion, enters upon his
\t\'.hepo-w- W0!‘k £, in a chapter intitled, Anaiyfu '-of 'Matter in ve¬
il ani me- neral. In that chapter there Is little novelty. He treats,
’■ \ njm of as others have done, of primary and fecondary qualities,
re' and adheres too clofely to the language of IAocke, when
he fays, that “ the nature of bodies fignifies the aggre- PlaftJe.
gate of all thofe ideof with which they' furnilh us, and —v'“““
by which they are made known.” To fay the beft of it,
this fentence is inaccurately expreffed. An aggregate
of ideas may be occafioned by the impulfe of bodiea on
the organs of fcnfe, but the effedl of impulfe cannot be
that which impels. We fliould not have made this re¬
mark, which may perhaps be deemed captious, were w'e
not perfuaded that the vague and inaccurate uie cf terms
is the fource of thofe miftakes into which, we cannot
help thinking, that the very ingenious author has fome-
times fallen. Having jultly obferved, that wre know no¬
thing diredtly of bodies but their qualities, he proceeds
to inveltigate the nature of folidity\
“ Solidity (he fays) is the quality of body which prin- ,
cipally requires our notice. It is that which fills exten-
fion, and which refifts other folids, occupying the place
which it occupies; thus making extenfion and figure real,
and different from mere fpace and vacuity. If the fe¬
condary qualities of bodies, or their powers, varioufiy to
affeft our fenfes, depend on their primary qualities, it is
chiefly on this of folidity; which is therefore the molt
important of the primary qualities, and that in which the
effence of body is by fome conceived to confift. This
idea of folidity has been judged to be incapable of any
analyfis ; but it appears evident to me (continues our
author), that the idea of folidity may be refolved into
another idea, w hich is that of the powrer of refilling
within the extenfion of body. Hence it becomes unne-
ceffary, and even inadmiffble, to fuppofe that folidity in
the body is at all a pattern or archetype of our fenfation*”
That folidity in the body, and we know nothing of fo¬
lidity any where elfe, is no pattern of any fenfation of
ours, is indeed moll true, as wre have fliown at large in
another place, (fee Metaphysics, 0^44 and 171):
but to reconcile this with what our author afferts imme¬
diately afterwards, that “ folidity is no more in bodies
than colours and flavours are, and that it is equally with
them a Jenfation and an idea,” w’ould be a talk to w hich
our ingenuity is by no means equal. He affirms, indeed,
that folidity', as it is faid to be in bodies, is utterly in-
comprehenlible ; that wre can perfe6lly comprehend it as
a fenfation in ourfdves, but that in bodies nothing more
is required than a power of adlive refiftance to make up¬
on our fenfes thofe impreffions from which we infer the
reality of primary and fecondary qualities. This power of
refillance, whether it ought to be called adtive or paffive,
wre apprehend to be that which all other philofophers
have meant by the word folidity ; and though Locke,
who ufes the words idea and notion indifcriminatcly, often
talks of the idea of folidity, we believe our author to be
the firil of human beings who has thought of treating
folidity as a fenfation in the mind.
Though it is wrong to innovate in language, when
writing on lubjedls which require much attention, we
mull, however, acknowledge it to be unworthy of in¬
quirers after truth to difpute about the proper or impro¬
per uie of terms, fo long as the meaning of him who
employs them can be eafily difeovered. We (hall, there¬
fore,'follow our author in his endeavoursto afeertrin what
this power of refillance is which is commonly known by
the name of folidity. All power he jultly holds to be ac¬
tive ; and having, by an argument (a) of which we do
D £ ‘ . not
(a) We can only conceive of folidity as being a refiltance of the/ar/j of any body, to a power which endea¬
vours
P ' L A . £ 28
PUMc. not perceive the force, attempted to prove that it is by
" ■ / "■ an inward power, and not by its inertia, tnat one body
prevents another from occupying the fame p*ace with it-
klf, he naturally enough infers matter to be dTentially
a&ive. But the a&ivity of matter is to be confidered
in a certain limited fenfe, and its inertneis is to be regard¬
ed in another limited fenfe ; fo that thefe are compatible
within their refpeftive limits. I lie aftivity of body may
be confidered as belonging to the parts of a compound;
its inertia as the inertia termed of thofe parts. Bhc ac¬
tions of the parts are everywhere sppofed to each other,
and equal ; and hence reiults the ina&ivity of the
whole.”
Solidity alone of the primary qualities being po-
fitive, and peculiar to bodies, and our author having re-
folved this into action or power, it follows, by his
analylis, that the essence of body is reduced to powei
likewife. But, as he properly cbferves, power is an
idea of reflection, not acquired by the fenfes, but fug-
gelled by thought. Hence our knowledge of real ex-
iHence in body mult be fuch as is fuggeltcd to us by our
thoughts exercifed about our fenlations. “ We are
capable of adding and producing changes in appearances ;
and this faculty, which we experience to exilt in our-
felves, we call power. We are confcious of the exer¬
tion of our own power; and therefore, when we fee
action or change happen without any exertion of
ours, we refer this to other powers without us, and ne-
ceflarily conclude the power to exilt where the change
begins or the adtion is exerted. This power, then,
referred to bodies, mull exilt in them, or it can exiil no
where.”
In two chapters, which might eafily have been com-
prefled into one not fo long as the fhorteil of them, our
author analyzes atoms or the primary particles of matter,
and ftrenuoufly oppofes their impenetrability. He allows
that there are atoms of matter not diviflble by any known
force ; but as thefe, however fmall, mull Hill be concei¬
ved as having extenfxon, each of them mull be compo-
fed of parts held together by the fame power which
binds together many atoms in the fame body. JLhia
power, indeed, he acknowledges to operate much more
forcibly when it cements the parts of a primary atom than
when it makes many atoms cohere in one mafs ; but Hill
it operates ia the fame manner : and as the ideal analyfia
1
V L A
may be carried on ad infinitum, the only pofitive idea
which is fuggeHed by atoms, or the parts of atoms, is "
the idea of a refiHing power. That this power of re-
liHance, which conllitutes what is vulgarly called the
folidity of bodies, may not be abfolutely impenetrable,
he attempts to prove, by Ihowing that refiilance does
in fadl take place in cafes where impenetrability, and
even folidity, are not fuppofed by any man.
“ Let us endeavour (fays he) to bring together two
like poles of a magnet, and we fliall experience a refiHance
to their approximation. Why, then, may not a piece of
iron, which between our fingers refiHs their coming to¬
gether, refiH by an efficacy perfectly fimilar, though
more Hrongly exerted ? II magnetifm were to aft upon
our bodies as upon iron, we Ihould feel it; or were mag¬
nets endowed with fenfation, they would feel that which
refills their nearer approach. The refilling extenfion
between the two magnets is permeable to all the rays of
light, and reflefting none is therefore unfeen ; but it L
eafy to conceive that the fame power which refills the
approach of the iron might refill and refleft forae rays
of light. We fliould then have a vifible objeft interpo-
fed between the two magnets, as we have before fuppo¬
fed it might be a tangible one. It is hkewife ealy to
conceive that winch is tangible and vifible fo applied to
our organs of tafimg, of fmelUng, and of hearing, as
to excite ideas of flavours, odours, and founds. T hus
we fee that an aftion, in which no fuppofition of foli¬
dity or impenetrability is involved, may be conceived to*
a frame all the qualities of matter, by only fup poling a fa¬
miliar effeft extended in its operation.”
This realoning is exceedingly ingenious, though per¬
haps not original ; but what is of more importance,
it does not approach fo near to ckmonftration as the au¬
thor feems to imagine. If magnets operate by means^
of a fluid iffuing from them (fee Magnetism, chap,
3.), thofe who hold the folidity or impenetrability of
matter will maintain, that each atom of the magnetic
fluid is folid and impenetrable. That we do not fee nor
feel thefe atoms, will be conlidered as no argument that
they do not exifl; for we do not fee, nor in a clofe room
fed, the atoms of the furrounding atmofphere ; which
yet Mr Young will acknowledge to have a real exiflence,
and to be capable of operating upon our fenfes of hear-
Let ns, however, fuppofe, that by this
reafoniny
PhftU.
ing andfinelling.
■vours to fepnrate them, or to bring them nearer together. Now that which refills any power, and prevents its
effeft,. is alfo a power. By refiHance, I mean here an aftive refiHance, fuch as an anknal can employ againH an
animal. If a horfe pulls againH a load, he draws it along ; but if he draws againll another horfe, he is put to a
Hand, and his endeavour is defeated. When any endeavour to change the fituation of the parts of any folid is in
like manner prevented from taking effeft, and the parts retain their fituation, the fituation has plainly been prefer-
ved by an aftive refiHance or power, equivalent to that which was fruitlefsly exerted on them.”
Such is our author’s reafoning to prove that matter is effentially aftive, and that from this aftivity refults our no*
lion of its folidity : but does he not here confound folidity with hardnefs, and impenetrability with ccheiion ? He
certainly does ; for water is as fthd, in the_ proper i'enfe of the word, as adamant, and the particles of air as the
particles of iron. The parts of water are, indeed, feparated with eafe, and thofe of adamant with difficulty ; but
it is not becaufe the latter have more folidity than the former, but becaufe the power of cohefion, whatever it may
be, operates upon them with greater force. Solidity is an attribute of a whole ; hardnefs and ioftneis refults
from the cohefion oi parts. We do not at all perceive the propriety of the iimile of the horfe polling a load, and
afterwards pulling againH another horfe. Is it becaufe both horfes ar e udive that one of them cannot prevail againil
the other, and becaufe the load is inaftive that either of them may drag along a mafs of iron ot naif a tun weight ?
If fo, double or triple the mafs, and a very Hrange phenomenon will be the refult; for we fhall have an aftive
-whole compounded of two or three inaftive parts, even though thofe parts fliould not be in centfeft !
FUftic.
TLA r
reafoning he has eflablifhed the noh-exiftcnce of every
thing in the primary atoms of matter but aftive powers
of refiftance, and let us fee how he conceives the a&ions
of thefe powers to conflitute what gives us the notion of
inert and folid body j for that we have fuch a notion
cannot be denied.
To act he allows to be an attribute, and juftly ob-
ferves, that we cannot conceive an attribute to exift with¬
out a fubftance. “ But (fays he) we have traced all
phenomena to a&ion as to a generic idea, comprehend¬
ing under it all forms of matter and motion as fpecies of
that genus. By this analyfis, that complex idea we
have ufually denominated matter, and confidered as the
fubtlance or fubftratum to which motion appertained as
an attribute, is found to change its charafter, and to be
itfelf an attribute of a fubftance effentially active, of
which one modification of motion produces matter and
another generates motion.” The adtion of this fubftance
Mr Young determines to be motion (fee Motion,
iri 16.) ; and he proceeds to inquire by what kind of
motion it produces matter, or inert and refilling:
atoms.
“ Whatever portion of the active substance is
given to form an atom, the following things are necef-
lary to be united in fuch portion of adtive fubftance :
I//, It muft in fome leipect continually move ; for
otherwife it would lofe its nature, and ceafe to be ac¬
tive. ld/y. It muft alfo in fome other refpedl be at reft,
for otherwife it could not form an inadtive atom. 3<//)■,
It muft preferve unity within itfelfi” The author’s
proof of the firll of thefe pofitions we have given elfe-
where. The fecond he holds to be felf-evident ; and the
third he thinks eftabhftied by the following reafoning :
Solidity is the refult of thofe adtions among the parts
of any whole, whereby the unity of the whole is prefervcd
within kfelf. Several uncohering things may be united by
an external bond : this does not conftitute thefe one fo¬
lid ; it may be one bundle : but if feveral things cohere,
and have a unity preferved within themfelves, they be¬
come one folid. An atom is the lealt and moil fimple fo¬
lid.”
Having thus proved the necefiky of thefe three re-
quifites to the formation of an atom, he obferves, that
** the two firft can only be united in a rotation of the
portion of adlive lubftance about a centre or nxis at reft.
By fuch a motion,/?// the part- fuccefiively occupy different
places in the orbit of rotation, and therefore move ; the
centre round which they revolve being at reft, the luhole
portion is aifo at reft ; and thus the portion is at once
moving and quiefctnt, as is required. The fame kind
of motion will alfo fulfil the terms of the third requifite;
for a lubftance having a revolving motion around its own
centre, preferves its unity by reafon of all the parts pre-
ferving the fame relation to the centre: and further, a
motion of the adlive fubftance about a centre or axis will
be an adlivity in the fame orbit, which will adl upon and
refill whatever lhall interfere to oppofe its adlivity, or
deftroy the unity of the fphere, by diverting the couife
of the revolving motions. The adlivity or motion of a
portion of active substance about a centre will,
therefore, give fiilidity to fuch portion ; for it will give
it unity and refiftance, and in a manner tie together all
the parts, forming them into one mafs about their com¬
mon centre : lor they move or are adlive not towards the
centre, in which cafe they would be loll in non-exten-
29 1 P L A
fion ; nor from the centre, where they would diffipate in
boundlefs fpace ; but about the centre, preferving the
fame limits of extenfion : and being in this way adlive,
they in this way refill any other adlivity oppofed to
them, that is, they refill any adlion which tends to pene¬
trate or divide this fphere of revolving adlivity. There¬
fore, fince any portion of adlive fubftance does, by revol¬
ving about a centre, become an united, refilling, and
quiefeent whole, the fmallell portions of the active
substance which have fuch motions will become aiomst
or make the fmalleft portions of matter.”
Having thus fiiown to his own fatisfadlion how atoms
of matter are formed, he next explains what at firlt he
confelfes may have appeared a paradox,“how the active
substance, retaining its own nature and elfential pro¬
perties, continuing immaterial, unfolid, and adlive, puts
on at the fame time the form of matter, and becomes
material, folid, and inert. A fphere of revolving adlive
fubilance, as it revolves continually about a centre, and
as parts of the fubllance, are confidered as fuccefiively
palfing through every point in the orbit; confidered
thus in its parts, and in its motions, it is active sub¬
stance, immaterial, and unfolid ; but the whole fphtre,
confidered unitically, colledlively, and as quiefeent, is
in tliis point of view a folid atom, material, and in¬
ert.”
Such is the adlive fubllance of Mr Young, and fuch.
his theory of the formation of matter. That he lias
not with fervility copied from the ancients, every reader
of his book, who is not an abfolute llranger to Greek
and Roman literature, will readily acknowledge ; and yet
if his theory be well founded, he lias difeovered a mid¬
dle fubllance between mind and matter, more properly
plajtu than Ariilotle or Plato, Cudworth or Berkeley,
ever conceived. But truth compels us to add, that to
us his theory appears to labour under iufuperable objec¬
tions. That there may be in the univerfe a fulillance ef¬
fentially adtive, and at the fame time not intelligent, is
a propofition which vve are by no means inclined to con¬
trovert. Various phenomena, both in vegetable and
animal life, lead us to fufpedt that there is fuch a fub¬
llance ; but it does not follow that, we are inclined to
adopt our author’s dodlrine refpedling the formation of
matter. Pie conceives his proof, indeed, to be “ in its
nature not at all imperfedl, or to fail ihort of demon-
llration j and if any one refufe it, he thinks-it will be
neceflary for him to lhaw, either that the explanation
offered is not fuificient, or that fome other explanation
will ferve equally well.”
To Ihow that the explanation offered is not fufficient,
will not, we apprehend, be a very arduous talk ; but vve
have no inclination to attempt ourfelves another expla¬
nation, becaufe we believe that of the formation of mat¬
ter no other account can be given than that which re--
folves it into the fat of the Creator. That it cannot be
formed by the motion of an immaterial fubllance in the
manner which our author has very clearly deferibed,
feems to be a truth fo evident as not to admit of proof;
for if motion be, as he defines it, a change of place,
every thing that is moved mull have the quality of ex¬
tenfion. But all the parts of this adtive fubllance which
are given to form an atom, move round a centre, and are
expreisly faid to occupy fuccefiively different places in
the orbit of rotation. Every one of thefe parts, there¬
fore, is an extended being ; and fince, according to our
author,.
Fluff «■
■—
Plaftfc.
P L A [30
author, folidity is nothing but an aBtve poioet of refiJI-
fincf, and the parts of this a&ive fubftance, in their 10-
tation round their centre, act upon and rfjl whatever
interferes to oppofe their activity, it follows that each or
thefe parts is likewife a [olid being. But, in the opinion
of Mr Young himfelf, and of all mankind, whatever is
extended and folid is material. This theory, therefore,
exhibits a procefs in which atoms are formed of a fub-
ftance, which, though it is faid to be atlive, immaterial,
and unfolid, appears, when narrowly infpe&ed, to be
nothing elfe than a colleftion of thofe very atoms of
which the author pretends to explain the formation. Mr
Young, who examines and very freely cenfures fome of
the do£trines of Newton and others, is too much a man
of fcience to be offended at us for flating objections to
a theory which is quite new, to a transformation which
he himfelf acknowledges may to many “ appear not on¬
ly problematical and difficult to conceive, but wholly
impoffible, and implying contradictions abfolutely and
for ever irreconcileable.” Whether this be a jufl charac¬
ter of it our readers muft determine ; but if we did not
believe the author to be a man of ingenuity, we fhould
not have introduced him or his work to their acquain¬
tance.
Pljst\c Art, the art of reprefenting all forts of fi¬
gures by the means of moulds. This term is derived
from the Greek word which fignifies the “ art
of forming, modelling, or carting, in a mould.” A
mould in general is a body that is made hollow for that
purpofe. 't'he artift makes ufe of them to form figures
in bronze, lead, gold, filver, or any other metal or fu-
fible fubftance. The mould is made of clay, ftucco, or
other compofition, and is hollowed into the form of the
figure that is to be produced; they then apply the jet,
which is a fort of funnel, through which the metal is
poured that is to form the figures, and that is called run~
ning the metal into the mould.
It is in this manner, but with much praftice and at¬
tention, that the artift forms, 1. Equeftrian and pedef-
trian ftatues of every kind ; 2. Groups ; 3. Pedeftals ;
4. Bafs-reliefs; 5. Medallions; 6. Cannons, mortars, and
other pieces of artillery ; 7. Ornaments of architeflure,
as capitals, bafes, &c.; 8. Various forts of furniture, as
luftres, branches, &c. in every kind of metal: and in the
fame manner figures are caft in ftucco, plafter, or any
other fufible matter. See Plaster, op' Paris.
Wax being a fubftance that is very eafily put in fu-
fion, plaftics make much ufe of it. There are impref-
fions which are highly pleafing in coloured wax, of me¬
dallions, baftb and alto relievos, and of detached figures;
which, however, are fomewhat brittle. But this mat¬
ter has been carried too far : they have not only form¬
ed moulds to reprefent the likenefs and the buft of a li¬
ving perfon, by applying the plafter to the face itfelf,
and afterwards carting melted wax into the mould ; but
they have alfo painted that waxen buft with the natural
colours of the face, and have then applied giafs eyes and
natural hair; to which they have joined a fluffed body and
limbs, with hands of wax; and have, laflly, dreffed their
figure in a real habit ; and by thefe means have produ¬
ced an objett the moft fhocking and deteftable that it is
pcffible to conceive. It is not a ftatue, a buft, a natural
refemblance that they form ; but a dead body, a lifelefs
countenance, a mere carcafe. The fliff air, the inflex ¬
ible mufcles, the haggard eyes of giafs, all contribute to-
] P L A
produce an object that is hideous and difgullfulto every
man of tafte. Figures like thefe offend by affording too
exa£l an imitation of nature. In no one of the polite
arts ouo-ht imitation ever to approach fo near the truth
as to be5taken for nature herfelf. Illufion muft have its
bounds ; without which it becomes ridiculous.
There is another invention far more ingenious and
pleafing, which is that wherein M. Lippart, antiquary and
artift at Drefden, has fo much excelled. He has found the
means of refembhng, by indefatigable labour, great ex¬
pence, and infinite tafte, that immenfe number of ftones,
engraved and in camaieu, which are to be leen in the
moft celebrated cabinets. He has made choice of thofe
that are the moft beautiful; and, with apafte of his own
invention, he takes from thefe ftones an impreftion that
is furprifingly accurate, and which afterwards become as
marble: theie impreflions he callsHe then gives
them a proper colour, and inclofes each with a gold
rim ; and, by ranging them in a judicious order, forms
of them an admirable fyftem. They are fixed on pafte-
boards, which form fo many drawers, and are then
inclofed in cafes, which reprefent folio volumes, and
have titles wrote on their backs ; fo that theie fidlitious
books may conveniently occupy a place in a library.
Nothing can be more ingenious than this invention ;
and, by means of it, perfons of moderate fortune are
enabled to make a complete colletlion of all antiquity
has left that is excellent of this kind; and the,; copies
are very little inferior to the originals.
There is alfo another method of taking the impref-
fions of camaieus, medals, and coins, which is as fol¬
lows: They wafti or properly clean the piece whofe im-
preffion is to be taken, and furround it with a border of
wax. They then diflblve ifinglafs in water, and make
a deco&ion of it, mixing with it fome vermilion, to give
it an agreeable red colour. They pour this pafte, when
hot, on the ftone or medal, to the thicknefs of about the
tenth part of an inch ; they then leave it expofed to the
fun, in a place free from dull. After a few days this
pafte becomes hard, and oilers to the eye the moft; ad¬
mirable and faithful reprefentation of the medal that it
is poflible to conceive: they are then carefully placed
in drawers; and thoufands of thefe impreflions, which
comprehend many ages, may be included in a fmall
compafs.
The proficients in plaftics have likewife invented the
art of calling in a mould papier mache or diffblved pa¬
per, and forming it into figures in imitation of fculpture,
of ornaments and decorations for ceilings, furniture, &c.
and which they afterwards paint or gild. There are,
however, fome inconveniences attending this art ; as,
for example, the imperfections in the moulds, which
render the contours of the figures inelegant, and give
them a heavy air : thefe ornaments, moreover, are not
fo durable as thofe of bronze or wood, feeing that in a
few years they are preyed on by the worm.
The figures that are given to porcelain, Delft ware,
&c. belong alfo to plaftics ; for they are formed by
moulds, as well as by the art of the fculptor and turner;
and by all thefe arts united are made vafes of every
kind, figures, groups, and other defigns, either for ufe
or ornament.
From this general article the reader is referred to
Foundery, Cast, Gla^ng, Porcelain, P. piee-
Machf, Pottery, Dele-t M are.
PLATA*
Plaftle.
P L A
[ 3i 3
P L A
Plata. PLATA, the name of a very great river of South
"•v ' America, running through the province of Paraguay ;
whence the whole country is fometimes called Plata ;
though this name is ufually bellowed only upon a part
of Paraguay. In the latter fenfe it comprehends all
that country bounded on the call and fouth-eaft by the
Atlantic Ocean ; on the fouth, by Terra Magellanica ;
on the weft, by Tucuman ; and on the north, by the
provinces of Paraguay Proper and Parana. The great
river La Plata, from which the country has its name,
was firft difcovered, in 15x5, by Juan Diaz de Solis;
but denominated Im Plata by Sebaftian Gabato, from
the great quantity of the precious metals he procured
from the adjacent inhabitants, imagining it was the pro¬
duce of the country, though in fa£t they brought it from
Peru.
The country lies between 320 and 370 of fouth la¬
titude. The climate is pleafant and healthy. Their
winter is in May, June, and July, when the nights are
indeed very cold, but the days moderately warm ; the
froft is neither violent nor lading, and the fnows are ve¬
ry inconfiderable.
The country confifts moftly of plains of a vaft ex¬
tent, and exceeding rich foil, producing all forts of Eu¬
ropean and American fruits, w heat, maize, cotton, fu-
gar, honey, &c. and abounding w ith fuch excellent pa-
ftures, that the beafts brought hither from Spain are
,. multiplied to fuch a degree, that they are all in com¬
mon, no man claiming any property in them, but every
man takes what he hath occafion for. The immber of
black cattle, efpecially, is fo prodigious, that many thou¬
sands of them are, killed merely for their hides, every
time the fhips go for Spain, and their carcafes left to
be devoured by wild beafts and birds of prey, which are
alfo very numerous. Sometimes, when they cannot
vend their hides, they will kill them for their tongues ;
and thofe who care not to be at the trouble to fetch
them from the plains, may buy them for a trifle. There
is a curious account in Lord Anfon’s voyage of the
manner of hunting them on horfeback ; and of catching
and killing them, by throwing a noofe on their horns at
full gallop, the horfes being trained to the fport. Horfes
are no lefs numerous, and in common like the other
cattle; fo that a man may have as many as he pleafes
for the catching; and of thofe that are already broke,
one may buy feme of the bell, and of the true Spanifh
breed, for a piece-of-eight per head. Wild-fowl alfo is
in great plenty here ; partridges in particular are more
numerous, and as large and tame as our hens, fo that
one may kill them with a flick. Their wheat makes
the fineft and whiteft of bread; and, in a word, they
feem to want for nothing here, efpecially the natives,
but fait and fuel. The former the Spaniards jiave
brought to them from other parts ; and the latter*they
fupply themfelves with, by planting vaft numbers of
almond, peach, and other trees, which require no other
trouble than putting the kernels into the ground, and
by the next year, we are told, they begin to bear fruit.
I he return for European commodities is fo great here,
that it almoft exceeds belief; an ordinary Uvo-penny
knife fetching a crown, and a gun of the value of 10 or
12 (hillings 20 or 30 crowns, .md fo of the reft.
The river Plata rifes in Peru, and receives a great
many others in its courfe ; the chief of which is the
Paraguay.
fweet, and to petrify wood; and contains fuch plenty
and variety of fifh, that the people catch great quan¬
tities of them without any other inftrument than their
hands. It runs moftly to the fouth and fouth-eaft;
and is navigable the greater part of its ccurfe by the
largeft veflels, and full of delightful iflands. All along
its banks are feen the moft beautiful birds of all kinds ;
but it fometimes overflows the adjacent country to a
great extent, and is infefted by ferpents of a prodigious
bignefs. From its jundlion with the Paraguay to its
mouth is above 200 leagues. We may form fome judge¬
ment of its largenefs by the width of its mouth, which
is faid to be about 70 leagues. Before it falls into the
Paraguay it is called Panama. See Panama.
PLiATJEJE (anc. geog.), a very ftrong town of
Bceotia, in its fituation expofed to the north wind (The-
ophraftus) ; burnt to the ground by Xerxes (Herodo¬
tus, Jultinus) ; mentioned much in the courfe of the
Perfian war: Famous for the defeat of Mardonius,
the Perfian general; and for the moft fignal victory of
the Lacedemonians and other Greeks under Paufania?-
the Lacedemonian, and Ariftides an Athenian general
(Nepos, Diodorus, Plutarch); in memory of which the
Greeks ere6led a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and in-
ftituted games which they called Eleutheria ; and there
they Ihow the tomb* of thofe who fell in that battle
(Strabo). It ftood at the foot of moun; Cithaeron,
between tha£ and Thebes to the north, on the road to
Athens and Megara, and on the confines of Attica and
Megaris. Now in ruins.
PLATALEA, the Spoonbill, in ornithology, a
genus belonging to the order of grallae. The beak is
plain, and dilates towards the point into an orbicular
form; the feet have three toes, and are half palmated. c
There are three fpecies diftinguifhed by their colour :
and of thefe fpecjies there are three varieties; two of
what is called the •white fpecics^ and one of the rofe'ate.
1, The white fpecies, which Linnaeus calls platalea leu-
cororfia, is about the iize of a heron, but fomewhat fliorter
in the neck and legs. The bill is more than half afoot
long, and, like that of the reft of the genus, is ftiaped like
a fpoon : the colour of the bill is very various, being
in fome birds black, in others brown, and fometimes
fpotted; from the bafe to two-thirds of its length fe-
veral indentations crofs it, the rifing paj^ts of which arc
of a dark colour : the tongue is fliort and heart-fhaped :
the irides are grey : the Ikin of the lore round the eyes
and of the throat is bare and black: the plumage is en¬
tirely white, though there have been fpecimens where
the quills were tipped with black: the legs are general¬
ly either black or of a greyifli brown colour ; between
the toes there is a membrane conne&ed to the outer
one as far as the fecond, and to the inner as far as the
firft joint.
“ This bird (fays Mr Latham) is found in various
parts of the old continent, and from the Ferro ifles near
Iceland to the Cape of Good Hope. It frequents the
neighbourhood of the flea; and has been met with on
the coafts of France; at Sevenhuys, near Leyden, once
in great plenty, annually breeding in a wood there.
The neft is placed on high trees near the fea-fide. The.
female lays three or four white eggs, powdered with
w .. t   a -
few pale red fpots, and of the fize of thofe of an hen. .
are very noify during breeding-time, like our rooks;
I at water ol .it is laid to be very clear and -are fddom found high up the rivers, chiefly frequenting,
the
Plata? as,
Platalea.
   '
Plate
ccxcrfr
PI jtaW,
P.utanue.
LA [32 3 PLA
Their food is hlh, which they are heads, fuccecded by round rough balls of feed. It is a
  native of Virginia and other parts of North America ; -
the mouths of them.   . -
faid not unfrequently to take from other birds, in the
manner of the bald eagle ; alfo muffels and other Ihell-
filh being found in greatell numbers where thefe are plen¬
ty ; and they will alfo devour frogs and fnakes, and even
grafs and weeds, which grow in the water, as well as
the roots of reeds. They are migratory, retiring to the
warmer parts as the winter approaches, and are rarely
feen in England. Their flefh is faid to have the flavour of
a o-oofe, and is eaten by fome, and the young birds have
been thought good food. By many authors they are
called pelicans.” m r
The two varieties of this fpecies are equal in fize to
the rofeate fpecies. The bill of the firll is reddifh; the
plumage moltly white ; the feathers of the wings partly
white and partly black, and the legs reddiih. The plu¬
mage of the other is entirely white, not excepting e\en
the quills. It has a cretl of feathers whofe webs are
very loofe, and feparated from one another; the bill is
of a rufous grey colour, having red edges, and the legs
are of a dull pale red. They both inhabit the Philip¬
pine iflands. ... ...
2. The rofeate fpecies, ox p\at aka ajaja, is but a little
lefs than the white. The bill is marked all ronnd with
a furrow parallel to the edge, and is ot a gieyilh white
colour, fo tranfparent as to ihow the ramification of the
blood-veflels belonging to it: the forehead is of a whitiih
colour between the bill, and eyes, and throat: the plu¬
mage is a fine rofe-colour, deepell on the wings: the
legs are grey; the claws blackilh ; and the toes have
membranes as in the lall fpecies. The variety of this
fpecies is entirely of a beautiful red colour, having a
collar of black at the lower part of the neck; the hides
are red. Mr Latham imagines it is the rofeate in full
plumage. It is faid to he of a blackiih chefnut the firll
vear; becomes rofe-coloured the fecond, and of a deep
fcarlet the third. It lives on fmall filh.
3. The dwarf fpecies, or platalea piemen, is about
the'fize of a fparrow. The bill is black, longer than
the head, flat at the end, and nearly of a rhomboidal
font) ; the angles and top of the upper mandible are
white; the tongue is fmooth; the body is brown above
and white beneath ; the quills have white fhafts; the
tail is rounded, lliort, and of a brownilh white colour ;
the feet have four toes, are cloven, and the claws are
pointed. It inhabits Surinam and Guiana.
PLATANUS, the Plane-tree; a genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The orientalis, oriental or eaftern plane-
tree, r'ifcs with a very ilraight fmooth branching Item
to a great height. It has palmated leaves, fix or eight
inches long and as much broad, divided into five large
fegments, having the fide ones cut into twro fmaller,
green above, and pale underneath ; and long pendulous
pedunculi, each fuftaining feveral round heads of clofe-
fitting very fmall flowers; fucceeded by numerous downy
feeds, collefted into round, rough, hard balls. It is a
native of Aha and many parts of the eaft, and grows in
great plenty in the Levant. 2. The occidentalis, occi¬
dental, or w'dtern plane-tree, riles with a ilraight fmooth
ft cm, to a great height, branching widely round : it has
lobated leaves, feven or eight inches long, and from nine
cr ten to twelve or fourteen broad, divided into three
large lobes p and very fmall flowers, colic ft ed into round
wdiere it attains an enormous fize, and is remarkable for
having it$ ftem all of an equal girt for a confiderable
length : w'e have an account of fome trees being eight
or nine yards in circumference, and which, when felled,
afforded 20 loads of wood. The varieties of thde two
fpecies are the Spanifh or middle plane-tree, having re¬
markably large leaves of three or five narrower feg-
raents; and the maple-leaved plane-tree, having fmaller
leaves, fomewhat lobated into five fegments, refembling
the mapple-tree leaf.
All thefe elegant trees are of hardy temperature, fo
as to profper here in any common foil and expcfure in
our open plantations, &c. and are fome of the moll de-
firable trees of the deciduous tribe. They were in lin¬
gular efteem among the ancients of the eaft, for their
extraordinary beauty, and the delightful fhade they af¬
forded by their noble foliage. The leaves commonly
expand in May, and fall off early in autumn ; and the
flow'ers appear in fpring, a little before the leaves, being
fucceeded by feeds, which in fine feafons frequently
ripen here in September. Thefe fine trees are fingu-
larly fitted for all ornamental plantations. Their ftraight
growth, regular branching heads, and the lofty ftature
they attain, together with the extraordinary breadth of
their luxuriant leaves, render them extremely ddirable
furniture to adorn avenues, lawns, parks, and wroods;
fome difpofed in ranges, fome as fingle ftandards, others
in clumps, fome in groves, &c. They are moil excel¬
lent for fhade; for it is obfervable, that no tree is better
calculated to defend us from the heat in fummer, by its
noble fpreading foliage, and to admit the fun’s rays
more freely in wunter, on account of the diftance of its
branches, which is always in proportion to the fize of
the leaves. They may alfo he employed in the col-
leftion of fordl-trees, in woods, to grow' up to timber,
in which cafe they will alfo prove advantageous in time.
In fhovt, thefe noble trees claim the efteem of ever)' one
concerned in plantations of every kind; but more par¬
ticularly in extenfive ones, where they may be fo vari-
oufly difpofed as to have a charming efleft.
The propagation of thefe trees is by feed, layers, and
cuttings. The feeds frequently ripen in thefe parts,
and are alfo procured from other countries, and may be
obtained of the nurferymen or feedfinen. The bell
feafon for fowing them is autumn, if they can be then
poffibly procured. Choofe a fomewhat fhady moift foil;
and having dug the ground, and raked it fine, form it
into four-feet w'ide beds, and either fcatter the feeds
evenly on the furface and rake them in, or previoufly
with the back of a rake turn the earth off the furface
near half an inch deep into the alleys; then fow' the
feed, and direftly, w ith the rake turned the proper w'ay,
drawr the earth evenly over the feeds, and trim the fur¬
face fmooth: many of the plants w'ill rife in fpring, and
probably may not till the fpring following. When they
are one or two years old, plant them out in nurfery
row’s, two or three feet afunder, and about half that di¬
ftance in the lines; here to remain till of a proper fize
for final tranfplairtation. The method of propagation
by layers is very commonly prnftifed in the nurieries, in
default of feed,* and by which they,moil readily grow';
for which purpefe, fome ftout plants for ilools mitft be
planted, which in a year after mult be headed down
j near
PLA [33] PL A
1 it^snd, nf&r tht bottom, that they m?y thfow out many fhoots
S 1*'e- near the ground, convenient for laying *, which, in the
"" autumn after they are produced, layby for Hit-laying 5 and
by autumn after, they will be well rooted, and form
plants two or three feet high, fo may be feparated, and
planted in nurfery-rows like the feedlings. All the
forts will take tolerably by cutting off theftrong young
flioots; but the plat anus occidenta/is more freely than
the oriental kind. Autumn is the beft feafon : as foon
as the leaf falls, choofe ftrong young fiioots, and plant
them in a moift foil; many of them wall grow, and
make tolerable plants by next autumit. It ihould be re¬
marked, that, in order to continue the diftin£tion of the
varieties more effectually, they fhould be propagated
either by layers or cuttings : for when raifed from feed,
thofe of the refpeCtive fpecies generally vary.
PLATBAND, in gardening, a border or bed of
flowers, along a wall) or the fide of a parterre, frequent¬
ly edged with box, &c.
Platband of a door or window, is ufed for the
lintel, where that is made fquare, or not much marked.
PLATE, a term which denotes a piece of wrought
filver, fuch as the (hallow veffel off which meat is eaten.
It is likewife ufed by our fportfmen to exprefs the re¬
ward given to the bell horfe at our races.
£ ’■tfmitn's The winning a plate is not the work of a few days
i. liettarj. t0 the owner of the horfe; but great care and prepa¬
ration is to be made for it, if there is any great depen¬
dence on the fuccefs. A month is the leail time that
can be allowed to draw the horfe’e body clear, and to
refine his wind to that degree of perfection that is at¬
tainable by art.
It is firft necefiary to take an exaCl view of his body,
whether he be low or high in flefh ; and it is alfo necef-
fary to confidef whether he be dull and heavy, or bnlk
and lively when abroad. If he appear dull and heavy,
and there is reafon to fuppofe it is owing to too hard
riding, or, as the jockeys exprefs it, to fume greafe that
has been diffolved in hunting, and has not been removed
by fcouring, then the proper remedy is half an ounce of
diapente given ih a pint of good fitek ; this will at once
remove the caufe, and revive the creature’s fpirits.
After this, for the firft week of the month, he k to
be fed with oats, bread, and fplit beans; giving him
fometimes the one and fometimes the other as he likes
beft; and always leaving feme in the locker, that he
may fe^a at leifure when he is left alone. When the
groom returns at the feeding-time, whatever is left of
this muft be removed, and freflt given ; by this means the •
mature will foon become high-fpirited, wanton, and full
of play. Every day he muft be rode out an airing, and
every other day it will be proper to give him a little more
exercife; but not fo much as to make him fweat too
much. The beans and orVs in this cafe are to be put
into a bag, and beaten till the hulls are all off, and then
Winnowed clean ; and the bread, inftead of being chip¬
ped in the common way, is to have the Cruft clean cut
off. If the horfe be in good flefti and fpirits when ta¬
ken up for its month’s preparation, the diapente muft
be omitted ; and the chief bufinefs will be to give him
good food, and fo much exercife as will keep him in
wind, without overfweating him or tiring his fpirits.
When he takes larger exercifes afterwards, towards the
end of the month, it will be proper to have fome horfes
in the place to rtrn againff him. This will put him
Upon his mettle, and the beating them will give him
Vol. XV. Part L
fpirits. Tliis, however, is to 1/e cautloufiy obferve'd, PUtfyfci,
that he has not a bloody heat given him for ten days or
a fortnight before the plate is to be run for j and that
the laft heat that is given him the day before the race,
muft be in his clothes j this will make him run with
greatly more vigour, when dripped for the race, and
feeling the cold wind on every part.
In the fecond week, the horfe fhould have the fame
food, and more exercife. In the laft fortnight, he mult
have dried oats, that have been hulled by beating. Af¬
ter this they are to be wetted in a quantity of Whites of
eggs beaten up, and then laid out in the fun to dry;
and when as dry as before, the horfe is to have them.
This fort of food is very light of digeftion, and very
good for the Creature’s wind. The beans in this tim-:
fltould be given more fparingly, and the bread fhould
be made of three parts wheat and one part beans. If
he fhould become coftive under this Courfe, he muft thCh
have fome ale and whites of eggs beaten together j this
will cool him, and keep his body moift.
In the laft week the mafti is to be omitted, and bar*
ley-water given him m its place, every day, till the day
before the face : he fhould have his fill of hay ; then h«t
muft have it given him more fparingly, that he may
have time to digeft it; and in the morning of the race
day he muft have a toaft or two of white bread foaked
in fack, and the fame juft before he is let out to the
field. This is an excellent method, becaufe the two
extremes of fullnefs and fading are at this time to be
equally avoided} the one hurting his wind, and the
other occafioning faintnefs that may make him lofe.
After he has had his food, the litter is to be fhook up,
and the ftable kept quiet, that he may be difturbed by
nothing till he is taken out to run.
PLATFORM, in the military art, an elevation of
earth, ort which cannon is placed to fire on the enemy J
fuch are the mounts in the middle of curtins. On the
ramparts there is always a platform, where the cannoh
are mounted. It is made by the heaping up of earth
on the rampart, or by an arrangement of madriers, rifing
infenfibly, for the cannon to roll on, either in a cafe-
mate or on attack in the outworks. All prafti-
tionerS are agreed, that no fhot can be depended on,
Unlefs the piece can be placed on a folid platform ;
for if the platform (hakes with the firft impulfe of
the powder, the piece muft likewife (hake, which will
alter its direction, and render the (hot uncertain.
PlaTVorm, in archite6lure, is a row of beams which
fupport the timber-work of a roof, and lie ort the top of
a wall where the entablature ought to be raifed.
This term is alfo ufed for a kind of terrace or broad
fmooth open walk at the top of a building, from whence
a fair profpeft may be taken of the adjacent country.
Hence an edifice is faid to be covered with a platform,
when it is flat at top, and has no ridge. Moft of the
oriental buildings are thus covered, as were all thofe of
the ancients. <
Platform, or Orlopt in a man of war, a place on
the lower deck, abaft the main-mad, between it and
the cockpit, and round about the main capftan, where
provifion is made for the wounded men in time of ac¬
tion.
PLATINA is a metallic fubftance lately difeovered.
The name, which has an allufion to its colour, is a di- >
minutive of plata^ and fignifies “ little filver.” Frorti
its great fpecific gravity, and other refemblances which
£ it
Plat! n a;
P L A [ 34 1 p L A
it has to gold, it has been called or blanc, or ivhite gold;
from its refra&ory nature, diabolus metal/orum; from fome
doubts entertained of its chara&er as a metal,yuan bianco,
•white jack, •white rogue, or white mock metal. It has alfo
received the appellation of the eighth metal; and, pro¬
bably from fome dittrift which affords it, has gotten
the name of plat'ma del Pinto.
The firft in Europe who mentioned it by its prefent
name was Don Antonio Ulloa, a Spanifh mathemati¬
cian, who in 1735 accompanied the French academi¬
cians that were fent by their fovereign to determine the
figure of the earth by meafuring a degree of the meri¬
dian in Peru. In the relatiori of his voyage, which
was publiffied at Madrid in 1748, he fays, that the
golden mines in the territory of Choco had been aban¬
doned on account of platina; which he reprefents as a
hard ftone not eafily broken by a blow on the anvil,
which could not be fubdued by calcination, and from
which the gold could not be extracted without much
labour, much expence, and great difficulty.
The particular places of Choco where it is found are
Novita and Citara; but in what quantity it is there to
be met with is not afeertained. The miners, difeover-
ing at an early period that it was a metal, had begun
to employ it in adulterating their gold; and the court
®f Spain, it is faid, dreading the confequences, took
meafures not only to prevent its exportation, but partly
to conceal the knowledge of it from the world. It is
reported in the Chemical Annals for July 1792, that
when the gold is brought from Choco to be coined in
the two mints of Santa-fe, in that of Bogota and Po-
payan, the gold undergoes a new examination, the pla¬
tina that remains is carefully feparated, and being given
to officers appointed by the king, they, as foon as a
certain quantity is colleited, carry it away, and before
witnefles throw it into the river Bogota, at two leagues
diftance from Santa-fe, or into the Cauca, about one
league diitant from Popayan.
In the Phyfical Journals for November 1785 we are
told, that the primitive mines which produced it have
»ot yet been difeovered in any part of the globe, and
that thofe which furnifh it at prefent are of the fecon-
dary kind, being itrata of loofe earth wafhed down from
the higher grounds. In thefe ftrata the particles are re¬
ported to be from the fize of a millet feed to that of a
pea. The author of the account fays, that he had fome
pieces which weighed from j 5 to 20 grains ; and adds,
that on trying fome of them between fteel rollers in the
prefence of Meflrs Darcet and Tillet at Paris, they
were perfedlly laminated. He fays alfo, that a native
piece of platina was found nearly of a fquare figure, and
almofl as large as a pigeon’s egg, which was depo-
fited in the Royal Society of Bifcay. M. de Buffon,
however, fays exprefsly, that “ a perfon of credit had
affured him that platina is fometimes found in large
maffes; and that he had feen a lump of it weighing no
lefs than 20 lib. which had not been melted, but taken
in that ftate. out of,the mine.” As to the fmall particles,
they are of a whiter colour than iron, with a fmooth
furface. Their figure is generally of an oblong form,
■very flat, rounded in the edge, and has been aferibed
to the hammering of the mills in which the gold is amal¬
gamated.
The heterogeneous fubftances with which the platina
£9 g^ngrahy mixed are particles of gold, grains of quartz
or cryftal, fome fand of a hrownilh hue, and fome dull of Platini,
a dark colour obedient to the magnet, and which feems ■v—^
to be fragments of other irregular dark-coloured particles,
which reiemble pieces of emery or loadftone. Dr Ingen-
houfz, however, fays, that every particle even of fome fine
platina which he examined obeyed the magnet more or
lefs, excepting fome that were tranfparent and ftony $
and that thefe were all magnets in themfelves, or that
each of thefe particles had two poles, which he could
change at pleafure by magnetic bars. In about 72
pounds weight of platina which was brought from Spa-
niffi America, M. Magellan found not only a large
quantity of ferruginous fand, but many pieces of vege¬
table ftalks, a number of feeds, and fome very fmall red
cryftals like rubies. Thefe cryftals being fent to M.
Achard of Berlin, he tried them as far as their minute-
nefs and fmall quantity would permit, and at laft con¬
cluded that they really were rubies. As for the mer¬
curial globules which are fometimes intermixed with the
particles' of platina, they are entirely foreign to its
mines. They are now generally thought to be part of
the mercury that has been employed in amalgamation ;
and which could not be brought from a place lefs diitant
than Guancavelica, about 900 miles from the province
of Choco where the platina is found.
This metal, though not under its prefent name, which
was firll mentioned by Don Ulloa, has perhaps been
known in Europe fince 1741. At that period Charles
Wood found in Jamaica fome platina which was brought
from Carthagena. He even made fome chemical trials
of it. Among others, he attempted to cupel it; and
obferves, in the account which he gave of it in 1749, that
the Spaniards had a method of calling it into different
forts of toys, which are common enough in the Spanifh
Well Indies. It was probably, too, imported into
Spain foon after its difeovery in America. It is faid
that Rudenfchoel canned fome of it from Spain to
Stockholm in 1745 ; and the firll important fet of ex¬
periments that appeared on the fubjedl were thofe of
Scheffer, one of the members of the Swedilh Academy.
They were publilhed in 1752 ; and gave this informa¬
tion, that platina is eafily fufible with arfenic, but when
alone remains unchanged by the moll violent heat of the
furnace. Two years after Dr Lewis publilhed fome
papers concerning this metal in the Royal Philofophical
Tranfaftions of London. This eminent chemill, in the
courfe of his experiments, had examined it tx h in the
dry and the wet way ; difeovered a number of its relative
affinities; mixed it in different proportions with different
metals; and had fufed it with arfenic, though he did
not afterwards attempt to feparate them.
In 1757 Margraaf publiihed feveral very interelling
obfervations about the method of feparating it from the
iron which always accompanies it.
In 1758 and 1763 Macquer and Beaume made upon See Me
it a confiderable number of experiments together, and«’7^^>
formed of it at laft a concave mirror. n 13lI>
And it was in 1780 that the jfournaux de Phyjique
gave an account of the labours of Bergman on the fame
fubjeft.
The platina of which the toys were made in the Spa.-7M.n®i3,
nilh Weft Indies was found by Dr Lewis to be always—1347*
mixed with fome other metals. What thefe particular
mixtures were is not well known; but many of the al¬
lays formed by Dr Lewis himfelf have promifed to be
4 both
P L A C 35 3 P L A
stina. botK ornamental and ufeful. He found that platlna,
-v 1 which is f of the wliole mafs, will render gold no paler
than a guinea, which contains only -r* of iilver. ^ He
found that copper was much improved by allaying it
with platina in certain proportions ; and that equal parts
of platina and brafs formed a compound not fubjeft to
tarnilh, and which might be employed with great ad¬
vantage for the fpeculums of telelcopes.
Befides allaying it with the different metals, it was an
objeft equally interefting to the chemilts and fociety
that platina Ihould be obtained pure and unmixed ; and
that means fhould be contrived to render it fufible, mal¬
leable, and ductile. We are now to fee what the
chemifts have done to accomplifh thefe ends. They
readily faw that it would be neceffary, in the firfl place,
to bring it to a ftate of ultimate divilion, and that this
fhould he tried in one or other of thefe two way's; by
diffolving it in acids, or by fufing it along with fome
other metal; for by itfelf it had hitherto proved abfo-
hitely unfufibie, except when expofed to the focus of a
large burning glafs, or the kindled ftream of dephlo-
giflicated or vital air. Among the methods which they
employed to feparate it from gold, the principal were
the following : The firft was by uniting the mixture of
platina and gold with mercury, and grinding the amal-
g-am for a confiderable time with water ; in which pro-
cefs the platina was gradually thrown out, and the gold
retained by the quickfilver. Another method was by
mixing a few drops of a folution of platiaa with above a
hundred times the quantity of a folution of gold, and
gradually adding a pure fixed alkaline fait as long as it
©ccafioned any effervefcence or precipitation. The re¬
maining liquor in this cafe wras fo yellow, that it has
been judged the platina would difcover itfelf, though
its proportion had been lefs than a thoufandth part of
that of gold. A third mode of feparating platina and
gold was that of precipitation, by means of mineral
fixed alkali; for when this alkali is mixed with a folu¬
tion of gold containing platina, the gold alone is preci¬
pitated, and all the platina remains diflblved. Another
method was by precipitation of the platina with fal am¬
moniac. For this purpofe, to a folution of the metal in
aqua regia a fmall quantity of the folution of fal ammo¬
niac in water was added ; and if the gold contained any
platina, the liquor inftantly grew turbid, and a fine
yellow or reddifh precipitate quickly fell to the bottom ;
if the gold was pure, no precipitation or change of
tranfparency enfued. The fifth method of reparation was
by means of inflammable liquors. The compound to be
examined was diflblved in aqua regia: the folution
mingled with twice its quantity or more of re&ified
fpirit of wine, and the mixture fuffered to Hand for
fome days in a glafs (lightly covered, the gold rofe to
the furface, leaving the platina diflblved. Othervvife,
to the, folution of the metal in aqua regia about half its
quantity of any colourlefs eflential oil was added : the
two were fhaken well together, and fuifered to 'teft;
upon which the oil rofe immediately to the furface,
carrying ‘the geld with it, and leaving the platina dif¬
lblved in the acid under it. Or, the gold was taken up
Hill more readily and more perfebfly by ether, or the
etherial fpirit of wine. But, after all, the moil effec¬
tual and advantageous method of feparating platina from
gold was founded on a property which gold has, and
oot jdatina, of being capable of precipitation from aqifa
regia by martial vitriol; and upon a property which Plafiiu.
platina has, and not gold, of being capable of precipW
tation from aqua regia by fal ammoniac. When there¬
fore we would difcover if gold be allayed with platina,
let it be diflblved in aqua regia; and to this folution,
which will contain both metals, let fome fal ammoniac
diflblved in water be added; upon which the platina
w'ill be precipitated in form of a brick-coloured fedi-
ment. If, on the other fide, we would know if platina
contain any gold, let this platina be diflblved in aqua
regia, and to the folution. add a folution of martial vi¬
triol in water} upon which the liquor will become tur¬
bid, and the gold will form a precipitate w'hich may be
eafily foparated by decanting and filtrating the liquor.
This property which platina poflefles of being precipi¬
tated by martial vitriol w as firit difeovered by M. Schef¬
fer.
With refpeft to the iron contained among the platina,
M. de Buffon feparated, by means of a magnet, fix parts
out of feven of a parcel of platina. He diftinguifhed
two different matters in platina ; of which one was
black, friable, and attra&able by magnets; and the
other confided of larger grains, w'as of a livid white or
yellowifh colour, much lefs attractable, and was exten-
fible. Between thefe two different matters w'ere many-
intermediate particles, fome partaking more of the for¬
mer, and fome of the latter. He thought that the black
matter w'as chiefly iron; and fays, that he had obfer-
ved a fimilar black pow der in many ores of iron.
M. Morveau found, that a Pruflian blue could be
obtained from the black part of the platina, by pouring
upon it fpirit of nitre, and afterwards adding to the fo¬
lution diluted fome phlogillicated alkali ; and that the
particles of platina which could not be attra&ed by mag¬
nets, did not by this method Ihow any lign of their con¬
taining iron.
But the moft important difeovery concerning the re¬
paration of platina from other metals was a method of
melting it, by which it became a perfeft metal, malle¬
able, and denfer than gold. It was in 1773 and 1774
that M. de Lifle effeCfed this, by diffolving crude platina
in aqua regia, precipitating it from the acid menffruum
by fal ammoniac, and by fufing this precipitate, without
addition, in a double crucible, expofed to the intenfe
heat of a forge-fire excited by double bellows. M. Mor¬
veau has repeated the experiment, and found that he
could melt the precipitate with feveral fluxes ; he found
likewife that by means of white glafs, borax, and char¬
coal, he could melt even crude platina, and could allay
together platina and ffeel in various proportions.
M. de Sickeagen was the inventor of another method :
he diffolved his platina in aqua regia, and precipitated
the iron by the prufliate of potafs. In evaporating thi*
liquor he obtained fmall o6faedral cryltals of the colour
of rubies ; w'hich, being expofed to a ftrong heat, yield¬
ed a metal which bore eafily the ftroke of the hammer,
which could be readily drawn into wire, and w’as ex¬
tremely malleable.
In attempting to refine platina by the dry way, cu-
pellation was a method to which the chemifts early had
recourfe ; but, notwithftanding their utmoft endeavours,
it has not been attended with all the fuccefs w'hich could
have been wifhed. It was found that the fcorification
proceeded as wrell at the beginning of the operation, as
when gold and fdver are cupelled: but the cupellatioa
£ 2 after-
P L- A l 36 ] P L A
P'ati a. afterwards became more and more difficult; becaufe, as
 the quantity of lead diminiffied, the matter became lefs
and lefs fuiible, and at laft ceaied to be fluid, notwith-
flanding the mod violent heat; and alfo becaufe, when
the quantity of platina was greater thap that of the lead,
this latter metal was protected, and not converted into
litharge. Hence the regulus obtained was always dark-
coloured, rough, adhering to the cupel, brittle, and
weighing more than the platina originally employed,
from the lead which remained united with it. Mefli Mac-
quer and Beaume appear neverthelefs to have carried
this experiment further: they kept the matter expofed
to a violent fire during a longer time ; that is, about 50
hours fuccefiively : and therefore, although their platina
was tarmfhed and rough on its furface, it was internally
white and fnining, ealily feparable from the cupel, and.
a little diminilhed in weight; a certain proof that no
lead remained in it. This platina was alfo ductile, and
capable of extenfion under the hammer.
Cupellation, therefore, though not the beft, is at leall
a certain method of applying platina to ufe, and of for¬
ming it into utenfils.
What has been thought a preferable method, is firft
to fufe the platina with arfenic, and afterwards diilipate
this lafl: metal by a ftrong heat: by this means Achard
and Rochon w ere able to obtain a pure platina ; of which
the former made fome fmall crucibles, and the latter, by
allaying it with copper and tin, fome large mirrors for
refle&ing telefcopes.
Jeanety of Paris has gone ftill farther : befides fnuff-
boxes, watch-chains, and a coftee-pot of platina prepa¬
red by this artift, the world has feen a lens weighing fix
pounds, a ball weighing nine, and two bars 19 feet long,
and weighing no lefs than 11 pounds each. Phis gentle¬
man has the merit of being the firft who wrought
this metal in the great way. The method Ire. employ¬
ed was far from being new ; it had been fuggefted by
Scheffer, by W^lis, by Margraaf, and was afterwards
praftifed by Achard, Morveau, and a great many others,
but who always prepared it in very fmall quantities. In
' the Chemical Annals for July 1792, the following ac¬
count of it is given by himfelf.
The platina is firft pounded in water to difengage it
from the ferruginous and other heterogeneous particles
that are mixed with it. “ This being done, I take (lays
fie) one pound and a half of platina, two pounds of
white arfenic in powder, and one pound of purified
potafh. I mix the whole : I put a crucible in the fire
capable of containing about 20 pounds; when my furnace
and crucible are well heated,! throw into the crucible one
third of the mixture, and apply a good heat ; I then
add a fecond quantity and a third, and fo on, always ta¬
king care at every time to mix the whole with a rod
of platina. I give now a confiderable force to the fire ;
and when I am certain that the whole is completely in
a.ftate of fufion, I withdraw my crucible and leave it
to cool. After breaking it, I find a button that is well
formed and attraftable by the magnet. I bruife this
button into fmall pieces, and fufe it a fecond time in the
fame manner: if this fecond fufion, which it generally
is, be not fufficient to effeft the feparation of the iron
from the platina, I fufe it a third time ; but if I be
obliged to do it a third time, I always put two buttons
together, to fave at once a crucible and charcoal.
This fiift operation being finilhed,. I take a crucible
with a flat bottom and of a circumference to give to the Phtin*,
button about three inches and a quarter in diameter. v —"v
I make this crucible red hot, and throw into it one
pound and a half of the platina which has been already
fufed with the arfenic after it was broken into imall
pieces ; to this I add a quantity of arfenic of the fame
weight, and about half a pound of refined potaih. I give,
to the fire a confiderable force; and when I am certain that
the whole is completely in a flate of fuiion, I withdraw
my crucible and leave it to cool, taking care always la-
place it horizontally, that the button may be of an e«
qual thicknefs. After breaking the crucible, I find a but¬
ton clear and ionorous, and weighing commonly about
I pound and 11 ounces. I have remarked, that in pro¬
portion to the quantity of arfenic combined with the
platina, the purification always fucceeds with the more
or lefs promptnefs and eafe ; and the greater the propor¬
tion fo much the better. In this Hate I,put my button
into a furnace under a muffle, which ought not to be
higher than the edge of the button lying on its flat fide*
and inclining a little to the walls of the mUtfle. In thi*
manner I place three buttons on each fide of the muffle*,
and apply fire to my furnace, that the muffle may be
equally heated throughout: as loon as the buttons be¬
gin to evaporate I fhut the doors of my furnace, that
the heat may be kept up to the fame degree ; this ought
always to be carefully attended to even to th« end of
the operation, for even a temporaiy excels of heat
might fpoil the whole of my paft operations and render
them abortive. I caufe my buttons to volatilize during
fix hours, always taking care to change their'fituation,
that every part may receive an equal portion of heat
I then put them in common oil, and for a like time
keep them in a fire fufficient to difiipate the oil in fmoke*
I continue this operation as long as the button emits
vapours ; and when the evaporation has ceafed I pufh.
the fire as far as it will go by means of the oil. Thefe
arfenical vapours have a bright filming metallic appear-
ance,which I never can obtain any other way> and with¬
out which I have never been able to render platina per-
ftCfly malleable.
“ If thefe fteps which are here pointed out be proper¬
ly followed, the operation lafts only eight days. My
buttons are then thrown into the nitrous acid, and af¬
terwards boiled in diftillcd water, till no part of the acid
remains with .them; 1 now heap them together one above
another, apply the ftrongeft poffible heat, and beat them,
with a hammer, taking always care at the firft heat ta
make them red hot in the crucible, that no foreign bo¬
dies may mix with them, as before this compreffion they
are only fo many fpongy maffes. I afterwards beafc
them in a naked ftate (/a chauj/c a nud); and bringing
them to a fquare form, I hammer them on all fides loir*
a fhorter or longer time according to their.bulk.’>
Such is the piocefs obfervtd by Jeanety infufing pla¬
tina ; but he thinks that the working of this metal is
fufceptiblc of ftill greater improvement. In 178b it,
was accordingly propofed by ibme of the French che-
mifts to fufe platina by mixing it with charcoal and
phofphoric glals, and afterwards to expofe the phoi-
phure of platina to a heat fuflicient to volatilize and dif-
fipate the phofphorus.This method Succeeded remarkably
well with M. Pelletier ; but, befides being tedious, it is-
difficult to feparate the laft portions of the phofphorus;
and as tl^sfe operations art always coftly, there are few
artifts
P L A [
at;,.*, artifts who arc willing to undertake them. M.
iting. jyIorveau has alfo fufed platina with his vitreous flux,
w -v maje 0f pounded glafs, borax, and charcoal: and Eeau-
me has advifed to fufe it with a flight addition of' lead,
feifmuth, antimony, or arfemc, and by keeping the alloy
in the fire a long time to diffipate the metals which have
facilitated the fufion. Platina may likewife be fufed
with a metal foluble in an acid : the mixture being pul¬
verized, the alloyed metal may be dilTolved, and the
powder of platina may then be fufed with the flux of-
De Morveau ; or, inltead of uiing a foluble metal, a cal¬
culable metal may be employed, and heated as be-
\ haptal. fore f. *
The colour of platina, when properly refined, is fome-
thing between that of iron and filver ; it has no fmell, and
is the heavieit body yet known in nature. According to
Mr Kirw an its fpecitic gravity is to that of water as 2 3
to 1. It may likewife be faid to be the molt durable of all
the metals : it is harder than iron; it undergoes uo altera¬
tion in the air, and fire alone does not even appear to pof-
fefs the power of changing it ; for which reafon it forms
the b<;ft of all crucibles that have yet been invented. It
refills the action of acids, alkalis, and fulphurs : it may
be rolled into plates as fine as leaves of gold which are
Hfed in gilding ; it is likewife extremely ductile: and
Dr Withering tells us, that a wire of platina is ftrong-
er than a wire of gold or of fdverof the lame thicknefs;
it is preferable to gold by the property which it has of
foldering or welding without mixture ; and it unite*,
favs Chaptal, two qualities never before found in one
and the fame fubftance. When formed into a mirror, it
rdledts but one image, at the fame time that it is as un¬
changeable as a mirror of glafs.
As thofe motives which at firfl. prepoflefled the court
of Spain againlt this metal no longer exill, it is to be
hoped that the decree which was paffed againlt it w ill
foon be revoked, and that the Spanilh monarch will
neither defpife fo rich a treafure as his mines of platrna,
nor refufe to the world the numerous advantages that
may be derived from a fubftance that promifes to be of
fo much importance in commerce and the arts.
PLATING is the art of covering bafer metals with
a thin plate of filver either for ule or for ornament. It
is faid to have been invented by a fpur-maker, not for
fhow but for real utility. Till then the more elegant
fjpurs in common ufe were made of folid filver, and from
tho flexibility of that metal they were liable to be bent
into inconvenient forms by the flighteft accident. To
remedy this defeat, a workman at Birmingham contri¬
ved to make the branches of a pair of fpurs hollow, and
to fill that hollow’ with a {lender rod of fteel or iron.
Finding this a great improvement, and being defirous
to add cheupnefs to utility, he continued to make the
hollow larger, and of courfe the iron thicker and
thicker, till at laft he difeovered the means of coating
an iron fpur with filver in fuch a manner as to make it
equally elegant with thofe which were made wholly of
that metal. The invention was quickly applied to
ether purpofes; and to numberkfs utenfils which were
formerly made of brafs or iron are now' given the ftrength
©f thefe metals, and the elegance of filver, for a fmall
additional expence.
The filver plate is generally made to adhere to the
bafer metal by means of folder; which is of two kinds,
tefoft and the /jar*/, or the tin and filver folders. The.
37 I FLA
de former of thefe confifts of tin alone, the latter ge¬
nerally of three parts of filver and one of brafs. When
a buckle, for inltance, is to be plated by means of the
fuft folder, the ring, before it is bent, is firlt tinned,
and then the filver-plate is gently hammered upon it,
the hammer employed being always covered wfith a
piece of cloth. .The filver now’ forms, as it w’ere, a
mould to the ring, and whatever of it is not intended
to be ufed is cut off. This mould is faftened to the
ring of the buckle by two or three cramps of fmall iron-
wire ; after which the buckle, with the plated fide
undermolt, is laid upon a plate of iron iufficiently hot
to melt the tin, but not the filver. The buckle is then
covered wfith powdered refin or anointed with turpen¬
tine ; and left there Ihould be a deficiency of tin, a
finall portion of rolled tin is likewife melted on it. The
buckle is now taken off with a tongs, and commonly-
laid on a bed of fand, where the plate and the ring,,
while the folder is yet in a ftate of fufion, are more
clofely compreffed by a fmart itroke with a block of
wood. The buckle is afterwards bent and finilhed.
Sometimes the melted tin is poured into the lilver
mould, which has been previoufly rubbed over with
fome flux. The buckle ring is then put among the
melted tin, and the plating finilhed. This is called by
the workmenyf//i«sr up.
When the hard folder is employed, the procefs is in
many refpe£ts different. Before the plate is fitted to.1
the iron or other metal, it is rubbed over with a Colu-
tion of borax. Stripes of filver are placed along the:
joinings of the plate ; and inltead of two or three-
cramps, as in the former cafe, the whole is vvrappedL*
round w-ith fmall wire ; the folder and joinings are again-
rubbed with the borax, and the whole put into a char¬
coal fire till the folder be in fufion. When taken out'
the wire is initantly removed, the plate is cleaned by
the application of fome acid, and afterwards made
fmooth by the flrokts of a hammer.
Metal plating is when a bar of lilver and copper are
taken of at lealt one equal fide. The equal lides are-
made fmooth, and the tw-o bars fattened together by
w ire wrapped round them. Thefe bars are then fweatedj
in a charcoal fire; and after fweating, they adhere a*
clofely together as if they w'ere loldered. After this
they are flattened into a plate between two rollers, when
the copper appears on one fide and the filver on the.
other. This fort of plate is named plattcl nutnl.
French plating is when filver-leaf is burnifhed on a-
piece of metal in a certain degree of heat.
When filver is diffolved in aquafortis, and precipita¬
ted upon another metal, the procefs is called ftlvering.
See Soldering.
PLATO, an illultrious philofopher of antiquity, was •
by defeent au Athenian, though the place of his birth-
was the Illand of Egina. His lineage through his fa*
ther is traced back, to Codrus the lalt king of Athens*
and through, his mother to Solon the celebrated legiila-
tor. The time of his birth is commonly placed in the.
beginning of the 88th Olympiad; but Dr Enfield thinks-
it may be more accurately firxed in the third year of the
87th Olympiad, or 430 years before the Chriftian era.
He gave early indications of an artenfive and original
genius, and had an education fuitabk? to his high rankr
being inftrufted in the rudiments of letters by the gram-
marian Dionyfius, and trained in athletic exercifes by
AtifU*
Plating,
Plato.
P L A [ 38 I P L A
/Vrifto of Argos. He applied with great diligence to
' * ' J the itudy of the arts of painting and poetry ; and made
fuch proficiency in the latter, as to produce an epic poem,
which, upon comparing it with the poems ot Homer,
he committed to the flames. At the age of 20 he com-
pofed a dramatic piece ; but after he had given it to the
performers, happening to attend upon a difcourfe of So¬
crates, he was fo captivated by his eloquence, that he
reclaimed his tragedy without fuffcring it to be added,
renounced the mules, burnt all his poems, and applied
himfelf wholly to the ftudy of wifdom.
It is thought that Plato’s firft mailers in philofophy
were Cratylus and Hermogenes,who taught the iyltems
of Heraclitus and Parmenides; but when he was 20
years old, he attached himfelf wholly to Socrates, with
whom he remained eight years in the relation of a fcholar.
During this period, he frequently difpleafed his compa¬
nions, and fometimes even his mailer, by grafting up¬
on the Socratic fyllem opinions which were taken fr om
fome other Hock. It was the pradlice of the fcholars of
Socrates to commit to writing the fubllance of their
mailer’s difcourfes. Plato wrote them in the form of
dialogues ; but with fo great additions of his own, that
Socrates, hearing him recite his Lyfis, cried out, “ O
Hercules ! liow many things does this young man feign
of me 1”
Plato, however, retained the warmell attachment to
his mailer. When that great and good man was fum-
moned before the fenate, his illullrious fcholar under¬
took to plead his caufe, and begun a fpeech in his de¬
fence ; but the partiality and violence of the judges
would not permit him to proceed. After the condem¬
nation, he prefented his mailer with money fufficient to
redeem his life ; which, however, Socrates refufed to ac¬
cept. During his imprifonment, Plato attended him,
and was prefent at a converfation which he held with
his friends concerning the immortality of the foul; the
fubllance of which he afterwards committed to writing in
the beautiful dialogue intitled Phsdoy not, however,
without interweaving his own opinions and language.
The philofophers who were at Athens were fo alarm¬
ed at the death of Socrates, that moll of them fled from
the city to avoid the injullice and cruelty of the govern¬
ment. Plato, whofe grief upon this occafion is faid by
Plutarch to have been excefiive, retired to Megara; where
he was friendly entertained by Euclid, who had been
one of Socrates’s firll fcholars, till the llorm was o-
vrr. Afterwards he determined to travel in purfuk of
knowledge ; and from Megara he went to Italy, where
he conferred with Eurytus, Philolaus, and Archytas.
Thefe were the moll celebrated of the followers of Py¬
thagoras, whofe dodlrine was then become famous in
Greece ; and from thefe the Pythagoreans have affirm¬
ed that he had all his natural philofophy. He dived
into the moil profound and myilerious fecrets of the Py-
thagoric doHrines ; and perceiving other knowledge to
be conneftcd with them, he went to Cyrene, where he
learned geometry of Theodorus the mathematician.
From thence he palled into Egypt, to acquaint himfelf
with the theology of their prieils, to lludy more nicely
the proportions of geometry, and to inltruft himfelf in
aftronomical obfervations ; and having taken a full fur-
vey of all the country, he fettled for fome time in the
province of Sais, learning of the wife men there, what
they held concerning the univerfe, whether it had a be.
ginning, whether it moved wholly or in part, Sec.; and p!ats
Paufanias affirms, that he learned from thefe the immor- —y* '
tality, and alfo the tranfmigration, of fouls. Some of
the fathers will have it, that he had communication with
the books of Mofes. and that he lludied under a learn¬
ed Jew of Heliopolis ; but there is nothing that can be
called evidence for thefe aflertions. St Auilin once be¬
lieved that Plato had fome conference with Jeremiah ;
but afterwards difeovered, that that prophet mull have
been dead at leall 60 years before Plato’s voyage to E-
gyp1-
Plato’s curiofity was not yet fatisfied. He travelled
into Perfia to confult the magi about the religion of
that country ; and he defigned to have penetrated even
to the Indies, and to have learned of the Brachmans their
manners and culloms; but the wars in Afia hindered
him.
“ He then returned into Italy, to the Pythagorean
fchool at Tarentum, where he endeavoured to improve
his own fyllem, by incorporating with it the do&rine of
Pythagoras, as it was then taught by Archytas, Ti-
maeus, and others. And afterwards, when he vilited
Sicily, he retained fuch an attachment to the Italic
fchool, that, through the bounty of Dionyfius, he pur-
chafed at a vail price feveral books which contained the
doctrine of Pythagoras,fromPhilolaus,oneofhisfollowers.
Returning home richly flored with knowledge of va¬
rious kinds, Plato fettled in Athens, and executed the
defign, which he had doubtlefs long had in contempla¬
tion, of forming a new fchool for the inilru&ion of youth
in the principles of philofophy. The place which he
made choice of for this purpofe was a public grove, call¬
ed the Academy, from Hecademus, who left it to the
citizens for the purpofe of gymnallie exercifes. Adorned
with ftatues, temples, and fepulchres, planted with lofty
plane-trees, and interfered by a gentle llream, it afforded
a delightful retreat for philofophy and the mufes. ..Of
this retreat Horace fpeaks :
Atque inter fy/vas Academi quarcre verum,
** ’Midlt Academic groves to fearch for truth.**
Within this inclofure he poffeffed,as a part of his humble
patrimony, purchafed at the price of three thoufand
drachmas, a fmall garden, in which he opened a fchool
for the reception of thofe who might be inclined to at¬
tend his inltru£lions. How much Plato valued mathe¬
matical ftudies, and how neceffary a preparation he
thought them for higher fpeculations, appears from the
infeription which he placed over the door of his fchool;
*OvStl( uyt ArgnToc limn:. “ Eet no one who is unac¬
quainted with geometry enter here.”
“ This new fchool foon became famous, and its mailer
was ranked among the moll eminent philofophers. His
travels into dillant countries, where learning and wifdom
flourilhed, gave him celebrity among his brethren of the
Socratic feci. None of thefe had ventured to inllitute
a fchool in Atherre except Ariftippus } and he had con¬
fined his inllru&ions almoft entirely to ethical fubjefts,
and had brought himfelf into fome diferedit by the free¬
dom of his manners. Plato alone remained to inherit
the patrimony of public efteem which Socrates had
left his difciples ; and he poffeffed talents and learning
adequate to his defign of extending the ftudy of philo¬
fophy beyond the limits within which it had been in-
clofei
P L A [ 39 ] P L A
»!ato, c!ofcd by bis mafter. The cenfequencc was, not only
“v  that young men crowded to his fchool from every quar¬
ter, but that people of the firft duhincfion in every de¬
partment frequented the academy. Even females, dif-
guifed in mens clothes, often attended his lectures. A-
mong the illuftrious names which appear in the cata¬
logue of his followers are Dion the Syracufan prince,
and the orators Hyperides, Lycurgus, Demoithenes,
and Ifocrates. ' -
“ Greatnefs was never yet exempted from envy. The
diftinguifhed reputation of Plato brought upon him the
hatred of his former companions in the fchool of So¬
crates, and they loaded him with detraction and oblo¬
quy. It can only be alcribed to mutual jealoufy, that
Xenophon and he, though they relate the difeourfes of
their common mafter, itudioufly avoid mentioning one
another. Diogenes the Cynic ridiculed Plato’s doc¬
trine of ideas and other abllraCt fpeculations. In the
midft of thefe private cenfures, however, the public fame
of Plato daily increafed ; and feveral ftates, among which
were the Arcadians and Thebans, fent ambafladors with
earnelt requefts that he would come over, not only to in-
ftruCI the young men in philofophy, but alio to preferibe
them law's of government. The Cyrenians, Syraculians,
Cretans, and Eleans, fent alfo to him : he did not go to
any of them, but gave laws and rules of governing to all.
He lived fmgle, yet foberly and chaftly. He was a man
of great virtues, and exceedingly affable; of w hich we
need no greater proof, than his civil manner of converfmg
with the philofophers of his own times, wdien pride and
envy were at their height. His behaviour to Diogenes is
always mentioned in his hiftoryr. The Cynic wras vaftly
offended, it feems, at the politenefs and fine talk of Plato,
and ufed to catch all opportunities of fnarling at him. He
dined one day at his table w'ith other company, and, tram¬
pling upon the tapeftry wfith his dirty' feet, uttered this
brtitilh farcafm, “ I trample upon the pride of Plato to
which Plato wifely reparteed, “ With greater pride.”
The fame of Plato drew difciples to him from all parts;
among wrhom w'ere Speufippus an Athenian, his filter’s
fon, whom he appointed his fucceffor in the academy, and
the great Ariitotle.
The admiration of this illuftrious man was not con¬
fined to the breafts of a few philofophers. He wras in
high efteem w'ith feveral princes, particularly Archelaus
king of Macedon, and Dionyfius tyrant of Sicily. At
three different periods he vifited the court of this latter
prince, and made feveral bold but unfuccefsful attempts
to fubdue his haughty and tyrannicul fpirit. A brief
relation of the particulars of thefe vifits to Sicily' may
ferve to call fome light upon the character of our phi-
lofopher; and we fhall give it in the w'ords of Dr En¬
field, from w'hofe elegant hiftory of philofophy we have
extra&ed by much the molt valuable parts of this article.
“ The profeffed objefk of Plato’s firft vifit to Sicily,
which happened in the 40th year of his age, during the
reign of the elder Dionyfius the fon of Hermocrates,
w'as, to take a furvey of the illand, and particularly to
obferve the winders of Mount ./Etna. Whilft he was
refident at Syracufe, he was employed in the inftru&ion
©f Dion, the king’s brother-in-law, who pofleffed ex¬
cellent abilities, though hitherto reftrained by the ter¬
rors of a tyrannical government, and relaxed by the lux¬
uries of a licentious court. Difgufted by the debauch¬
ed manners of the Syraculans, he endeavoured to refeue
Ins pupil from the general depravity'. Nor did EKon Mat®-
difappoint his preceptor’s expectations. No fooner had i ' f
he received a taile of that philofophy w'hich leads to
virtue, than he wras fired with an ardent love of wifdom.
Entertaining an hope that philofophy might produce
the fame effeCt upon Dionyfius, he took great pains to
procure an interview between Plato and the tyrant. In
the courfe of the conference, whilft Plato wras difeourfing
on the fecurity and happinefs of virtue, and the miferies
attending injuftice and opprelfion, Dionyfius, perceiving
that the philofopher’s difeourfe w'as levelled againft the
vices and cruelties of his reign, difmified him w'ith high
difpleafure from his prefence, and conceived a defign
againft his life. It was not without great difficulty that
Plato, by the affiltance of Dion, made his efcape. A
veffel which had brought over Pollis, a delegate from
Sparta, was fortunately at that time returning to Greece.
Dion engaged Pollis to take the charge of the philofo-
pher, and land him fafely in his native country; but
Dionyfius difeovered the defign, and obtained a promife
from Pollis, that he would either put him to death or
fell him as a Have upon the paffage. Pollis according¬
ly fold him in the ifland of Atgina ; the inhabitants of
which were then at war with the Athenians. Plato
could not long remain unnoticed: Anicerris,a Cyrenaic
philofopher, who happened to be at that time in the
illand, difeovered the llranger, and thought himfelf hap¬
py in an opportunity of Ihowing his refpeCl for fo illuf¬
trious a plulofopher: he purchaled his freedom for 30
minje, or 84I. 10s. Sterling money, and fent him home
to Athens. Repayment being afterwards offered to
Anieerris by Plato’s relations, he refufed the money,
faying, with that generous fpirit which true philofophy
always infpires, that he faw no reafon why the relation*
of Plato ffiould engrofs to themfelves the honour of fer-
ving him.” ‘
After a Ihort interval, Dionyfius repented of his ill-
placed refentmeut, and wrote to Plato, earnellly requell-
ing him to repair his credit by returning to Syracufe ;
to which Plato gave this high-fpirited. anfwer, that phi¬
lofophy would not allow him leifure to think of Diony—
fius. He wjis, however, prevailed upon by his friend
Dion to accept of the tyrant’s invitation to retunyto
Syracufe, and take upon him the education of Dionyfiu
the younger, who was heir apparent to the monarchy.
He was received by Dionyfius the reigning fovereign
with every poffible appearance of refpeft.; but after
feeing his friend banilhed, and being himfelf kept as a
prifoner at large in the palace, he was by the tyrant fent
back into his own country, with a promife that both he
and Dion ffiould be recalled at the end of the war in
which the Sicilians were then engaged. This promife
was not fulfilled. The tyrant wifhed for the return of
Plato; but could not refolve to recal Dion. At lall,
however, having probably promiied that the philofopher
ffiould meet his friend.at the court of Syracufe, he pre¬
vailed upon Plato to vifit that capital a third time.
When, he arrived, the king met him- in a magnificent
chariot, and conduced him to his palace. The Sicilians
too rejoiced in his return ; for they hoped that the wif¬
dom of Plato would at length triumph over the tyranni¬
cal fpirit of the prince. Dionyfius feemed wholly di-
vefted of his former refentments, liftened with apparent
pleafure to the philofopher’s do&rine, and, among Oliver
«xpreffion$ of regard, prefented him with eighty talents
P L A 14°
of goW. tn the midft of a numerous train of philofb-
——v 1 ‘ phers, Plato now pofTeflcd the chief influence and autho¬
rity in the court of Syracufe. Whilft Ariftippus war.
enjoying himfelf in fplendid luxury; whilft Diogenes
was freely indulging his acrimonious humour; and whilft
iEfchines was gratifyinghis thirft after riches ;—Plato
fuppoTted the credit of philofophy with an air of digni-
*y> which his friends regarded as an indication of fupe-
rior wifdom, but which his enemies imputed to pride.
After all, it was not in the power of Plato to prevail
•upon Dionyfms to adopt his fyftem of policy, or to re¬
peal Dion from his exile. Mutual diftruft, after a fhort
interval, arofe between the tyrant and the philosopher;
each fufpefted the other of evil deftgns, and. each en¬
deavoured to conceal his fufpicion under the dlfguife of
refpeft. Dionyfms attempted to impofe upon Plato by
condefcending attentions, and Plato to deceive Dionyfius
by an appearance of confidence. At length, the phi-
lofopher became fo much diflatisfied with his fitua-
tion, that he eameftly requefted pennifiion to return to
Oreece, which was at laft granted him, and he was knt
home loaded with rich preients. On his way to A*
thens, pafling through Elis during the celebration of
the Olyanpic games, he w-as prefent at this general af-
•fembly of the Greeks, and engaged univerfal attention.
From this narrative it appears, that if Plato vifited
the courts of princes, it was chiefly from the hope of
feeing his ideal plan of a republic realized ; and that his
talents and attainments rather qualified him to fhine in
the academy than in the council or the fenate.
Plato, now reftored to his country and his fchool, de*
voted himfclf to fcience, and fpent the laft years of a
long life in the inftruftion of youth. Having enjoyed
the advantage of an athletic conftrtution, and lived all
'his days temperately, he arrived at the 81 ft, or accord¬
ing to fome writers the 79th, year of his age, and died,
through the mere decay of nature, in the firft year of
the hundred and eighth Olympiad. He pafled his whole
life in a ftate of celibacy, and therefore left no natural
heirs, but transferred his effe&s by will to his friend
Adiamantus. The grove and garden, which had been
the feene of his pliilofophical labours, at laft afforded
him a fepulchre. Statues and altars were erefted to his
memory ; the day of his birth long continued to be ce¬
lebrated as a fefttval by his followers; and his portrait
is to this day preferved in gems : but the moft lafting
jnonuments of his genius are his writings, which have
been trunfinitted, without material injury, to the prefent
•times.
The charafter of this pliilofophcr has always been
high. Befides the advantages of a noble birth, he had
a large and comprehenfive underftanding, a vaft fund of
wit and good tafte, great evennefs and fweetnefs of tem¬
per, all cultivated and refined by education and travel;
lb that it is no wonder if he was honoured by his coun¬
trymen, efteemed by ftxangers, and adored by his fcho-
lars. The ancients thought more highly of Plato than
of all their philofophers: they always called him the D't-
•Stne Pinto ; and they feemed refolved that his defeent
fhould be more than human. There are (fays Apu-
leius) who affert Plato to have fprung from a more
fublime conception ; and that his mother Peri&ione,
who was a very beautiful woman, was impregnated by
Apollo in the fliape of a fpeftre.” Plutarch, Suidas,
1 p L A
and others, affirm this to have been the common repoit
at Athens. When he was an infant, his father Arifto
went to Hymettus, with his wife and child, to facrifice
to the mufes ; and while they were bulled in the divine
rites, a fwarm of bees came and diftiiled their honey up*
on hie lips. This, fays Tully, was confidered as a pre-
fage of his future eloquence. Apuleiils relates, that Soi
crates, the night before Plato was recommended to him,
dreamed that a young fwan fled from Cupid’s altar in
the academy, and fettled in his lap ; thence foared to
heaven, and delighted the gods with its mufic : and when
Arifto the next day prefented Plato to him, “ Friends
(Pays Socrates), this is the fwan of Cupid’s academy.”
The Greeks loved fables: they Ihow however in the pre¬
fent cafe, what exceeding re ip eft w'as paid to the me¬
mory of Plato. Tully perfectly adored him; tells us,
how he was jifftly called by Pametius the divine, the mojl
wife, the rnojl faend, the Homer of philofophers ; intitled
him to Atticus, Devs Hit pofer ; thinks, that if Jupiter
had fpoken Greek, he would have fpoken in Plato’s lan¬
guage ; and made him fo implicitly his guide in wifdom
and philofophy, as to declare, that he had rather err
with Plato than be right with any one elfe. But, pa¬
negyric afide, Plato was certainly a very wonderful man,
of a large and comprehenfive mind, an imagination infi¬
nitely fertile, and of a moft flowing and copious elo¬
quence. Neverthclefs, the ftrength and heat of fancy
prevailing in his compofition over judgment, he was to®
«pt to foar beyond the limits of earthly things, to range
in the imaginary regions of general and abftrafted ideas;
and on which account, though there is always a great-
nefs and fublimity in his manner, he did not philofo-
phize fo much according to truth and nature as Ari-
though Cicero did not fcruple to give him the
preference.
The writings of Plato are all in the way of dialogue;
where he feems to deliver nothing from himfelf, but every
thing as the fentiments and opinions of others, of So¬
crates chiefly, of Timaeus, &c. He docs not mention
himfelf anywhere, except once in his Phaedo, and ano¬
ther time in his Apology for Socrates. His ftyle, as
Ariftotle obferved, is betwixt profe and verfe: on which
account, fome have not fcrupled to rank him with the
poets. There is a better reafon for fo doing than the
elevation and grandeur of his llyle » his matter is often¬
times the offspring of imagination, inftead of doftrines
or tniths deduced from nature. The firft edition of
Plato’s works in Greek was put out by Aldus at Ve¬
nice in 1513; but a Darin verfion of him by Marfilius
Ficinus had been printed there in 1491. They were
reprinted together at Lyons in 1588, and at Francfort
in 16:2. The famous printer Henry Stephens, in J 578,
gave a moft beautiful and con-eft edition of Plato’s
works at Paris, with a new Latin verfion by Serranus*
in three volumes folio; and this defervedly paffes for the
heft edition of Plato * yet Sen-anus’s verfiou is -Very ex¬
ceptionable, and in many rdpefts, if not in all, inferior
to that of Ficinus*
PLATONIC, fomething that relates to Plato, his
fchool-philofophy, opinions, or the like. Thus, plato¬
nic love denotes a pure fpiritual affeftion, for which
Plato was a great advocate, fubfifting between the dif¬
ferent fexes, abftrafted from all carnal appetites, and re"
garding no other objeft but the mind and its beauties ;
a or
Plan
P L A [ 4i ] P L A
krfiic, m it is even a fincere difinterefled friendHiip fubfifting
ynifm. between perfons of the fame fex, abftrafted from any
r“,"~ felfifh views, and regarding no other objeft than the
perfon, if any fuch love or friendfhip has aught of a
foundation in nature.
Platonic Tear, or the Great Year, is a period of
time determined by the revolution of the equinoxes, or
the fpace wherein the liars and conftellations return to
their former places, in refpedl of the equinoxes. The
platonic year, according to Tycho Brahe, is 25816, ac¬
cording to Ricciolus 25920, and according to Cafiini
24800 years.
This period once accomplilhed, it was an opinion
among the ancients that the world was to begin anew,
and the fame feries of things to turn over again.
PLATONISM, the philofophy of Plato, which
was divided into three branches, theology, phyfics, and
mathematics. Under theology was comprehended ineta-
phyfics and ethics, or that which in modern language is
called mtral philofophy. Plato wrote likewife on Jia-
lefiics, but with fuch inferiority to his pupil Arillotle,
that his works in that department of fcience are feldom
mentioned.
The ancient philofophers always began their theologi¬
cal fyftems with fotne difquilition on the nature of the
gods, and the formation of the world; and it was a
fundamental dodlrine with them, that from nothing no¬
thing can proceed. We are not to fuppofe that this ge¬
neral axiom implied nothing more than that for every
effedl there mull be a caufe ; for this is a propofition
which no man will controvert who underftands tire terms
in which it is exprefled : but the ancients believed that a
proper creation is impofiible even to Omnipotence, and
that to the produdlion of any thing a material is not lefs
necejfary than an efficient caufe, (fee Metaphysics,
n<?264, 304.) That with refpefl to this important quef-
tion, Plato agreed with his predeceffors and contempo¬
raries, appears evident to us from the whole tenor of his
ill. of Timeeus. We agree with Dr Enfield § in thinking, that
'. in this dialogue, which comprehends his whole doftrine
on the fubjedl of the formation of the univerfe, matter
is fo manifeftly fpoken of as eternally co-exifting with
God, that this part of his doftrine could not have been
mlftaken by fo many learned and able writers, had they
not been feduced by the defire of eftablifiiing a coinci¬
dence of dodlrine between the writings of Plato and
IP-Mofes. It is certain that neither Cicero nor Apu-
^ leius ||, nor Alcinous f, nor even the later commentator
( j3 * Chalcidius, underftood their mailer in any other fenfe
than as admitting two primary and incorruptible princi¬
ples, God and matter; to which we (hall afterwards fee
reafon to add a third, namely ideas. The palfages
quoted by thofe who maintain the contrary opinion are
by no means fufficient fpr their purpofe. Plato, it is
true, in his Timaeus, calls God the parent of the univerfe,
and in his Sophilla fpeaks of him as “ forming animate
and inanimate beings, which did not before exill 1” but
thefe expreffions do not necellarily imply that this off-
fpring ox Deity was produced from nothing, or that no
prior matter exilled from which thefe new beings were
formed. .Through the whole dialogue of the TimaeUs,
Plato fuppofes two eternal and independent caufcs of all
things ; one, that by which all things are made, which
is God ; the other, that from which all things are
made, which is matter. He diflinguifhes between God,
Vol. XV. Part L
matter, and the univerfe, and fuppofes the Archite& of dlatonifm.
the world to have formed it out of a mafs of pre-exillent v
matter. Matter, according to Plato, is an eternal and
infinite principle. His doctrine on this head is thus ex¬
plained by Cicero J. “ Matter, from which all things M-
are produced and formed, is a fubllance without form or * l* c‘
quality, but capable of receiving all forms, and under¬
going every kind of change ; in which, however, it
never fuffers annihilation, but merely a folution of its
parts, which are in their nature infinitely divifible, and
move in portions of fpace which are alfo infinitely divi¬
fible. When that principle which we call quality is
moved, and afts upon matter, it undergoes an entire
change, and thofe forms are produced, from which arifes
the diverfified and coherent fyflem of the univerfe.”
This dodlrine Plato unfolds at large in his Timaeus, and
particularly infills upon the notion, that matter has ori¬
ginally no form, but is capable of receiving any. He
calls it the mother and receptacle of forms, by the union
of which with matter the univerfe becomes perceptible to
the fenfes ; and maintains, that the vifible world owes its
forms to the energy of the divine intelleftual nature.
Our author is fupported in drawing this inference by
the tdlimony of Diogenes Laertius, who furely un-
derilood the language and dogmas of Plato better than
the moll accomplilhed modern fcholar can pretond to da;
yet a learned writer ^ has lately exprelfed great furprife | nr Og(U
that any one Ihould confider matter as having been, in v'e-
Plato’s opinion, uncreated; and he boldly affirms, that
Laertius, inllead of alferting that fpirit and matter
were the principles of all things, ought to Rave faid that
God alone, in Plato’s eftimation, was their original.—
To prove this, he gives from the Timaeus a quotation,
in which the founder of the Academy declares that God
framed heaven and earth, and the inferior deities; and that
as he ffhioned, fo he pervades all nature. He obferves, that
Cicero denominates the god of Plato the maker, and the
god of Arillotle only the governor, of the world. And, to
fatisfy thofe who may demand a particular proof of Pla¬
to’s having taught a real creation, he affirms that his
writings abound with declarations on the fubjeft, of
which the meaning cannot be mifapprehended. “ With Theology of
this purpofe (fays he) Plato denominates at one time the lt0'
principles or fubllance of all things, r • vofcLOna. &i»iA*niovfyov,
the produttiona of the efficient Deity, and at others en¬
ters more particularly into the queltion. Thus, he ob¬
ferves, that many perfons are ignorant of the nature and
power of mind or intelledl, ‘ as having exifted at the
beginning, antecedent to all bodies.’ Of this mind, he
obferves, that it is without exception na*Ta» ^pfo-CuTan, of
all things the mojl ancient; and he fubjoins, in order to
remove all doubt of his purpofe, that it is alfo
the cavfe or principle of motionP
With all poffible refpedl for Dr Ogilvie, of whofe
piety and erudition we are thoroughly convinced, we
mull take the liberty to fay, that to us the declarations
of Plato on this fubjefl appear much lefs precife and
explicit than they appear to him ; and that the inference
which he would draw from the words of Cicero feems
not to flow neceffarily from the fenfe of thofe words.
That Plato believed God to have framed the heaven and
the. earth, and to have faff toned all nature, is a polition
which, as far as we know, has never been controverted ;
but between framing or faffioning the chaos or vxw
aud calling the univerfe into exillence from non-
F ' entity,
Platonifm.
* Sefibrfia,
p. its.
t Mo/ch.
td. Cud.
Syji. Intel.
cap-4- §23
il. II.
P L A [4
entity, there is an infinite and an obvious differenee.
The diftinftion made by Cicero between the God of
Plato and the God of Ariflotle is a juft diftin&ion, but
it will not bear the fuperftnufture which the learned
Dc&or builds upon it. Ariftotle maintained the eter¬
nity of the world in its prefent form. Plato certainly
taught that the hrft matter was in time reduced from a
chaotic ftate into fun» by the power of the Demiurgus ;
but we have feen nothing in his writings which expli¬
citly declares his belief that the Jiiji matter was itfelf
created.
The learned Cudworth, who wifhed, like Dr Ogilvie,
to find a coincidence of doftrine between the theology
of Plato and that of the Gofpel, ftrained all his facul¬
ties to prove that his favourite philofopher taught a
proper creation ; but he laboured in vain. Pie gives a
number of quotations in fupport of his pofition ; of
which we fhall here imert only thofe two upon which
Dr Ogilvie feems to lay" the greateft ftrefs. Plato, fays
the author of the Intellectual Syftem, calls the one
(a) y1*'* xcci beve, xai Travlu i a tv ougm/u
ra 1* dSn, nect vto yvf chravlec tgycKTtlcu f{e that makes
earth, and heaven, and the gods, and doth a/1 things both
in heaven, and hell, and under the earth. And, again,
he by whofe efficiency the things of the world (v^fov
ovy. o»1«) <zvere afterwards made when they
were not before*.” Both Cudworth and Ogilvie think
this laft fentence an explicit declaration of Plato’s belief
in the creative power of God: but that they are mif-
taken has been evinced by Mofheim with a force of ar¬
gument which will admit of no reply. In that part of tlx
Koph 'ifi from which the quotation is taken, Plato confiders
the xuim wn,nhr>rf 0f which he is treating, as belong¬
ing both to God and to man ; and he defines it in gene¬
ral to be “ a certain power which is the caufe that things
may afterwards be which were not before.” Cudworth
wifhes to confine this definition to the divine power ;
and adds from himfelf to the text which he quotes the
following words, which are not in Plato, or from an
ANTECEDENT NON-EX JSTENCE BROUGHT FORTH INTO
kEiNG? That the incomparable author intended to
deceive his reader, we are far from imagining : his zeal
for Platonifm had deceived himfelf. Plato’s definition
comprehends the -j- as well of man as of
God ; and therefore cannot infer a creative power any¬
where, unlefs the father of the academy was fo very
’ abfurd as to fuppofe human artifts the creators of thofe
machines which they have invented and made ! Mofheim
thinks that Cudworth was milled by too implicit a
confidence in Fianus; and it is not impoffible that
Dr Ogilvie may have been fwayed by the authority,
great indeed, of the author of the Intellectual Syftem.
That intelleCk exifted antecedent to all bodies is in¬
deed a Platonic dogma, from which Dr Ogilvie, after
Cudworth, wifhes to infer that the doCtrine of the crea-
2 ] P L A
tion was taught in the academy ; but Dr Ogilvie knows, Piatonft
and no man knew better than Cudworth, that Plato, ——v"
with every other Greek philofopher, diftinguifhed be¬
tween body and matter; and that though he held the
priority of intelleCI to the former, it by no means fol¬
lows that he believed it to have exifted antecedent to
the latter. That he believed mind, or rather fou/ (for
he diftinguilhes between the two), to be the caufe or
principle of motion, cannot be denied; but we are not
therefore authorifed to conclude that he likewife be¬
lieved it to be the cauft of the exiftence of matter. That
he believed mind to be the moft ancient of a/l things,
taking the word things in the moft abfolute fenfe, can¬
not be true, fince by Dr Ogilvie’s own acknowledgment
he held the exiftence and eternity of tdeas, not to add
that he believed t’’ or T — the firft hyrpoftafis in-
las trinity, to be fuperior to mind and prior to it,,
though not in time, yet in the order of nature. When
therefore he calls mind the moft ancient of all things, he
muft be fuppofed to mean only that it is more ancientr
than all bodies and inferior fouls. It is no refleClion on
the character of Plato that he cowld not, by the efforts
of his own reafon, acquire any notion of a proper crea¬
tion ; fince we, who have the advantage of his writings,
and of writings infinitely more valuable, to inftruCt us,
find it extremely difficult, if not 'impoffible, to conceive
how any thing can begin to be. We believe the fact
on the authority of revelation ; but fhould certainly have
never agitated fuch a queftion, had it not been ftated tvr
us by writers infpired with celeftial wifdom.
lu the Platonic cofinogony we cannot therefore doubt
but that the eternity of the ^ was taken for
granted. Whether it was an eternal and neceffary ema¬
nation from an eternal mind, is not perhaps quite fo evi¬
dent, though our own opinion is, that it was believed
to be felf-exiftent. But be this as it may, which is notf
worth difputing, one thing is certain, that Plato did
not believe it to have a fingle form or quality which it
did not receive either from the Demiurgus or the Pfycht
— the fecund or third perfon of his trinity. Except
Arillotle, all the Greek philofophers, who were not
materialifls, held nearly the fame opinions refpeChng the
origin of the world ; lo that in examining their fyrter„3
we fhall be greatly milled if we underftand the terms
incorporeal and immaterial as at all fynonymous. It was
alfo a dodrine of Plato, that there is in matter a need-
fary but blind and refra&ory force ; and that hence
arifes a propenfity in matter to diforder and deformity,
which is the caufe of all the imperfeCf ion which appears
in the works of God, and the origin of evil. On this
fubjeCt Plato writes with wonderful obfeurity: but, as
far as we are able to trace his conceptions, he appears to
have thought, that matter, from its nature, relifts the
will of the Supreme Artificer, fo that he cannot per-
fedtly execute his defigns; and that this is the caufe of
the
(a) Mofheim affirms that this quotation is nowhere to be found in the writings of Plato. He therefore at
firft fufpedted that the learned author, in looking haftily over Plato’s 10th book De Legibus, had transferred to
God what is there faid of the anima mundi, leading by its own motions every thing in tide heaven, the earth, and
the fea, and that he had added fomething of his own. He dropped that opinion, however, when he found
Plato, in the loth book of his Republic, declaring it to be as “ eafy for God to produce the fun, moon, ftars,
and earth, &c. from himfelf, as it is for us to produce the image of ourfelves, and whatever elfe we pleafe, only
by interpofing a looking-glafs.” In all this power, however, there is nothing limilar to that of creation.
P L A [4
Ifm tlic rtixtuFC 0^ good 3nd evil vlucli is iountl 10 tl'C
material world. (
Plato, however, was no materialift.^ He taugnt,^
that th-i e is an intelligent caule, which is the origin of
all fpiritual being, and the former of the material world,
The nature of this great being he pronounced it difficult
to diicover, and when difeovered impoffible to divulge.
The exigence of God he inferred from the marks of in¬
telligence, which appear in the form and arrangement of
Bodies in the vifible world: and from the unity of the
material fyftem he concluded, that the mind by which
it was formed muft be one. God, according to Plato,
is the fupreme intelligence, incorporeal, without be¬
ginning, end, or change, and capable of being percei¬
ved only by the mind. He certainly diftinguilhed the
J)eity not only from body, and whatever has corporeal
qualities, but from matter itfelf, from which all things
me made. He alio aferibed to him all thofe qualities
which modern pliilofophers aferibe to immaterial fub-
llance ; and conceived him to be in his nature iimple,
uncircumfcribed in fpace, the author of all regulated
motion, and, in fine, poflefied of intelligence in the
higheft perfection.
His notions of God are indeed exceedingly refined,
end fuch as it is difficult to fuppol'e that he could ever
have acquired but from fome obfeure remains of prime¬
val tradition, gleaned perhaps from the priefts of Egypt
*>r from the philofophers of the Ealt. In the Divine
Nature he certainly believed that there are two, and
probably that there are three, hyfio/lafts, whom he called
Yo «* and *•« tv, e vr and The firil he coniidered
as felf-exiflent, and elevated far above all mind and all
knowledge ; calling him, by way of eminence, the
' or the one. The only attribute which he acknowledged
in this perfon was goodnefs; and therefore he frequent¬
ly llyles him T!1 tya-'w—the good, or ejjential goodnejs.
The fecund he confidered as mind, the nvifdom or reafon
<>f the firft, and the maker of the nvorld; and therefore
he ftyles him ►"«?, ^yrc, and The third
be always fpeaks of as the fou/ of the world ,■ and hence
calls him or r™ *«£r«9u. He taught that
the faorrd is a necefiary emanation from the firft, and
the third from the Jecond, or perhaps from the JirJl and
fecond.
Some have indeed pretended, that the Trinity) which
is commonly called Platoon, was a fiftion of the later
Platoniils, unknown) to the founder of the fchool: but
any perfon who ffiall take the trouble to fludy the wri¬
tings of Plato, will find abundant evidence that he really
afferted a triad of divine hypolfafts, all concerned in the
formation and government of the world. Thus in his
loth book of Laws, where he undertakes to prove the
evidence of a Deity in oppofltion to atheills, he afeends
mo higher in the demonftration than to the 'Tux* or mun¬
dane foul, which he held to be the immediate and proper
caufe of all the motion that is in the world. But in
'ther parts of his waitings he frequently a Herts, ?s fu-
perior to'ihe felf-moving principle, an immoveable **'f
or n it died, which was properly the demiurgus or fra¬
mer of the world; and above this hvprjlnfu cue melt
* 1 r 1-. a .
fimple and abfolutely perfect being, who is coniidered in IbatainG
Theology as ccvlo^ioft the original deity, in contrad,- *
ftindion from the others, who are only ** 8l'v. Thefe
elodrines are to be gathered from his works at large*
particularly from the V imesus, Phiiebi/t, hophijla, and P~
pinomis : but there is a paffiage in his fecond epiftle to
Dionyfms, apparently written in anfwer to a letter in
which that monarch had required him to give a more
explicit account than he had formerly done of the na¬
ture of God, in which the dodrine of a Trinity feems
to be diredly aflerted. “ After having faid that he
meant to wrap up his meaning in fuch obfeurity, as
that an adept only ffiould fully comprehend it, he adds
expreffions to the following import: ‘ The Lord of
Nature is furrounded on all fides by his works: what¬
ever is, exills by his permiffion : he is the fountain and
fource of excellence : around the fecond perfon are pla¬
ced things of the fecond order; and around the third
thofe of the third degree(B).” Of this qbfeure paffage
a very fatisfaftory explanation is given in Dr Ogilyic's
Theology of Plato, to which the narrow limits preicribed
to fuch articles as this compel us to refer the reader.
We (hall only fay, that the account which we have given
of the Platonic Trinity is ably fupported by the Dodor.
In treating of the eternal emanation of the fecoml
and third Hypoitafes from the firit, the philofophers of
the academy compare them to light and heat proceed¬
ing from the fun. Plato himfelf, as quoted by Dr Cud -
worth, illuilrates his dodrine by the fame comparifon.
For “ ♦”«><*?*•. or the firil hypoftalis, is in the intellec¬
tual world the lame (he fays) to intelleft and intell--
gibles that the fun is in the corporeal world to viiion
and vifibles; for as the fun is not vifion itfelf but the
caufe of vifion, and as that light by which we fee is
not the fun but only a thing like the fun; fo neither is
the Supreme or Plighell Good properly knowledge,
but the caufe of knowledge ; nor is intellect, confidered
as fuch, the bell and moil perfect being, but only a be¬
ing having the form of perfedion.” Again, “ as the
fun caufes other things not only to become vifible but
alfo to be generated; fo the Supreme Good gives to
things not only their capability of being known, but
alfo their very dfences by which they fubfilt; for this
fountain of the Deity, this higheil good, is not itfelf
properly efience, but above eflence, tranfeending it in rc-
Iped both of dignity and of power.”
The refemblar.ee which this trinity of Plato bears to
that revealed in the gofpcl muft be obferved by every
attentive reader; but the two dodrincs are likewife in
fome refpeds exceedingly diffimilar. The third hypo-
ftafis in the Platonic fyftem appears in no point of view-
co-ordinate with the firft or fecond. Indeed the firft is
elevated far above the fecond, and the third funk fti’l
farther beneath it, being confideved as a mere foul im-
meried in matter, and forming with the corporeal world,
to which it is united, one compound animal. Nay, it
does not appear perfrclly clear, that Plato confidered his
um wtu as a pure ftlirit, or as having fi* lifted
from eternity as a diftind Hypojlufis. “This governing
eternity as
ft fpirit, of whom the
earth, properly fo called, is the
F 2 ' bod'-,
(b) “ ri'pi ray ro-vrav T^ayr’eri, v.ai Exs;» v must ■ao.na., ri'iz tyay-uv t-jv xx*,*'
t p. 7 5. xti t 7« rpna." i). Cr. p. 1 ,(>j.
A.vr /J'v J: Ytfi ra S.i’Ttpa
P L A
Platonifm
body, conrubed, according to our authors philofophy,
of the fame and tlie other; that is, of the firit matter,
and of pure intelligence, framed to a&uate the machi¬
nery of nature. The Supreme Being placed him in the
middle of the earth ; which, in the vivid idea of Plato,
feemed itfelf to live, in confequence of an influence that,
was felt in every part of it. From this feat his power
is reprefented as being extended on all fides to the ut-
mofl limit of the heavens; conferring life, and prefer-
C 4+ 1
P L A
* Tvtofcb.
ed. Cud.
Syjl- Intel
C. 4. § 3b.
n.43.
We have faid that the Demiurgus was the maker .of, PLuonfo
the world from the firfl matter which had exifted from  
eternity; but in Plato’s cofmagony there is another
principle, more myflerious, if pofllble, than any thing
which we have yet mentioned. This is his intellectual,
iyflem of ideas, which it is not eafy to colledi from his
writings, whether he confidered as independent exiftences,
or only as archetypal forms, which had fubfiited from
eternity in the *-or>r or divine intelledf. On this fub-
7 —  o 7 'ww-wj.aavj m. a x w - 7 VAI V 1.1 1 LC, V, L • LA1JO 1U.U«»
ving harmony in the various and complicated parts of jeft he writes with fuch exceeding obfeurity, that men ^
the univerfe. Upon this being God is faid to have of the firll eminence, both among the ancients and the
looked with peculiar complacency after having formed moderns, have differed about his real meaning. Some
him as an image of himfelf, and to have given beauty
and pertedt proportion to the manfion which he was
deflmed to occupy. According to the dodtrine of Ti-
maeus, the Supreme Being ftruck out from this original
mind innumerable fpirits of inferior order, endowed with
principles of reafon ; and he committed to divinities of
fecondary rank the talk of invefling thefe in material
forms, and of difperflng them as inhabitants of the fun,
moon, and other celeflial bodies. He taught alfo, that
at death the human foul is reunited to the TPV Koa-
v-ov, as to the fource from which it originally came.”
Such is the third perfon of the Platonic triad,
as we find his nature and attributes very accurately
fiated by Dr Ogilvie ; and the Chriltian philofopher,
who has no particular fyflem to fupport, will not re¬
quire another proof that the triad of Plato differs
exceedingly from the Trinity of the Scriptures. Indeed
the third hypoftafis in this triad has fo much the appear¬
ance of all that the ancients could mean by that which
we call a creature, that the learned Cudworth, who wifh-
ed, it is difficult to conceive for what reafon, to find the
fublimeft myflery of the Chriftian faith explicitly taught
m the writings of a pagan philofopher, was forced to
iuppofe that Plato held a double or foul, one
ryuoa’f/.iov incorporated with the material world, and the
other vrtoy.ocficiiv or fupramundane, which is not the foul
but the governor of the univerfe. We call this a mere
hypothefis ; for though the author difplays vafl. erudi¬
tion, and adduces many quotations in which this double
pfyehe is plainly mentioned, yet all thofe quotations are
taken from Platonifls who lived after the propagation of
the golpel, and who, calling themfelves eccleitics, freely
Hole from every fe& fuch dogmas as they could incor-
porate with their own fyftem, and then attributed thofe
dogmas to their mailer. In the writings of Plato him-
ielt, there is not fo much as an allufion to tins fupramun-
dane pfyehe* ; and it is for tins reafon (the of
which he treats being fo very inferior to the
and '“/“-*») that we have expreifed with hefitation his
belief of three hypoftafes in the divine nature. Yet that
he did admit fo many, feems more than probable both
from the paifage illuilrated by Dr, Ogilvie and from the
attempt of Plotinus, one of his followers, to demon-
ilrate that the number can be neither greater nor lefs.
That his dodlrine on this fubjedl ihould be inaccurate
and erroneous, can excite no wonder; whillt it muft be
confefied to have fuch a refemblance to the truth, and
to be fo incapable of being proved by reafonyig from ef-
fedls to caufes, that we cquld not doubt of his having
inherited it by tradition, even though we had not com¬
plete evidence that fomething very fimilar to it was
taught long before him, not only by Pythagoras and
Parmenides, but by the philofophers of the eait.
have fuppofed, that by ideas he meant real beings fub-.
filling from eternity, independent of all minds, and fe-
parate from all matter ; and that of thefe ideas he con¬
ceived fome to be living and others to be without life.
In this manner his dodirine is interpreted by Tertul-
lian* among the ancients, and by the celebrated Brack- * jjut
erf among the moderns; and not by them only, but Anima.
by many others equally learned, candid, and acute. Cud-1 H’f-
worth, on the other hand, with his annotator Molheim,^m,<
contend, that by his ideal world Plato meant nothing
more than that there exilled from eternity in the **yo:
or mind of God a notion or conception of every thing
which was in time to be made. This is certainly
much more probable in itfelf, than that a man of enlar¬
ged underftanding Ihould have fuppofed, that there are.
fomewhere in extramundane fpace real living incorporeal
beings eating and drinking, which are the ideas of all
the animals which ever have been or ever will be eating
and drinking in this world. Yet Mofheim candidly ac¬
knowledges, that if the controverfy were to be decided
by the votes of the learned, he is doubtful whether it'
would be given for or againft him; and Cudworth,
though he pleads the caufe of his mailer with much in¬
genuity, owns, that on this fubjedl his language cannot
be vindicated. This indeed is moll true; for Plato
contends, that his ideas are not only the objedls of
fcience, but alfo the proper or phyfical caufes of all
things here below; that the idea of fimilitude is the
cauje of the refemblance between two globes; and the
idea of diffimilitude the caufe that a globe does not re-
femble a pyramid ; he likewife calls them «v<rixey ejfences
or fubjlances, and many of his followers have pronounced !
them to be animals. .
Thefe wonderful exprelfions incline us to adopt with
fame hefitation the opinion Hated by Dr Enfield. This
hifiorian of philofophy having obferved, that fome of.
the admirers of Plato contend, that by ideas exiHing in
the. reafon of God, nothing more is meant than concep¬
tions formed in the Divine mind, controverts this opi-,
nion with much effedl. “ By ideas, Plato (fays he) ap¬
pears to have meant fomething much more myfierious;
namely, patterns or archetypes fubfifiing by themfelves,
as real beings, o*™? 0v7a jn ^ Divine reafon, as in their
original and eternal region, and ilfuing thence to give
form to fenfible things, and to become objedls of con¬
templation and fcience to rational beings. It is the
dodlrine of the Timceus, that » *.oy\a-y.o<; ©£», the rea¬
fon of God, comprehends exemplars of all things, and,
that this reafon is one of the primary caufes of things.
Plutarch fays, that Plato fuppofes three principles, God,
Matter, and Idea. Jufiin Martyr, Pfeudo-Origen, and
others, aflert the fame thing.
“ That this is the true Platonic do&rine of ideas will.
8 appear
r
P t A [ 45 ] P L A
tonifm. appear probable, if we attend to the manner in which
%  p!at0 frame(i his fyftem of opinions concerning the ori¬
gin of things. ( Having been from his youth (fays A-
riftotle) converfant with Cratylus, a difciple of Hera¬
clitus, and intruded in the doftrine of that fchool, that
all fenfible things are variable, and cannot be proper ob¬
jects of fcience, he reafonably concluded, that if there
be any fuch thing as fcience, there muft exift, befides
fenfible ohjefts, certain permanent natures, perceptible
only by the intelleft.’ Such natures, divine in their
origin, and eternal and immutable in their exiftence, he
admitted into his fyftem, and called them ideas. Vifible
things were regarded by Plato as fleeting fhades, and
ideas as the only permanent fubftances. Thefe he con¬
ceived to be the proper objefts of fcience to a mind
raifed by divine contemplation above the perpetually
_ varying feenes of the material world.”
It was a fundamental doftrine in the fyftem of Plato,
that the Deity formed the material world after a perfeft
model, confiding of thofe ideas which had eternally lub-
. I filled in his own reafon ; and yet, with fome appearance
of contradiftion, he calls this model “_/£^-exiftent, indi-
vifible, and eternally gtnerattd.” Nay, he talks of it as
being intelligent as well as eternal, and wholly different
from the tranferipts, which are fubjefted to our inlpec-
tion. There is fo much myftery, confufion, and appa¬
rent abfurdity, in the whole of this fyftem, as it has
come down to us, that we muft fuppofe the friend's of
Plato to have been intruded with a key to his efoteric
doftrines, which has long been loft, otherwife it would
be difficult to conceive how that philofopher could have
had fo many admirers.
With almoft every ancient theift of Greece the foun¬
der of the academy believed in an order of beings called
damans, which were fuperior to the fouls of men, and
ftruck off by the Demiurgus from the foul of the world.
Of thefe the reader will find forae account elfewhere :
(See Djemon and Polytheism). We mention them
at prefent becaufe they make an important appearance
in Plato’s fyftem of phyfics, which was built upon them
and upon the doftrine which has been ftated concerning
God, matter, and ideas. He taught, that the vifible
world was formed by the Supreme Architeft, uniting
eternal and immutable, ideas to the firft matter; that the
I • iTrw. univerfe is one animated being*, including within its
limits all animated natures; that, in the formation of
the vifibleand tangible world, fire and earth were firft
formed, and were afterwards united by means of air and
water; that from perfeft parts one perfeft whole was
produced, of a fpherical figure, as molt beautiful in it-
Uid. felf, and beft Anted to contain all other figures f; that
the elementary jparts of the world are of regular geome¬
trical forms, the particles of earth being cubical, thofe
of fire pyramidical, thofe of air in the form of an ofto-
hedron, and thofe of water in that of an icofohedron ;
that thefe are adj lifted in number, meafure, and power,
in perfeft conformity to the geometrical laws of pro¬
portion ; that the foul which pervades this fphere is the
caufe of its revolution round its centre ; and, laftly, that
the world will remain for ever, but that by the aftion
ol its animating principle, it accompliffies certain pe¬
riods, within which every thing returns to its ancient
place and ftate. This periodical revolution of nature is
called the Platonic or great year. See the preceding
. article.
The metaphyfical doftrines of Plato, which treat offdatenifm.
the human foul, and the principles of his fyftem of
ethics, have been detailed in other articles (See Meta¬
physics, Part III. chap. iv. ; and Moral Pbilofophy,
6.) : but it is worthy of obfervation in this place,
that, preparatory to the ftudy of all philofophy, he re¬
quired from his difciples a knowledge of the elements of
mathematics. In his Republic, he makes Glaucus,
one of the fpeakers, recommend them for their ufeful-
nefs in human life. “ Arithmetic for accounts and di-
ftributions; geometry for incampments and menfura-
tions ; mafic for folemn feftivals in honour of the gods ;
and altronomy for agriculture, for navigation, and the
like. Socrates, on his part, denies not the truth of all
this, but ftill infmuates that they were capable of an-
fwering an end more fublime. ‘ You are pleafant (fays
he) in your feeming to fear the multitude, left you
ffiould be thought to enjoin certain fciences that are
ufelefs. ’Tis indeed no contemptible matter, though a
difficult one, to believe, that through thefe particular
fciences the foul has an organ purified and enlightened,
which is deftroyed and blinded by ftudies of other kinds;
an organ better worth faving than a thoufand eyes, in
as much as truth becomes vifible through this alone.,>
“ Concerning policy, Plato has written at large in his
Republic and in his Dialogue on Laws. He was fo
much enamoived with his- own conceptions on this fub-
jeft, that it was chiefly the hope of having an oppor*
tunity to realife his pLn of a republic which induced
him to-vifit the court of Dionyfius. But they who are
converfant with mankind, and capable of calmly invefti-
gating the fppings of human aftions, will eafily perceive
that his projefts were chimerical, and could only have
originated in a mind replete with philofophical enthu-
fiafm. Of this nothing can be a clearer proof than the
defign of admitting in his republic a community of wo¬
men, in order to give reafon an entire controul over de¬
fire. The main objeft of his political inftitutions ap¬
pears to have been, the fubjugation of the pafiions and
appetites, by means of the abftraft contemplation of
ideas. A fyftem of policy, raifed upon fuch fanciful
grounds, cannot merit a more diftinft confideration.”
Such is genuine Platonifm as it was taught in the old
academy by the founder of the fchool and his immediate
followers; but when Arcefilaus was placed at the head
of the academics, great innovations were introduced
both into their doftrines and into their mode of teach¬
ing (See Arcesilaus). This man was therefore con-
fidered as the founder of what was afterwards called the
middle academy. Being a profeffed fceptic, he carried
his maxim of uncertainty to fuch a height, as to alarm
the general body of philofophers, offend the governors
of the ftate, and bring juft odium upon the very name of
the academy. At length Cnrneades, one of the difciples
of this fchool, relinquifhing fome of the more obnoxious
tenets of Arcefilaus, founded what has been called the
new academy with very little improvement on the prin¬
ciples of the middle. See Carneades.
Under one or other of thefe forms Platonifm found
its way into the Roman republic. Cicero was a Plato-
nift, and one of the greateft ornaments of the fchool. A
fchool of Platonifts was likewife founded in Alexandria
in the fecond century of the Chriftian era; but their
doftrines differed in many particulars from thofe taught
in
P'aufus
I!
play-h 'life.
P L A [ 46 I P L A
in tlic three academies. They profefTed to feek truth
wherever they could find it, and to collect their dogmas
from every fchool. They endeavoured to bend fome of
the principles of Plato into a conformity with the doc*
trines of the gofpel; and they incorporated with the
whole many of the maxims of Ariftotle and Zeno, and
not a few of the fictions of the eafl. Their fyftem was
therefore extremely heterogeneous, and feldom fo ra¬
tional as that of the philofopher after whofe name they
were called, and of whofe doftrines we have given fo co¬
pious a detail. See Ammonius, Ecclectjcs, and Plo¬
tinus.
PLAUTUS (Marcus Accius), a comic writer of
ancient Rome, born at Umbria, a province of Italy.
Hi- proper name was Marcus Acam, and be is fup-
pofed to have acquired the furuame of Plautus from ha-
ving fplay feet. His parentage appears to have been
mean; fo that fome have thought he was the fan of a
flave. Aulus Gellius fays that Plautus was diflingui(li¬
ed for his poetry on the theatre, and Cato for his elo¬
quence in the Forum, at the fame time ; and obferves
elfewhere from Varro, that he was fo well paid for his
plays as to double his flock in trading, in which he
loft all he gained by the mufes. He is faid to have been
reduced to work at a mill for his fubfiftence ; but Varro
adds, that his wit was his beft fupport, as be compofed
three of his plays during this drudgery. He died in
the firft year of the elder Cato’s cenforfhip, about the
year of Rome ^69, and if’4 B. C. We have 20 of bis
plays extant, though not all of them entire. Five of
them, comedies, have been elegantly trandated into Eng-
Jifh by Mr B. Thornton, and publifhed in 2 vols 8vo,
1767.
PLAYS. See PLAY-housf.
PLAY-HOUSE* See Theatre, Amphithe4TRf,
See. The moft ancient Englifti play-houfes were the
Curtain in Shoreditch and the Theatre. In the time
of Shakefpeare, who commenced a dramatic writer in
15:92, there were no lefs than 10 theatres open. Four
of theft were private houfes, viz. that in Blackfriars,
the Cockpit or Phoenix in Drury-Lane, a theatre in
Whitefriars, and one in Salifburv court. The other fix
were called public theatres, viz. the Globe, the Swan,
the Roft, and the Hope, on the Bank-iide ; the Red
Bull, at the upper end of St John’s-ftreet, and the
Fortune in White-crofs Street. The two laft were
chiefly frequented by citizens. Mr Malone gives us a
pretty copious account of theft play-houfes, in a fup-
plenu-nt to his laft edition of Shakefpeare, which we
ihall here inftrt.
“ Moft, if not all (fays he) of Shakefpeare’s plays
were performed either at the Globe or at the Theatre in
Blackfriars. It appears that they both belonged to the
fame company of comedians, viz. his majefly’s fervants,
which title they aftumed, after a licence had been grant¬
ed to them by Ring James in 1603, having before that
time been called the fervants of the lord chamberlain.
“ The theatre in Blackfriars was a private houft ;
Rut the peculiar and diilinguifhing marks of a private
play-houfe it is not eafy to afeertain. It was very fmajl,
•and plays were there ufually reprefented by candle light.
The Globe, fituated on the fouthern fide of the river
Thames, was a hexagonal building, partly open to the
vcather, -partly covered with reeds/ It was a public
theatre, and of confidcrable fire, and there they always Play
adled by day-light. On the roof of the Globe, and the
other public theatres, a pole was erefted, to which a
Hag was affixed, Thefe flags were probably difplayed
only during the hours of exhibition ; and it fhould feem
from a paffage in one of the old comedies that they were
taken down during Lent, in which feafon no plays were
prefented. The Globe, though hexagonal at the out*
fide, was probably a rotunda within, and perhaps had
its name from its circular form. It might, however,
have been denominated only from its fign, which was a
figure of Hercules fupporting the Globe. This theatre
was burnt down in 1613, but it was rebuilt in the fol¬
lowing year, and decorated with more ornament than
had been originally bellowed upon it. The exhibitions
at the Globe ftem to have been calculated chiefly for
the lower clafs of people ; thofe at Blackfriars- for a
more ftlect and judicious audience.
“ A writer informs us, that one of thefe theatres
■was a winter and the other a fummer honft. As the
Globe was partly expoftd to the weather, and they acl-
ed there ufually by day-light, it was probably the furn-
mer theatre. The exhibitions here feem to have been
more frequent than at Blackfriars, at leaft till the year
1604 or 1609, when the Bank-fide appears to have
become lefs fafhionable and left; frequented than it for¬
merly had been. Many of our ancient dramatic pieces
were performed in the yards of carriers inns; in which*
in the beginning of queen Elizabeth’s reign, the come¬
dians, who then firft united themftlvcs in companies*
erefted an occafional ftage. The form of thefe tempo¬
rary play-houfes feems to be preferred in our modern
theatre. The-galleries are in both ranged over each
other on three fides of the building. The final] room*
under the loweft of thefe galleries anfwer to our prefer*,
boxes ; and it is obfervable that theft, even in theatres
which were built in a fubftquent period exprefsly for
dramatic exhibitions, ftill retained their old name, and*
are frequently called rooms by our ancient writers. The
yard bears a fufficient refemblanee to the pit, as at pre¬
lent in uft. We may fuppofe the flage to have been
raiftd in this area, on the fourth fide, with its back to
the gateway of the inn, at which the money for adrr.ift
fion was taker. Hence, in the middle of the Globe,
and I fuppofe of the other public theatres, in the time
of Shakefpeare, there was an open yard or area, where
the common people flood to fee the exhibition ; from
which circumftance they arc called by, our author ground¬
lings, and by Ben Johnfon ‘ the uoderflanding gentle¬
men of the ground.’
In the ancient play-houfes there appears to har e
been a private box, of which it is not eafy to afeertain
the fituation. It feems to have been placed at the fide
of the ftage towards the rear, and to have been at a
lower price : in this fome people fat, either from eco¬
nomy or fingularity. The galleries,, or fcaffolds as they
are fometimes called, and that part of the houft which
in private theatres was named the pit, feem to have been
at the fame price ; and probably in houfes of reputation,
fuch as the Globe, and that in Blackfriars, the price of
admifiion into thofe parts of the theatre was 6 d. while
in fome meaner play-houfes it was only 1 d. in others,
only 2 d. The price of admifiion into the beil rooms or
hexes was, I believe, in our author’s time, 1 s. j though
after-
r l a r
'.ho fe afterwards it appears to have rifen to as. and half-*-
crown,
“ From k very I pafTages in our old plays, we leam,
that fpeftators were admitted on the ft age, and that the
critics and wits of the time ufually fat there. Some were
placed on the ground; others fat on ftools, of which
the price was either 6 d. or I s. according, I fuppofe, to
the commodioufnefs of the fituation ; and they were at¬
tended by pages, who furniihed them with pipes and
tobacco, w hich was fmoaked here as well as in other
* arts of the houfe ; yet it ftiould feem that pcifons were
fuffered to fit on the ftage only in the private play-houfes,
Inch as Blackfriars, &c. where the audience was more le¬
ft (ft, and of a higher clafs ; and that in the Globe and
e ther public theatres no fuch licence was permitted.
“ The ftage was ftrewed with rulhes, which, as we
learn from Hentzner and Cains de Ephemera, was, in
the time of Shakefpeare, the ufual covering of floors in
England. The curtain which hangs in the front of the
prelent ftage, drawn up by lines and pulleys, though not a
modern invention, for it was ufed by Inigo Jones in the
rnafques at icourt, was yet an apparatus to which the
fimple mechamfm of our ancient theatres had not arrived,
for in them the curtains opened in the middle, and Were
drawn backwards and forwards on an iron rod. In fome
play-houfes they were woollen, in others made of lilk.—
Towards the rear of the ftage there appears to have been
a balcony, the platform of which was probably eight or
ten feet from the ground. I fuppofe it to have been fup-
ported by pillars. From hence, in many of our old plays,
part of the dialogue was fpoken ; and in the front of this
balcony curtains likewife were hung.
“ A doubt has been entertained whether in our ancient
theatres there were fide and other feenes. The queftion
is involved in fo much obfeurity, that it is very difficult to
form any decided opinion upon it. It is certain, that in
t'le year 160 q Inigo Jones exhibited an entertainment at
Oxford, in which moveable feenes were ufed ; but he ap¬
pears to have introduced feveral pieces of machinery in the
mafques at court, with which undoubtedly the public
theatres were unacquainted. A pafiage which has been
produced from one of the old comedies, proves, it muit
be owned, that even thefe were furniihed with fome pieces
of machinery, which were ufed when it was requilite to
exhibit the defeent of fome god or faint; but from all
the contemporary accounts, I am inclined to believe that
the mechanifm of our ancient ftage fddom went beyond
a painted chair or a trap-door, and that few, if any of
them, had any moveable feenes. When king Henry VIII.
is to be difeovered by the dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk,
reading in his ftudy, the fcenical direflion in the firft fo¬
lio, 1623, (which was printed apparently from play-houfe
copies), is, ‘ the king draws the curtain,!(/. t. draws it
open), and fits reading penfively for, befides the prin¬
cipal curtains that hung in the front of the ftage, they
ufed others as fubftitutes for feenes. If a bed-chamber is
to be exhibited, no change of fetne is mentioned ; but the
property-man is limply ordered to thruft forth a bed.
When the fable requires the Roman capitol to be exhibit¬
ed, vve find two officers enter, ‘tolay culhions, as it were,
in the capitol,’ &c. On the whole, it appears, that our
anaent theatres, in general, were only furniffitd with cur¬
tains, and a fingle icerie compofed of tapeftry, which
were iometimes, perhaps, ornamented with pictures ; and
Mint paffages in our old dramas incline one to think, that
47 ] P L a
when tragedies were performed the {huge was himr with Hay.hm.fc .
black. j —
“ In the early part, at Icaft, of our author’s J acquain-1 Slatt-
tance with the theatre, the v mt of icenery feems to have-/?M'v*
been fuppiicd by the fimple expedient of writing the
names of the different places where the feene was laid hi
the progrefs of the play, which were difpofed in fuch n
manner as to be vifible to the audience. The invention
of trap-doors, however, appears not to be modern ; for in
an old morality, intitled Ailfur Alonev, we find a margi¬
nal dire<ftion which implies that they were very early in
ufe. The covering, or internal roof of the ftage, was
anciently termed the heavens. It was probably painted
of a Iky-blue colour, or perhaps pieces of drapery tinged
with blue were iufpendcd acrois the ftage to reprefent the
heavens.
“ It is probable that the ftage was formerly lighted by-
two large branches, of a form limilar to thole now hung
in churches. They gave place in a fubfequent period to
finail circular wooden frames, furniihed with candles,
eight of which were hung on the ftage,four at either fide,
and thefe within a few years were wholly removed by Mr
Garrick, who, on his return from France, firft introdu¬
ced the prefent commodious method of illuminating the
ftage by lights not vifible to the audience. Many of the
companies of players were formerly fo thin, that one per-
fon played two or three parts ; and a battle on which the
fate of an empire was fuppofed to depend was decided by
half a dozen combatants. It appears to have been a com¬
mon pra<ftice in their mock engagements to difeharge
fmall pieces of ordnance on the ftage. Before the exhi¬
bition began, three flourilhes or pieces of mufic were
played, or, in the ancient language, there were three
foundings. Mufic was likewife played between the aifts.
The inftruments chiefly ufed were trumpets, cornets, and
hautboys. The hand, which did not confift of more thap
five or fix performers, fat in an upper balcony, over what
is now called the ftage-box.
“ The perfon who fpoke the prologue was ufhered in-
by trumpets, and ufually wore a long black velvet cloak,
which, I fuppofe, was confidered as bell fuited to a fup-
plicatory addrefs. Of this cultom, whatever might have
been its origin, fome traces remained till very lately, a
black coat having been, if I miftake not, within thefe few
years, the conftant flage-habiliment of our modern pro-
lague-fpeakers. The drefs of the ancient prologue-
fpeaker is ftill retained in the play that is exhibited in
Hamlet before the king and court of Denmark. The per¬
formers of male characters generally wore periwigs, which
in the age of Shakefpeare were not in common ufe. It
appeal's, from a paffage in Puttenham’s Art of Enytijh
Potfy, 1 5S9, that vizards were on fome occafions ufed by
the a<ftors of thofe days j and it may be interred, from a
feene in one of our author’s comedies, that they were
fometimes worn in his time by thofe who performed fe¬
male characters ; but this I imagine was veiy rare. Some
of the female part of the audience likewife. appeared in
malks. The ftage-dreffes, it is reafonable to fuppofe,
were much more coftly at fome theatres than at others ;
yet the wardrobe of even the king’s fervants at the Globe
and Blackfriars, was, we find, but fcantily furniffied;
and our author’s dramas derived very little aid from the
fplendor of exhibition.
It is well known, that in the time of Shakefpeare,.
and for many years afterwards, female charaders were
7 repre-
P L A [48
PlaYjhoufc. reprefented by boys ©p young men. Sir illiam I) Ave-
' ■ '' v' nant, in imitation of the foreign theatres, firft. introduced
females in the feene, and Mrs Betterton is fatd to have
been the fir ft woman that appeared on the Englilh ftage.
Andrew Pennycuicke played the part of Matilda in a tra¬
gedy of Davenport’s, in 1655 ; and Mr Kynafton a&ed
feveral female parts after the Reftoration.^ Downes, a
contemporary of his, aftures us, ‘ that being then \ery
young he made a complete ftage beauty, performing his
parts fo well, particularly Arthiope and Aglauia, that it
has lince been difputable among the judicious whether
any woman that fucceeded him touched the audience fo
fenfibly as he.’
“ Both the prompter, or book-holder, as he was fome-
times called, and the property-man, appear to have been
regular appendages of our ancient theatres. No writer
that I have met with intimates, that in the time of Shake-
- fpeare it was cuftomary to exhibit more than a ftngle dra¬
matic piece on one day. The Yorkfhire tragedy, 01 All t
> One, indeed, appears to have been one of four pieces that
were reprefented on the fame day ; and Fletcher has alfo
a piece called Four Plays in One; but probably thefe were
either exhibited on fome particular occafion,or were inef-
fe£tual efforts to introduce a new fpecies of amufement;
for we do not find any other inftances of the fame kind.
iHad any fhorter pieces been exhibited after the principal
performance, fome of them probably Would have been
printed : but there are none extant of an earlier date than
the time of the Reftoration. The praAice, therefore, of
exhibiting two dramas fucceflively in the fame evening,
we may be affured was not ertablifhed before that period.
But though the audiences in the time of our author
were not gratified by the reprefentation of more than one
drama in the fame day, the entertainment was diverfified,
and the populace diverted, by vaulting, tumbling, flight
of hand, and morris-dancing, a mixture not much more
heterogeneous than that with which we are daily prefent-
ed, a tragedy and a farce.
“ The amufements of our anceftors, before the com¬
mencement of the play, were of various kinds, fuch as
reading, playing at cards, drinking ale, or fmoaking to¬
bacco." It was a common pra&ice to carry table-books to
the theatre, and either from curiofity or enmity to the
author, or fome other motive, to write down paffages of
the play that was reprefented : and there is reafon to be¬
lieve that the imperfeft and mutilated copies of fome
of Shakefpeare’s dramas, which are yet extant, were ta¬
ken down in fhort-hand during the exhibition. At the
end of the piece, the a&ors, in noblemens houfes and
in taverns, where plays were frequently performed, pray¬
ed for the health and profperity of their patrons ; and in
the public theatres for the king and queen. This prayer
fometimes made part of the epilogue. _ Hence, probably,
as Mr Steevens has obferved, the addition of Fivant rex
et regina to the modern play-bills.
“ Plays, in the time of our author, began at one o’clock
in the afternoon ; and the exhibition was ufually finifh-'
ed in two hours. Even in 1667 they commenced at
three. When Goffon wrote his School of Ahufe in 1579,
it feems the dramatic entertainments were ufually exhi¬
bited on Sundays. Afterwards they were performed on
that and other days indiferiminately. It appears from a
contemporary writer, that exhibiting plays on Sundayhad
jnot been abolifhed in the third year of king Charles I.
“ The modes of conveyance to the theatre, anciently
] P L A
as at prefent, Teem to have been various; fome going in Play hog£ pir
coaches, others on horfeback, and many by water.— -
To the Globe play-houfe the company probably were
conveyed by water ; to that in Blackfriars the gentry
went either in coaches or on horfeback, and the common
people on foot. In an epigram to Sir John Davis,
the pra&ice of riding to the theatre is ridiculed as a piece
of affeAation or vanity, and therefore we may prefume
it was not veiy general.
“ The long and whimfical titles that are prefixed to
the quarto copies of our author’s plays, I fuppofe to have
been tranferibed from the play-bills of the time. A con¬
temporary writer has preferved fomething like a play-bill
of thofe days, which feems to corroborate this obferva-
tion ; for if it were divefted of rhime, it would bear no
very diftant refemblance to the title pages that ftand be¬
fore fome of our author’s dramas :
« — Prithee, what’s the play ?
‘ (The firft I vifited this twelvemonth day)
‘ They fay—<{ A new invented play of Purle,
‘ That jeoparded his neck to fteal a girl
‘ Of twelve; and lying faft impounded for’t,
* Has hither fent his bearde to aft his part ;
‘ Againft all thofe in open malice bent,
‘ That would not freely to the theft confent:
‘ Feigns all to’s wifti, and in the epilogue
‘ Goes out applauded for a famous—rogue.”
< —Now hang me if I did not look at firft
‘ For fome fuch fluff, by the fond people’s thruft.”
“ It is uncertain at what time the ufage of giving au»
thors a benefit on the third day of the exhibition of their
pieces commenced. Mr Oldys, in one of his manuferipts,
intimates that dramatic poets had anciently their benefit
on the firft day that a new play was repvefented ; a regu¬
lation which would have been very favourable to fome of
the ephemeral produftions of modern times. But for this
there is not, I believe, any fulficient authority. From
D’Avenant, indeed, we learn, that in the latter part of
the reign of queen Elizabeth the poet had his bene¬
fit on the fecond day. As it was a general pra&ice in
the time of Shakefpeare to fell the copy of the play to the
theatre, I imagine in fuch cafes an author derived no
other advantage from his piece than what arofe from the
fale of it. Sometimes, however, he found it more be¬
neficial to retain the copyright in his own hands ; and
when he did fo, I fuppofe he had a benefit. It is cer¬
tain that the giving authors the profit of the third ex¬
hibition of their play, which feems to have been the
ufual mode during almoft the whole of the laft century,
was an eftablilhed cuftom in the year 1612 ; for Deck¬
er, in the prologue to one of his comedies printed in
that year, fpeaks of the poet’s third day. The unfor¬
tunate Otway had no more than one benefit on the
produ&ion of a new play j and this too, it feems, he
was fometimes forced to mortgage before the piece was
a&ed. Southerne was the firft dramatic writer who
obtained the emoluments arifing from two reprefenta-
tions; and to Farquhar, in the year 1700, the bene¬
fit of a third was granted. When an author fold his
piece to the lharers or proprietors of a theatre, it re¬
mained for feveral years unpublifhed; but when that
was not the cafe, he printed it for fale, to which many
feem to have been induced, from an apprehenfion that
an imperfect copy might be iffued from the prefs with¬
out
& sr
P L E
oufe, out their confent. The cuftomary price of the copy of
*• a play in the time of Shakefpeare appears to have been
twenty nobles, or fix pounds thirteen (hillings and four
pence. The play when printed was fold for fixpence ;
and the ufual prefent from a patron in return for a de¬
dication was forty (hillings. On the firft day of exhi¬
biting a new play, the prices of admiffion appear to
have been raifed; and this feems to have been occa-
fionally pra&ifed on the benefit-nights of authors to
the end of the lad century. The cuftom of pafling
a final cenfure on plays at their fh-ft exhibition is as
ancient as the time of our author; for no lefs than
three plays of his rival Ben Jonfon appear to have been
damned ; and Fletcher’s Faithful Shepherdefs, and The
Knight of the Burning Peftle, written by him and Beau¬
mont, underwent the fame fate.
“ It is not eafy to afcertain what were the emolu¬
ments of a fuccefsful after in the time of Shakefpeare.
They had not then annual benefits as at prefent. The
performers at each theatre feem to have (hared the pro¬
fits arifing either from each day’s exhibition or from
the whole feafon among them. From Ben Jonfon’s
Poetafter we learn, that one of either the performers
or proprietors had feven (hares and a half; but of what
integral fum is not mentioned. From the prices of ad-
miflion into our ancient theatres, which have been al¬
ready mentioned, I imagine the utmoft that the (harers
of the Globe play-houfe could have received on any one
day was about L. 35. So lately as the year 1685, Shad-
well received by his third day on the reprefentation of
the Squire of Alfatia, L. 130; which Downes the
prompter fays was the greateft receipt that had been
ever taken at Drury-Lane playhoufe at fingle prices.
It appears from the MSS. of Lord Stanhope, trea-
furer of the chambers to King James I. that the cufto¬
mary fum paid to John Heminge and his company for
the performance of a play at court was twenty nobles,
or fix pounds thirteen (hillings and four pence. And
Edward Alleyn mentions in his Diary, that he once had
fo (lender an audience in his theatre called the Fortune,
that the whole receipts of the houfe amounted to no
more than three pounds and fome odd (hillings.
“ Thus fcanty and meagre were the apparatus and
accommodations of our ancient theatres, on which thofe
dramas were firft exhibited, that have fince engaged tire
-attention of fo many learned men, and delighted fo
many thoufand fpeftators. Yet even then, we are told
by a writer of that age, «that dramatic poefy was fo
lively expreffed and reprefented on the public ftages and
theatres of this city, as Rome in the age of her pomp
-and glory never faw it better performed ; in refpeft of
-the aftion and art, not of the coft and fumptuoufnefs.”
PLEA, in kw, is what either party alleges for him-
felf in court, in a caufe there depending ; and in a more
reftrained fenfe, it is the defendant’s anfwer to the plain¬
tiff’s declaration.
Pleas are ufually divided into thofe of the crown and
common pleas. Pleas of the crown are all fuits in the
.king s name, or in the name of the attorney-general in
behalf of the king, for offences committed againft his
crown and dignity, and againft his peace ; as treafon,
murder, felony, &c. See Arraignment.
Common pleas are fuch fuits as are carried on be-
Kfc common perfons in civil cafes. Thefe pleas are
r Vot.XV. Part L
P L E
of two forts ; dilatory pleas, and pleas to the adion. Di¬
latory pleas are fuch as tend merely to delay or put off
the fuit, by queftioning the propriety of the remedy, ra¬
ther than by denying the injury : pleas to the aftion are
fuch as difpute the very caufe of fuit-
I. pleas are, 1. To the jurifdiftion of the
court: alleging, that it ought not to hold plea of this
injury, it arifing in Wales or beyond fea; or becaufe
the land in queftion is of ancient demefne, and ought
only to be demanded in the lord’s court, &c. 2. To
the difability of the plaintiff, by reafon whereof he is
incapable to commence or continue the fuit; as, that
he is an alien enemy, outlawed, excommunicated, at¬
tainted of treafon or felony, under a praemunire, not in
rerum natura (being only a fiftitious perfon), an infant,
a feme-covert, or a monk profeffed. 3. In abatement:
which abatement is either of the writ, or the count, for
fome defeft in one of them ; as by mifnaming the defen¬
dant, which is called a mifnomer; giving him a wrong
addition, as efquire inftead of knight; or other want of
form in any material refpeft. Or, it may be that the
plaintiff is dead ; for the death of either party is at once
an abatement of the fuit.
Thefe pleas to the jurifdiftion, to the difability, or in
abatement, were formerly very often ufed as mere dila¬
tory pleas, without any foundation in truth, and calcu¬
lated only for delay ; but now by ftaU 4 & 5 Ann. c. 16.
no dilatory plea is to be admitted without affidavit made
of the truth thereof, or fome probable matter (hown to
the court to induce them to believe it true. And with
refpeft to the pleas themfelves, it is a rule, that no ex¬
ception (hall be admitted againft a declaration or writ,
unlefs the defendant will in the fame plea give the plain¬
tiff a better ; that is, (how him how it might be amend¬
ed, that there may not be two objeftions upon the fame
account.
All pleas to the jurifdiftion conclude to the cogni¬
zance of the court ; praying “ judgment whether the
court will have farther cognizance of the fuit.” Pleas
to the difability conclude to the perfon ; by praying
“ judgment, if the faid A the plaintiff ought to be an-
fwered And pleas in abatement (when the fuit is by
original) conclude to the writ or declaration; by pray-
ing “ judgment of the writ, or declaration, and that the
fame may be quafhed,” cajjetur, made void, or abated :
but if the aftion be by bill, the plea muft pray “ judge¬
ment of the bill,” and not of the declaration ; the bill
being here the original, and the declaration only a copy
of the bill.
When thefe dilatory pleas are allowed, the caufe is
either drfrniffed from that jurifdiftion, or the'plaintiff is
ftayed till his difability be removed; or he is obliged to
fue out a new writ, by leave obtained from the court,
or to amend and new-frame his'declaration. But when,
on the other hand, they are over-ruled as frivolous, the
defendant has judgment of refpondeat oujler, or to anfwer
over in fome better manner. It is then incumbent on
him;to plead.
2. A plea to the aftion ; that is, to anfwer to the me¬
rits of the complaint. This is done by confeffing or de¬
nying it.
A confeffion of the whole complaint is not very ufual;
for then the defendant would probably end the matter
fooner, or not plead at all, but fuffer judgment to go
G by
[ 49 1
P L E r 50 J P L E
by default. Yet feme times, after tender and refufal of
a debt, if the creditor haraffee his debtor with an adion,
it then becomes neceffary for the defendant to acknow¬
ledge the debt, and plead the tender; adding, that he
has always been ready, tout tempi prijl, and is ftill ready,
unrore pnfi, to difeharge it: for a tender by the debtor
and refufal by the creditor will in all cafes diicharge the
coils, but not the debt itfelf; though in fome particular
cafes the creditor wall totally lofe his money. But fre¬
quently the defendant confeffes one part of the complaint
(by a rognmit nSionem in refpecl thereof), and traverfes
or denies the reft ; in order to avoid the ex pence of car-
rying that part to a formal trial, which he has no ground
to litigate. A fpecies of this fort of confefiion is the
payment of money into cow't : which is for the moft part
necefiary upon pleading a tender, and is itfelf a kind of
tender to the plaintiff; by paying into the hands of the
proper officer of the court as much as the defendant ac¬
knowledges to be due, together with the cofts hitherto
incurred, in order to prevent the expence of any farther
proceedings. This may be done upon what is called a
motion . which is an occafional application to the court
by the parties or their counfel, in order to obtain fome
rule or order of court, which becomes neceffary in the
progrefs of a caufe ; and it is ufually grounded upon an
ajfi'lavit (the perfeft tenfe of the verb offido), being a
voluntary oath before fome judge or officer of the court,
to evince the truth of certain fadfs, upon which the mo¬
tion is grounded : though no fuch affidavit is neceffary
for payment of money into court. If, after the money is
paid in, the plaintiff proceeds in his fuit, it is at his own
peril: for if he does not prove more due than is fo paid
into court, he ftiall be nonfuited and pay the defendant’s
cofts; but he lhall ftill have the money fo paid in, for
that the defendant has acknowledged to be his due. To
this head may alfo be referred the praftice of what is
called a fel off; whereby the defendant acknowledges
the juftice of the plaintiff’s demand on the one hand;
but on the other, fets up a demand of his own, to coun¬
terbalance that of the plaintiff, either in the whole or in
part; as, if the plaintiff fues for ten pounds due on a
note of hand, the defendant may fet off nine pounds due
to himfelf for merchandise fold to the plaintiff; and, in
cafe he pleads fuch fet-off, muft pay the remaining ba¬
lance into court.
Pleas that totally deny the caufe of complaint are ei¬
ther the general iffue, or a fpecial plea in bar.
1. The general ijfuc, or general plea, is what traverfes,
thwarts, and denies at once, the whole declaration, with¬
out offering any fpecial matter whereby to evade it. As
in trefpafe either w et armis, or on the cafe, “ non cul-
pabilisy not guilty in debt upon contract, “ nihil debet9
he owes nothing in debt on bond, “ non eft faRuniy
it is not his deed on an ajfumpjtty “ non ajfumpftty he
made no fuch promife.” Or in real aeftions, “ nul torty
no wrong done ; nul diffi jin, no diffeiiin and in a
writ of right, the mife or iffue is, that “ the tenant
has more right to hold than the demandant has to de¬
mand.” Thefe pleas are called the general iffiety becaufe,
by importing an abfolute and general denial of what is
alleged in the declaration, they amount at once to an
iffue ; by which we mean a fa& affirmed on one fide and
denied on the other.
2. Special pleas in bar of the plaintiff’s demands are
very various, according to the circumftances of tlie de¬
fendant’s cafe. As, in real a&ions, a general releafe Pit
or a fine ; both of which may deftroy and bar the plain- '■—V
tiff's title. Or, in perfonal actions, an accord, arbitra¬
tion, conditions performed, nonage of the defendant,
or fome other fa£t which precludes the plaintiff from his
action. A juftiftcatmn is likewife a fpecial plea in bar;
as in aft ions of affault and battery, fon cjfanlt drmet'nty
that it was the plaintiff’s own original affault; in tref-
pafs, that the defendant did the thing complained of in
right of fome office which warranted him fo to do ; or,
in an afition of flander, that the plaintiff is really as bad
a man as the defendant faid he was.
Alfo a man may plead the ftatutes of limitation in
bar ; or the thne limited by certain afts of parliament,
beyond which no plaintiff can lay his caufe of aftion.
This, by the ftatute of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2. in a writ
of right is 60 years : in affifes, writs of entry, or other
poffeffory. aftions real, of the feifin of one’s anceftors
in lands ; and either of their feifin, or one’s own, in
rents, fuits, and fervices, 50 years: and in a&ions real
for lands grounded upon one’s own feifm or poffeffion,
fuch poffeffion muft have been within 30 years. By
ftatute 1 Mar. ft. 2. c. 5. this limitation does not extend
to any fuit for avowfons. But by the ftatute 21 Jac. I.
c. 2. a time of limitation was extended to the cafe of
the king ; viz. 60 years precedent to 19th Feb. 1623 r
but, this becoming ineffeftual by efflux of time, the fame'
date of limitation was fixed by ftatute 9 Geo. III. c*
16. to commence and be reckoned backwards, from the
time of bringing any fuit or other procefs to recover the
thing in queftion ; fo that a poffeffion for 60 years is
now a bar even again!! the prerogative, in derogation
of the ancient maxim, Nullum tempus occurrit regu By
another ftatute, 21 Jac. I. c. 16. 20 years is the time
of limitation in any writ of formedon : and, by a confe-
quence, 20 years is alfo the limitation in every a&ion
of eje&ment; ’for no ejeftment can be brought, unlefa
where the leffor of the plaintiff is intitled to enter on
the lands, and by the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 16. no entry
can be made by any man, unlefs within 20 years after
his right fhall accrue. Alfo all actions of trefpafs
(quare claufum fregity or otherwife), detinue, trover, re¬
plevin, account, and cafe (except upon accounts be¬
tween merchants), debt on fimple contracl, or for arrears
of rent, are limited by the ftatute laft mentioned to fix
years after the caufe of action commenced : and attions
of affault, menace, battery, mayhem, and imprifonment,
muft be brought within four years, and aftions for words
two years, after the injury committed. And by the lla-
tute 31 Elia. c. 5. all fuits, indiftments, and informa¬
tions, upon any penal ftatutes, where any forfeiture is
to the crown, (hall be fued within two years, and where
the forfeiture is to a fubjeft, within one year, after the
offence committed, unlefs where any other time is fpe-
cially limited by the ftatute. Laftly, by ftatute to W„
III. c. 14. no writ of error, ft ire facias, or other fuit*.
fhall be brought to reverie any judgment, fine, or reco¬
very, for error, unlefs it be profecuted within 20 years..
The ufe of thefe ftatutes of limitation is to preferve the
peace of the kingdom, and to prevent thofe innumerable
perjuries which might enfue if a mail were allowed to
bring an adtion for any injury committed at any diftance
of time. Upon both thefe accounts the law therefore
holds, that mtereft reipublicte. utJitft*t'“ Ktium : and upon
the fame principle the Athenian laws in general pro¬
hibited
P L E Is
a* hibited all aftions where the injury wae committed five
'~~m/ years before the complaint was made. If therefore, in
any fuit, the injury, or caufe of adb’on, happened earlier
than the period exprefsly limited by law, the defen¬
dant may plead the ftatutes of limitations in bar: as
upon an a//umpjit, or promife to pay money to the plain¬
tiff, the defendant may plead, Aon ajfumpjit infra fex an-
nos, He made no fuch promife within fix years; which
is an effedlual bar to the complaint.
An ejioppel is likewife a fpecial plea in bar j which
happens where a man hath done fome aft, or executed
fome deed, which eftops or precludes him from averring
any thing to the contrary. As if a tenant for years (who
hath no freehold) levies a fine to another perfon. Tho’
this is void as to ftrangers, yet it ftiall work as an eftop-
pel to the cognizor ; for, if he afterwards brings an ac¬
tion to recover thefe lands, and his fine is pleaded a-
gainit him, he (hall thereby be eitopped from faying,
that he had no freehold at the time, and therefore was
incapable of levying it.
The conditions and qualities of a plea (which, as well
a* the doftrine of eftoppels, will alfo hold equally, mu-
tatis mutandis, with regard to other parts of pleading),
are, i. That it be fingle and containing only one mat¬
ter ; for duplicity begets confufion. But by llatute 4
and 5 Ann. c. 16. a man, with leave of the court, may
plead two or more diftinft matters or fingle pleas ; as in
an aftion of affault and battery, thefe three, Not guilty,
fon ajfault demefnt, and the ftatute of limitations. 2.
That it be direft and pofitive, and not argumentative.
3. That it have convenient certainty of time, place, and
perfons. 4. That it anfwerthe plaintiff’s allegations in
every material point. 5. That it be fo pleaded as to be
capable of trial.
Special pleas are ufually in the affirmative, fometimes
in the negative, but they always advance fome new faft
not mentioned in the declaration ; and then they muft
be averred to be true in the common form :— “ And
this he is ready to verify.”—This is not neceffary in
pleas of the general iffue, thofe always containing a to¬
tal denial of the fafts before advanced by the other par¬
ty, and therefore putting him upon the proof of them.
See Pleadings.
Plza to Indidmrnt, the defenfive matter alleged by a
f, criminal on his indiftment: (fee Arraignment.) This
is either, u A plea to the jurifdiftion ; 2. A demurrer ;
3. A plea in abatement; 4. A fpecial plea in bar 1 or,
5. The general iffue.
I. A plea to the jurifdidion, is where an indiftment
is taken before a court that hath no cognizance of the
rflence; as if a man be indifted for a rape at the fhe-
riff’s tourn, or for treafon at the quarter-feffions : in
thefe or fimilar cafes, he may except to the jurifdiftion of
the court, without anfwering at all to the crime alleged.
II. A demurrer to the indiftment, is incident to cri¬
minal cafes, as well as civil, when the faft as alleged is
allowed to be true, but the prifoner joins ifliie upon
iome point of law in the indiftment by which he infills,
that the faft, as ftated, is no felony, treafon, or what¬
ever the crime is alleged to be. Thus, for inftance, if
a man be indicted for felonioufly Healing a greyhound;
which is an animal in which no valuable property can
be had, and therefore it is not felony, but only a civil
ti efpafs to Heal it; in this cafe the party indifted may
demur to the indiftment; denying it to be felony, tho’
i ] P L E
he confeffes the aft of taking it. Some have held, that
if, on demurrer, the point of law be adjudged againH 'T"“w
the prifoner, he fhall have judgment and execution, as
if convifted by verdift. But this is denied by others,
who hold, that in fuch cafe he fhall be direfted and re¬
ceived to plead the general iffue, Not guilty, after a de¬
murrer determined againfl him. Which appears the
more reafonable, becaufe it is clear, that if the prifoner
freely difcovers the faft in court, and refers it to the
opinion of the court whether it be felony or no; and
upon the faft thus fhown, it appears to be felony, the
court will not record the confeffion, but admit him af¬
terwards to plead not guilty. And this feems to be a
cafe of the fame nature, being for the mofl part a mif-
take in point of law, and in the conduft of his pleading;
and, though a man by mifpleading may in fome cafes
lofe his property, yet the law will not fuffer him by
fuch niceties to lofe his life. However, upon this doubt,
demurrers to indiftments are feldom ufed : fince the fame
advantages may be taken upon a plea of not guilty ; or
afterwards, in arrell of judgment, when the verdift has
eftabliffied the faft.
III. A plea in abateynent is principally for a mifnomer,
a wrong name, or a falfe addition to the prifoner. As,
if James Allen, gentleman, is indifted by the name of
John Allen, efquire, he may plead that he has the name
of James, and not of John ; and that he is a gentleman,
and not an efquire. And, if either faft is found by a
jury, then the indiftment (hall be abated, as writs or
declarations may be in civil aftions. But, in the end,
there is little advantage accruing to the prifoner by
means of thefe dilatory pleas ; becaufe, if the exception
be allowed, a new bill of indiftment may be framed, ac¬
cording to what the prifoner in his plea avers to be his
true name and addition. For it is a rule, upon all pleas
in abatement, that he who takes advantage of a flaw,
muft at the fame time fhow how it may be amended.
Let us therefore next confider a more fubftantiai kind
of plea, vix.
IV. Special pleas in bar; which go to the merits of
the indiftment, and give a reafon why the prifoner ought
not to anfwer it at all, nor put himfelf upon his trial for
the crime alleged. Thefe are of four kinds: a former
acquittal, a former conviftion, a former attainder, or a
pardon. There are many other pleas which may be
pleaded in bar of an appeal: but thefe are applicable to
both appeals and indiftments.
1. Firft, the plea of anterfoits acquit, or a former ac¬
quittal, is grounded on this univerfal maxim of the com¬
mon law of England, that no man is to be brought in¬
to jeopardy of his life, more than once, for the fame of¬
fence. And hence it is allowed as a confequence, that
when a man is once fairly found not guilty upon any in¬
diftment, or other profecution, before any court having
competent jurifdiftion of the offence, he may plead fuch
acquittal in bar of any fubfequent accuiation for the
lame crime.
2. Secondly, the plea of outerfoits convid, or a former
conviftion for the fame identical crime, though no
judgment was ever given, or perhaps will be (being
fufpended by the benefit of clergy or other caufes), is a
good plea in bar to an indiftment. And this depends
upon the fame principle as the former, that no man
ought to be twice brought in danger of his life for one
and the lame crime.
G 2
3. Thirdly,
Plea.
P L E
a. Thirdly, the plea of auterfoils hi taint
attainder, is a good plea in baf, whether it be for t e
fame or any other felony. For wherever a man is at¬
tainted of felony, by judgment of death either upon a
verdiil or confeflion, by outlawry, or heretofore by ab¬
juration, and whether upon an appeal or an indittment;
he may plead fuch attainder in bar to any fubfequent
indictment or appeal, for the fame or for any other fe¬
lony. And this becaufe, generally, fuch proceeding on
a fecond profecution cannot be to any purpofe ; for the
prifoner is dead in law by the fil'd attainder, his blood
r P ] pl
or a former prove him fo, fprft, prafio fum
%
or paratus, verificare).
r^^irand K forfeited ’ail that he Ire accounted for by fuppof.ng
By this replication the king and the prifoner are
therefore at ilfue: for when the parties come to a
faCt which is affirmed on one fide and denied on the
other, then they are faid to be at iffiie in point of
fa£f : which is evidently the cafe here, in the plea of
non cul. by the prifoner ; and the replication of cu/. by
the clerk. .
\ How the courts came to exprefs a matter of this im¬
portance in fo odd and obfcure a manner, can haidly be
pronounced with certainty. It may perhaps, howeyei,
^ that thefe were at firit
Plea,
Plcadim
had : fo that it is abfurd and fuperfluous to endeavour
to attaint him a fecond time. I hough to this general
rule, as to all others, there are fome exceptions j where¬
in, cejfante ralione, cejfat et ipfa lex.
4. Laftly, a pardon may be pleaded in bar; as at once
deftroying the end and purpofe of the indiCfment, by re¬
mitting that punifhment, which the profecution is cal¬
culated to inflict. There is one advantage that attends
pleading a pardon in bar, or in arreft of judgment, be¬
fore fentence is paft ; which gives it by much the pre¬
ference to pleading it after fentence or attainder. . 1 his
is, that by flopping the judgment it flops the attainder,
and prevents the corruption of the blood : which, when
once corrupted by attainder, cannot afterwards be re-
ftored otherwife than by aft of parliament.
V. The general i/fue, or plea of not guilty, upon which
plea alone the prifoner can receive his final judgment of
death. In cafe of an indiftment of felony or treafon,
there can be no fpecial juftification put in by way of
plea. As, on an indiftment for murder, a man cannot
plead that it was in his own defence againft a robber on
the highway, or a burglar; but he muft plead the ge¬
neral iflue, Not guilty, and give this fpecial matter in
evidence. For (belides that thefe pleas do in effe& a-
mount to the general iflue ; fince, if true, the prifoner
is moft clearly not guilty) as the fails in treafon are laid
to be done proditone et contra ligeantitt fu<x debitum; and,
in felony, that the killing was done felonice ; thefe char¬
ges, of a traiterous or felonious intent, are the points
and very gift of the indi&ment, and muft be anfwered
dire&ly, by the general negative, Not guilty ; and the
jury upon the evidence will take notice of any defenfive
matter, apd give their verdift accordingly as effeihially as
if it were or could be fpecially pleaded. So that this is,
upon all accounts, the moft advantageous plea for the
prifoner.
When the prifoner hath thus pleaded not guilty, non
culpa bills, or nient culpable : which was formerly ufed to
be abbreviated upon the minutes, thus, Non (or nient)
cul. the clerk of the affize, or clerk of arraigns, on be¬
half of the crown replies, that the prifoner is guilty, and
that he is ready to prove him fo. This is done by two
monofyllables in the fame fpirit of abbreviation, cul.prit.x
which fignifies firft that the prifoner is guilty, (cul. cul¬
pable, or culpabilis) j and then that the king is ready to
fhort notes, to help the memory of the clerk, and re¬
mind him what he was to reply ; or elfe it was the ftiort
method of taking down in court, upon the minutes, the
replication and averment; culprit: which afterwards
the ignorance of fucceeding clerks adopted for the very
words to be by them fpoken (a).
But however it may have arifen, the joining of iflue
feems to be clearly the meaning of this obfcure expref-
fion ; which has puzzled our moft ingenious etymolo-
gitts, and is commonly underftood as if the clerk of the
arraigns, immediately on plea pleaded, had fixed an op¬
probrious name on the prifoner, by alking him, “ cuprtt,
how wilt thou be tried l” for immediately upon iflue
joined it is inquired of the prifoner, by what trial he will
make his innocence appear. This form has at prefent
reference to appeals and approvements only, wherein the
appellee has his choice, either to try the accufation by
Battle or by Jury. But upon indi&ments, fince the
abolition of Ordeal, there can be no other trial but by
jury, per pais, or by the country : and therefore, if the
prifoner refufes to put himfelf upon the inqueft in the
ufual form, that is, to anfwer that he will be tried by
God and the country, if a commoner ; and, if a peer,
by God and his peers ; the indi£tment, if in treafon, is
taken pro confejfo ; and the prifoner, in cafes of felony,
is judged to ftand mute, and, if he perfeveres in his ob-
ftinacy, {hall now be convitted of the felony.
When the prifoner has thus put himfelf upon his trial,
the clerk anfwers in the humane language of the law,
which always hopes that the party’s innocence rather
than his guilt may appear, “ God fend thee a good deli¬
verance.” And then they proceed, as foon as conve¬
niently may be, to the trial. See the article Trial.
PLEADINGS, in law, are the mutual altercations
between the plaintiff and defendant, (fee Suit, Writ,
and Process). They form the third part or ftage of
a faft; and at prefent are fet down and delivered into
the proper office in writing, though formerly they
were ufually put in by their council ore tenus. or viva
voce, in court, and then minuted down by the chief
clerks or prothonotaries ; whence, in our old law-French,
the pleadings are frequently denominated the parol.
The firft of thefe is the declaration, narratio, or count,
anciently called the tale; in whieh the plaintiff fets forth
his caufe of complaint at length : being indeed only an
amplification
(a) Of this ignorance we may fee daily inftances, in the abufe of two legal terms of ancient French : one, the
prologue to all proclamations, “ Oyez, or Hear ye,” which is generally pronounced, moft unmeaningly, “ O yes r
the other, a more pardonable miftake, viz. when a jury are all fworn, the officer bids the crier number them, for
which the word in law French is, “• Countez j” but we now hear it pronounced in very good Englifli, “ Count
tbefe.”
P L E [ 53 1 P L E
lendings amplification or expofition of the original writ upon
— —- which his a£tion is founded, with the additional circum-
ac^' fiances of time and place, when and where, the injury
mmant. • ,
was committed.
In local aftions, where poffefiion of land is to be re¬
covered, or damages for an aftual trefpafs, or for wafte,
&c. affefting land, the plaintiff muft lay his declaration,
or declare his injury to have happened in the very county
and place that it really did happen ; but in tranftory
aftions, for injuries that might have happened anywhere,
as debt, detinue, Hander, and the like, the plaintiff
may declare in what county he pleafes, and then the
trial muft be in that county in which the declaration is
laid. Though, if the defendant will make affidavit
that the caufe of aftion, if any, arofe not in that but
another county, the court will direft a change of the
venue or vljne (that is, the vicinia or neighbourhood in
which the injury is declared to be done), and will ob¬
lige the plaintiff to declare in the proper county. For
the ftatute 6 Ric. II. c. 2. having ordered all writs to
be laid in their proper counties, this, as the judges
conceived, impowered them to change the venue, if re¬
quired, and not to infill rigidly on abating the writ:
which praftice began in the reign of James I. And
this power is difcretionally exercifed, fo as not to caufe
but prevent a deleft of juftice. Therefore the court
will not change the venue to any of the four northern
counties previous to the fpring circuit j becaufe there
the affifes are holden only once a-year, at the time of
fummer circuit. And it will fometimes remove the
venue from the proper jurifdiftion (efpecially of the
narrow and limited kind), upon a luggeilion, duly
fupported, that a fair and impartial trial cannot be had
therein.
It is generally ufual, in aftions upon the cafe, to fet
forth feveral cafes, by different counts in the fame de¬
claration ; fo that if the plaintiff fails in the proof of
one, he may fucceed in another. As in an aftion on
the cafe upon an assumpsit for goods fold and deliver¬
ed, the plaintiff ufually counts or declares, firft, upon
a fettled and agreed price between him and the defend¬
ant ; as, that they bargained for 201.: and left he
fiiould fail in the proof of this, he counts likewife upon
a quantum valebant; that the defendant bought other
goods, and agreed to pay him fo much as they were
reafonably worth : and then avers that they were
worth other 20 1. and fo on in three or four different
lhapes; and at laft concludes with declaring, that the
defendant had refufed to fulfil any of thefe agreements^
whereby he is endamaged to fuch a value. And if he
proves the cafe laid in any one of his counts, though he
fails in the reft, he {hall recover proportionable da¬
mages. This declaration always concludes with thefe
words, “ and thereupon he brings fuit,” &c. inde pro
ducit fe8am, &c. By which words, /u:t or /efia (a fe~
quendo), were anciently underftood the witneffes or fol¬
lowers of the plaintiff. For in former times, the law
would not put the defendant to the trouble of anfwering
the charge till the plaintiff had made out at leall a pro¬
bable cafe. But the aftual produftion of the /w/7, Jecia,
or foiloivers, is now antiquated, and hath been totally
difufed, at leaft ever fince the reign of Edward III.
though the form of it ftill continues.
At the end of the declaration are added alfo the
plaintiff’s common pledges of profecution, John Doe Plcading.*.'-
and Richard Roe; which, as we elfewhere obferve, ’ “*
(fee Writ), are now mere names of form ; though
formerly they were of ufe to anfwer to the king for the
amercement of the plaintiff, in cafe he were nonfuited,
barred of his aftion, or had a verdift and judgment
againft him. For if the plaintiff neglefts to deliver a-
declaration for two terms after the defendant appears, or
is guilty of other delays or defaults, againft the rules of
law in any fubfequent ftage of the aftion, he is adjudged
not to follow or purfue his remedy as he ought to do ;
and thereupon a nonfuit, or non profequitur, is entered,
and he is faid to be/ivn-^/W’d. And for thus deferting
his complaint, after making a falfe claim or complaint
(pro falfa clamore fuG), he ftiall not only pay cofts to the
defendant, but is liable to be amerced to the king. A
retraxit differs from a nonfuit, in that the one is negative
and the other pofitive: the nonfuit is a default and
negleft of the plaintiff, and therefore he is allowed to
begin his fuit again upon payment of cofts; but a re¬
traxit is an open and voluntary renunciation of his fuit
in court; and by this he for ever lofes his aftion. A
difcontinuance is fomewhat fimilar to a nonfuit; for when
a plaintifTleaves a chafm in the proceedings of his caufe,
as by not continuing the procefs regularly from day to
day, and time to time, as he ought to do, the fuit is
difcontinued, and the defendant is no longer bound to
attend ; but the plaintiff muft begin again, by fuing out
a new original, ufually paying cofts to his antagonift.
When the plaintiff hath llated his cafe in the decla¬
ration, it is incumbent on the defendant, within a rea-
fonable time, to make his defence, and to put in a plea;
or elfe the plaintiff will at once recover judgment hy de¬
fault, or nihil dicit, of the defendant.
Defence, in its true legal fenfe, fignifies not a jufti-
fication, proteftion, or guard, which is now its popular
fignification ; but merely an oppofmg or denial (from the
French verb defendre) of the truth or validity of the
complaint. • It is the contejlatio litis of the civilians: a
general affertion that the plaintiff' hath no ground of
aftion; which affertion is afterwards extended and main¬
tained in his plea.
Before defence made, if at all, cognizance of the
fuit muft be claimed or demanded; when any perfon
or body-corporate hath the franchife, not only of hold¬
ing pleas within a particular limited jurifdiftion, but
alfo of the cognizance of pleas ; and that either without
any words exclufive of other courts, which intitles the
lord of the franchife, whenever any fuit that belongs to-
his jurifdiftion is commenced in the courts at Weftmin-
fter, to demand the cognizance thereof; or with fuch
exclufive words, which alfo intitle the defendant to plead
to the jurifdiftion of the court. Upon this claim of-
cognizance, if allowed, all proceedings ftiall ceafe in the
fuperior court, and the plaintiff is left at liberty to
purfue his remedy in the fpecial jurifdiftion. As, when
a fcholar or other privileged perfon of the univerfities
of Oxford or Cambridge is impleaded in the courts at
Weftminfter, for any caufe of aftion whatfoever, unlefs
upon a queftion of freehold. In thefe cafes, by the
charter of thofe learned bodies, confirmed by aft of par¬
liament, the chancellor, or vice-chancellor, may put in
a claim of cognizance ; which, if made in due time and
form, and with due proof of the fafts alleged, is regu-
P L E
r 54 i
P L E
FVadings. larly allowed by the courts. It muft be demanded be-
fore full defence is made or imparlance prayed ; for thefe
are a fubmiflion to the jurifdi&ion of the fuperior court,
and the delay is a laches in the lord of the franchife :
and it will not be allowed if it occafions a failure of ju-
flice, or if an a&ion be brought againft the perfon
• himfelf who claims the franchife, unlefs he hath alfo
a power in fuch cafe of making another judge.
After defence made, the defendant mull,put in his
plea. But before he defends, if the fuit is commenced
by capias or latitat, without any' fpecial original, he is
intitled to demand one imparlance, or licentia loquendi;
and may, before be pleads, have more granted by confent
of the court, to fee if he can end the matter amicably
-without farther fuit, by talking with the plaintiff: a
practice which is fuppofed to have arifen from a principle
of religion, in obedience to that precept of the gofpel,
agree with thine adverfary quickly, whilft thou art in
the way with him.” And it may be obferved, that this
gofpel-precept has a plain reference to the Roman law of
the twelve tables, which exprefsly directed the plaintiff
and defendant to make up the matter while they were
in the way, or going to the praetor;—/« via, rem uti
parent orato. There are alfo many other previous fleps
which may be taken by a defendant before he puts in his
plea. He mayr, in real actions, demand a view of the
thing in queliion, in order to afcertain its identity and
other circumflances. He may crave oyer of the writ, or
-of the bond, or other fpecialty upon which the a&ion is
brought; that is, to hear it read to him ; the generality
of defendants in the times of ancient fimplicity being
fuppofed incapable to read it themfelves: whereupon
the whole is entered verbatim upon the record ; and the
defendant may take advantage of any condition, or
other part of it, not Hated in the plaintiff’s declaration.
In real aft ions alfo the tenant may pray in aid, or call for
the afliflance of another, to help him to plead, becaufe
of the fecblenefs or imbecility of his own eftate. Thus
a tenant for life may pray in aid of him that hath the
inheritance in remainder or reversion ; and an incumbent
may pray in aid of the patron and ordinary ; that is, that
they (hall be joined in the aftion, and help to defend the
title. Voucher alfo is the calling in of feme perfon to
anfwer the aftion, that hath warranted the title to the
tenant or defendant. This we Hill make ufe of in the
form of common recoveries, which are grounded on a
writ of entry; a fpeeies of aftion that relies chiefly
©n the weaknefs of the tenant’s title, who therefore
vouches another perfon to warrant it. If the vouchee
appears, he is made defendant inttead of the voucher;
but if h£ afterwards makes default, recovery fliall be
had againtt the original defendant; and he fhall recover
an equivalent in value againft the deficient vouchee. In
aflizes, indeed, where the principal queftion is, whether
the demandant or his anceftors were or were not in pof-
fefiion till the oufter happened, and the title of the
tenant is little (if at all) difcuffed, there no voucher is
allowed ; but the tenant may bring a writ of •warrantia
chart* againft the warrantor, to compel him to aflift him
with a good plea or defence, or die to render damages
and the value of the iland, if recovered againft the
.tenant. In many real aftions alfo, brought by or againft
an infant under the age of 21 years, and alfo in aftions
of debt brought againft him, as heir to any deceafed
anceftor, either party may fuggeft the nonage of the Pleadiniri,
infant, and pray that the proceedings may be deferred "T1
till his full age, or, in our legal phrafe, that the in¬
fant may have his age, and that the parol may demur,
that is, that the pleadings may be ftaid ; and then
they ihall not proceed till Ids full age, unlefs it be ap¬
parent that he cannot be prejudiced thereby. But
by the ftatutes of Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 46. and of
Glocefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 2. in writs of entry fur dif-
feiftn in fome particular cafes, and in aftions aunce-
ftrel brought by an infant, the parol (hall not demur;
otherwife he might be deforced of his whole property*
and even want a maintenance, till he came of age.
So likewife in a writ of dower the heir fhall not have
his age; for it is neceflary that the widow’s claim be
immediately determined, elfe fixe may want a prefent
fubfiftence. Nor fhall an infant patron have it in a
quare impedit, fince the law holds it neceflary and expe¬
dient that the church be immediately filled.
When thefe proceedings are over, the defendant muft
then put in his excufe or plea. See Plea.
It is a rule in pleading, that no man be allowed to
plead fpecially fuch a plea as amounts only to the gene¬
ral iflue, or a total denial of the charge; but in fuch.
cafe he fliall be driven to plead the general iffue in terms,
whereby the whole queftion is referred to a jury. But
if the defendant, in an aflize or aftion of trefpafs, be
defirous to refer the validity of his title to the court
rather than the jury, he may ftate his title fpecially;
and at tire fame time give colour to the plaintiff, or fup-
pofe him to have an appearance or colour of title, bad
indeed in point of law, but of which the jury are not
competent judges. As if his own true title is, that he
claims by feoffment with livery from A, by force o£
which he entered on the lands in queftion, he cannot
plead this by itfelf, as it amounts to no more than the
general ilfue, nul tort, nul diffeifin, in affize, or not guilty
in an aftion of trefpafs. But he may allege this fpecially,
provided he goes farther, and fays, that the plaintiff
claiming by colour of a prior deed of feoffment, without
livery, entered ; upon whom he entered ; and may thei*
refer himfelf to the judgment of the court which of thefe
two titles is the beft in point of law.
When the plea of the defendant is thus put in, if it
does not amount to an iffue or total contradiction of
the declaration, but only evades it, the plaintiff may
plead again, and reply to the defendant’s plea : Either
traverfmg it, that is, totally denying it; as if, on an
adtion of debt upon bond, the defendant pleads fohit
ad diem, that he paid the money when due; here the
plaintiff in his replication may totally traverfe this plea,
by denying that the defendant paid it: Or he may allege
new matter in contradiftion to the defendant’s plea ; a*
when the defendant pleads no award made, the plaintiff
may reply, and fet forth an aftual award, and aflign a
breach : Or the replication may confefs and avoid the
plea, by fome new matter or diftinftion, confiftent with,
the plaintiff’s former declaration; as in an aftion for
trefpafiing upon land whereof the plaintiff is feized, if
the defendant fhows a title to the land by defcent, and
that therefore he had a right to enter, and gives colour
to the plaintiff, the plaintiff may either traverfe and
totally deny the faft of the defcent; or he may confefs
and avoid it, by replying, that true it is that fuch de-
icent
P L E
leading?, fcent happened, but that fmee the tlefcent tite defendant
  himfelf demifed the lands to the plaintiff for term of life.
To the replication the defendant may rejoir, or put in
an anfwer called a rejoinder The plaintiff may anfwer
the rejoinder by a fur rejoinder ; upon which the de¬
fendant may rekit, and the plaintiff anfwer him by a
fur rebutter. Which pleas, replications, rejoinders, fut-
rejoinders, rebutters, and fur-rebutters, anfwer to the
exceptWy replicatio dupiicatio, tripitcatio. and quadt uplica-
tio, of the Roman law's.
The whole of this procefs is denominated the plead¬
ing ; in the feveral ftages of which it muft be carefully
©bferved, not to depart or vary from the title or defence
which the party has once infilled on. For this (wdiich
is called a departure in pleading) might occalion endlefs
altercation. Therefore the replication muft fupport the
declaration, and the rejoinder muft fupport the plea,
without departing out of it. As in the cafe of pleading
no award made in confequence of a bond of arbitration,
to which the plaintiff replies, fetting forth an actual
award; now the defendant cannot rejoin that he hath
performed this award, for fuch rejoinder would be an
entire departure from his original plea, which alleged that
no fuch award was made : therefore he has now no other
choice, but to traverfe the fad of the replication, or
-elfe to demur upon the law of it.
Again, all duplicity in pleading muft be avoided.
Every plea muft be fimple, entire, conneded, and con¬
fined to one lingle point: it muft never be entangled
with a variety of diftind independent anfwers to the
fame matter; which muft require as many different re¬
plies, and introduce a multitude of iffues upon one and
the lame difpute. For this would often embarrafs the
jury, and fometimes the court itfelf, and at all events
would greatly enhance the expence of the parties. Yet
it frequently is expedient to plead in fuch a manner as
to avoid any implied admifiion of a fad, which cannot
with propriety or fafety be pofitively affirmed or denied.
And this may be done by what is called a proteflation ;
whereby the party inteiy.ofes an oblique allegation or
denial of fome fad, protefting (by the gerund, prote/ian-
doj that fuch a matter does or does not exift ; and at
the fame time avoiding a dired affirmation or denial.
Sir Edward Coke hath defined a proteftatron (in the
pithy dialed of that age) to be, “ an exclufion of a
conclufion. ’ For the ufe of it is, to fave the party
from being concluded with refped to fome fad or cir-
cumftance which cannot be diredly affirmed or denied
without falling into duplicity of pleading ; and which
yet, if he did not thus enter his proteft, he might be
deemed to have tacitly waved or admitted. Thus, while
tenure in villainage fubfifted, if a villain had brought an
action againft his lord, and the lord was inclined to try
♦he merits of the demand, and at the fame time to pre¬
vent any conclufion againft himfelf that he had waved
tus iigmory; he could not in this cafe both plead affir-
tnatively that the plaintiff was his villain, and alfo take
iliue upon the demand; for then his. plea would have
been double, as the former alone would have been a good
bar to the achon: but he might have alleged the villai¬
nage of the plaintiff by way of proteftation, and then
ave denied the demand. By this means the future vaf-
laJag# of the plaintiff was faved to the defendant, in cafe
tne Ume was found in his (the defendant’s) favour; for
Probation prevented that concluiion which would
r 55 ]
P L E
otherwife have refulted from the reft of hie defence, Pleadings
that he had enfranchifed the plaintiff, fince no villain , il
could maintain a civil attton againft his lord. So alfo p;eafure*f
if a defendant, by way of inducement to the point of his ’
defence, alleges (among other matters) a particular mode
of feifin or tenure which the plaintiff is unwilling to
admit, and yet defires to take iffue on the principal
point of the defence, he muft deny the feifin or tenure
by way of ^roteftation, and then traverfe the defenfive
matter. So, laftly, if an award be fet forth by the
plaintiff, and he can affign a breach in one part of it
(viz. the non-payment of a fum of money), and yet is
afraid to admit the performance of the reft of the award,
or to aver in general a non-performance of any part of
it, left fomething ffiould appear to have been performed j
he may fave to himfelf any advantage he might hereafter
make of the general non-perfornfance, by alleging that
by proteftation, be can plead only the non-payment of the
money.
In any ftage of the pleadings, when either fide ad¬
vances or affirms any new matter, he ufually (as was
find) avers it to be true ; “ and this he is ready to ve¬
rify.” On the other hand, when either tide traverfes or
denies the fafts pleaded by his antagonift, he ufually
tenders an ffue, as it is called ; the language of which
is different according to the party by whom it is ten¬
dered : for if the traverfe or denial comes from the de¬
fendant, the iffue is tendered in this manner, “ And of
this he puts himfelf upon the country,” thereby fubmit-
ting himfelf to the judgment of his peers: but if the
traverfe lies upon the plaintiff, he tenders the iffue or
prays the judgment of the peers againft the defendant in
another form ; thus, “ and this he prays may be in¬
quired of by the country.”
But if either fide (as, for inftance, the defendant)
pleads a fpecial negative plea, not traverfing or denying
any thing that was before alleged, but difclofing fome
new negative matter; as where the fuit is on a bond
conditioned to perform an award, and the defendant
pleads, negatively, that no award was made ; he tenders
no iffue upon this plea, becaufe it does not yet appear •
whether the faft will be difputed, the plaintiff not ha¬
ving yet afferted the exiftence of any award : but when
the plaintiff replies, and fets forth an aftnal fpecific
award, if then the defendant traverfes the replication,
and denies the making of any fuch award, he then, and
not before, tenders an iffue to. the plaintiff. For when
in the courfe of pleading they come to a point which is
affirmed on one fide and denied on the other, they are
then faid to be at iffue ; all their debates being at lall
eontra&ed into a fingle point, which muft now be de¬
termined either in favour of the plaintiff or of the defen¬
dant. See Issue.
PLEASING, art of. See Politeness.
PLEASURE is a word fo univerfally underftood as
to need no explanation. Lexicographers, however, who
muft attempt to explain every word, call it “ the grati¬
fication of the mind or fenl'es.” It is diredlly oppofite
to Pain, and eonftitutes the whole of pofitive happinefs
as that does of mifery.
The Author of Nature has furniffied us with many
plealures, as well as made us liable to many pains; anA'W/yw*,
we are fufceptible of both in fome degree as foon as v/e
have life and are endowed with the faculty of fenfation. ^
A French writer, iu a work* which once railed high tom. 4!^
6 expectations-
P L E C
^'.cafure. expectations, contends, that a child in the womb of its
mother feels neither pleafure nor pain. “ Iheie len-
fations (fays he) are not innate; they have their origin
from without: and it is at the moment of our birth that
the foul receives the firft impreflions ; imprcflions flight
and fuperficial at the beginning, but which by time and
repeated adts leave deeper traces in the fenfonum, and
become more extenfive and more lading. It is when
the child fends forth its firft cries that fenfibihty or the
faculty of fenfation is produced, which in a ftiort time
gathers ilrength and liability by the impreflion of exte¬
rior objedls. Pleafure and pain not being innate, and
being only acquired in the fame manner as the qualities
which we derive from inftrudtion, education, and fociety,
it follows that we learn to fuffer and enjoy as we learn
any other fcience.”
This is llrange reafoning and flrange language. That
fenfations are not innate is univerfally acknowledged,
bufit does not therefore follow that the foul receives its
firft impreflions and firft fenfations at the moment of
birth. The child has life, the power of locomotion,
and the fenfe of touch, long before it is bom; and
every mother will tell this philofopher, that an infant
unborn exhibits fymptoms both of pain and of plea¬
fure. That many of our organs of fenfe are improved
by ufe is incontrovertible; but it is fo far from being
true that our fenfible pleafures become more exquifite
by being often repeated, that the diredl contrary is ex¬
perienced of far the greater part of them ; and though
external obje&s, by making repeated impreflions on the
fenfes, certainly leave deeper traces on the memory than
an objeft once perceived can do, it by no means follows
that thefe impreflions become the more delightful the
more familiar that they are to us. That we learn to
fuffer and enjoy as we learn any other fcience, is a moft
extravagant paradox ; for it is felf-e indent that we can¬
not live without being capable in fome degree both of
fuffering and enjoyment, though a man may certainly
live to old age in profound ignorance of all the fcien-
The fame writer affures us, indeed, that fenfation is
*»u>t neceffary to human life. “ Philofophers (fays he)
make mention of a man who had loft every kind of feel¬
ing in every member of his body: he was pinched or
pricked to no purpofe. Meanwhile this man made ufe
of all his members ; he walked without pain, he drank,
ate, and flept, without perceiving that he did fo. Sen-
fible neither to pleafure nor pain, he was a true natural
machine.”
To the tale of thefe anonymous philofophers our au¬
thor gives implicit credit, whilft he favours us at the
fame inftant with the following argumentation, which
completely proves its falfehood. “It is true that fen¬
fation is a relative quality, fufceptible of' increafe and
.diminution ; that it is not neceffary to exiftence; and
. that one might live without it: but in this cafe he
would live as an automaton, without feeling pleafure
.or pain; and he would poffefs neither idea, nor re¬
flexion, nor defire, nor paflion, nor will, nor fenti-
ment; his exiftence would be merely paflive, he would
Jive without knowing it, and die without apprehen-
fion.”
But if this man of the philofophers, whom our au¬
thor calls an automaton, and a true natural machine, had
^neither idea, nor dejire, nor pajjion, nor w;//, norfeniiment
56 ] P L E
(and without fenfation he certainly could have none of Pkafur*
them), what induced him to 'walk,, eat, or drink, or to v
ceaft from any of thefe operations after they were ac¬
cidentally begun ? The inftances of the automata which
played on the flute and at chefs are not to the purpofe
for which they are adduced ; for there is no parallel
between them and this natural machine, unlefs the phi¬
lofophers wound up their man to eat, drink, walk, or
fit, as Vacanfon and Kempeler wound up their automa¬
ta to play or ceafe from playing on the German flute
and at chefs. See Androides.
Our author having for a while fported with thefe
harmlefs paradoxes, proceeds to put the credulity of his
reader to the teft with others of a very contrary ten¬
dency. He inftitutes an inquiry concerning the fupe-
riority, in number and degree, of the pleafures enjoyed^
by the different orders of men in fociety ; and labours,'
not indeed by argument, but by loofe declamation, to
propagate the belief that happinefs is very unequally
diftributed. The pleafures of the rich, he fays, muft
be more numerous and exquifite than thofe of the poor ;
the nobleman muft have more enjoyments than the ple¬
beian of equal wealth ; and the king, according to him,
muft be the happieft of all men. He owns, indeed, that
although “ birth, rank, honours, and dignity, add to
happinefs, a man is not to be confidered as miferable
becaufe he is born in the lower conditions of life. A man
may be happy as a mechanic, a merchant, or a labourer,
provided he enters into the fpirit of his profeflion, and
has not imbibed by a mifplaced education thofe fenti-
ments which make his condition infupportable. Hap¬
pinefs is of eafy acquifition in the middling ftations of
life; and though perhaps we are unable to know or to
rate exactly the pleafure which arifes from contentment
and mediocrity, yet happinefs being a kind of aggre¬
gate of delights, of riches, and of advantages more or
lefs great, every perfon muft have a (hare of it; the di-
viflon is not exaXly made, but all other things equal,
there will be more in the elevated than in the inferior
conditions of fociety ; the enjoyment will be more felt,
the means of enjoying more multiplied, and the plea¬
fures more varied. Birth, rank, fortune, talents, wit,
genius, and virtue, are then the great fources of happi¬
nefs : thofe advantages are fo confiderable, that we fee
men contented with any one of them, but their union
forms fupreme felicity.
“ There is fo vaft a difference, fays Voltaire, between
a man who has made his fortune and one who has to
make it, that they are fcarcely to be confidered as crea¬
tures of the fame kind. The fame thing may be faid
of birth, the greateft of all advantages in a large fo¬
ciety ; of rank, of honours, and of great abilities. How
great a difference is made between a perfon of high
birth and a tradefman ; between a Newton or Defcar-
tes and a Ample mathematician ? Ten thoufand foldiers
are killed on the field of battle, and it is fcarcely men¬
tioned ; but if the general falls, and efpecially if he be a
man of courage and abilities, the court and city are
filled with the news of his death, and the mourning is
univerfal.
“ Frederic the Great, the late king of Pruflia, felt
in a more lively manner than perhaps any other man
the value of great talents. I would willingly renounce,
faid he to Voltaire, every thing which is an objeX of
defire and ambition to naan ; but I am certain if J were
J not
P L E
:eRfwre- not a prince I fliould be nothing
-V— would gain you the elteem, and envy, and admiration of
the world; but to ftcure refpeCt for me, titles, and ar¬
mies, and revenues, are abfolutely neceflary.”
For what purpofe this account of human happinefs
was publiihed, it becomes not us to fay. Its obvious
tendency is to make the lower orders of fociety difcon-
tented with their date, and envious of their fuperiors ;
and it is not unreafonable to fuppofe, that it contributed
in fome degree to excite tbe ignorant part of the author’s
countrvmen to the commifhon of thofe atrocities of
which they have fmee been guilty. That fuch was his
intention, the following extra# will not permit us to
believe; for though in it the author attempts to fup-
port the fame falfe theory of human happinefs, he men¬
tions virtuous kings with the refpe# becoming a loyal
fubjeft of the unfortunate Louis, whole character he
feems to have intentionally drawn, and whole death by
the authority of a favage faction he has in efle# fore¬
told.
“ Happinefs, in a Hate of fociety, takes the moll
variable forms : it is a Proteus fufceptible of every kind
of metamorphofis : it is different in different men, in
-different ages, and in different conditions, &c. The
pleafures of vouth are very different from thofe of old
age : what affords enjoyment to a mechanic would be
fupreme mifery to a nobleman ; and the aniulements of
the country would appear infipid in the capital. Is
there then nothing fixed with regard to happinefs? Is
it of all things the moft variable and the moil arbitrary?
Or, in judging of it, is it impofiible to find a ffandard
by which w’e can determine the limits of the greatelt
good to which man can arrive in the prefent ffate ?
It is evident that men form the fame ideas of the beau¬
tiful and fublime in nature, and of right and wrong in
morality, provided they have arrived at that degree of
"improvement and civilization of which human nature is
fufceptible ; and that different opinions on thefe fub-
jefts depend on different degrees of culture, of educa¬
tion, and of improvement. The fame thing may he
advanced with regard to happinefs : all men, if equal
with refpebt to their organs, wrould form the very fame
ideas on tin’s fubje# if they reached the degree of im¬
provement of which wre are prefently fpeaking ; and in
fa#, do wre not fee in the great cirdes at Rome, at
Vienna, at London, and Paris, that thofe w ho are called
people of fafhion, who have received the fame education,
have nearly the fame taffe, the fame defires, and the
fame fpirit for enjoyment ? there is doubtlefs a certain
degree of happinefts to be enjoyed in every condition
of life; but as there are fome conditions preferable to
others, fo are there degrees of happinefs greater and Ms;
and if we were to form an idea of the greateft poffible
in the prefent ftate, it perhaps w'ould he that of a fo-
vereign, mailer of a great empire, enjoying good health
and a moderate fpirit; endowed w'ith piety and virtue,
whofe w'hole life w’as employed in afts of j nil ice and
mercy, and wrho governed by fixed and immoveable laws.
Such a king is the image of the divinity on earth, and
he mull be the idol of a wife people. His wdiole life
fiiould prefent a pifture of the moil auguft felicity. Al¬
though inch fovereigns are rare, yet we are not without
examples ol them. Ancient hiilory affords us Titus and
Marcus Aurelius, and the prefent age can boail of piety
Vol. XV. Parti. 1
C 57 1 P L E
Your merit alone and munificence in the chara#er of fome of its kings. Plcifuee,
This ftate of the greateil happinefs to wdiich mau can ——y—^
reach not being ideal, it will ferve as a ilandard of com-
parifon by which happinefs and mifery can be eftimated
in all civilized countries. He is as happy as a iing, is
a proverbial exprefiion, becaufe we believe with juilice
that royalty is the extreme limit of the greateil enjoy¬
ments ; and in fa#, happinefs being the work of man,
that condition which comprehends all the degrees of
penver and of glory, which is the fource of honour and
of dignity, and vriiich fuppofes in the perfon inveited
with it all means of enjoyment either for himfdf or
others, leaves nothing on this earth to which any rea-
fonable man vrould give the preference.
“ We can find alfo in this high rank the extreme of
the greateil evils to which the condition of nature is
expofed. A king condemned to death, and periihiug
on a fcaffold, by the authority of a fa#ion, while at the
fame time he had endeavoured by every means in his
power to promote the general happinefs of his fubje#s,
is the moil terrible and ilriking example of human mi¬
fery ; for if it be true that a crown is the greateil of
all bleffings, then the lofs of it, and at the fame time the
lofs of life by an ignominious and unjuil fentence, are of
all calamities the moil dreadful.
“ It is alfo in the courts of kings that wre find the
moil amiable and perfe# chara#ers; and it is there
where true grandeur, true politenefs, the beft tone of
manners, the moil amiable graces, and the moil emi¬
nent virtues, are completely eftabliihed. It is in courts
that men feem to have acquired their greateft improve¬
ment : Whofoeverhasfeen a court, fays La Brnyere, has
ften the world in the moft beautiful, the moil enchant-
ing, and attractive colours. The prejudices of mankind,
in behalf of the great are fo exccffxve, that if they in¬
clined to be good they w ould be ahnoft the obje#s of
adoration.”
In this paffage there are doubtlefs many juft obfer-
vations ; but there is at leaft an equal number of others
both falfe and dangerous. That a crown is the great¬
eil of earthly bleilings, and that it is in the courts of
kings that We meet with the moft amiable and perfe#
chnra#ers, are pofitions which a true philofopher will
not admit but w'ith great limitations. The falfehood of
the author’s general theory refpt#ing the unequal dif-
tribution of happinefs in fociety, we need not waile time
in expofing. It is fufficiently expofed in other articles
of this wwk, and in one of them by a writer of a very
fuperior order (See Happiness ; and Moral Philo~
fophy, Part II. chap, ii.) He enters upon other fpecu-
lations refpe#ing the pleafures and pains of favages,
which are ingenious and worthy of attention ; but be¬
fore we proceed to notice them, it will be proper to
confider the connection which fubfiils between pleafure
and pain.
“ That the ceffation of pain is accompanied by plea¬
fure, is a fa# (fays a philofopher of the firil rank f) fDr Sayeri,
which has been repeatedly obferved, but perhaps not
fulficiently accounted for. Let us fuppofe a perion in
a ftate of indifference as to heat. Upon coining near
a fire, he will*experience at firlt an agreeable warmth,
i. e. plegfure. If the heat be increafed, this ffate of
pleafure will, after a time, be converted into one of
pain, from the increafed a#ion upon the nerves and
H brainj
P L E . I 58
Picture, brain, the undoubted organs of all bodily fenfations.
t-J - * * Let the heat now be gradually withdrawn, the nervous
fyftem muft acquire again, during this removal, the
ftate of agreeable warmth or pleafure; and after paf-
fing through that ftate it will arrive at indifference.
From this faft then we may conclude, that a ftate of
pleafure may be pufhed on till it is converted into one
of pain ; and, on the other hand, that an aftion which
produces pain will, if it go off gradually, induce at a
certain period of its decreafe a ftate of pleafure. The
fame reafoning which has thus been applied to the body
may be extended alfo to the mind. Tl otal languor of
mind is not fo pleafant as a certain degree of adtion or
emotion ; and emotions pleafant at one period may be
mcreafed till they become painful at another ; whilft
painful emotions, as they gradually expire, will, at a
certain period of their decreafe, induce a ftate of plea¬
fure. Hence then we are able to explain why pleafure
fhould arife in all cafes from the gradual ceffation of any
a£lion or emotion which produces pain.”
The fame author maintains, that from the mere re¬
moval of pain, whether by degrees or inftantaneoufly,
we always experience pleafure; and if the pain remo¬
ved was exquifite, what he maintains is certainly true.
To account for this phenomenon he lays down the fol¬
lowing law of nature, which experience abundantly con¬
firms, wz. “ that the temporary withdrawing of any
action from the body or mind invariably renders them
more fufceptible of that aft ion when again produced.”
Thus, after long fading, the body is more fufceptible of
the effefts of food than if the ftomach had been lately fa-
tisfied; the aftion of ftrong liquors is found to be great¬
er on thofe who ufe them ftldorn than on fueh as are in
the habit of drinking them. Thus, too, with refpeft to
the mind; if a perfon be deprived for a time of his
friend’s fociety, or of a favourite amufement, the next
vifit of his friend, or the next renewal of his amufement,
is attended with much more pleafure than if they had
never been withheld from him.
*« To apply this law to the cafe of a perfon fuddenly
relieved from acute pain. While he labours with fuch
pain, his mind is fo totally occupied by it, that he is
unable to attend to his cuftomary purfuits or amufe-
xnents. He becomes therefore fo much more fufcep¬
tible of their aftion, that when they are again prefented
to him, he is raffed above his ufual indifference to po-
fitive pleafure. But all pains do not proceed from an
cxcefs of aftion. Many of them arife from reducing the
body or the mind to a ftate below indifference. Thus,
if a perfon have juft fufficient warmth in his body to
keep him barely at eafe or in a ftate of indifference, by
withdrawing this heat a ftate of uneafinefs or pain is
produced ; and if in a calm ftate of mind one be made
acquainted with a melancholy event, his, quiet is inter¬
rupted, and he finks below indifference into a painful
ftate of mind. If now, without communicating any
new fource of pofitive pleafure, we remove in the former
cafe the cold, and in the latter the grief, the perfons
from whom they are removed will experience real plea¬
fure. Thus, then, whether pain arifes from excefs or
deficiency of aftion, the gradual or the fiudden removal
f 'Difquifi' Gf muft be in all cafes attended with pleafure J.” It
’pbyfufumt is equally tme that the gradual or ludden removal of
iLfrrarj. plcai'ure is attended with pain.
We are now prepared to examine our French author’s
] P L E
account of the pleafures and pains of favages. “ Every Pleafu
age (fays he) has its different pleafures ; but if we were U""V'
to imagine that thofe of childhood are equal to thofe
of confirmed age, we fhould be much miftaken in our
effimation of happinefs. The pleafures of philofophy,
either natural or moral, are not unfolded to dhe infant;
the moft perfeft mufic is a vain noife ; the moft exqui¬
fite perfumes and difhes highly feafoned offend his
young organs inftead of affording delight; his touch is
imperfeft ; forty days elapfe before the child gives any
fign of laughter or of weeping ; his cries and groans
before that period are not accompanied with tears ; his.
countenance expreffes no paflion ; the parts of his face
bear no relation to the fentiments of the foul, and are
moreover without confiftency. Children are but little
affefted with cold ; whether it be that they feel lefs,
or that the interior heat is greater than in adults. In
them all the impreffions of pleafure and pain are tran-
fitory ; their memory has fcarcely begun to unfold its
powers ; they enjoy nothing but the prefent moment;
they weep, laugh, and give tones of fatisfaftion without
confcioufnefs, or at leaft without refleftion ; their joy
is confined to the indulgence of their little whims, and
conftraint is the greateft: of their misfortunes; few
things amufe, and nothing fatisfies them. In this happy
condition of early infancy nature is at the whole expence
of happinefs; and the only point is not to contradift:
her. What defires have children ? Give them liberty
in all their movements, and they have a plenitude of ex-
iftence, an abundance of that kind of happinefs which is
confined in fome fort to all the objefts which furround
them: but if all beings were happy on the fame condi¬
tions, fociety would be at no expence in procuring the
happinefs of the different individuals who compofe it. •
Senfation is the foundation of refleftion; it is the prin¬
cipal attribute of the foul; it is by this that man is ele¬
vated to fublime fpeculations, and fecures his dominion
over nature and himfelf. This quality is not ftationary,
but fufceptible, like all other relative qualities, of in-
creafe and decay, of different degrees of ftrength and in-
tenfenefs : it is different in different men ; and in the
fame man it increafes from infancy to youth, from youth,
to confirmed manhood: at this period it flops, and gra- -
dually declines as we proceed to old age and to fecond
childifhnefs. Confidered phyfically, it varies according
to age, conftitution, climate, and food; confidered
in a moral point of view, it takes its different appear¬
ances from individual education, and from the habits of
fociety; for man in a ftate of nature and fociety, with
regard to fenfation and the unfolding of his powers,.,
may be confidered as two diftinft beings : and if one
were to make a calculation of pleafure in the courfe of
human life, a man of fortune and capacity enjoys more
than ten thoufand favages.
“ Pleafure and pain being relative qualities, they may
be almoft annihilated in the moment of vehement paf-
fion. In the heat of battle, for example, ardent and
animated fpirits have not felt the pain of their wounds.;
and minds ftronglypenetrated with fentiments of religion,
enthufiafm, and humanity, have fupported the.moft cruel
torments with courage and fortitude. Tire fenfibility
of fome perfons is fo exquifitely alive, that one can
fcarcely approach them without throwing them into
eonvulfions.. Many difeafes fliow the effeft of fenfibi--
lity pufhed to an extreme j fuch as hyfteric affeftions,
certain
P L E [
afure. certain kinds of maclnefs, and fonie of thofe which pro-
cecd from polfon, and from the bite or fting of certain
animak, as the viper and the tarantula. Exceflive joy
or grief, fear and terror, have been known to deftroy
all fenfation, and occalion death (a)”
Having made thefe preliminary obfervations on plea-
fure and pain in infancy, and as they are increafed or
diminiihed by education, and the different conditions of
body and mind, our author proceeds to confider the ca¬
pability of favages to feel pleafure and pain. “ By fa-
vages he underltands all the tribes ot men who live by
hunting and fi(hing,and on thofe things which the earth
yields without cultivation. Thofe tribes who pofieis
herds of cattle, and who derive their fubfiltence from
fuch poflefliohs, are not to be confidered as favages, as
they have fome idea of property. Some favages are na¬
turally compalfionate and humane, others are cruel and
fanguinary. Although the phyfical conftitution ot man
be everywhere the fame, yet the varieties of climate, the
abundance or fcarcity of natural produftions, have a
powerful influence to determine the inclinations. Even
the fiercenefs of the tyger is foftened under a mild Iky ;
now nature forms the manners of favages juft as fociety
and civil inftitutions form the manners of civilized life.
In the one cafe climate and food produce almofl the
whole effect; in the other they have fcarcely any influ¬
ence. The habits of fociety every moment contend
with nature, and they are almoft always victorious. The
favage devotes himfelf to the dominion of his pafiions;
the civilized man is employed in reftraining, in directing,
and in modifying them: lo much influence have govern¬
ment, laws, fociety, and the fear of cenfure and punifh-
ment, over his foul.
“ It is not to be doubted that favages are fufceptible
both of pleafure and pain; but are the imprefftons made
on their organs as fenftble, or do they feel pain in the
fame degree with the inhabitants of a civilized coun-
try ?
“ Their enjoyments are fo limited, that if we confine
ourfelves to truth, a few lines wall be fufficient to de-
fcribe them: our attention muft therefore be confined
to pain, becaufe the manner in which they fupport mis¬
fortune, and even torture, prefents us with a view of cha¬
racter unequalled in the hiftory of civilized nations. It
is not uncommon in civilized countries to fee men bra¬
ving death, meeting it with chcerfulnefs, and even not
uttering complaints under the torture ; but they do not
infult the executioners of public vengeance, and defy
pain in order to augment their torments; and thofe who
aie condemned by the law's fuffer the punifhment w’ith
different degrees of fortitude. On thofe mournful oc-
cafions, the common ranks of mankind in general die
with lefs fimmefs: thofe, on the other hand, who have
59 ] p L E
received education, and who, by a train of unfortunate Plcaftire,
events, are brought to the fcaffold, whether it be the '■“■'■v"’""
fear of being reproached with cowardice, or the conli-
deration that the ftroke is inevitable, fuch men difcover
the expiring fxghsof felfdove even in their lait moments;
and thofe efpecially of Jiigh rank, from their manner*
and fentiments, are expe&ed to meet death with mag¬
nanimity : but an American favage in the moment of
punifhment appears to be more than human ; he is a
hero of the firft order who braves his tormentors, who
provokes them to employ all their art, and w ho coniiders
as his chief glory to bear the greateft degree of pain
without fhrinking (See America, n* 14, 27, 28, 29).
The recital of their tortures would appear exaggerated,
if it were not attefted by the beft authority, and if the
favage nations among w hom thofe cuftoms are eftablifii-
ed were not fufficiently known ; but the excefs of the
cruelty is not fo aftonifhing as the cowrage of the vidtim.
The European expoied to fufferings of the fame dreadful
nature would rend heaven and earth wuth his piercing cries
and horrible groans ; the reward of martyrdom, the
profpedt of eternal life, could alone give him fortitude
to endure fuch torments ; but the favage is not anima¬
ted with this exalted hope. What fupports him then in
fcenes of fo exquiftte fuffering ? The feeling of fhame,
the fear of bringing reproach on his tribe, and giving a
ftain to his fellows never to be wiped away, are the
only fentiments which influence the mind of a favage,
and which always, prefent to his imagination, animate
him, fupport him, and lend him fpirit and rcfolution.
At the fame time, however powerful thofe motives may
be, they W'ould not be alone fufficient, if the favage felt
pain in the fame degree with the European. Seniibility,
as we have already obferved, is increafed by education ;
it is influenced by fociety, manners, law's, and govern¬
ment; climate and food w'ork it into a hundred different
ffiapes ; and all the phyiical and moral caufes contribute
to increafe anddiminifli it. The habitual exillence of a
favage w'ould be .ftate of fuffering to an inhabitant of
Europe. You muft cut the fiefli of the one and tear
it away with your nails, before you can make him feel
in an equal degree to a fcratch or prick of a needle ia
the other. The favage, doubtlefs, fuffers under torture,
but he fuffers much lefs than an European in the fame
circumftances: the reafon is obvious; the air which,
die lavages breathe is loaded w'ith fog and moilt vapours;
their river^ not being confined by high banks, are by
the winds as well as in floods fpread over the level fields,
and depoiite on them a putrid and pernicious flime ; the
trees fqueezed one upon another, in that rude unculti¬
vated country ferve rather as a covering to the earth
than an ornament. Inftead of thofe frefh and delicious
{hades, thofe openings in die woods, and walks crofting
Ij- 2 each
(a) There are inftances of perfons who have -died at the noife of thunder without being touched. A man
frighted with the fall of a gallery in which he happened to be, was immediately feized with the black jaun¬
dice. M. le Cat mentions a young perfon on whom the infolence of * nother made fuch an impreftion, that
his countenance became at fiift yellow, and then changed into black, in fuch a manner that in lefs than
fight days he appeared to wear a mafic of black velvet: he continued in this ftate for four months without any
other fymptom of bad health or any pain. A failor was fo terrified in a ftorm, that his face fvveated blood,
winch like ordinary fweat returned as it was wiped off. Stahl, whofe teftimony cannot be called in queftion,
cites a lirailar cafe of a girl who had been frightened wiih CoHiers. The excefs of fear, according to many phy-
iicians, produces madnds and cpilepfy.
P L E [ f’o ] P L E
Fleafure. each other In all direAions, which delight the traveller the favages amufe tliemfelves with tying their naked I’kafure,
—►' Jn the fine forefts of France and Germany ; thofe in A- arms together, and laying a kindled coal between them,
merica ferve only to intercept the rays of the fun, and to tiy which of them can longed fuffer the heat; and
to prevent the benign influence of his beams. The fa- the warriors who afpire to the honour of being chief,
vage participates of this cold humidity ; his blood has undergo a courfe of fufiering which exceeds the idea of
little heat, his humours are grofs, and his conftitution torture inflifted on the greateft criminals in Europe.”
phlegmatic. To the powerful influence of climate, it Thefe obfervations on the pleafures and pains of fa-
is neceffary to join the habits of his life. Obliged to vages appear to be well-founded, and, as the attentive
traverfe vaft deferts for fuhfiftence, his body is accul- reader will perceive, are perfeAly agreeable to the the-
tomedto fatigue ; food not nourifhing, and at the fame ory of Dr Sayers. If indeed that theory be jnfi, as we
time in no great plenty, blunts his feelings ; and all the believe it to be, it will follow, that the few pleafures
hardfhips of the favage date give a rigidity to his mem- of fenfe which the American enjoys, he ought to enjoy
bers which makes him aimed incapable of differing, more completely than any European, becaule to him
The favage in this date of nature may be compared to they recur but feldom. This may very poffibly be the
our water-women and ftreet-porters, who, though they cafe ; and certainly would be fo, were not his fibres, by
poflefs neither great vigour nor drength, are capable of climate and the habits of his life, rendered more rigid
performing daily, and without complaint, that kind of than thofe of the civilized part of the inhabitants of Eu-
labour which to a man in a different condition of life i;ope. But if we agree with our author^ in what he § Enqdy
would be a painful and grievous burden. Feeling, in lefs fays of the pains and pleafures of favages, we cannot ad-^e
perfe&ion with the favage, by the effe&s of climate and mit, without many exceptions, his theory of the enjoy- ^
food, and the habits of his life, is dill farther redrained by ments of children. It is fo far from being true, that^/;^’M)j
moral confiderations. The European is lefs a man of few things amufe, and that nothing fatisfieS them, that Morale,
nature than of fociety: moral redraints are powerful with the diredt contrary mud have been obferved by every tom'4i
him; while over the American they have fcarcely any man attentive to the operations of the infant mind,
influence. This latter then is in a double condition of which is amufed with every thing new, and often com-
imperfeftion with regard to us; his fenfes are blunted, pletely fatisfied with the mered trifle. The pleafures
and his moral powers are not difclofed. Now, pleafure of philofophy are not indeed unfolded to the infant.;
and pain depending on the perfedtion of the fenfes and but it by no means follows that he does not enjoy his
the unfolding of the intellediual faculties, it cannot be rattle and his drum as much as the philofopher enjoys
doubted, that in enjoyments of any kind favages expe- his telefcope and air-pump; and if there be any truth
rience lefs pleafure, and in their fuffering lefs pain, than in the icience of phyfiognomy, the happinefs of the
Europeans in the fame circumdances. And in fa&, the former is much more pure andexquifite than that of the
favages of America poffefs a very feeble conditution. latter. That the mod perfedt mufic is vain noife to an
They are agile without being drong; and this agility infant, is far from being felf-evident, unlefs the author
depends more on their habits than on the perfedtion of confines the date of infancy to a very few months ;
their members: they owe it to the necefiity of hunting ; and we are not difpofed to believe, without better
and they are moreover fo weak, that they were unable to proof than we have yet received, that the reliffi of ex¬
bear the toil which their fird oppreffors impofed on quifite pei fumes and highly-feafoned diihes adds much
them. Hence a race of men in all refpedts fo im- to the fum of human felicity.
perfedt could not endure torment under which the mod But however much we difapprove of many of thefe
robtid European would fink, if the pain which they feel refledtions, the following we cordially adopt as our own.
were really as great as it appears to be. Feeling is then, “ If we compare (fays our author) the pleafures of
and mud neceffarily be, lefs in the favage condition ; fenfe with thofe which are purely intelledtual, we fhall
for this faculty difclofing itfdLf by the exercife of all the find that the latter are infinitely fuperior to the former,
phyfical and moral qualities, mud be lefs as they are lefs as they may be enjoyed at all times and in every fitua-
exercifed. Every thing fhows the imperfedtion of this tion of life. What are the pleafures of the table, fays
precious quality, this fource of all our affedtiqnS, in the Cicero, of gaming, and of women, compared with the
American favages. delights of dudy i This tade increafes with age, and
“ All the improvements in Europe have had a ten- no happinefs is equal to it. Without knowledge and
deucy to unfold fenfibility: the air is purified that we dudy, fays Cato, life is almod the image of death ( b).
may breathe more freely ; the moraffes are drained, the The pleafures of the foul are fuch, that it is frequent
rivers are regulated in their courfes, the food is nouriih- enough to fee men preferve their gaiety during their
ing, and the houfes commodious. With the favages, on whole life, notwithdanding a weak, difeafed, and debi-
the contrary, every thing tends to curb it; they take litated body. Scaron, who lived in the lad century,
pleafure even in hardening the organs of the body, in was an example of this. Balzac, fpeaking of him, fays,
accudoming themfelves to bear by degrees the mod that Prometheus, Hercules, and PhiloAetes, in profane,
acute pain without complaining. Boys and girls among and Job in lacred, hidory, faid many great things while
they
(b) “Savages, barbarians, and peafants, enjoy little happinefs except that of fenfation. The happinefs of a
civilized and well-informed man confids of fenfations, of ideas, and of a great number of affinities, altogether un¬
known to them. He not only enjoys the prefent, but the pad and the future. He recals the agreeable idea
of pleafures which he has tailed. It is great happinefs, fays an ancient, to have the recolieAion of good aAions^
Ci an upright intention, and of promifes which vve have kept.”
fcafure.
p L E [6
were affii&ed with violent pain, but Scaron alone
faid pkafant things. I have feen, continues he, in ma¬
ny places of ancient hiftory, conftancy, and modefty*
and wifdom, and eloquence, accompanying affliftion,
but he is the only inftar.ee wherein I have feen plea-
fantry.
“ There are men whofe underftandings are conftantly
on the ftretch, and by this very means they are impro¬
ved ; but if the body were as conftantly employed in
the purfuit of fenfual gratification, the conftitution
would foon be deftroyed. The more we employ the
mind we are capable of the greater exertion ; but the
more we employ the body we require the greater re-
pofe. There are befides but fome parts of the body
capable of enjoying pleafure ; every part of it can expe¬
rience pain. A toothach occafions more fuffering than
the moil confiderable of our pleafures can procure of
enjoyment. Great pain may continue for any length
of time ; exceffive pleafures are almoft momentary. Plea¬
fure carried to an extreme becomes painful; but pain,
either by augmenting or diminilhing it, never becomes
agreeable. For the moment, the pleafures of the fenfes
are perhaps more fatisfactory ; but in point of duration
tlrofe of the heart and mind are infinitely preferable.
All the fentiments of tendernefs, of friendfhip, of gra¬
titude, and of generofity, are fources of enjoyment for
man in a ftate of civilization. The damned are exceed¬
ingly unhappy, faid St Catherine de Sienna, if they are
incapable of loving or being beloved.
“ Plealure, continued for a great length of time, pro¬
duces languor and fatigue, and excites fieep; the con¬
tinuation of pain is productive of none of thefe effeCts.
Many fuffer pain for eight days and even a month with¬
out interruption ; an equal duration of excefiive plea¬
fure would occafion death.
“ Time is a mere relative idea with regard to plea¬
fure and pain ; it appears long when we fuffer, and
fhort when we enjoy. If there exifted no regular and
uniform movement in nature, we would not be able
from our fenfations alone to meafure time with any de¬
gree of exaCtnefs, for pain lengthens and pleafure a-
bridges it. From the languor of unoccupied time has
arifen the proverb expreflive of our defire to kill it. It
is a melancholy reflection, and at the fame time true,
that there is no enjoyment which can effectually fecure
us from pain for the remainder of our lives; while there are
examples of evils which hold men in eonftant forrow and
pain during their whole exiilence. Such then is the im¬
perfection of the one and the power of the other.
“ Pleafure and pain are the fources of morality ; an
aCtion is juft or unjuft, good or otherwife, only as its
natural tendency is to produce fuffering or enjoyment
to mankind. No crime could be committed againft a
being altogether infenfible, nor could any good be
beftowed on it. Unlefs he were endowed with the de¬
fire of pleafure and the apprehenfion of pain, man, like
an automaton, would aCt Irom neceflity, without choice
and without determination.
“ All our paflions are the developement of fenfibility.
If we were not poffeffed of feeling, we fhould be defti-
tute of paflions f and as fenfibility is augmented by ci¬
vilization, the paflions are multiplied ; more aftive and
vigorous in an extenfive and civilized, empire than in a
fmall ftate ; more in the latter than among barbarous na¬
tions ; and more in thefe lalithan among favages (See
r 1 P L E
Passion). There are more paflions in France and Pieafure,
England than in all the nations of Europe ; becaufe i’Fknaii.
every thing which feVves to excite and fofter them is ai-
ways in thofe countries in the greateft ftate of fermen¬
tation. The mind is atftive ; the ideas great, exteufive,
and multiplied. And is it not the foul, the mind, and
heart, which are the focus of all the paflions
But wherever the paflions are multiplied, the fources
of pleafure and pain are multiplied with them. This
being the cafe, it is impoflible to preferibe a fixed and
general rule of happinefs fuited to every individual.
There are objeCts of pleafure with regard to which all
men of a certain education are agreed; but there are
perhaps many more, owing to the variety of tempers
and education, about which they differ. Every man
forms ideas of enjoyment relative to his charaCler; and
what pleafes one may be utterly detefted by another.
In proportion as a nation is civilized and extenfive, thofe
differences are remarkable. Savages, who are not ac¬
quainted with all the variety of European pleafures,
amufe themfelves with very few objefts. Owing to the
want of civilization, they have icarcely any choice in
the objects of tafte. They have few paflions ; we have
many. But even in the nations of Europe pleafure is
infinitely varied in its modification and forms. Thofe
differences arife from manners, from governments, from
political and religious cultoms, and chiefly from educa¬
tion. Meanwhile, however different and variable the
ideas of pleafure may be among nations and individuals,
it itill remains a fadft, that a certain number of perfons
in all civilized ftates, whether diftinguilhed by birth, or
rank, or fortune, or talents, as they have nearly the
fame education fo they form nearly the fame ideas of
happinefs: but to poffefs it, a man mull give his chief
application to the ftate of his mind; and notwithftand-
ing all his efforts it is of uncertain duration. Happi-
nels is the funlhine of life: we enjoy it frequently at
great intervals; and it is therefore neceffary to know
how to ufe it. All the productions of art perilh ; the
largeft fortunes are dillipated; rank, honour, and dig¬
nity pafs awray like a fleeting ftiadow; the memory is
impaired ; all the faculties of the foul are extinguifhed ;
the body finks under the infirmities of old age ; and
fcarcely has one reached the boundaries of happinefs
marked out by his imagination, when he mull give
place to another, and renounce all his pleafures, all his
hopes, all his illufions; the fugitive images of w hich
had given happinefs to the mind.
There are pleafures, however, on wrhich the mind
may fecurely reft, which elevate man above hirnfelf,
dignify his nature, fix his attention on fpiritual things,
and render him wrorthy of the care of Providence. Thefe
are to be found in true religion ; which procures for
thofe who pra&ife its duties iuexprefiible happinefs in a-
better country, and is in this world the fupport of the
weak, and the fweet confolation of the unfortunate.
PLEBEIAN, any perfon of the rank of the com¬
mon people. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient
Romans, who were divided into fenators, patricians,
and plebeians. The diftinftion wras made by Romulus
the founder of the city; who confined all dignities,
civil, military, and facerdotal, to the rank of patricians.
But to prevent the feditions which fuch a diftinClion
might produce through the pride of the higher order,
and the envy of the lower, he endeavoured to engage
P L E [ 62 ] P L E
rieibran* them to one another by reciprocal ties and obligations.
f,iu‘ Every plebeian was allowed to choofe, out of the body
,p, of the patricians, a proledtor, who fhould be obliged to
/ * ~ afflt him with lu's intereft and fubftance, and to defend
him from cppreffioii. Thefe protetlors were called
patrons ; the protected, clients. It was the duty of the
patron to draw up the contradts of the clients, to extri¬
cate them out of their difficulties and perplexities, and
to guard their ignorance againft the artfulnefs of the
crafty. On the other hand, if the patron was poor, his
clients were obliged to contribute to the portions of his
daughters, the payment of his debts, and the ranfom
of him and his children if they happened to be taken
in war. The client and patron could neither accufe
nor bear witnefs againll each other; and if either of
them was convifted of having violated this law, the
crime was equal to that of treafon, and any one might
with impunity flay the offender as a vi&im devoted to
Pluto and the infernal gods. For more than 600 years
we. find no diffenfions nor jealoufies between the patrons
and their clients ; not even in the times of the republic,
when the people frequently mutinied againit the great
and powerful.
PLECTRANTHUS, in botany: A genus of the
gymnofpennia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
42d order, ertkillatce. The calyx is monophyllous,
Ihort, and bilabiated ; the upper lip of which is large,
oval, and bent upwards ; the inferior lip is quadrifid,
and divided into two lacing : the corolla is monopeta-
lous, ringent, and turned back; the labiae look differ¬
ent ways, and from the bafe of the tube there is a nedta-
rium like a fpur: the filaments are in a declining fitua-
tion, with fimple antherae : the ftylus filiform ; the ftig-
.ma bifid. It has four feeds covered only by the calyx.
There are two fpecies, viz. 1. The fruticofusy a native
of the Cape of Good Hope ; 2. Pun8atust a native of
Africa. The firft flowers from June to September, the
fatter from January' to May.
PLEDGE (Plegius)y in common law, a furety or
gage, either real or perfonal, which the plaintiff or
demandant is to find for his profecuting the fuit.
The word is fometimes alfo ufed for Frank Pledge,
which fee.
To Pledge, in drinking, denotes to warrant, or be
furety to one, that he fliall receive no harm while he is
taking his draught. The phrafe is referred by our
antiquaries to the pradlice of the Danes, heretofore in
England, who frequently ufed to flab or cut the throats
.of the natives while they were drinking.
Pledges of Goods for money. See Pawn.
PLEDGERY, or Pleggery, in law, furetifljip,
or an undertaking or anfwering for another.
PLEDGET, Bolster, or Compreft, in furgery, a
kind of fiat' tent laid over a wound, to imbibe the fu-
perfluous humours, and t© keep it clean.
PLEIADES, in fabulous hiftory, the feven daugh¬
ters of Atlas king of Mauritania and PRione, were
thus called from their mother. They were Jvlaia, Eleftra,
Taygete, Afterope, Merope, Halcyone, and Celoeno •
and were alfo called Atlantides, from their father Atlas!
Thefe princeffes were carried off by Bufiris king'of
Egypt; but Hercules having conquered him, delivered
them to their father : yet they afterwards fuffered a new
perfecution frqm Orion, who purfued them .five year,;.
till Jove, being prevailed on by their prayers, took them Ptehcbi
up into the heavens, where they form the conilellation H
which bears their name. Plenus.
Pleiades, in aftronomy, an affemblage of feven liars,
in the neck of the conilellation Taurus.
They are thus called from the Greek navigare,
“to fail;” as being terrible to mariners, by' reafon of
the rains and llorms that frequently rife with them.
The Latins called them vergili#. from ver, “ fpring
becaufe ol their rifing about the time of the vernal equi¬
nox. The largelt is of the third magnitude, and is called
lucidee pleiadum.
PLENARY, fomething complete or full. Thus
we fay the pope grants plenary indulgences; r. e. full
and entire remiffions of the penalties due to all fins.
See Indulgences.
PLENIPOTENTIARY, a perfon veiled with full
power to dq any thing. See Ambassador.
PLENITUDE, the quality of a thing that is full,
or that fills another. In medicine, it chiefly denotes a
redundancy of blood and humours.
PLENUM, in phyfics, denotes, according to the
Cartefxans, that Hate of things wherein every part of
fpace is fuppofed to be full of matter, in oppofition to
a Vacuum, which is a fpace fuppofed devoid, of all
matter.
PLENUS flos, a full flower; a term expi'effive of
the highell degree of luxuriance in flowers. See Botan y,
p. 428, 2d column. Such flowers, although the moll
delightful to the eye, are both vegetable monllers, and,
according to the fexualills, vegetable eunuchs; the un¬
natural increafe of the petals conllituting the firll; the
confequent exclufion of the llamina or male organs, the
latter. The following are well known examples of
flowers with more petals than one ; ranunculus, anemone,
marlh-mary'gold, columbine, fennel-flower, poppy, paeony,
pink, gilliflower, campion, vilcous campion, lily, crown
imperial, tulip, narciffus, rocket, mallow, Syrian mallow,
apple, pear, peach, cherry, almond, myrtle, rofe, and
ftrawberry.
Flowers with one petal are not fo fubjefl to fullnefs. The
following, however, are inflances : polianthus, hyacinth,
primrofe, crocus, meadow-faffron, and thorn-apple, tho'
-Kramer has afferted that a full flower with one petal is a
contradi<5lion in terms. In flowers with one petal, the
mode of luxuriance, or impletion, is by a multiplication
of the diviflons of the limb or upper part; in flowers
with more petals than one, by a multiplication of the
petals -a nettarium.
To take a few examples. Columbine is rendered full
in three different ways: 1. By the multiplication of its
petals, and total exclufion of the nedlaria; 2. By the
multiplication of the nettaria, and excluflon of the pe¬
tals ; or, 3. By fuch an increafe of the neftaria only as
does not exclude the petals, between each of which are
interjected three ne&aria, placed one within another.
Again, fennel-flower is rendered full by an increaie of
the ne&aria only; narciffus, either by a multiplication
of its cup and petals, or of its cup only; lark-fpur com¬
monly by an increafe of the petals and exclufion of the
lour, which, is its ueCtarium. In faponaria ccncava an-
glia, the impletion is attended with the fingular effect
of incorporating the petals, and reducing their number
from five to one ; and in gelder-rofe, the luxuriance is
effefted by an increafe both in magnitude and number
of
lenus
—v"
P L E
• o£ the circumference or margin of the head of flowers,
in the plain, wheel-fhaped, barren florets ; and an exclu-
fion of all the bell-fhaped hermaphrodite florets of the
centre or diik.
Hitherto we have treated of plenitude in fimple flowers
only: the inftance juft now adduced feems to connedf
the different modes of impletion in them and compound
flowers. Before proceeding farther, however, it will
not be improper to premife, that as a fimple luxuriant
flower is frequently, by beginners, miifaken for a com¬
pound flower in a natural fiate, fuch flowers may always
be diftinguifhed with certainty by this rule; That in
fimple flowers, however luxuriant, there is but one
piflillum or female organ ; whereas in compound flowers,
each floret, or partial flower, is furniihed with its own
proper piftfllum. Thus in haw’k-weed, a compound
flower, each flat or tongue-fhaped floret in the aggregate
ha's its five ftamina and naked feed, which laft is in
effeft its piftillum; whereas, in a luxuriant lychnis,
which is a fimple flower, there is found only one piflil¬
lum or female organ common to the whole.
In a compound radiated flower, which generally con-
fifls of plain florets in the margin or radius, and tubular
or hollow florets in the centre or dife) plenitude is
effedled either by an increafe of the florets in the margin,
and a total exelufion of thofe in the dife ; which mode
of luxuriance is termed implrtion by the radius, and re-
fembles what happens in the gelder-rofe : or by an elon¬
gation of the holW florets in the centre, and a lefs
profound divifion of their brims ; which is termed imple-
tion by the dife. In the firfl mode of luxuriance, the
florets in the centre, which are always hermaphrodite
or male,* are entirely excluded ; and in their place fuc-
ceed florets fimilar in fex to thofe of the radius. Now,
as the florets in the margin of a radiated compound
flower are found to be always either female, that is,
furnifhed with the piftillum only; or neuter, that is,
furnifhed with neither ftamina nor piftillum ; it is evi¬
dent, that a radiated compound flower, filled by the ra¬
dius, will either be entirely female, as in feverfew, daify,
and African marigold; or entirely neuter, as in fun-
flower, marygold, and centaury: hence it will always
be eafy to diftinguifh fuch a luxuriant flower from a com¬
pound flower with plain florets in a natural flute; as
thefe flowers are all hermaphrodite, that is, furniihed
with both flamina and piftillum. Thus the full flowers
of African marigold have each floret furnifhed with the
piftillum or female organ only: the natural flowers of
dandelion, which, like the former, is compofed of plain
florets, are furnifhed with both ftamina and piftillum.
In the fecond mode of luxuriance, termed impletion by
the dife, the florets in the margin fometimes remain un¬
changed : but moft commonly adopt the figure of thofe
in the centre, without, however, fuffering any alteration
in point of fex ; fo that confufion is lefs to be appre¬
hended from this mode of luxuriance than from the
former; befides, the length to which the florets in the
centre run out is of itfelf a fufficient diftincftion, and
adapted to excite at once an idea of luxuriance. Daify,
feverfew, and African marigold, exhibit inftances of this
as well as of the former mode of impletion.
r ^7 ^xur^ant compound flowers with plain florets, the
femijiofulofi of Tournefort, the ftigma or fummit of the
ityk in each floret is lengthened, and the feed-buds are
enlarged aud diverge j by which cliara&ers fuch flowers
[ 63 1
P L E
Plethora.
may always be diftinguifhed from flowers of the fame PleonaTm
kind in a natural ftate. Scorzonera, nipple-wort, and
goat’s-beard, furnifh frequent inftances of the plenitude
alluded to.
Laftly, the impletion of compound flowers with tu¬
bular or hollow florets, the fofculofi of Tournefort,
feems to obferve the fame rules as that of radiated flowers
juft delivered. In everlafting-flower, the xeranthemum
of Linnaeus, the impletion is Angular, being effefted
by the enlargement and expanfion of the inward chaffy
feales of the calyx. Thefe feales, which become co¬
loured, are greatly augmented in length, fo as to over¬
top the florets, which are fcarce larger than thofe of
the fame flower in a natural ftate. The florets too in
the margin, which in the natural flower are female, be¬
come, by luxuriance, barren; that is, are deprived of
the piftillum; the flyle, which was very fhort, fpreads,
and is of the length of the chaffy feales ; and its fummits,
formerly two in number, are metamorphofed into one.
Full flowers are more eafily referred to their refpedlive
genera in methods founded upon the calyx, as the flower-
cup generally remains unaffe^led by this higheft degree
of luxuriance.
PLEONASM, a figure in rhetoric, whereby we
ufe words feemingly fuperfluous, in order to exprefs a
thought with' the greater energy; fuch as, “ I faw it
with my own eyes,” &c. See Oratorv, n° 67.
PLESCOW, a town of Ruflia, capital of a duchy
of the fame name, with an archbifhop’s fee, and a ftrong
caflle. It is a large place, and divided into four parts,
each of which is furrounded with walls. It is feated on
the river Muldow, where it falls into the lake Plefcow,
80 miles fouth of Narva, and 150 fouth by well of Pe-
terfburg. E. Long. 27. 52. N. Lat. 57. 58.
Plescow, a duchy in Ruffia, between the duchies
of Novogorod, Lithuania, Livonia, and Ingria.
PLESSIS-les-tours, a royal palace of Erance,
within half a league of Tours. It was built by Louis XL
and in it he died in the year 1483. It is fituated in a
plain furrounded by woods, at a fmall dfllanee from the
Loire. The building is yet handfome, though built of
brick, and converted to purpofes of commerce
PLETHORA, in medicine, from << pleni, -
tude. A plethora is when the veffels are too much
loaded with fluids. The plethora may be fanguine-or
ferous. In the firfl there is too much craffamentum in
the blood, in the latter too little. In the fanguine ple¬
thora, there is danger of a fever, inflammation, apo¬
plexy, rupture of the blood-veffels, obftru&ed fecretious,
&c.: in the ferous, of a dropfy, See. A rarefa&ion of th«
blood produces all the effefts of a plethora; it may ac¬
company a plethora, and fhould be diftinguifhed there¬
from. Mr Bromfield obferves, that a fanguine plethora
may thus be known to be prefent by the pulfe. An
artery overcharged with blood is as incapable of produ¬
cing a ftrong full pulfe, as one that contains a deficient
quantity ; in both cafes there will be a low and weak
pulfe. _ To diftinguifh rightly, the pulfe muft not be
lelt with one or two fingers on the carpal artery; but
if three or four fingers cover a confiderable length of
the artery, and we prefs hard for fome time on it, and
then fuddcnly raife all thefe fingers except that which
is nearefl to the patient’s hand, the influx of the blood,
^f there is a plethora, will be fo rapid as to nufe the
other finger, and make us fenfible of the fulnefs. The
Pit* lira
II
Pleuro-
nede*.
•m'm
P L E
purging
n° 100.
PLEURA, in anatomy, a thm membrane covering
the infide of the thorax. See Anatomy, n° 113.
PLEURITIS, or Pleurisy. See Medicine,
ti° 1B5.
PLEURONECTES, in ichthyology,
longing to the order of thoracici. Both
[ 64 ] P L E
faneuine pfethorais relieved by Weeding: the ferou* by 4-. The llmanda, or dab, is found vvith the other
pSg, diuretics, and fv,-eating. See Med,CM, fpeaea, but ,» lefs common. It is m belt.feafondunng
° February, March, and April: they Ipawn in May and ^
June, and become flabby and watery the reft of fummer.
They are fuperibr in quality to the plaife and flounder,
but far inferior in fixe. It is generally of an uniform
brown colour on the upper fide, though fometimes
clouded with a darker. The fcales are fmall and rough,
which is a charafter of this fpecies. The lateral line ns
extremely incurvated at the beginning, then goes quite
ftraight to the tail. The lower part of the body is
white.
5. The folea, or foie, is found on all our coafts ;
but thofe on the weftern fhores are much iuperior in
fize to thofe on the north. On the former they arc
fometimes taken of the weight of fix or feven pounds,
but towards Scarborough they rarely exceed one pound;
if they reach two, it is extremely uncommon. They
are ufually taken in the trawl-net: they keep much at
the bottom, and feed on fmall fliell-lifli. It is of a form
much more narrow and oblong than any other of the
genus. The irides are yellow; the pupils of a bright
fapphirine colour : the fcales are fmall, and very rough :
the upper part of the body is of a deep brown ; the tip
of one of the pe&ontl tins black; the under part of
the body white; the lateral line is ftraight; the tail
rounded at the end. It is a fifli of a very' delicate
flavour; but the fmall foies are in this refpecl much fu-
perior to large ones. By' the ancient laws of the Cinque
Ports, no one was to take foies from the i ft of Novem¬
ber to the 15th of March ; neither was any body to fifli
from fun-fetting to fun-rifing, that the filh might enjoy
their night-food. The chief fifhery for them is at
Brixham in Torbay.
6. The maximus, or turbot, grows to a very large
fize: Mr Pennant has feen them of 23 pounds weight,
but has heard of fome that weighed 30. The turbot
is of a remarkable fquare form : the colour of the up¬
per part of the body is cinereous, marked with numbers
of black fpots of different fixes: the belly is white;
the fkin is without fcales, but greatly wrinkled, and
mixed with fmall fhort fpines, dilperfed without any
xorder.—Thefe fifli are taken chiefly off the north coaft
of England, and others off the Dutch coaft. Sec
Turbot FisffRRr.
PLEURS, a town in France, which was buried un¬
der a mountain in the year 1618. See our article
Mountain, p. 430. Of this fatal circumftance, Bi-
fliop Burnet, in his Travels, p. 96. gives the following
account. “ Having mentioned (fays the Bifhop) fome
falls of mountains in thefe parts (viz. near the Alps), I
cannot pafs by the extraordinary fate of the town of
Pleurs, about a league from Chavennes to the north.-—
The town was half the bignefs of Chavennes, but much
more nobly built; for, befides the great palace of the
Fraucken, that coll fome millions, there were many
other palaces built by rich fartors both of Milan and the
other parts of Italy, who, liking the fituation and air,
as well as the freedom of the government, gave them-
felves all the indulgences that a vail wealth could fur-
nifh. By one of the palaces that was a little diflant
from the town, and was not overwhelmed with it, one
may judge of the reft. It was an out-houfe of the fami¬
ly of the Francken, and yet it may compare with many
palaces in Italy. The voluptuoufnefs of this place be-
i " came
Pleur
efitf
Pleui
a genus be-
eyts are on
. the^fame fide of the head; there are from four to five
rays in the gill-membrane ; the body is compreffed;
the one fide refembhng the back, the other the belly.
There are 17 fpecies; the moft remarkable are,
x. The hyppogloffus, or holibut. This is the largeft
of the genus: fome have been taken in our feas weigh¬
ing from 100 to 300 pounds; but much larger are
found in thofe of Newfoundland, Greenland, and Ice¬
land, where they are taken with a hook and line in very
deep water. They are part of the food of the Green¬
landers, who cut them into large flips, and dry them in
the fun. They are common in the London markets,
where they are expofed to fale cut into large pieces.
They are very coarfe eating, excepting the part which
adheres to the fide fins, which is extremely fat and de¬
licious, but forfeiting. They are the moft voracious of
all flat fifli. There have been inftances of their fwal-
lowing the lead weight at the end of a line, with which
the feamen were founding the bottom from on board a
ihip. The holibut, in refpedl to its length, is the nar¬
rowed: of any of this genus except the foie. It is per-
fedtlv fmooth, and free from fpines either above or be¬
low. The colour of the upper part is dufky ; beneath,
of a pure white.. We do not count the ray's of the fins
in this genus; not only becaufe they are fo numerous,
but becaufe nature hath given to each fpecies charadlers,
independent of tbefe rays, fufficient to diftinguifli them
by. Thefe flat fifli fwim fidewife; for which reafon
Linnaeus hath flyied them p/euronedes.
2. The plateffa, or plaife, are very common on moft
of our coafts, and fometimes taken of the weight of 15
pounds ; but they feldom reach that fize, one of eight
or nine pounds being reckoned a large fifti. The bell
and largeft are taken off Rye on the coaft of Suffex,
and alfo off the Dutch coafts. They fpawn in the be¬
ginning of February. They are very flat, and much
more fquare than the preceding. Behind the left eyre
is a row of fix tubercles, that reaches to the commence¬
ment, of the lateral line. The upper part of the body
and fins are of <1 clear brown, marked with large bright
orange-coloured fpots : the belly is white.
3 The flefus, or flounder, inhabits every pa^t of the
Britiih fea, and even frequents our rivers at a great
diftance from the fait waters; and for this reafon fome
writers call it the pq/fer jluviali/is. It never grows large
In our rivers, but is reckoned fweeter than thofe that
live in the fea. It is inferior in fize to the plaife, feldom
or ndver weighing more than fix pounds. It may very
eaffly be diftinguifhed from the plaife, or any other fifli
of this genus, by a row of (harp fmall fpines that fur-
round its upper fides, and are placed juft at the junclion
of the fins with the body. Another row marks the
fide-line, and runs half way down the back. The co¬
lour of the upper part of the body is a pale brown,
fometimes marked with a few obfeure fpots of dirty
vellow : the belly is white.
* * ^
\
P L I
[ 65 ]
P L I
infs name tery Crying; and Madam de Satis told me that 'Hie
I II heard her mother: often relate fume paffages of a Protef-
ica‘ tant minifler’s fermons that preached in a little church
there, who warried them often of the terrible judgments
of God which were hanging over their heads, and
which he Relieved would fuddenly break out upon
them.
“ On the 25th of Auguft 1628, an inhabitant came
and told them to be gone, for he faw the mountains
cleaving ; but he was laughed at For his pains. He had
a daughter whom he perfuaded to leave all and go with
him ; but when fie was fafe out of town, fie called to
mind that {he had not locked the door of a room in
which fne had fome things of value, and fo {he went
back to do that, and was buried with the reft ; for at
the hour of fupper the hill fell down, and buried the
town and all the inhabitants, to the number of 2200,
fo that not one perfon efcaped. The fall of the moun¬
tains did fo fill the channel of the river, that the hr ft
news thofe of Chavenncs had of it was by the failing of
their river ; fot three or four hours there came not a
drop of water, but the river wrought for itfelf a new
courfe, and returned to them.
“ I could hear no particular ch a rafter of the man who
efcaped (continues the Bifhop) ; 10 I mull leave the
fecret reafon of fo lingular a prefervation to the great
difcovery, at the laft day, of thofe fteps of Divine Pro¬
vidence that are now’ fo unaccountable. Borne of the
family of the Francken got fome miners to work under
ground, to find out the wealth that was buried in their
houie ; for, befides their plate and furniture, there was
a great deal of calh and many jewels in the houfe. The
miners pretended they could find nothing; but they
went to their country of Tirol and built fine houfes,
and a great w-ealth appeared, of which no other viiible
account could be given but this, that they had found
fome of that treafure.”
PLEXUS, among anatomifts, a bundle of fmall
veffels interwoven in the form of net-work : thus a
congeries of veffels within the brain is called plexus
cboraidesy reticularis, or reiijormis. See Anatomy
n° 136.
A plexus of nerves is an union of two or more
nerves, forming a fort of ganglion or knot.
i^JGA pouonica, or patted hairy is a difeafe pe¬
culiar to Poland; whence the name. See Mnni-
n 355* Mr Coxe, who gives a ftiort account
of it, attempts lire wife to give the pbyiical caufes of it.
Many caufes of this kind, he tells us, have been fuppofed
to concur in rendering the plica more freqitent in thofe
regions than in other parts. It would be an endlefe
work* to-enumerate the various conjectures with which
each perfon has fupported* his favourite hypothefis.- 
j he niC)ft probable are thofe affigned by Dr Vicat : The
firft came is the nature of the Polifli air, which is ren¬
dered mi alubnous by nuinenous woods and moraftes, and
oecafionafty derives an uncommon keennefs even in the
nudft of fummer from the pofition of the Carpathian
mountains; for the Southern and- fouth-eafterly winds,
which uiuadly convey warmth in other regions, are in
t as chilleii in their paffage over their fncwy fummits.
v. 1 ne iv-cond is, unwholefome water ; for although Po¬
land is not deficient in good fpring«,; yet the common
people ufuafiy drink that which is ncardt at hand, ta-
kea mdifcriminately from rivers, lakes, and even ftag-
Vol. XV. Part 1. &
nant pools. The third caufe is the grofs hi attention of Plimpton
the natives to cleanhnefs ; for experience fiiows, that j J*
thofe who ire not negligent in their perlbns and habi-, ,
tations, ard lefs liable to be aftiifted with the plica
than others who are deficient in that particular. Thus
perions of higher rank are lefs fubjeft to this difordef
than thofe of inferior ftations ; the inhabitants of large
towns than thofe of fmall villages ; the free pcafants than
thofe in an abibiute ftate of vafialage ; the natives of
Poland Proper than thofe of Lithuania. Whatever we
may determine as to the poffibility that all or any of
thefe caufes, by themfelves, or in conjtihftica with
others, originally produced the diforder ; we may Fea¬
ture to aflert, that they all, and particularly the laft,
alfift its propagation, inflame its fymptoms, and pro¬
tract its cure.
In a word, the plica polonica appears to be a conta¬
gious diftemper ; which, like the leprofy, ftill prevails
among a people ignorant in medicine, and inattentive to
check its progrefs, but is rarely known in thofe countries
where proper precautions are taken to prevent its fpread-
ing.
PLIMPT ON, a town of Devonfhire, in England,
with a market on Saturdays. It is feated on a branch
of the river Plime, and had once a caftle, now in ruins,
It fends two members to parliament; is feven miles E.
of Plymouth, and 218 W. by S. of London. W.
Long. 4. c. N. Lat. 50. 22.
PLINIA, in botany ;> a genus of plants of the po^
lyandria monogynia- clafs, deferibed by PlumiCr and
Linnaeus. The empalement is divided into five fog-
ments; the flower confifts of five petals; the ftamir.a
are numerous filaments, {lender, and as long as the
flower; the anther* are fmall, and fo is the germen of
the piftil; the ftyle is tubulated, and of the length of
the ftamina; the ftigma is Ample ; the fruit is a large
globofe berry, of a ftriated or fulcated furface, contain¬
ing only one cell, in which is a very large, fmooth, and
globofe feed. There is only one fpecies.
PLINTH, orle, or Orlo, in architefture, a flat
fquare member, in the form of a brick. It is uled as
the foundation of columns, being that fiat fquare table
under the moulding of the bafe and pedeftal at the
bottom of the whole order. It feems to have been
originally intended to keep the bottom of the original
wooden pillars from rotting. Vitruvius alfo calls the
Tufcan abacus plinth.
Plinth of a Status See. is a bafe, either fiat, round,
or fquare, that ferves to Aipporb it.
Punth of a IVally denotes two or three row’s of
bricks advancing odt from a wall; or, m general, arty
fiat high ihouldmg, that ferves m a front-wall to mark
the floors, to fuftain the caves of a wall, or the krmier
of a chimney.
PLINY the EtDEFi, or C/tcilms p/inius Secundus,
one of the moft learned men of ancient Rome,- was de-
feended from an illuftriom family, and born at Verona*
He bore arms in a diftinguifoed poft ; was one of the
college of Augurs ; became iritendant of Spain ; and
was employed in feveral important affairs by Vtfpafiait
and Tittft, Who honoured him-with their efteem. The
eruption of Mount VefoVius, which happened in the
year 7^, proved fatal to him. His nephew* Pliny tint
Younger, relates the circumftances of that dreadful
eruption, and the death of his uncles, in a letter to Ta-
1 citus/
P L I [ 66 1 P L I
Pliny, cftus. Pliny the Elder wrote a Natural Hiftory in 37
books, which is ftill extant, and has had many editions;
the molt elteemed of which is that of Father Har-
douin, printed at Paris in 1723, in two volumes folio.
Pliny the Younger, nephew of the former, \yas
born in' the ninth year of Nero, and the 62d of Chriit,
at Novocomum, a town upon the lake Lanus, near
which he had feveral beautiful villas. Caeohus was the
name of his father, and Plinius Secundus that of. his
mother’s brother, who adopted him. He brought into
the world with him fine parts and an elegant tafte,
which he did not fail to cultivate early; for, as he tells
us himfelf, he wrote a Greek tragedy at 14 ycat s of
age. He loll his father when he was young ; and had
the famous Virginias for his tutor or guardian, whom
he has fet in a glorious light. He frequented the fchools
of the rhetoricians, and heard Quintilian ; for whom
he ever after entertained fo high an elfeem, that he be¬
llowed ia confiderable portion upon his daughter at. her
marriage. He was in his 1 Sth year when his uncle died ;
and it was then that he began to plead in the forum, which
was the ufual road to dignities. About a year after, he af-
fumed the military characler, and went into Syria with the
commiflion of tribune : but this did not fuit his taile any
more than it had done Tully’s; and therefore we find
him returning after a campaign or twm. He tells us,
that in his paflage homewards he w'as detained by con¬
trary winds at the ifland Icaria, and how' he employed
himfelf in making verfes: he enlarges in the fame place
upon his poetical exercitations ; yet poetry wras not the
lliining part of his charafter any more than it had been
of Tully’s. _ '
Upon his return from Syria, he married a wife, and
fettled at Rome : it was in the reign of Domitian.
During this moll perilous time, he continued to plead
in the forum, where he wras dillinguilhed not more by
his uncommon abilities and eloquence, than by his great
refolution and courage, which enabled him to fpeak
boldly, wdien fcarcely one elfe durll fpeak at all. On
thefe accounts he was often fingled out by the fenate
to defend the plundered provinces againll their oppref-
five governors, and to manage other caufes of a like
important and dangerous nature. Ond of thefe was for
the province of Boetica, in their profeeution of Biebius
Malfa; in w'hich he acquired fo general an applaufe,
that the emperor Nerva, then a private man, and in ba-
mlhment at Tarentum, wrote to him a letter, in which he
congratulated not only Pliny, but the age which had
produced an example fo much in the fpirit of the an¬
cients. Pliny relates-this affair in a letter to Cornelius
Tacitus; and he was fo pleafed with it himfelf, that he
could not help intreating this friend to record it in his
hillory. He intreats him, however, wfith infinitely
more modefty than Tully had intreated Lucceius upon
the fame occafion : and though he might imitate Cicero
in the requeft, as he profeffes to have cqnftantly fet that
great man before him for a model, yet he took care
not to tranfgrefe the bounds of decency in his manner
of making it. He obtained the offices of queflor and
tribune, and luckily went unhurt through the reign of
Domitian : there is, however, reafon to fuppofe, if that
?mperor had not died jiilt as he did, that Pliny would
have fhared the fate of many other great men ; for he
%e!Js us himfelf, that his name was afterwards. found ia
Domitian’s tablets, among the number of thofe who Pllr
were dellined to deftrudtion. ^ ,•
He loft his wife in the beginning of Nerva’s reign,
and foon after married his beloved Calphurnia, of w'hom
we read fo much in his Epiffles, He had not, however,
any children by any of his wives: and h^nce we find
him thanking Trajan for the jus trium liber or um, which
he afterwards obtained of that emperor for his friend -
Suetonius Tranquillus. He hints alfo, in his letter of
thanks to Trajan, that he had been twice married in
the reign of Domitian. He was promoted to the con-
fulate by Trajan in the year 100, when he was 38 years
of age ; and in this office pronounced that famous pa.
negyric, which has ever fince been admired, as well for
the copioufnefs of the topics as the elegance of addrefs,
Then he was elected augur, and afterwards made pro.
conful qf Bithynia; whence he wrote to Trajan that
curious letter concerning the primitive Chriffians;
which, with Trajan’s refeript, is happily extant among
his Epiftles. Pliny’s letter, as Mr Melmoth obferves
in a note upon the paffage, is eiteemed as almofl the
only genuine monument t>f ecclefiallical antiquity rela’
ting to the times immediately fucceeding the apoftles, it
being written at molt not above 4c years after the death
of St Paul. It was preferved by the Chriflians them*
felves, as a clear and unfufpicious evidence of the puri¬
ty of their dotlrines, and is frequently appealed to by
the early writers of the church againfl the calumnies of
their adverfaries. It is not known what became of
Pliny after his return from Bithynia; whether he lived
at Rome, or what time he fpent at his country-houfes.
Antiquity is alfo filent as to the time of his death : but l
it is conjectured that he died either a little before or foo$
after that excellent prince, his admired Trajan; that b,
about the year of Chrill 116.
Pliny was one of the greatefl wits, and one of the
worthiefl men, among the ancients. He had fine parts,
which he cultivated to the utmoil; and he accomplifh-
ed himfelf with all the various kind$ of knowledge
which could ferve to make him either ufeful or agree*
able. He wrote and publifhed a great number of
things ; but nothing has efcaped the wreck of time ex-
cept the books of Letters, and the panegyric upon
Trajan. This has ever been confidered as a mafteri-
piece : and if he has, as fome think, almoft exhaufted
all the ideas of perfection in a prince, and gone per¬
haps a little beyond the truth, yet it is allowed that
no panegyrift was ever poffeffed of a finer fubjeCt, and
on which he might better indulge in all the flow of elo*
quence, without incurring the fufpicion of flattery and
lies. His letters feem to have been intended for the
public ; and in them he may be confidered as Writing
his own memoirs. Every epiflle is a kind of hifforical
fketch, wherein v/e have a view of him in fome flriking
attitude, either of adlive or contemplative life. In
them are preferved anecdotes of many eminent perfons,
whofe works are come down to us, as Suetonius, Si-
lius Italic us. Martial, Tacitus, and Quintilian; and of
curious things, which throw great light upon the hi¬
ftory of thofe times. They are written with great pc-
litenefs and fpirit; and if they abound too much in
turn and metaphor, we muff impute it to that degene¬
racy of tafte which was then accompanying the degene*
rate manners of Rome. Pliny, however, feems to have
preferved
P L O [
prefervea luniHF in this latter rffpeft from the gene-
ral contagion : whatever the manners of the Romans
were, his were pure and incorrupt. His writings
breathe a fpirit of tranfcendent goodneft and humanity :
his only imperfection is, he was too defirous that the
public and pofterity fhould know how humane and good
he was. We have two elegant Englilh tranflations of
his Epiftles; the one by Mr Melmoth, and the other
by Lord Orrery.
PLOCAMA, in botany ; a genus of the monogyma
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is quinquedentate ; the fruit a berry and tnlocu-
lar, with folitary feeds. Of this there is only one Ipecies,
viz. the f nduiiiy a native of the Canaries.
PLOCE. ^See Oratory, p. 433.
PLOCKSKO, a town of Poland, and capital of a
palatinate of the fame name, with a caille and a bi(hop’s
fee. The churches are very magnificent; and it is built
upon a hill, whence there is a fine prafpeft every
way, near the river Viftula. It is 25 miles fouth-eaft
of Ukdiflaw, and 65 well of Warfaw. E. Long. 19. 29.
N. Lat. 52. 46.
Plocksko, a palatinate of Poland, bounded on the
north by Regal Prufiia, on the call by the palatinate of
Mazovia, on the fouth by the Viftula, and on the weft
by the palatinate of Iriovladiflaw. ’I he capital town is
of the fame name.
PLOEN is a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and capital of Holftein. It (lands on
the banks of a lake of the fame name, and gave title
to a duke, till by the death of the laft duke Charles
without male iffue it cfcheated to the king ot Denmark
in 1761. The ducal palace, nfing in the midft of the
town, on an elevated (pot of ground, and overlooking
the lake, is a very pi&urefque objecl. The town (lands
22 miles north-weft of Lubeck, and 10 louth-eaft of
Kiel!. E. Long. ic. 30. N. Lat. 54. 11.
PLOMO, in metallurgy, is a name given by the
Spaniards, who have the care of the filver-mines, to the
Tiiver ore, when found adhering to the furface of (tones,
and when it incrufts their cracks and cavities like (mail
and loofe grains of gun-powder. Though thefe grains
be few in number, and the reft of the (tone have no (li¬
ver in it, yet they are always very happy when they find
it, as it is a certain token that there is a rich vein fome-
where in the neighbourhood. And if in digging for¬
wards they ftill meet with thefe grains, or the plomo in
greater quantity, it is a certain fign that they are getting
snore and more near the good vein.
PLOT (Dr Robert), a learned antiquarian and phi-
67 T P L O
in his hiftories of Oxfordfture and StafForddure: the
former publilhed. at Oxiord in i677> f°ho, and rtprint¬
ed with additions and corrections in I7°5 > aa^ ^at"
ter was printed in the fame iize in 1686. In January
1694-5, Henry Howard, Earl Marftial, nominated him
Mobray-herald extraordinary ; two days after which he
was conftituted regifter of the court of honour; and,
on the 30th of April 1696, he died of the Hone at Ins
houfe in Borden. . , -
As Dr Plot delighted in natural 'hiflory, the above
works were-defigned as eflays towaids a (Satuxul ILfto-
ry of England ; and he had actually formed a defign of
travelling through England and Wales for that pinpofe.
He accordingly drew up a plan uf his fcheme 111 aktter
to the learned Bifhpp Fell; which is inferted at the end
of the fecond volume ofLeland’s Itinerary, of the .edi¬
tion of 1744. Amongft feycralM^S. v.mchht left be¬
hind him were large materials fpr the “ Natural Hiftory.
pf Kent, Middlefex, and the city of London.” Bcfides
the above works, he publifhed De online /outturn, tenta-
nuti phtlofophicum, 8vo, and nine papers in tne Plnloio-
phical TranfaCtions.
Plot, in dramatic poetry, is fometimes ufed for the
fable of a tragedy or comedy ; but more properly for the
knot or intrigue, which makes the embarras of any piece.
See Poetry.
Plot, in furveying, the plan or draught of any field,
farm, or manor, furveyed with an inftrument, and laid
down in the proper figure and dimenfions.
PLOTINUS, a Platonic philofopher in the third
century. He was born at Lycopohs, a city of Lgypt,
in 204 ; and began very early to (how a great fingula-
rity both in his tafte and manners: for, at eight years
of age, when he went to fchool, he ufud to run to his
nurie, and uncover her bread to fuck ; and would have
continued that praClice longer, if he had not been difeou-
raged by her. At 28 years of age he had a ftrong de¬
lire to ftudy philofophy, on which occafion he was re¬
commended to the moll famous profeffors of Alexan¬
dria. He was not fatisfied with their leClures ; but,
upon hearing thofe of Ammonius, he confefied that this
was the man he wanted. He (ludied for 11 years un¬
der that excellent mailer, and then went to hear the
Perfian and Indian philofophers : for in 243, when the
emperor Gordianus intended to wage war againll the
Perfians, he followed the Roman army, but probably
repented of it ; for it was with difficulty he could fave
his life by (light, after the emperor had been (lain. He
was then 39; and the year following he went to Rome,
and read philofophical leCtures in that city ; but aVoid-
PMf,
Piotinus,
J. X. IVUUCILy, cl ICCUilCU UU1 CU1U. JJiil-    - ^ ‘ . 7
lofopher, was born at Sutton-barn, in the pariftr of Bor- ed following the example o( Lrennius and Origen, his
den in Kent, in the year 1641, and (ludied in Magda- fellow-pupils, who, having promhed with him not to
len-hall, and afterwards in Univerfity-college, Oxford, reveal lome hidden and excellent doClrines they had re¬
in 1682 he was eleCled fecretary of the Royal Society, ceived from Ammonias, had neverthelefs^forfeited their
andpubliftred the Philofophical TranfaCtions from n° 143
to n‘' 166 inclufive. The next year Elias Aftimole,
Efq; appointed him firft keeper of his mufeum, and about , ^ _ %
the fame time the vice-chancellor nominated him firll pro- nius, was not fati-sfied with (uperficial anfvvers, but re-
fdTor of chemiftry in the univeriity of Oxford. In 1687 quired to have all difficulties thoroughly explained ; and
he was made fecretary to the Earl Marftial, and the fob therefore Plotinus, to treat things with greater accura-
lowing year received the title of Hijlor'wgrapher to King cy, was obliged to write more books. He had before.
James II. In 1690 he refigned his profcflbrftiip of written 21 books, and during the fix years of Porphy-
chemiftry, and likewife his place of keeper of the mu- ry’s (lay with him he wrote 24, and 9 after Porphyry’s
feum, to which he prefented a very large colledlion of leaving Rome, 11 rri'~ 15 v'"a ~ 1 u
natural curiofities; which were thofe he hud deferibed
. ord. Plotinus continued ten years in Rome, without
writing any thing ; but, in his 50th year, Porphyry be¬
came his fcholar; who, being of an exquifitely fine ge-
Porphyry’
in all 54. The Romans had a high ve¬
neration for him ; and he pafled for a man of fueh judg-
I 2 ment
I’lqti:!
F* L O [ CS
Mcht and virtue, that many perfons of both fexes, when
they found themielves dying, intruded him, as a kind
of guardian angel, with the care of their eilates and
children. He was the arbiter of numberlefs law-fuits ;
and con handy behaved with fuch humanity and redti-
tude of mind, that he did npt create himfelf one enemy
during the 26 years he refilled in Rome. He, however,
did not meet with the fame juftice from all of his own
profefiion ; for Olympias a philofophcr of Alexandria,
being envious of his glory, ufed his utmoll endeavours,
though in vain, to ruin him. The emperor Gallienus,
and the emprefs Salonina, had a very high regard for
him; and, had it not been for the oppoiition of fome
jealous courtiers, they would have had the city of Cam¬
pania rebuilt, and given to him with the territory be¬
longing to it, to eftablith a colony of philofophers, and
to have it governed by the ideal laws of Plato’s common¬
wealth. He laboured under various difovders during
the laft year of his life, which obliged him to leave Rome,
when he was carried to Campania to tire heirs of one of
his friends, who luniiihed him with every thing neceffa-
ry ; and he died there in the year 270, at the age of 66,
and in the nobleft manner that an heathen plnlofopher
could do, thefe being his words as he breathed his laft :
“ I am labouring w ith all my might to return the divine
part of me to that Divine Whole which fills the uni-
verfe.”
We have already remarked that the ideas of Plotinus
were lingular and extraordinary; and we {hall now fhow
that they were fo. He was afiiamed of being lodged in a
body, for which reafon he did not care to tell the place of
his birth or family. The contempt he had for all earthly
things,was the reafon why he would not permit his pRlure
to be drawn ; and when his difciple Amehus was urgent
with him upon this head, “ Is it not enough (faid he)
to drag after 113, whitherfoever we go, that image in
which nature lias {hut us up ? Do you think that we
fhould hkewife tranfmit to future ages an image of that
image, as a fight worthy of their attention ?” From
tihe tame principle, lie reFukd to attend to his health ;
lor he never made ufe of prefervatives or baths, and did
not evea eat the fiefii of tame animals. He eat but little,
and abftained very often from bread ; which, joined to
his intenfe meditation, kept him very much from {leep¬
ing. In fhort, he thbught the body altogether below
his notice ; and had fo little refpedt for it, that he con-
iidsred it as a prifon, from which it would be his fu-
preme happinefs to be freed. When Ajnelius, after his
death, inquired about the ftate of his foul of the oracle
of Apollo, he was told, “ that it was gone to the af-
fembly of the bleffed, where charity, joy, and a love of
■fcbe union with God prevail i’5 and the reafon given for
it, as related by Porphyry, is, “ that Plotinus had been
peaceable, gracious, and vigilant; that he had perpetu¬
ally elevated his fpotlefs foul to God ; that he had loved
God with his whole heart; that he had difengaged him-
klf, to the utmoft of his abilities, from this wretched
life ; that, elevating himfelf with ad the powers of his-
foul, and by the feveral gradations taught by Rato, to¬
wards that Supreme Being which fills the univerfiy he
had been enlightened by him ; had enjoyed the vifion of
him without the help or interpofrtion of ideas ; had in
Ihort, been often united to him.5’ This is the account
of Porphyry, who tells m alfo, that he himfelf had once
beta favoured with die vifion. To this account, however
T P L O
we need fcarcely add, that little credit is due: it agrees Motinu:
pretty much with modern enthufiafm and the reveries of biotas
Bebmenifta. Plotinus had alfo his familiar fpirit, as well
as Socrates ; but, according to Porphyry, it was not
one of thofe called demons, but of the order of thofe
who are called gods ; fo that he was under the protec¬
tion of a genius fuperfor to that of other men. The
fuperiority of his. genius puffed him up not a little ; for
when Amelius defired him to {hare in the facrifices,
which he uled to offer up on folemn feftivala, “ It is
their bufinefs (replied Plotinus) to come to me, not-
mine to go to them “ which lofty anfwfir (fays Por-
phyry) no one could gilds the reafon of, or dared to
aik.”
Porphyry put the 54 books of Plotinus in order,
and divided them into fix enneafes. The greater part
of them turn on the moft high-flown ideas in meta-
phyfica ; and this phiiofopher feems, in certain points,
not to differ mucli from Spinoza, He wrote two books
to prove, that “ all being is one and the fame which
is the very doctrine of Spinoza. He inquires, in ano¬
ther book, “ Whether there are many fouls, or only
one His manner of compofing partook of the fingu-
lai ity of his nature : he never read over his compofitions
after he had written them ; he wrote a bad hand, and
was not exact in his orthography : he flood in need,
therefore, of a faithful friend to revife and correct his
writings ; and he chofe Porphyry for this purpofe be¬
fore Amelius, who had, however, been his difciple 24
years, and was very much efleemed by him. Some have
ace ufed Plotinus of plagiarifm, with regard to Nume-
mus ; a dander which Amelias Refuted. .Longinus was
once much prejudiced again ft our great phiiofopher,
and wrote againil his Treatife of Ideas, and againfi
Porphyry’s anfwer in defence cf that treatife. He af¬
terwards conceived a high efteem for him; fought in-
diiftnouffy for all his books ; and, in order to have them
very correct, ddired Porphyry to lend him his copy ;
hut at the fame time wrote to him in the following
manner : “ I always obferved to you, when we were to¬
gether, when we were at a diftance from otie another^,
as well as when you lived at Tyre, that I did not com¬
prehend many of the fubjccls treated of by Plotinus ;
but that I was extremely fond of his- manner of writing,
the variety of his knowledge, and the order and difpo-
fition of his questions, which are altogether phiiofophir-
cal.” “ This fi-ngle padage (faya Bayk) ihows the
exalted genius, the exquifite difeernment, and judicious
penetration of Longinus. It cannot be denied, that
moft fubjedls which this phuofopher examines are in-
eomprehenfible ; neverthelefs, we diieover in his works
a very elevated, frustful, and capacious genius, and a
clofe way of reafoning. Had Longinus been an injudi¬
cious critic, had-he not poffeffedan exalted and beauti¬
ful genius, he would not have been, fo fenfible of Ploti¬
nus’s obfeurity : for no perfons complain lefs of the ob-
feurifey of a book, tnan thofe whofe tiioughts are con¬
fided and underftandmg is {hallow.” Marfilius Ficinus,
at the requeft cl Coimo de Modicis, made a Latin ver»
Son of the works, of Plotinus, with a luminary and ana-
lyfis of each book ; which was printed- at Banl!, firii by
itfelf, in 1559,, and afterwards with the Greek in 1580,
folio. IDs life was written by Porphyry, the moll il-
luftrious of his diiciples.
PLOTUS, or Dartivr, in ornithology, a genus of
birds
r
1 >tUB.
P L O
birds belonging to the order palmipedes. The bill is
long and Tharp-pointed; the noftrils are merely a long
flit placed near the bale; the face and chin are bare of
feathers; the neck is very long ; and the legs are fliort.
They have four toes webbed together. There are three
fpeciee oF this genus, and three varieties of the fecond
of thefe.
1. The plotus anhinga, or white-bellied darter, is not
quite fo big as a mallard ; but its length from the point
of the hill to the end of the tail is 10 inches. The bill,
which is three inches long, is flraight and pointed : the
colour is greyilh, with a yellowiih bafe : the irides are
ot a gold colour: the head is Iniall: the neon, long and
flender: the upper pail of the back and fcapulars are
of a dufky black colour ; the middle of the feathers are
daihed with white: the lower part ot the back, Sic.
are of a fine black colour: the under parts from the
breaks are lilvery white : the fmaller wing coverts, and
thole in the mi'dd e, are dufky black ; the larger ones
are fpotted with white, and the outer ones are plain
black : the tail feathers are 12 in number, broad, long,
and gloffy black: the legs and toes are of a yellowiih
grey. This fpecies is an inhabitant of Brafil, and is
exceedingly expert and cunning in catching lifii. Like
the corvorant, it builds ndts on trees, and rooits in them
at night. It is fcarcely ever teen on the ground, being
always on the bight it branches of trees on the water,
or fuch as grow in the modi favannas or river tides.
When at reft, it generally fits with the neck drawn in
between the flioulders like the heron. The fleth is in
general very fat; but has an oily, rank, and difagreeable
tafte like that of a gull.
2. The anhingaof Cayenne, or black-bellied anhinga,
is as large as a common duck, with a very long neck,
and a long iharp-pointed ftraight bill. The upper part
of the bill is of a pale blue, and the lower is reddifh :
the eyes are very piercing : the head, neck, and upper
part of the break are fight brown: both fides of the
head, and the upper part of the neck, are marked with
a broad white line : the back, fcapidars, and wing co¬
verts, are marked with black and white kripes length-
wife in equal portions : the quiU feathers, the belly,
thighs, and tail, are of a deep black colour ; the tail
is very long and flender : the legs and feet are of a pale
green colour; and the four toes, like thofe of the cor¬
vorant, are united by webs. This fpecies is found in
the iflands of Ceylon and Java. They generally fit on
the fhruhs that hang over the water; and, when they
ft act out their long flender necks, are often taken for
ferpents at firk fight.
Mr Latham defuribes three varieties of this fpccies,
which are all equal in. fi?.e to the common birds of the
fpecies. The firk and the fecond variety, which lull
Mr Latham calls the black darter, inhabit Cayenne;
and third, or rufous darter, inhabits Africa, particularly
Senegal, where it is called kandat.
3. The Surinam darter is about 13 inches long, be¬
ing' about the fize of a teal". The bill is of a pale co¬
lour, and about X J inch m length : the irides are red :
the crown of the head is black, and the feathers behind
form a iort of crek : the neck, as in the other fpecies,
is long asid flender: the cheeks are of a bright bay co¬
lour : from the corner of each eye there comes a line
of white: the fides and back part of the neck are
marked with longitudinal lines of black and white : the
69 ] T L 0
wings are black, and the tail is dulky brown : it is alio
tipped with white and fhaped like a wedge : the break
and belly are white : the legs fhort, but very krong,
and of a pale dufky colour: the four toes are joined by
a membrane, and barred with blacJc. I his fpecies in¬
habits Surinam, frequenting the Tides of rivers and
creeks, where it feeds on imaU fifn and infects, espe¬
cially on flies, which it catches with great dexterity.
When domeiticated, which often happens, the inhabi¬
tants call it the jun bird. Authors have differed exceed¬
ingly concerning the genus to winch this fpecies belongs,
fluce it is found to differ from the others in fomc pretty
efiential characters : it agrees, however, in io many,
and thofe the rook effential, as fufliciently to excufe
thofe naturaliks who clafs it with the plotus genus. See
i.athands Syriopjts nj Dirdsy vol. in. part 2. p. 627.
Plough.
PLOUGH, in agriculture : A machine fur turning The plough
up the foil by the action of cattle, contrived to fave the
time, labour, and expence, which, without this inftru-
ment, mult have been employed in digging the ground,
and fitting it for receiving all forts of feed. See Agri¬
culture, nc 83—95.
Amidk all the varieties which can occur in the man¬
ner of ploughing the ground,- arifing from difference o£
foil, local habits, and other caufes, there is kill a fame-
nefs in the talk which gives a certain uniformity to the
chief parts of the inkrument, mid fhould therefore fur-
nifli principles for its conkruCtion. There is not, per¬
haps, any invention of man that more higldy merits our
utmok endeavours to bring it to perfection't but it has
been too much negleCled by thofe perfons who Itudy
machines, and has been conlidered as a rude tool, un- 4
worthy of their attention. Any thing appears to them An inltru^
fuffieient for the dumfy talk of turning up the ground >^entr”fat
and they cannot imagine that there can be any nicety
in a bufinefs which h fuccefsfully performed by the ig¬
norant peafant. Others acknowledge the value of the
machine, and the difficulty of the fubjeft; but they
think that difficulty infiiperabie, becaufc the operation is
fo complicated, and die refinances to be overcome fo
uncertain, or fo little underkood, that we cannot difco-
ver any unequivocal principle, and muk look for im¬
provement only from experience or chance.
But thefe opinions are ill founded. The difficulty is
indeed great, and it is neither from the ignorant fanner
nor the rude artik that we can expect improvement.. It
requires the furious confideration of the mok aecom-
pliihtd mechanician "r but from Iiim we miry expert im- ^
provement. We have many data: we know pretty And may
diftin&ly what preparation will fit the ground for bting^c impio-
the proper receptacle for the feed, and for fupporting vet*’
and nouriflaing the plants; and though it isy perhaps,
impoffible to bring it into this kale by the operation of
any inkrument of the plough kind, we know that form'
ploughs piodigioafly excel others in reducing rive Riff
ground to that uniform crumbling kale in which ft eaiv
be left by the fpade. The imperfeff ions of their per¬
formance, or what yet remains to be done to bring the
ground into this Rate, is diRinctly underkood. It fie ms.,
then, a determinate problem (to nfc the language of
mathematicians), becaufe the operation depends on the
invariable laws of mechanical nature. ^
It will therefore be very proper, under this artfij^The tafic
to afeertain, if poffible, what a plough in general ought h l)crLinw
to be, by deforibing diftinbtiy its talk. This will firre-
3 ly
5P;ough,
Plate
cccxcvm.
5
General
form of
the plough.
6
Advantages
of this
form.
P L O r 70 ] *P L O
Ij* point out a general form, the chief features of which
mull be found under every variety that can arife from
particular circumftances.
' The plough performs its taflc, not by digging, but
by being pulled along. We do not aim at immediately
reducing the ground to that friable and uniform Hate
into which we can bring it by the fpade ; but we wifh
to bring it into fuch a Hate that the ordinary operations
of the leafon will complete the talk.
For this purpofe, a flice or fod mull be cut olF from
the firm land. This mull be Ihoved to one fide, that
the plough and the ploughman may proceed in their la¬
bour ; and the fod mull be turned over, fo that the
grals and Hubble may be buried and rot, and that frelh
foil may be brought to the furface ; and all muH be left
in fuch a loofe and open condition, that it may quickly
crumble down by the influence of die weather, without
baking into lumps, or retaining water. The firlt office
is performed by the coulter, which makes a perpendi¬
cular cut in the ground. The point of the fock follows
this, and its edge gets under the fod, and lifts it up.
While lifting it up, it alfo heels it over, away from
the firm land. The mould-boa’-d comes lafl, and pulhes
rt afide, and gradually turns it over as far as is required.
The general fonn of the body of a plough is that of
a wedge, or very blunt chifl'el, AFEDBC, (fig. i.),
having the lower corner D of its edge conliderably
more advanced than the upper corner B ; the edge BD
and the whole back AFDB is in die fame perpendicu¬
lar plane; the bottom FDB approaches to a triangular
form, acute at D, and fquare at F ; the furface BCED
is of a complicated fiiape, generally hollow, becaufe
the angle ABC is always greater than FDE : this con-
fequence will be eafily feen by the mathematician. The
back is ufually called the land sibE by the ploughmen,
and the bafe FDE is called the sole, and FE the
Heel, and BCED the mould-board. Laflly, the
angle AFE is generally fquare, or a right angle, fo that
the foie has level both as to length and breadth.
By comparing this form with attention, the reader
will perceive that if this wedge is pulled or pufhed along
in the diredlion FD, keeping the edge BD1 always in
the perpendicular cut which has been previoufly made
by the coulter, the point D will both raife the earth
and ffiove it to one fide and twifl it over ; and, when the
point has advanced from F to D, die fod, which for¬
merly relied on the triangle DFE, will be forced up
along the furface BCED, the line DF riling into the
polition D f, and the line EF into the polition E f.—
Had the bottom of this furrow been covered with a bit
of cloth, this cloth would be lying on the mould-board,
in die pofition D/E: the llice, thus deranged from its
former fituation, will have a lhape fomething like that
reprefented in fig. 2.
In as much as the wedge raifes the earth, the earth
prefles down the wedge ; and as the wedge pulhes the
earth to ^he right hand, the earth prefles the wedge to the
left ; and in this manner the plough :s llrongly pr :fied,
both to the bottom of the furrow by its foie, and alfo to
the firm land by its back or land-fide. In fhort, it is
ftrongly fqueezed into the angle formed along the line
FD (fig. i.) by the perpendicular plane ab DF and the
horizontal plan6 FDE ; and in this manner the furrow
becomes a firm groove, direfting the motion of the
plough, and giving it a refilling fuppgrt, by which it
can perform all parts of its talk. We beg our readers Plcojj
to keep this circumflance conllantly in mind. It evk '■"■Y'-
dently fuggefls a fundamental maxim in the conflruftion, A
namely, to make the land-fide of the plough an exaftmentaln
plane, and to make the foie, if not plane, at lealt xim in t|
llraight from point to heel. Any projection would c.0Il^ruc
tear up the fupporting planes, deflroy the directing °!1
groove, and expend force in doing muchief. • ^ '
This wedge is feldom made of one piece. To give
it the neceflary width for removing the earth would re¬
quire a huge block of timber. It is therefore ufually
framed of feveral pieces, which we lhall only mention
in order to have the language of the art. Fig. 3. re-
prtfents the land-fide of a plough, fuch as are made by
James Small at Rofebank, near Foord, Mid Lothian.
The bafe of it, CM, is a piece of hard wood, pointed
before at C to receive a hollow Ihoeing of iron CO,
called the Sock, and tapering a little towards the 8
hinder end, M, called the Heel. This piece is called Fiefrv'
the Head of the plough. Into its fore part, juft be-j
hind the fock, is mortifed a Hoping poll, AL, called ^ ^ °U'
the Sheath, the front of which is worked fharp, form¬
ing the edge of the wedge. Nearer the heel there is
mortifed another piece, FQ, Hoping far back, called
the Stilt, ferving for a handle to the ploughman.
The upper end of the fheath is mortifed into the long
Beam RH, which projects forward, almoil horizontally,
and is mortifed behind into the ftilt. To the fore end
of the beam are the cattle attached. The whole of this
fide of the wedge is faffiioued into one plain furface,
and the intervals between the pieces are filled up with
boards, and commonly covered with iron plates. The
Coulter, WFE, is firmly fixed by its ffiafik, W, into
the beam, rakes forward at an angle of 45v with the
horizon, and has its point E about fix inches before
the point of the lock. It is brought into the fame
vertical plane wfith the land-fide of the plough, by giving
it a knee outward immediately below the beam, and
then kneeing it again downward. It is further fup-
ported on this fide by an iron ftay FH, which turns on
a pin at F, palfes through an eye-bolt I on the fide of
the beam, and has a nut ferewed on it immediately
above. When ferewed to its proper Hope, it is firmly-
wedged behind and before the ffiank.— Fig. 3. N° 2.
represents the fame plough viewed from above. ST is
the right hand or finall ftilt fixed to the infide of the
mould-board LV. • I
Fig. 4. reprefents the bottom of the w'tdge. CM is'
the head, covered -at the point by the fock. Juft be-,
hind the fock there is mortifed into the fide of the head
a fmaller piece DE, called the wreft, making an angle
of i6Q with the land-fide of the head, and its outfide-
edge is in the fame Straight line with the fide of the
fock. From the point to the heel of the head is about'
3 3 inches, and the extreme breadth of the heel is about
nine. The fide of the wedge, called the furrow fide',
is formed by the mould-board, which is either made of
a block or plank of wood, or of a thick iron plate. * «
The fock drawn in this figure is called a Spear Sock, Socks,
and is chiefly ufed in coarfe or ftony ground, which re-;
quires great force to break it up. Another form of the
fock is reprefented in the next figure 4. N° 2. This
is called a Feather Sock, and has a cutting edge CF
on its furrow fide, extending back about ten inches,
and to the right hand or furrow fide about fix. The
4 ufe
Pr er
in
P L O [
igh. of this is to cut the fod below, and detach it from
the ground, as the coulter detaches it from the un¬
ploughed land. This is of great ufc when the ground
is bound together by knotted roots,, but it is evident
that it cannot be ufed to advantage in very ftony ground.
In general, the feather lock is only fit for ground which
has been under tolerable culture ; but it greatly facili¬
tates the labour of feparating the fod. It may reafon-
ably be alked, why the feather is not much broader, fo
as to cut the whole breadth of the furrow ? This is
fometimes done. But we mull recoiled!; that the fod is
not only to be pufhed afide, but alfo to be turned over.
If it were completely detached by the feather, and
chanced at any time to break oit the back of the fock,
it would only be pufhed afide ; but by leaving a little
of the fod uncut,. it is held fait below while it is fhoved
afide above, which cannot fail to twill it round. As
the wreft advances, it eafily deltroys the remaining cou¬
rt nedtion, which in general is very flight and crumbling.
The breadth, of the foie at the heel determines the
brrlthof width of the furrow. Nine inches will give enough
the de. 0£ rodm for a horfe or man to walk in. A greater
breadth is of no ufe, and it expends force in pufhing
the earth afide. It is a miitake to fuppofe that a broad
foie gives more room for the turned llice to (land on ;
for whatever is the breadth of the .furrow, the fucceffive
fliees will be left at their former diftances, becaufe each
is fhoved afide to the fame diitance. When the breadth
of a fiice exceeds its depth, and it is turned on its fide,
it will now Hand on a narrow bafe, but higher than
before, and therefore will Hand loofer, which the far¬
mers defire. But in this cafe it generally falls on its
back before it has been far enough removed, and is then
pufhed afide, and left with the graffy fide down, which
is not approved of. On the other hand, when the
depth confiderably exceeds the breadth, the fods, now
turned on their fides, muft be fqueezed home to the
ploughed land, which breaks them and toffies them up,
making rough work. In wet clay foil, this is alfo apt
to knead them together. On the whole, it is bell to
have the breadth and depth nearly equal. But all this
is workmanfhip, and has no dependence on the width
of the foie behind.
tl We have already faid that the foie is generally level
It iuld be from right to left at the heel. This was not the cafe
formerly, but the wreft was confiderably raifed behind.
It refulted from this form, that the furrow was always
fhallower on the right fide, or there was left a low ridg*
of unftirred earth between the Furrows. This circum-
ftance alone was a bad practice; for one great aim of
ploughing is the renewal of the fuperficial foil. In this
way of ribbing the furrows, the fod tumbles over as
loon as it is pufhed to the top of the rib on the right
of the rut made by the plough; the firraeft parts of it fall
undermoft, and the reft crumbles above it, making the
work appear neat; whereas it is extremely unequal, and
what mofl needs the influence of the weather to crumble
it down is flickered from it. Add to thefe circumltan-
ces, that the hollow is a receptacle for water, with a
furface which can retain it, having been confolidated
71 ] P L u
by the prefiure of the plough. For all thefe reafons^. PhuipF,
therefore, it feems advifable to form tha furrow with a
flat or level bottom, and therefore to keep the.heel of
the wreft as low as the heel of the head. For the fame
reafon it is proper to hold the plough with the .land-
fide perpendicular, and not to heel it over to that fide,
as is frequently done, producing the fame ribbed furrow
as an ill-formed foie. it
There is great variety of opinions about the length f-enj;th of
of the plough. If confidered merely as a pointed in-1 e pk' S--
ftrument, or even as a cutting inflrument atting ob¬
liquely on a given length of iod, there can be no doubt
but that it will be more powerful as it is longer; that
is, it will require lefis force to pull it through the ground.
But it muft alfo fiiove the earth afide, and if we double
its length we eaufe it to a<St on twice as much earth at
once; for ■when the plough has entered as far as the
heel, the whole furrow fide is adting together in puflr-
ing the earth to the fide. Now it is found, that the
force necefiary for pufhing a mafs of earth horizontally
along the rough ground is nearly equal to its weight.
It would feem, therefore, that nothing is to be gained
by making the bafe of the plough of a great length,
except a greater facility in making the firfl penetration,
and this is chiefly performed by the coulter and fock;
and a great length renders the plough heavy and cum-
berfome; and, by cauiing it to adt long on the fod, tends
to knead and cake it.
Nothing very precife can be offered on this fubjedt.
Some feniible advantage is derived by making the plough
taper, efpecially forward, where it adts as a boring and
cutting inftrument; and for this purpofe it is convenient r^
to give the coulter a Hope of 45 degrees. (This hass'oj t of
alfo the advantage of throwing up the ftones and roots, he coulter
which it would otherwife drive before it through the thc
firm ground.) And for the fame reafon the edge oftcat er*
the feather has a great dope, it being ten inches long
and only fix inches broad. But if we purfue this ad¬
vantage too far we expofe ourfelves to another rifle. It
is fometimes neeeffary to heel over the plough to the
right in order to get over fome obftrudtion. In doing
this, the coulter is neceffarily raifed for a moment, and
the flanting cut now made by the feather becomes the
diredting groove for the plough. When the feather has
a very long flope, this groove has force enough to guide
the whole plough ; and it is almofl impofiible for the
ploughman to prevent it from running out of the ground
to the land-fide (a). The feather, therefore, fhould
not exceed 10 or 12 inches in length.
But to return to the length of the plough, from
which this obfervation has diverted us a little, wre muft
add, that a long plough has a great advantage in the
fteadinefs of its motion, having a much more extenfive
fupport both on the land-fide and below, and being there¬
fore lefs afFe&ed by its inequalities. Accordingly they are
now made confiderably longer than formerly; and 3 3
inches has been affumed as a proportion to 9 inches of
breadth, in conformity to the moft approved ploughs
now in ufe.
We come now to treat of the mould-board. This The mould.
is board
of ^ Tranfactions
PLO [ 72 1 PLO
Wpnrt. »tbe-moft delicate part of tlte plough, and i. to be prodtice mouldboar^ having this propertyofoqu*le opt- Ph,
—-V— feen in the Ereateft variety in the works of different ration, altno’they do not deviate far from it. His book’ r
-rtifts each of whom has a noffrum of great value in is a very' ufeful and inftrudive performance, and level to
his own opinion It is here indeed that the chief re- the capacity of thofe for whom it is intended ; and we
fiflances are exerted and muft be overcome ; and a judi- have here availed ooriHves of the author’s unformation
cious form of this part of the plough may diminiffi them on many points.
confiderablr while it performs the work in the beft 1 he mgh charafter which Email’s ploughs havejmain- •
manner Without pretending to fay that the differeat tained for 25 years is a Itrong argument for the truth
refinances are fufceptible of an accurate determination, of the maxim. We fhall therefore give fuch inffi uduon*
--- - - — • - • r— —i—1,1- as will enable any intelligent workman to conflruft ftich
a mould-board without any rifle of failure ; and if future
theory cr experience fliould difeover any error in the
principles from which this maxim is deduced, by (bow¬
ing that either the weight, the tenacity, or the lateral
we can ftill draw fufficient information from palpable
rules of mechanics to direft us to what would be nearly
the beft pofiible form for a mould-board. The talk to
be performed is to raife, pufli afide, and turn over to a
a (lice already cut off from the firm
<TGund As we cannot provide for every inequality of reliftance, is exerted according to a different law from
the cohefion or tenacity of the earth, our fafeft way is to what has been affumed, the direftions to be given are
conflder it as uniform : the weight of it is always fo. As of fuch a nature that they adapt thcmfelves with prb-
wc cannot provide for every proportion between the te- cifion to thefe changes of principle, and will ftill pn»-
nacity and the weight, we muff take an average or me- dn.ee a perfea and efficacious plough. _ Our readers
dium proportion which is not far from that of equality, wail readily acknowledge that this is gam mg a great
point; becaufe at prefent the inftrument is conftruefed
very much at random, and by a guefs of the eye.
Let 119 now return to the wedge formerly made ufe
of fer illuftrating the adion of the plough. Suppofe
it placed in a furrow already ploughed, and that the
eafv to combine both in any proportion ; and it is eafteft (pace before the line FE (fig. i.)> which is fquare from
of all to make this combination on the fuppofition of the line of motion FD, is covered with a piece of cloth
eduality of weight and cohefion. Suppoiingthe flice or carpet, and that the point of the wedge enters upon
like a brick, we know that it requires the greateh
Conceiving the (lice at iirft as only tenacious, and without
wei'dit, it is au eafy pniblem to determine the form
which (hall give it the intended UyiiJ and removal with
the fmalleft force. In like manner\ve can proceed with
a (lice that has weight without tenacity. It is equally
force to begin to raife it on one edge, and that the (train
becomes left as it rifles, till its centre of gravity is per¬
pendicularly above the fupporting angle. It requires
no force to raife it further; for on puffing it beyond
this pofition, it would fail over of itfelff, unit is with¬
held by the tenacity of what is not yet raffed. But on
confidering the form or plan of" the fock, we find that
while the weight of the fod refills moft iirongly, there
'is left of it in this fltuation acrirally rifing, and this
nearly in the fame proportion with the labour of raffing
it; and we fee that after the fod has attained that poii-
tIon in which it is ready to fall over, it has reached the
it at F, and advances to D. It will evidently raffe the
cloth, which will now cover the fide of the wedge,
forming the triangle/DE. The line/D is what for¬
merly lay in the angle along the line FD, and/E for¬
merly lay on FE. It is this line BE therefore that we
are to raife, (hove afide, and twift round, by equal de¬
grees, while the plough advances through- equal (paces.
Now, if the length DF of the plough-wedge, reck¬
oned from the point of the fock to the heel, be 33
inches, and the breadth FE behind be 9 inches, the
angle DEF or DE.f will be nearly 74°. The conftruc-
tion of the furrow fide of the plough is therefore redu¬
ced to this very Ample problem, “To make the angle
wider part of the wreft, and is now puffed afide, i DE/turn equably round the axis DE, while the angu-
which requires nearly the fame force as to raife it ; and lar point E advances equably from D to E.”
this continues to the end. of the operation. This will be done' by means of tiny following very Defa*
When we take all thefe circum(lances into confidera- Ample tool or inftrument. Let IHBK (Ag. 5.) be aofan
Hon, it appears probable, that the compound rcfiftance piece of hard wood, fuch as oak, a foot long, three inch- u"
does’ not change much from A rft to laft. If this be es broad, and an inch thick. Plant on this another piece ^rp
.really the cafe, it is an undoubted maxim that the BHFC of the feme breadth, four inches long, and half
whole operation (hould proceed'-eqnably : if it does not, an inch thick. This will leave beyond it a- flat 8 inches
there muff be Come part of the fod that makes a reflftance long. We Avail call tins the/W of the inftrument. Let
ABC be a piece of clean oak Ivaif an inch thick,
*5
How to be
formed.
greater than the medium ; and as the reAfiances in ail
this cliffs of motions increafe nearly as the fquares of the
velocities with which they are overcome, it is demon-
ftrable that we (hall lofe power if we render them un¬
equal.
Hence we deduce this maxim, That as the plough ath
•nances through equal Jpaces., the tnvifl and the lateralJVuHvg
of the fod (hould increafe by equal degrees. And this de¬
termines d priori the form of the mould-board. This
principle' occurred to Mr James Small a plonghmaker
in Berwickfltire, and he publiffed a treatife on the fub-
)e<ft in 1784. He has given feveral methods for con-
ftru&ing mould-boards, which he fuppofes are in con¬
formity to his principle ; but being merely a country
artift, and unacquainted with fcience, his rules do. n(3t
piece ot clean oax raur an men tmeii, 20
inches long, and three inches broad aC the end BC. Let
this-be lalhioned like the ftile of a fun-dial, having its
angle ABC 74°. Let it have a part BCE fquare; to
the extent of four inches, from C, and the reft EA
worked into the form of a ftraight (lender rod. Let
EFGbea femicircle of clean plane-tree or of metal four
inches radius : fallen this by fma.ll (crews to the fqunre
part of the ftile CE, fo that its centre may be at C. Let
this femicircle be divided-into ids degrees,, and num¬
bered from G along the arch OPT, fo that o° may be at
G, and 180° at E. Let this ftile and femicircle turn
round the line BC by means of finall hinges. Tins
inftrument may be called the mould-board, gage, or
pratxaftor. When the ftile is folded down* on the
^ flock
' P'L O t 73 1 P L O
(lock BIK, the point G will be at F; and when it is board, the front or edge of the (heath,
an
- raifed up to any angle, the degrees will be pointed out
on the femicircle by the ftraight edge CF.
Nothing can be more obvious1 than the manner of
employing This inftrament once we have determined
the mod proper pofition for the fad when the work is
completed. Now it feems to he the opinion of the
moft intelligent farmers, that the heft pofition of the
fod is that reprefented in figi 6.
,o- Fig. 6. reprefents a fe’&ion of the ground and the
theworking parts of the plough, as viewed by a perfon
Handing ftraight before it. ABDC is the nnploughe'd
. ground, and WB the coulter, kneed in Small’s manner.
FGKB is the fe&ion of the plough (or rather of the
whole fpace through which • the plough has paffed, for
r.o part of the plough has this fedtion). HOI' E is the
feftion of a'dice, piifhed afide and turned over, fo as to
lean onr the next. HE is that -fide of the (lice which
formerly lay on KB. EF is the'flde cut off by the
coulter; and FO is the upper or graffy fide. The low¬
er corners are fuppofed;rto be a little bruifed inwards, as
muft generally happen.
The fod is pulked 9 inches to the right hand, and -it
leans with its gi'affy fide on the preceding furrow, in an
angle of about 50 degrees. In this pofition the grafs
is turned down fo as to rot ; and there is a’ hollow left
below to allow the rain water to run freely off, and to
receive the earth as it crumbles down by the weather:
and if the harrow is‘dragged acrofs thefe ridges, it dif-
tributes along the furface the mould which was former¬
ly at the bottom. The fod has got a twill of 130 de¬
grees : but it is evident, that after it has been turned
90 degrees, or even- ahttle before this," it is ready to
fall over of itfelf. It is fuffichint therefore that it be
turned 90 degrees w hen the heel of the w7reft has reach¬
ed it, and the remainder of the twift is given to it by
the wing-or flap of the mould-board. This, then, dic¬
tates to us the manner of applying the inllrument.
Divide the edge-E)E (fig. 7.) of the wreft, or of a
lath nailed on it, into 90 equal parts, and continue the
'divifions backwards to G in the fame line to 130. Num¬
ber the divifions backwards froirpthe point of the feck ;
then place the protraftor on' the edge of the wreil, with
the point B of fig.; 5. at-the c;oth divifion. (fig. 7.); that
is, juft at the heel, with the (lock under the wreft, and
the (tile raiftd to-90°, and prefs it home to the joint,
fo that the (lock may be fquare to the-edge, and then
the ftilewill be in-the pofttion fuiting that part of -the
mould-board. In like manner Aide the -dock forw-ard
- to the 80th divifion, and lower the ftyle to 8o°y and it
will-have the pofition which fuits that part of the mould-
board. In the fame way Aide it forward'to 70, 60, 50,
Sec. and lower the ftile to 70°, 60^ 50°, &c. and we
(hall have the pofition foif-thefe feveral parts of the
mould-board; and-thus it may be formed to the very
point of the lock, Hoaufe the ilmight edge -of the wrefl
may be continued fo far. A block of wood may be
hewed to fit thefe feveral portions-of the>protra(^or
jliIc ; and this, when placed with its ftraight edge on
the outer line of the wreil, and cut away behind in the
.nd the whole Plough.
back of the fock except the feather, which is an extra¬
neous. piece. The wing or *£ap of the mould-board is
formed in the fame manner, by Hiding the Hock of the
protraftor *to 100, mo, 120, 130, and, opening the
ilile to ioo°, noVi20°, 1300. This will extend the
top of the mould-board to about 22 or 23 inches ; but
the lower part of the w'ing muft be cut away, becaufe
it would pu(h the fod too far aiide after it has got fche
proper twift. The form of this part fhould’be fuch as
would exactly apply itfelf to a, plank fet at the he<» of
the wrell, parallel to the land-fide of the head, and iea*-
ing'Outwafd 40 degrees. This will be very nearly the
cafe if it be made a fweep fifnilar to the edge of the
(heath. Fig. 8. is a refemblance of the furface of the
mould-board; AD being the edge of the (heath, E the
heel of the wreft, ahd EBC the wing or flap. When
cut through in a perpendicular direction, the feftion is
hollow7; if cut horizontally it is convex ; and if in'the
dire&ion-CE, making an angle ^f 740'w7ith ED, it is
ftraight. If the protraftor be fet on it at D, and gra¬
dually Hidden backwards, the mould-board will gradually
open the ftile, and the ftile will (kim its whole furface
without any vacuity between-them.
This form is given to the mould-board on the autho¬
rity of the fuppofition that the fum of the reiillances
arifing from weight and tenacity-remains pretty con-
llant in ks whole length. This cannot be affirmed with
confidence in any-cafe, and is by no means true in all.
In ftiff clay foils the effe&e of tenacity prevail, and in
Ught-or crumbling foils the weight is the chief refin¬
ance. The advantage of this mode of conftruflion is,
that it can be adapted to any foil. -If the difficulty of
cutting mnd raifing the fod is much greater than that
of (hoving it afide and turning it over, we have only to
make the rife and twift more gentle towards the point
eflhe lock, and more hqfid as we advance; audit is
eafy to do this according to any law of acceleration that
wre pleafe. Thus, inftead of dividing the edge of the
wreft DE (fig. 9.) continued to G into 130 parts,
draw a line G^ perpendicular to it, mud draw fome
curve line D g convex toward-DG, and divide this into
equal-parts in the.points io> 20, 30, 4c, &c.; and then
draw7 perpendiculars to the wreft edge, cutting it in 10,
20, 30, 40, &c. and apply the protradlor to thefic points.
It is evident that the divifions of the wreft line are big¬
ger at D, and grow gradually lefs tow ards G ; and
therefore, becaufe each has lo^’more twift than the
preceding,^the tw7ift will be more rapid as it approaches
the end of the mould-beard. This curve may be cho-
fen fo as to produce any law of acceleration. On the
contrary7, we produce a retarded or diminifhed twill by
making the curve concave towards DG, as reprefeuted
by the dotted curve.
The mathematical reader-will obferve,.that this con-
ftrudlion aims at regulating the twill round the line of
the wrefl ED. Tin's does not produce-preeifely the
time regulation round the line ED, which is the line of
the plough’s motion, and of the foci’s pofition before it
is ploughed over. The difference,• however, is not worth
land-fide plane, will be the exadt ftiape of the plough- attending to in a matter fo little fuiceptible of precifion,
CTf* T b xxr^nl/4 vi /*• J . 1 • .11 • f* T> - -» * *0 1.1 1* T~71X 1 i.i
wedge. It w7ould rife up indeed into a tall piece of
fingular fhape, gradually tapering dowrn to the point of
the lock; but when cut off parallel to the ground, at
tne height of about 12 inches, it will form the mould-
Voa, XV. Part L
But the twift round the lintoFD may be regulated ac¬
cording to any law by this inllrument.with equal faci¬
lity. Inftead of placing the (lock of the pfotrailor
fquare. with the edge of the wreft, it may be placed
^ fquaxe
P L O
*9
-Mode o
the
plough’s
s^Uco.
[ 74
fifuare with the lai>a-fide of the plough. To do this,
draw a line BL (fig. 5- 2-> acrofs th/ ftocJk from
the point B, making the angle LBC 16 , and put a
brafg pin at L, making a hole in the ftyle that it may
not be prevented from folding down. Then m ufing
t ie inftrument let the points B and L reft agamft the
edge of the wreft, and proceed as directed. .
A ftill greater variety of forms, and accommodation
to particular views, with the fame general dependence
on principle, will be procured by giving the rod BA a
motion round B in the plane of the ftile, fo as to torm a
ftile of a variable angle. # .
A tool may even be conftru&ed in which the rod BA
jnight be a cutting knife : and the whole may be led
along by a ferew, while this knife turns round accord¬
ing to any law, and would gradually pare away the
mould-board to the proper form.
Thus have we reduced the fafhioning the operative
part qf the plough to a rule which is certain. We do
not mean by this, that a mould-board made according to
the maxim now given wall make the beft pofiible plough ;
but we have given a rule by which this part of the
plough can be made unequivocally of a certain quality by
every workman, whatever this quality may be, and this
without being obliged to copy. No defeription of any
curve mould-board to be met with in books has this ad¬
vantage ; and we fay that this rule is capable of any
fyftematic variation, either with refpeft to the width
of furrow, or the quantity or variation of its twift. We
have therefore put it in the power of any intelligent
perfon to make fucb gradual and progrefiive changes as
jnav ferve to bring this moft ufeful of all inftruments- to
perfe&ion. The angle of the head and wreft, and the
curve for dividing the wreft line, can always be exprefled
in writing, and the improvements communicated to tne
public at large.
After this defeription of the working parts of a
plough, and direftions for giving it the moft effeaive
form, it will not be improper to confider a little its
mode of a&ion, with the view of attaining a more di-
ftin& conception of what is done by the ploughman and
the cattle, and to dire& him in his procedure.
Returning again to the wedge (fig. I.), we fee that
it is prefled down at the point D, and as far back along
the mould-board as its furface continues to look upward,
that is, all the way to the heel of the wreft. Behind
this, the perpendicular fedions of the mould-board over¬
hang, and look downward ; and here, while prefling
down the fod, the^plough is prefled upwards. Thefe
two preflures tend to twift the plough round a tranf-
verfe line fomewliere between the heel and the point.
The plough therefore tends to rife at the heel, and to
run its point deeper into the ground. Upon the whole,
the preflure downwards is much greater than the upward
preflure. It is exerted over a much greater fpace, and
is greater in moft parts of that fpace. Behind, very
little downward preffure is neceflary, the fod being
ready to fall down of itfelf, and only requiring a. gentle
touch to lay it in a proper pofition.
In like manner the plough is prefled backward by
the refiftance made to the coulter and fock, and part of
the refiftance made to the Hoping fide of the mould-
board : and it is prefled to the left by the other part of
the preflure on the fock and mould-board.
] p L o
All thefe preffures muft be balanced by the joint ac- P!oc
tion of the cattle, the refiftance of the bottom, and the ^
reliftance of the firm ground on the left hand or land-
fide.
It is the a&iort of the cattle, everted on that point
to which they are attached, which produces all theft
preftiires. It is demonftrated by the principles of me¬
chanics, that this force muft not only be equal to the
mean or compound force of thefe refilling preflures, but
muft alfo be in the oppofite direction.
It is further tlemonftrated, that if a body be dragged
through any refilling fubftance by a force adling on any
point G, and in any direction whatever GH, and really:
moves uniformly in that direction, the force exerted ex¬
actly balances the refiftances which it excites, both as
to quantity and direction: And if the body advances
without turning round the point by which it is drag-
ged, the refiftances on one fide of this point are in equi*
hbrio with thole on the oppofite fide.
And, laftly, it is demonftrated, that when this equi¬
librium is obtained, it is indifferent to what point in the
line GH the force is applied. Therefore, in fig. 3.
n® 1. the force a£ling in the dire&k>n HO may either
be applied to the point of the beam H, or to the
point N of the coulter, or to the point O of the fock.
When therefore a plough advances fteadily, requi¬
ring no effort of the ploughman to diredl it, if the line
of ^draught OM (fig. 10.) be produced backwards to
the point G of the mould-board, that point is the place
round which all the refiftances balance each other. This
point may be called the centre oj rejijlance and the centre
of a8ion.
It would be of importance to determine this point
by principle ; but this can hardly be done w ith preci-
fion even in a plough of a known form : and it is im-
poftible to do it in general for all ploughs, becaufe it is
different in each. It even varies in any plough by
every variation of the proportion between the weight
and the cohefion of the fod. We fee how it can be
found experimentally in any given uniform fod, viz. by
producing backwards the line of draught. Then, if the
draught-rope, inftead of being fixed to the muzzle of
the beam, were fixed to this point, and if it were pull¬
ed in the fame direftion, the plough would continue to
perform its work without any afliftance from the plough¬
man, while the fod continued uniform. But the finall-
eft inequality of fod would derange the plough fo as to
make it go entirely out of its path. Should the re¬
fiftances between G and D prevail, the plough would
go deeper, which would increale th* refiftances on that
fide where they already exceed, and the plough would
run ftill deeper. Should the reliftances behind G pre¬
vail, the heel would be preffed down, and the point
would rife, which would ftill farther deftroy the equili¬
brium, and, producing a greater deviation from the
right path, would quickly throw the plough out of the
ground.
For thefe reafons we muft not think of attaching the
draught to the centre of refiftance ; but muft contrive a
point of draught luck as Ihall rellore the plough to its
proper pofition when it has been driven out of it by any
obftrudlion. > # u
The muzzle or end of the beam is a point which wiiU
completely fuit our purpofe. For fuppofe that the re-
fiilancs
id
P L O
l 75 3
P L O
. fiftance on the back of the fock lias prevailed, and the
- plough MNFD (tig-- 10.) has taken the pofition m-nfd
rep relented by the dotted lines, the draught line GMO
is brought down into the pofition gmny diverging a little
from GMO, and meeting the mould-board in a point
y confiderahly before G. By this means the refinances
on the hinder fide of g are increafed, and thofe before it
are dimin'thed, and the plough quickly regains its for¬
mer pofition.
it From thefe obfervations it is plain, that whatever is
ht.the fituation of the centre of refinance, the point of
It is not without its ufe to know the abfoiute force
necelfary for tilling the ground. This has been fre-
quently meafured with a fpring fteel-yard. One of
Small’s ploughs, worked by two horfes, and employed
in breaking up ftiff land which had been ploughed be¬
fore winter, and much confolidated by the rains, re¬
quired a force of 360 lbs. avoirdupois; and we may (late
this as the ordinary fate of fuch work ; but moderately
firm fod, under good culture, requires at a medium 320
lbs.
As we wilh to embrace every opportunity of ren-
Piougfc*
V-—.
draught may be fo chofen that the action of the cattle dering this work ufeful to the public, we lhaU conclude
frail be diredly oppofed to the refillance of the ground, this article with an account of a plough which has juft
and that moreover the plough frail have no tendency
either to go deeper or to run out. This is the ufe ol
the apparatus at the point of the beam called the
muzzle, reprefented at H (fig. 3.) It turns round a
bolt 1 through the beam, and pan be ftopped at any
■height by another pin k put through the holes in tke
arch Im. A figure is given of the muzzle immediately
below, as it appears when looking down on it. T lie
eye to which the draught-rope is hooked is fpread out
horizontally, as frown by HK, and has feveral notches
O in it, to either of which the hook can be applied.
This ferves to counteract any occafional tendency which
the plough may have to the right or left.
When the plough goes on iteadily, without any ef¬
fort of the ploughman, it is faid to be in trim, and to
fwim fair ; the prefltire before and behind the centre of
aCtion being in equilibrio with each other. In order to
learn whether a plough will be in this manner under ma¬
nagement, hook the draught-rope as high as pofiible.
In this ftate the plough frould have a continual ten¬
dency to rife at the heel, and even to run a little into
the ground. Then hook the rope as low as pofiible.
The plough frould now prefs hard on the furrow with
the heel, and have feme tendency to run out of the
ground. If both thefe are obferved, the plough is pro¬
perly conftrufted in this refpeft ; if not, it muft be al¬
tered, either by changing the pofition of the fock or
that of the beam. Lowering the end of the beam will
correCt the tendency of the plough to go deeper; the
raifing the point of the fock will alfo have the fame ef-
feCt. But it is of confiderable importance not to take
the point of the lock out of the plane of the fod, and
k is much better to make the alteration by the beam.
The Hope of the coulter has a confiderable effeCt, but
it cannot be placed very far from the inclination of 450
without the riik of choaking the plough by driving the
roots and ftones before it. It is of great confequence
to have the coulter fit -exaCtly in the direction of the
plough’s motion-: if it is in any other direction, it will
powerfully twill the plough into its oWn track. As
it muft be fixed in the middle of the beam’s thicknef#
to Lave ftrength, it is removed a little from the plane
of the land-fide, and it was the ufilal practice to. point
it to the left below to compenfate for this ; but this by
-no means removes the difpofttion to twift, and it ex-
pofes to the rifle of catching a ftone between its point
and that of the fock, which muft now be driven for¬
ward through the firm ground at a great expence of la*
hour to the cattle. Mr Small has very ingenioufiy re¬
medied this by giving the coulter a frort knee to the
left immediately below the beam, and thus pointing it
downwards in the plumb of the land-fide. Bee fig. 6.
now been recommended to public notice by the Scots'
Highland Society as extremely proper for a hilly coun¬
try. The inventor, the Rev. Alexander Campbell mi-
nifter at Kilcalmonell in Argylefrire, was honoured with
the Society’s gold medal, value L. 25. 53
A, the fock (fig. n.) ; the land-fide-of which fup-'Gjc^Ar-
plies the place of the coulter, and the foie of it ferves 5
for a feather; it is 18 inches long, and is made of a
plate of iron 12 inches broad when finiihed, and fome-
vvhat under half an inch thick.—B, the head; to be
made of iron in a triangular form, 4 inches broad by 2
inches at the thickeft part. There are 5 inches of the
head fixed in the fock.—C, the beam, 4 inches thick
by 5 inches deep, gradually tapered thinner; the length
6 feet.—E, the (heath, muft be of the fame thicknei’s
with the beam above and the head below, and is five
inches broad. An iron fcrew-bolt connects the beam
and head behind the (heath.—F, the handles are (o
made that the (lope of the mould-board, which is fixed
to one of them, may be the longer and more gradual.
They are 5 feet 8 inches long, and 2 feet 4 inches afun-
der at the ends.—G, the mould-board, conlifts of 7
rounded (ticks 2 inches in diameter ; the covert of them
is in the plane of the foie, the reft in fuccefiion clofe to
each other above it. This makes the mould-board 14
inches broad. To prevent any earth from getting over
the mould-board, a thin dale 4 or 3 inches broad is fixed
above it. The mould-board, land-fide, and foie of the
plough, are clad with iron,—The length is 20 inches:
this added to 18 inches, the length of the fock, makes
the length from point to heel 3 feet 2 inches.—The-
muzzle or bridle OPH is alio of a more convenient and
better con ft ruction than thofe commonly in ufe. By
means of the ferew-pins at L and M different degrees
of land may be given to the plough; the iron rod LH
being thereby moved fidewiie in the focket LN, and
up and down by OP. The rod is 30 inches long, one.
broad, and half an inch thick. It is hooked into a:
fcrew-bolt at H. Two inches of the rod projeft at N,':
in the form of an eye, before the muzzle, to receive the-
hook of the crofs-tree. *
The advantages of this plough are faid to be: It is
not fo liable to be interrupted or turned out of its courfe
by (tones, roots, See. as other ploughs are ; nor does it
dip fo deep as to be liable to be broken by large ftones
or (lags. The motion of the muzzle is alfo thought an
improvement. Another advantage it has over other
ploughs is, its not being fo liable to be choakcd up by
ilubble, &.c. This we underftand to be its chief excellen*
cy, and an objedt much defired in the conttrudtion of
the plough. Upon the whole, we are informed that
tliis plough is lighter, lefs expenfive, and lefs liable to
K 2 go
Plough,
Piouph-
drill.
F t O
£0 out of trim than the ordinary plough, and that with
ft two horfes can plough land which require four with
. any other plough. . , „
rr* Such are faid to be the advantages of this conftruc-
Otjeaions tion ; but we cannot help exp»effing our apprehenfion
*o its con- that the uniting the coulter and feather at the pom
aru&ion. tiie fock will expole tine plough to great riflts ot being
put out of order. When the upright edge Unices a
ftone obliquely, efpecially on the lancUide, it^mult be
violently twilled round the point of the head ; and, ha¬
ving but a moderate thrcknefs at this part, may be
broken or permanently twilled. The plough-will then
be continually running out of its direftion : and we ap¬
prehend that this defeat cannot be amended without ta¬
king off the fock and putting it in the fire. When a
coulter is bent by the fame caufe, the ploughman can
either redify it by altering the wedging, or he can
ftraighten it in the field; and it mull be obferved, that
the plough oppoles much lefs refiftance to the-deiange-
ment of tins fort of coulter than of the common one.
In the common cpulter the ftraindoes not lb much tend
to twill the plough round the line of its motion, as to
prefs it wholly to landward. The refiftance to this is
great; but a very moderate force will-twill it round its
line of motion. In either cafe, if the blow be given in
that point of the coulter where the draught line croffes
it, there will be no twill of.the whole- plough, but the
point of the plough will be forced horizontally to at
from the land. When the blow is out of this line, the
llrain tends to twill tire beam or the plough. Expe¬
rience will determine which of the two is the mo Unha¬
zardous. Thefe ploughs are made by Thomas Lmd-
fay, Abbeyhill, Edinburgh, and models are to be feen
in the hall of the Highland Society.
P LOUGH-dr'ill. See Drill /owing, and AgriCUIt-
ture, p. 318 } and Plate' VH. and -2d Plate— VIE
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for July 17935 p- 602,
Mr Wickins of Pondhead Lodge, New Forelly gives
an account of a fimplified drill-plough-inventf.d by him-
felf. Its importance is increafed, he thinks, < by the
cheapnefs and eafy conftrubtion of it, becaufe it can be
ufed upbn a fmaff fcale by a fingle man, and-upon a
larger fcale by two men, or a man and boy ; £0 that the
inconvenience fuffered by horfes trampling the ground,
&c. is hereby avoided. To tire drill for fowing is oeca-
llonally annexed a blade for hoeing between the rows-:
“ the good effefts of which {fays Mi- Wickins) are
no lefs obvious,from,its nurturing the growth-of the
com, and'producing, collateral (hoots from the applica¬
tion of frefh (foi^ but alfo from its affording the means
of extirpating the weeds which are fo obnoxious-to it.’’
He informs-us likewife, that his fingk hand-drill hath
been feen and approved by the Bath Society ; and they
have in confequence been pleafed to vote him an hono¬
rary and correfponding member. Since that time, how¬
ever, be fays, he has very materially improved and fim¬
plified it. My Wickins’s deicriptien of his invention is
far from being accurate; and. the drawing, of-whioh
there is an engraving in the fame magazine, was taken
when his machine was in its inlant and lefs improved
date. He promifes, however, further information in
the Gentleman s Magazine, and he offers more particu¬
lars to fuch agricultural people as (hall defire it. We
&ie far from decidedly thinking that this plough-drill is
a real improvement, or that it ever will come to be real-
f 76 1 p l o
ly and generally ufeful. We have feen fo many of thefe PI
and fuch like improvements make a great noife for a
while, and then fall into negk£tr without having ever
come- into ufe, as makes us {by in forming opinions re-
fpe6ling the utility of thofe inflmments which are fo
often and fo boldly obtruded on. the world as the ne plus
ultra of Improvements., in their feveral fpheres. We think
it our duty, however, to give every attempt at improve¬
ment, efpecially in the ufeful arts, all the juftice in our
power ; and, on this account, it has always been our
cuftom to-lay before our readers fuch claims to :t as
have occurred in the, courfe of our, work, whether thofe
claims appeared to ourfelves to be juft or not.
PLOUGHMAN, the perfon who. guides the plough,
in the operation of tilling.
PLOUGHING, in agriculture, the turning up the
earth with, a plough. See Agriculture, Part 11;
pajfun. ' '
PLOVER, in, ornithology,, a fpecies of Chara-
DRI US.
Thefe birds ufually fly in exceedingly larges flocks in
the places-they frequent; people talk.of. 2 ,000 or
30,000 being feen in a flock, ,. They generally come to
us in September, and leave .us about the end of March..
In cold weatlier they are found very commonly on lands
lying near the.fea in quefl off food ; but in thaw's and
open feafons they go higher up in the country.
They love to feed on ploughed lands, but never re¬
main long at a time on them, for they are very cleanly
in their nature ; and, the ■ dirt which lodges jon-their
beaks,aud feet give them fo much uneafinefs, tkat they
fly to the-neareil. water to wafh themfelve.s. When they
roofl# they do not go to trees or hedges; but fit fquat-
ting on the ground like dueks-.or geefe, far from trees
or hedges, when the weather is calm ; but. when it is
flormy, they often get under fhelter. In wet weather
they do not deep in the night at all, but run about pick¬
ing up the worms,as they crawl out of the.ground; du¬
ring this, feeding they are continually making, a finall.
cry, that fierves to keep them together; and in the morn¬
ing they take flight. If in their flight they fpy- any
others on the ground, they, call, them up.; and if they
refufe to..come, the whole body defegnds to. fee what
food there is in tire place that detains them.
Plovers are very eafily taken,at the time of ..their firft
coming over, when they have not got any other birds
mixed among them ; bat when they afterwards pick up
the teal and other ihy birda among them,, it becomes
more difficult. The befl feafon for taking them is in
Q&oher, efpecially in the beginning of that month:
after this they grow .timorous,, and .are not eafily taken
again till March, which is tire time of their coupling.
The feverefl iroils are not the .heft leafon for taking there:
in nefl, but variable weather does better. The north-
well .windo is. found difadvantageous to the taking of
them;, and,in general, great regard is to be paid to the
courfe of the wind in the fetting. pf the nets. All fu'1
fowl fly againil the wind wlremthe land lies that way;
and the nets for taking tlrem are therefore to be placed
in a'proper diredlion accordingly,.
PLQWHEN (Edmund), ferjeant. at law.,, was the
fon of Humphrey Plowden of Plowden in Shropfhire,
of an ancient and genteel family. He was firll a flu-
dent of the univerfity of Cambridge, where he fpent
three years in the ftudy of philofophy and medicine.-
He .
!uche.
FLU l 77 1 P L U
He then removed to Oxford, where, having continued
his former ftudies about four years more, in 1552 he
was admitted to the pra&ice of phyfic and furgery :
but probably finding the pra&ice of the art of healing
lefs agreeable than tire ftudy, he entered himfelf of the
Middle Temple, and began to read law. Wood fays,
that in 1557 he was fiimmer reader to that fociety, and
Lent-reader three years after, being then ferjeant and
oracle of the law. He died in the year 1584, aged 67 ;
and was buried in the Temple-church, near the north-
wall, at the eaft end of the choir. He married the
daughter of William Sheldon of Boley in Worceller-
ftiire ; by whom he had a fon, who died foon after his
father. He wrote, 1. Commentaries or Reports of di¬
vers Cafes, ,&c. in the reigns of King Edw. VI. Queen
Mar/, and Queen Elizabeth; London, 1571, 78, 99,
1613, &c. Written in the old Norman language. 2.
Queries, or a Moot-book of cafes, &c. tranllatcd, me¬
thodized, and enlarged, by H. B. oi Lincoln’s-Inn j
liond. 1662, 8vo.
PLUCHE (Antony), born at Rheims in 1688,
merited by bis engaging manners and proficiency in the
belles-lettres the appointment of humanift in the-univer-
iity of that city. Two years-after he obtained the pro-
fefibr of rhetoric’s chairj and was admitted into holy
orders. The biihop of Xaon (Clermont) informed of
his talents, offered him the direction of. the college of
his epifcopai city. By his induftry and fuperior know¬
ledge,; a proper orda and fubordinatiou foon took place
in it j but fome particular opinions refpe&ing .the. affair*
of the time dilturbedhis tranquillity, and obliged him tor
quit liis office. The intendant of Rouen, at the requeft
of the celebrated Rollin, entruiled him- with the educa¬
tion of his fon. Abbe Pluche having filled that place
with fuccefs and great honour to himfelf,. left Rouen
and went to Paris, where, by the patronage of.fome li¬
terary friends and h'rs own excellent writings, he acqui¬
red a very difticguilhed reputation for learning. He
pubhfbed, 1. Le Spectacle de la Nature (Nature Lifplay-
ed), in 9 vois in 12mo. . This-work, which is equally,
inilru&ive and fentertaining, is written with,, perfpi-
cuity and elegance; but the form of dialogue which’he
adopted has drawn him into, the- fault of being, rather
too prolix.. The fpeakers, who.are the Prior, the
Count,, and Ccuntefs, are not- diflinguifrted by any lin¬
king; feature.-; but -they have, all -the common chara&er,
which is tolerably plcaimg,. not excepting even that of
the little-chevalier De.Breuil, who is, however, a mere
fbholart This is the opinion which Abbe Desfontaines
lias formed of this work. Though the author has git
vetothe converfations a pretty ingenious turn, and,even
loiae. vivacity, yet they now and then fall into the tone
of tlve college. 2. Hijloire du C'tel, or Hiftory of the
Heavens, in 2 vols in i2mo. In this, performance wg
imd two parts almoll independent of one another. Tlw
fail contains fome learned, inquiries into the origin of
the poetic heavens. It is nearly-a complete; mythology,
founded upon ideas ..whicl^ are new and ingenious. Thu
iecond is the hiilory of the opinions given by pbilpfor
phers refpe&ing .ihe formation of the . world. • The au¬
thor Ihows thq inutility, the .insonllancy, and uncertain-
ty, of tuc moll efleemed fyilems ; and concludes with
pointing out the excellence and fublime fimplicity ^>f
the Molaic account. Befides a noble and wrell-turned
fxpieffiou, we find in it an erudition which does not
fatigue the mind. As to the foundation of the fyltem
explained in the firft part, though it appears extremely
plaufiblej we will not take upon us to fay how far it is-
true : Voltaire called it Fable du del, or a Fable of the
Heavens. 3. De l.inguarum artificlo; a. work which he
tranflated with this title. La Mecanique des Longues, im
l2mo. In this treatife he propofes a fhort and eafy
method of learning languages, which is by the ufe of
tranflations inftead of themes or exercifes; and we muft
admit his refle&ions on that fubjeft are both judicious
and well expreffed. 4. Harmony of the Pfalms and the
Gofpel, or a Tranflation of the Pfalms and Hymns of
the Church, with Notes relative to the Vulgate, the
Septuagint, and Hebrew Text, printed at Paris in
1764, in 12mo. In 1749, Abbe Pluche retired to Va-
renne Stf Maure-, where he gave himfelf up entirely to
devotion and ftudy. Having become fo deaf that ha
could not hear without thedielp of a trumpet, the ca¬
pital afforded him very little entertainment- It was in
this retreat that he died of an apoplexy on the 20th of
November 1761, at the age of 73 years. He poffcffed
thofe qualities which form the fcholar, the honeft man,
and the Chriftian ; temperate in his meals, true to his
wrord, an affectionate parent, a fenfible friend, and a hu¬
mane philofopher ; he gave leffons of virtue in his life as
well as. in his writings- His fubmiffion to all-the dog-
mas_of» religion was very great. Some Deifts having
been furprifedrthat, in matters of faith, he ihould think,
and fpeak like the vulgar, his anfwer was* “ I glory in
doing fo; It is infinitely more rational to believe the
word .of God, than ta follow the glimmering lights of a
reafon w'hich is limited and.fubject to error.”
PLUG, certain pieces of timber, formed like the
frullum of a cone, and ufed to flop the haufe-holes and
the breaches made in the. body of a (hip by cannon-
balls; the former of which are cd&c& .haufe-plugs, and
the latter/i>o/ plugs, which are formed, of various fizes
in proportion .to the holes made by the different fr/.es of
(hot, which may penetrate the (hip’s Tides or bottom in
battle; accordingly they are always ready for this pmpofe.
PLUKENET (Leonard), a phyfician who fiourifii-
ed in the reign of King Charles II. was one of the moft
excellent and laborious botaniils of that or any other
age. He was author of l\\$ Phytographia Phuenetiana%
the Almagejlkum Britannicurn, and. other w'orks- of the
like kind, on which he fpept the greateft paitof his
life and fortune., His Pbytography is mentioned with
the higheft encomiums in. the P hilo to ph ical Tran fact ion s
for,February 1696-7. His Opera Botannica, with cuts,
were printed at London in 6 vols folk),, in 1720.
PLUM-/raKE,. in botany. See Pkunus.
PLUMAGE, the feathers which ferve birds fora
covering. See Op-nithology, p. 506.
PLUMBtLine, among artificers, denptes a nerpendi^
cular to the,horizon ; fo called, as being commonly e*
re&ed by means of a plummet.
PLUMBAGO, lead-wort; a genus of the mono,
gynia order, belonging to the .pentandria clafs of plants.
There, are four fpecies ; the moll remarkable of which
are the Eump^ea and ^eylonica. The fivfl grows na¬
turally in the. fouthern parts-of Europe, and has a per-.
ennial root itriking deep in the gioimd. There are
many (lender channelled (talks, about three feet high,
terminated by tufts of (mall funnel-fhaped flowers, of a
blue or white colour. rl he fecond grows naturally iij
I both.:
FVnvspo
Plutr.berv
P L U [
both tlie Indies. The upper part of tl.e flalk and em-
palement are covered with a glutinous juice, which
catches the fmaU flies that light upon it. I ne former
fpecies is propagated by parting the roots, and by ieeds;
but the latter is too tender to thrive in the open arr m
this coimtr)r.
Plumbago. See Black-Lnjn.
PLUMBERY, the art of cafting and working lead,
and uiing it in building. . . .
As this metal melts foon and with little heat,^ it is
eafy to call it into figures of any kind, by running it
into moulds of brafs, clay, plafler, &c. But the chie
article in plumbery is Ihects and pipes of lead; aftd as
thefe make the balls of the plumber’s work, we lhall
here give the procefs of making them.
In calling Jheet-Iead, a table or mould is made life of,
which conlills of large pieces of wood well jointed, and
bound with bars of iron at the ends ; oh the fides of
which runs a frame confifting of a ledge or border of
wood, three inches thick and four inches high from the
mould, called the Jharps : The ordinary width of the
mould, within thefe {harps, is from four to five feet >
and its length is »6, 17, or 18 feet.. This Ihould be
fomething longer than the Iheets are intended to be, in
order that the end where the metal runs off from the
mould may be cut -off, becaufe it is -commonly thin or
uneven, or ragged at the end. It mull Hand very even
or level in breadth, and fomething falling from the end
in which the metal is poured in, viz. about an inch or
an inch and a half in the length of 16 or 17 feet or
more, according to the thinnefs of the fheets wanted ;
for the thinner the flieet, the more declivity the mould
ihould have. At the upper end of the mould Hands
the pan, which is a concave triangular prifm, compofed
of two planks nailed together at right angles, and two
triangular pieces fitted in between them at the ends.
The length of this pan is the whole breadth of the
mould in which the Iheets are call; it Hands with its
bottom, which is a lharp edge, on a form at the end of
the mould, leaning with one fide againH it; and on the
oppofite fide is a handle to lift it up by, to pour out
the melted lead; and on that fide of the pan next the
mould are two iron-hooks to take hold of the mould,
and prevent the pan from flipping while the melted
lead is pouring out of it into the mould. This pan is
lined on the infide with moiflened fand, to prevent it
from being fired by the hot metal. The mould is alfo
fpread over, about two inches thick, with fand fifted
and moiflened, which is rendered perfe&ly level by mo-
vinf over it a piece of wood called 'bjlrike, and fmooth-
ing it over with a fmoothing plane, which is a plate of
yolilhed brafs, about one-fourth of an inch thick and
nine inches fquare, turned up on all the four edges, and
with a handle fitted on to the upper or concave fide.
The fand being thus fmoothed, It is fit for cafling {beets
of lead : but if they would cafl a ciflern, they meafure
out the bignefs of the four fides ; and having taken the
tlimenfions of the front or fore part, make mouldings by
preffing long flips of wood, which contain the fame
mouldings, into the level fand ; and form the figures of
birds, beails, &c. by preffing in the fame manner leaden
figures upon it, and then taking them off, and at the
fame time fmoothing the furface where any of the fand
is raifed up by making thefe imprcfiions upon it. The
reflof the operation is the fame in cafling either ciiterns
78 ] p l u
or plain fheets of lead. But before we proceed to men- £
tion the manner in which that is performed, it will be
nefeffary to give a more particular defeription of the
Jifike. The flrike, then, is a piece o£ board about five
inches broad, and fomething longer than the breadth of
the mould on the infide ; and at each end is cut a notch
about two inches deep, fo that when it is ufed it rides
upon the {harps with thofe notches. Before they be¬
gin to caft, the ftrike is made ready by tacking on two
pieces of an old hat on the notches, or by flipping a
cafe of leather over each end, in order to raife the un¬
der fide about one-eighth of an inch or fomething more
above the fand, according as they would have the fiieet
to be in thicknefs ; then they tallow the under edge of
the ftrike, and lay it acrofs the mould. The lead being
melted, it is put into the pan with ladles, in which,
when there is a fufficient quantity for the prefent pur-
pofe, the feum of the metal is fwept off with a piece of
board to the edge of the pan, letting it fettle on the
fand, which is by this means prevented from falling in¬
to the mould at the pouring out of the metal. When
the lead is cool enough, which muft be regulated ac¬
cording to the thicknefs of the {beets wanted, and is
known by its beginning to ftand with a fhell or wall on
the fand round the pan, two men take the pan by the
handle, or elfe one of them lifts it by the bar and chain
fixed to a beam in the ceiling, and pour it into the
mould, while another man Hands ready with the ftrike,
and, bs foon as they have done pouring in the metal,
puts on the mould, fweeps the lead forward, and draws
the overplus into a trough prepared to receive it. The
{beets being thus cafl, nothing remains but to roll than
up or cut them into any meafure wanted : but if it be
a ciftern, it is bent into four fides, fo that the two ends
may join the back, where they are foldered together ;
after which the bottom is foldered up.
The method of ca/ling pipes ‘without faide ring. To make
thefe pipes they have a kind of little mill, with arms or
levers to turn it withal. The moulds are of brafs, and
confift of two pieces, which open and flint by means of
hooks and hinges, their inward caliber or diameter be¬
ing according to the fize of the pipe, ufually two feet
and a half. In the middle is placed a core or round
piece of brafs or iron, fomewhat longer than the mould,
and of the thicknefs of the inward diameter of the pipe.
This core is paffed through two copper mndles, one at
each end of the mould, which they ferve to clofe ; and
to thefe is joined a little copper tube about two inches
long, and of the thicknefs the leaden pipe is intended
to be of. By means of thefe tubes, the core is retain¬
ed in the middle of the cavity of the mould. The core
being in the mould, with the rundles at its two ends,
and the lead melted in the furnace, they take it up in
a ladle, and pour it into the mould by a little aperture
at one end, made in the form of a funnel. When the
mould is full, they pafs a hook into the end of the
core, and, turning the mill, draw it out; and then
opening the mould, take out the pipe. If they defire
to have the pipe lengthened, they put one end of it in
the lower end of the mould, and pafs the end of the
core into it; then {hut the mould again, and apply its
rundle and tube as before, the pipe juft caft ferving for
a rundle, See. at th« other end. Things being thus re¬
placed, they pour in frefti metal, and repeat the opera¬
tion till they have got a pipe of the length required.
For
P L U
[ 79 J
FLU
3 imbum
. 11 .
F mmirp
(.  
For making pipes of fteet-lead, the plumbers have
wooden cylinders, of the length and thicknefs required;
and on thefe they form their pipes by wrapping the
fneet around them, and foldering up the edges all along
them.
The lead which lines the Chinefe tea-boxes is reduced
to a thinnefs which we are informed European plumbers
cannot imitate. The following account of the procefs
by which the plates are formed was communicated to
a writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine by an intelligent
mate of an Eaft Indiaman. The cafter fits by a pot con¬
taining the melted metal; and has two large ftones, the
under one fixed, the upper moveable, direftly before him.
He raifes the upper {lone by prefiing his foot upon the
fide of it, and with an iron ladle pours into the opening
a proper quantity of the fluid metal. He then imme¬
diately lets fall the upper Hone, and by that means forms
the lead into a thin irregular plate, which is afterwards
cut into a proper fhape. The furfaces of the Hones, where
they touch each other, are exactly ground together.
PLUMBUM, lead. See Lead.
Plumbum Corneum, a combination of lead with the
marine acid. See Chemistry, n^' 812.
PLUME, in botany, the bud or germ. See Gem¬
ma.
PLUMIER (Charles), a learned Minim, born at
Marseilles, and one of the moft able botanifts of the
17th century. He was inftru&ed by the famous Maig-
nan, who taught him mathematics, turnery, the art of
making fpeftacles, buming-glafles, microfcopes, and
other works. He at length went to Rome to perfect
himfelf in his ftudies, and there applied himfelf entirely
to botany under a ikilful Italian. At his return to
Provence, he fettled imthe convent at Bornes, a mari¬
time piace near Hieres, where he had the conveniency
of making difeoveries in the fields with refpeft to fim-
ples. He was fame time after fent by the French king
to America, to bring from thence fueh plants as might
be of fervice in medicine. He made three different
voyages to the AntiUes, and Hopped at the ifland of
St Domingo. The king honoured him with a pen-
and he at laff fettled at Paris. However, at the
fion
dtfire of M. Fagon, he prepared to go a fourth time to
America, to examine the tree which produces the Je-
luits bark ; but died at the port of Santa Maria, near
Cadiz, in 1706. He wrote feveral excellent works; the
principal of which are, t. A volume of the Plants in the
American Ifiands. 2. A Treatife on the American
3- ^ i‘e -Art of Turnery ;. a curious work em-
belhlhed with plates;
PLUMMET, Pl um b-/?ufe, or Plumb line, an inffru-
ment ufed by carpenters, mafons, &e. in order to judge
whether walls, &c. be upright planes, horizontal, or the
1 e\ ^ !S ^1US ca^e<* fr°m a piece of lead, faHened
to t ie end of a chord, which ufually conHitutes this in-
rumenU Sometimes the firing descends along a wood-
emruler, &c. railed perpendicularly on another; in which
caie it becomes a level.
PLUMMIMG, among miners, is the method of ufing
a mint ia , m order to know the exa& place of the
Plumlrv.
line, and a fun-dial, after his guefs of the place above Humofe
ground, defeends into the adit or work, and there-
faHens one end of the line to fome fixed thing in it ;
then the incited needle is let to refi, and the exaft point
where it refis is marked with a pen : he then goes on
farther in the line Hill faHened, and at the next flexure
of the adit he makes a mark on the line by a knot or
otherwife : and then letting down the dial again, he
there likewife notes down that point at which the needle
Hands in this fecond pofition. In this manner he pro¬
ceeds, from turning to turning, marking down the
points, and marking the line, till he comes to the in¬
tended place ; this done, he afeends and begins to work
on the furface of the earth what he did in the adit,
bringing the firH knot in the line to fuch a place u-here
the mark of the place of the needle will again anfwer
its pointing, and continues tju’s till he come to the
defired place above ground, which is certain to be per*
pendicular over the part of the mine into which the air-
fhaft is to be funk.
PLUMOSE, fomething formed in the manner of a
feather, with a Hem and fibres iffuing from it on each
fide ; fuch are the antennse of certain moths, butterflies,
&c.
PLURAL, in grammar, an epithet applied to that
number of nouns and verbs which is ufed when we fpeak
of more than one thing. See Grammar.
PLURALITY, a diferete quantity, confiding of
two or a greater number of the fame kind: thus we
fay, a plurality of gods, &c. See the article Astro¬
nomy, n° 157. for the arguments both tor and againH a
plurality of worlds-
PhURAUtr of Beneficesy or Livingsy is where the fame
clerk is poffeffed of two or more fpiritual preferments,
with cure of fouls. See Benefice.
The fmallnefs of fome benefices firH gave rife to plu¬
ralities; for an ecclefiaHic, unable to fubliH on a finglc
one, was allowed to hold two ; and at length the num¬
ber increafed without bounds. A remedy was attempt¬
ed for this abufe at the council of Lateran under Alex¬
ander III. and Innocent III. in the year 1215, when
the holding more than one benefice was forbid hv a ca¬
non under the penalty of deprivation ; but the fame
canon granting the pope a power to difpenfe with it in
favour of perfons of diilinguilhed merit, the prohibition
became almoH ufelefs. They were alfo reHrained by
Hatute 21 Hen. VIII. cap, 13. which enafts, that if
any perfon having one benehce with cure of fouls, of
the yearly value of 8T. or above (in the king’s books),
accept any other with cure of fouls, the firH {hall be
adjudged in law to be void, &c. though the fame ila-
tute provides for difpenfation in certain cafes.
In England, in order to procure a difpenfation, the
prefentee muH obtain of the biihop, in whofe diogefe
the livings are, two certificates of the values in the king’s
books, and the reputed values and diilance ; one for the
archbiffiop, and the other for the lord-chancellor. And
if the livings lie in two diocefes, then two certificates,
ef the fame kind are to be obtained from each bifhop..
work whe r , , tAaui puics ui me He muH alfo {how the archbilhop his prefentation to
adit to the^w^ k^ ^0W,n an or tu bring an the fecond living ;. and bring with him two tefiimonials
cl in pc e WCr n °r t0, Anow which way the load in- from the neighbouring clergy concerning bis behaviour
It is r.enfan^ ei4ur^ !iaPPens in it. and converfation, one for the archbifhop and the other
an afiifiant" lS manner: A {kilful perfon with for the lord-chancellor; and he mull alfo fhow the arch-
an , an with pen, ink, and paper, and a long biftop ki8 letters of orders, and a certificate of his ha-
6 vitqr
^P’us
II
Wat arch-
P -L U [
ving taken the degree of mailer of arts at the lead, in one
of the univerfities of this realm, under the hand of the
r^gifter. And if he be not do£lor or bachelor of divi¬
nity, nor doctor ner bachelor of law, he is to piocure a
qualification of a chaplain,-which is to be duly regiftered
in the faculty office, in order to be tendered to the
archbilhop, according'to the llatute. And if he hath
taken any of the aforefaid degrees, which the ftatute
allows as qualifications, he is to procure a certificate
thereof as already mentioned, and to Ihow the fame to
the archbilhop ; after which his difpenfatxof; is made
out at the faculty office, where he gives fecutity aecoid-
trw-r fr, tlip of the canon. He mull then
80 ] P L U
vate his mother-tongue with any great exaftneis; and Pltittrcfe,
hence that harlhnefs, inequality, and obfeurity in his  
ftyle, which has lb frequently and-fo jullly been com¬
plained of.
After he was principled and grounded by Ammonius,
ha /'ng an infatiiible thirll for knowledge, he refolved to
travel. Egypt was at that time, as formerly it had
been, famous for learning-; and.probably the myfterioul-
nefs of their doctrine might tempt him, as it had templ¬
ed Pythagoras and others, to go and converfe with the
priefthood of-'that-country. This appears to have been
particularly his bufmefs, by-bis treatife Of IJis and Qfr
ris : in which he Ihows himfelf verfed in the ancient
tion. By the -fevefal (lamp a6ls, for every-{kin, or pa¬
per, or parchment, &c. on which any difpenfation to
hold two ecclefialiical dignities or benefices, or a dig¬
nity and a benefice, lhall be engrolfed or written, there
(hall be paid a treble 40 s. flamp duty.
We have alfo a regulation ifi regard to pluralities;
but it is often difpenfed with: for, by the faculty ot
tlifpenfation, apluralift is required, in that benefice from
which he ffiall happen to -be moft abferit, to preach 13
fermons every year, and to exercife hofpitality for two
months yearly.
In Germany the pope grants difpenfations for pcflTef-
fing a plurality of benefices, on.pretence that the eccle-
iiallical princes there need large revenues to bear up
pgainll the P rot eft ant princes.
PLUS, in algebra, a charafter marked thus -f-, ufed
for the fign of addition. See Algebra, p. 400, and
Negative Sine.
PLUSH, in commerce, See. a-kind of llulF, having
a fort of velvet knap or lhag on one fide, compofed re¬
gularly of a woof of a fingle woollen thread arid a
double warp the one wool, of two threads twilled;
the other, goats or camels hair.; though there are fome
plulhes entirely of woffled, and others-compofed wholly
©f hair.
PLUTARCH, a great philofopher and hillorian of
antiquity, who lived Irom the reign of Claudius to that
of Hadrian, was born at Chaeronea, a -fmall city of Boeo-
tia in Greece. Plutarch’s family was ancient in Chsero-
nea: his grandfather Lamprias was eminent for his learn¬
ing and a-philofophtr -y and is often mentioned by Plu¬
tarch in his -writings, as is alfo his father. Plutarch
was initiated early in lludy, to which he was naturally
inclined ; and was placed under the care: of Ammonius,
an Egyptian, who, having taught philofophy with great
reputation -at Alexandria, from thence ^-travelled into
Greece, and fettled at Athene. Under this mailer he
made great advances in knowledge; and like a thorough
philofopher, more apt to regard things than words, he
purfued this knowledge to the negleft of languages.
The Roman language at that time vvassRot only the
language of Rome, but of Greece alfo.: and much more
ui'ed there than the-French is now in England. Yet
he was fo far from regarding it then, that, as we learn
from himfelf, he became not ccnverfant in it till the
declenfion of his life: . and, though he is fuppofed to
have refided in. Rome - near 40 years at different times,
yet he never feems to have acquired a competent Ik ill
in it. But this was not, tlie worll; he did not cuki-
thered from them many of thofe obfervations with which
he has abundantly enriched pollerity. He does not
feem to have been attached to any particular fedl, but
culled from -each of them whatever he thought excel*
lent and worthy to be regarded. He could not bear
the paradoxes of the Stoics, but yet was more averfe
from the impiety of the Epicureans-: in many things
he followed Ariftotk-;.'but his favourites were Socrates
and Plato, whofe memory he revered fo highly, that he
annually celebrated their l>irth-days with'much folemni-
ty. Befides this, he applied himfe-lf with extreme di*
ligenae to colle<5l not only all books that were excellent
in their kind, but alfo ail the layings and obfervations
of wife men which he had heard in converfation or had
received,from others by tradition ; and likewife to con-
fult the records and. public inilruments preferved in
cities-which he had vifited in his travels. He took a
particular journey-to Sparta, to fearch the archives of
that famous commonwealth, to underffand thoroughly
the model of their ancierit government, the hiltory of
their legiflators,-their kings, and their ephori; and di*
gelled all their memorable deeds and fayings with much
care. -He. t6ok the fame methods with regard to many
other commonwealths; -and thus Was enabled to leave
us in his works fuch a rich cabinet of obfervation upon
men and manners, as, in the opinion of Montaigne and
Bayle, have rendered him the moll valuable author of
antiquity-.
The circumllances of Plutarch’s life are not known,
and therefore cannot be related with any exaftnefs. Ac*
cording to the learned Fabricius, he was born undef
Claudius, 50 years after the Chrillian era. He was
married to a moll amiable woman of his own native
town, whofe name, according to the probable conjee-*
ture of Rualdus, was Timoxena, and to whofe fenfe and
virtue he has borne the moll affe&ionate teftimony in
his moral wor-ks. He had feveral children, and among
them two fons ; one called Plutarch after himfelf, the
other Lamprias in memory of his grand lather. Lam-
prias was he, of all his children, who feems to have in¬
herited his. father’s philofophy ; and to him we owe the
table or catalogue of Plutarch’s writings, and perhaps
alfo his apophthegms. He had-a nephew, Sextus Chav
roneus, who taught the learned emperor Marcus Aure¬
lius the Greek tongue,.and was much honoured by him.
Some think, that the critic Longinus was of his family;
and Apuleius, in the firll hook of his Metamorphofes,
affirms himfelf to be defeended from him.
On what occafion, and at what time of his life, lie
went
P L TJ [
■a'-.h v.'jnt to how long he livetl there, j'ncl when he
v finally returned to his own country, are all uncertain.
It is probable, that the fame of him went thither before
him, not only becaufe he had publiihed feverai of his
works, but becaufe immediately upon his arrival, as
there is reafon to believe, he had a great ref nt of the
Roman nobility to hear him: for he tells us himfelf,
that he was fo taken up in giving lectures of philofophy
to the great men of Rome, that he had not time to
make himfeif mailer of the Latin tongue, which is one
of the firft things that would naturally have engaged
his attention. It appears that he was feverai times at
Lome ; and perhaps one motive to his inhabiting tlfere
was the intimacy he had contrafted in iome of thefe
journeys with Soffms Senecio,' a great and worthy man,
who had been four times cbnful, and to whom Plutarch
has dedicated many of his lives. But the great induce¬
ment which carried him firit to Rome, was undoubt¬
edly that which had carried him into fo many other
parts of the world ; namely, to make obfervations upon
men and manners, and to colleft materials for writing
the lives of the Roman worthies, in the fame manner as
he had already written thofe of the Grecian : and ac-
yordmgly he not only converitd with all the living, but
Larched the records of the Capitol, and of all the libra¬
ries. ^ Not but, as we learn from Suidas, he was intvuft-
* d alfo with the management of public affairs in the
empire, during his reiidencc in the metropolis. “ Plu¬
tarch (lays he) lived in the time of Trajan, who be¬
llowed on him the confular ornaments, and alfo caufed
an edift to be palled, that the mngillrates or officers of
lilyna flaould do nothing in that province without his
knowledge and approbation, ’
When mid how he was made known to Trajan is
hkewilc uncertain : but it is generally fuppofcd that
‘ •'ajan, a private man when Plutarch firit came to
Lome, was, among other nobility, one of his auditors.
U is aho iuppofed, that this wife emperor made ufe of
bun in his councils; at leaft, much of the happinefs of
his reign has been imputed to Plutarch. Fabricius af-
lerta chat he was 1 rajan’s preceptor, and that he was
unfed to the conlukir dignity by him, and made procu-
’ ‘5or of Oeece in his old' age by the emperor Adrian.
At are equally at a lots concerning the time of his
abode in the imperial c;ty; which, however, at different
t imes, is not imagined to fall much ihort of 40 rears.
1 he defire ot vifiting his native country, fo natural to
ad men, and efpeciaily when growing old, prevailed
with him at length to leave Italy: and at his return he
>* as unanimoufiy eliofirn archorr or chief magiftrate of
Clueronea, and not long after admitted into the mmi-
t yrof the Delphic Apollo’s pneits. We have no oar*
tiemar account of his death, either as to the manner of
tt or the year ; only it is evident that he lived, and
vontumed his find res, to a good old age. The moll
probable co.is that of Fabricius, who favs he
5die^n ^ fifth year of Adrian at the age of 70/
His woi-Ks have been d'vidcd, and they admit iff a
pretty equal divilwn, into Lives and Morals i the for¬
mer of which, in his own eftimation, were to be prefer-
ted as more noble than the latter. His it vie/as we
have already obferved, has been excepted to with fume
p 0n : he has alu> criticifed for finite miilakes in
Koman antiquities, and for a little partiality to the
v v^n/he other haR4 l»e has been iuftlv oraifi d
> 01. XV. Part I. w . .
81 ] P l r-
far the copioufrefs of his fine fenfe and learning, for
his integrity, and for a certain air of goodnefs which
appears in all he wrote. His bufinefswas not to pleafe
the ear, but to inflrucb and charm the mind ; ard in
this none ever went beyond him. Of his moral wri¬
tings it is to be regretted that we have no elegant Fng-
lifli tranflation. Even his Lives were chiefly known
to the Engliffi reader by a motley and miferable verfion,
till a new one executed with fidelity and fpirit was pre-
fented to the public by the Langhornes in 1 7 70. On
the whole, it is to be wifhed that this molt amiable mo-
raliff and biographer had added a life of himfelf to thofii
which he has given to the world of others, as the par¬
ticulars which other writers have preferved of his oer-
fonal hiftory are very doubtful and iinperfiff.
PLUTO, in Pagan worfhip, the king of the infer-
nal regions, was the fon of Saturn and Ops, and the*
brother of Jupiter and Neptune. This deity finding
himfelf childleis and unmarried, mounted his chariot t««
vifit the world ; and arriving in Sicily, fell in love with
Proftrpme, whom he faw gathering flowers with her
companions in the valley of Enna, near mount ^Etna ;
when, forcing her into his chariot, he drove her to the
river Chemarus, through which he opened himfelf a
paffage back to the realms of night. See Ceres and
Proserpine.
Pluto is ufually reprefented in an ebony chariot drawn
by foi r black boric.,; fometimcs holding a feejitre, to
denote his power; at others, a wand, with which he
drives away the ghofts; and at others, fume keys, to
ligmfy that he had the keys of deat h. Homer obiervesi
that his helmet had the quality of rendering the wearer
inviiiole, and that Minerva borrowed it in order to be
concealed from Mars when {he fought againfl the Tro¬
jans. Pluto was greatly revered both "bv the Greeks
and Romans, who cre&ed temples and altars to him.
To this god facrifices were offered in the night, and it
was not lawful to offer them by day.
PLUTUS, in Pagan worihip, the god of riches, is
frequently confounded with Pluto. He was reprefinted
as appearing lame when he approached, and with wings
at his departure; to {how the difficulty of cmail'nig
wealth, and the uncertainty of its enjoyment. He wa>
alfo frequently reprefimted blind, to ffiow that he often
bellowed his favours on the moil unworthy, and left in
necefiity thole who had the greatefl merit,
i LUVIALIS. See Charadrius, iH 7.
PLUVIUS, a lurname of Jupiter. Fie was invoked
by that name among the Romans whenever the earth
was parched up by continual heat, and was in want of
relreihuig rains. Fie had an altar in the temole on th-
eapitol. 1
FLYERS, in fortification, denote a"kind of bakme *
ufed in railing or letting down a draw-bridge. Tliev
confilt of two timber levers, twice as long.as the bridge
they lift, joined together by other timber# framed in t/.:
rona of a St Amlrewbs crofs to counttrpo’fi* their.
They are fiq.ported by two upright jambs, on which
they hvirg;-and the bridge is raffed or let down b-
means of chains joining the ends of the dyers anil
ondge. "
PLYING, in the fen languigc, the aft of r aking,
or endeavouring to make, a progrefs againft the direc¬
tion of the wind. Hence a fhip that advarc s well in
fier courfe m this manner of failing, F Lid to be a ^ood
« w O *
J 4 " plyer.
r*
My
PLY [82
«uth. plyer. See the articles Beating, Pitching, and
r~~~ Tacking.
PLYMOUTH, a town of Devonfhire, m England,
about 215 miles from London, Hands between the rivers
Plym and Tamar, jufl before they fall into the Britifh
Channel. From a mere fiihing village it has become
- one of the largeit towns in the county ; and is one of
the chief magazines in the kingdom, on account of its
port, which is one of the fafell in England, and which
is fo large as to be able to contain 1000 fail. It is de¬
fended by feveral different forts, mounting altogether
nearly 300 guns ; of which the chief is the Royal Cita¬
del, erefted in the reign of Charles II. oppofite to St
Nicholas Ifland, which is within the circuit of its walls,
and contains a large Hore-houfe and five regular baf-
tions. In time of war the outward-bound convoys gene¬
rally rendezvous at Plymouth, and homeward-bound
{hips generally put in to provide pilots up the Channel.
It is alfo a great place of refort for men of war that are
wind-bound.
The mouth of the Tamar is called Ham-Ooze, and
that of Plym Cutwater, which are both commanded by
the caftle on St Nicholas Ifland. About two miles up
the mouth of the Tamar there are four docks, two of
which were built in the reign of William III. one wet
and the other dry, and two which have been built fince.
They have every conveniency for building or repairing
(hips, and one of them is hewn out of a mine of flate
and lined with Portland Hone. This town enjoys a
pilchard fifhery of confiderable importance, and carries
on an extenfive trade with Newfoundland and the Straits.
There is a cuftomhoufe in it; and though there are two
churches (and befides feveral meeting-houfes), yet each
church has fo large a cure of fouls, that the parifli clerks
were till very lately in deacon’s orders, to enable them
to perform all the occafional and other offices. The
feat-rents are given to the poor. The lecturers are
chofen every three years by the corporation, which was
conftituted by Plenry VI. and confifts of a mayor, 12
aldermen, and 24 common-council men. The mayor
is elefted by a jury of 36 perfons, chofen by four others,
two of whom are appointed by the mayor and aldermen,
and the other two by the common-council. There is
alfo a recorder, and a town-clerk, whofe place is very
profitable. The town conlifts of four divifions, which
were anciently governed by four captains, each of whom
had three conftables under him. It is well fupplied
with frefh water, which was brought from the diltance
of feven miles, by Sir Francis Drake a native of the
town. The toll of the markets, and of the cotton,
yarn, &c. with the profit of the mill, which is very
confiderable, belongs to the corporation, as do the re¬
venues of the fhambles, which are farmed out for the
mayor’s kitchen. There is a charity-fchool in Plymouth,
four hofpitals, and a workhoufe, in all which 100 poor
children are clothed, fed, and taught; and there are
two printing-houfes. To one of the hofpitals Colonel
Jory gave a charity for 12 poor widows, as he did a
mace worth lao L to be carried before the mayor, and
] PLY
fix good bells, valued at 5001. to Charles-Church, fo P'ytMtth,
called from our kings in whofe reigns it was begun and Ptynterij,
finiflred. In the entrance of the bay lies the famous ~T-d
Edyftone-rock, which is covered at high-water, and on
which the ingenious Mr Winilanley built a light-houfe,,
that was blown down in the terrible hurricane of Nov.
27th 1703, and himftlf, with others that were with
him in it, never more heard of. However, another was
erected in the room of it, by the corporation of the
Trinity-houfe, in purfuance of an ait of the 5th of
Queen Anne, which was deftroyed by an accidental fire
Dec. 4th 1755, but rebuilt in 1759: which alio was
burnt down, and rebuilt in the year 177©. In the
reign of Edward III. the French landed, and burnt
part of the town, but were foon repulfed by Hugh
Courtenay earl of Devon. In the reign of Henry IV.
the French landed here again, and burnt 600 houfes.
Between this town and the fea is a hill called the Haw,
which has a delightful plain on the top, having a plea,
fant profpeit all round it, and a good landmark for the
ufe of mariners. The liil of parliament-men for this
borough, formerly divided into two parts, by the names
of Sutton-Valtort and Sutton-Prior, commences the 26th
of Edward I. and continues to the 14th of Edward III.
after which we find no return made for it till the 20th
of Henry VI. when the privilege was renewed. On the
Haw is a fort, which at once awes the town and defends
the harbour. Here is a ferry over the Tamar, called
Crum well or Crimble Paffage, the weft fide of which is
called Weftone-Houfe, and is in Devonfhire, though
moft of the parifh wdierein it Hands is in Cornwall. In
April 1759 the parliament granted 25,159!. for the
better fortifying the town and dock of Plymouth;
which was vifited by George III. with the Queen, &c.
in Auguft 1789. N. Lat. 50. 26. W. Long. 4. 15.
Plymouth, in New England, a fea-port town, and
capital of the county of the fame name, in the province
of Maffachufets Bay, in North America. It is remark¬
able for having been the firft fettlement in New Eng¬
land, and for having had the firft place of worftiip. It
is feated at the fouth end of Plymouth Bay. W. Long.
70. 10. N. Lat. 41. 58.
PLYNTERIA, a Grecian feftival in honour of
Aglauros, or rather of Minerva, who received from the
daughter of Cecrops the name of Aglauros. The word
is derived from lavare^ becaufe during the folem-
nity they undrefled the ftatue'of the goddefs and walked
it. The day on which it was obferved was looked up¬
on as unfortunate and inaufpicious; and therefore no
perfon was permitted to appear in the temples, as they
were purpofely furrounded with ropes. The arrival of
Alcibiades in Athens that day was thought very unfor¬
tunate, but the fuccefs that ever after attended hint
proved it to be otherwife. It was cuftomary at this
feftival to bear in proceflion a clufter of figs ; which in¬
timated the progrefs of civilization among the firft in¬
habitants of the earth, as figs ferved them for food after-
they had found a diflike for acorns.
PNEUMATICS,
[ 83 ]
P N E U M
THIS term is reftri&ed, in the prefent habits of
owr language, to that part of natural philofophy
which treats of the mechanical properties of elaltic
fluids. The word, in its original meaning, exprelfes a
quality of air, or more properly of breath. Under the
article Physics we obferved, that in a great number
of languages the term ufed to exprefs breath was alfo
one of the terms ufed to exprefs the animating principle,
nay, the intelle&ual fubftance, the foul. It has been
perhaps owing to fome attention to this chance of con-
fufion that our philofophers have appropriated the term
Pneumatics to the fcience of the mechanical proper¬
ties of air, and Pneumatology to the fcience of the
intelleftual phenomena confequent on the operations or
x affections of our thinking principle.
E* nt of We have extended (on the authority of prefent cuf-
tb cience tom) the term Pneumatics to the ftudy of the me¬
chanical properties of all elaftic or fenfibly compreffible
fluids, that is, of fluids whofe elafticity and comprefli-
bility become an interefting objeCt of our attention ; as
the term Hydrostatics is applied to the ftudy of the
mechanical properties of fuch bodies as intereft us by
their fluidity or liquidity only, cr whofe elafticity and
compreffibility are not familiar or interefting, though
not lefs real or general than in the cafe of air and all
vapours.
N irccife We may be indulged in the obfervation by the bye,
Lr to the that there is no precife limit to the different claffes of
(iiijrent natural bodies "with refpeft to their mechanical proper-
"l* 5 °f ties.. There is no fuch thing as a body perfeftly
hard, perfectly foft, perfectly elaftic, or perfectly in-
comprefilble. Ail bodies have fome degree of elafti¬
city intermixed with fome degree of duCtility. Wa¬
ter, mercury, oil, are comprefiible ; but their comprefli-
bility need not be attended to in order perfectly to un-
derftand the phenomena confequent on their materiality,
fluidity, and gravity. But if we negleCt the comprefli-
bility of air, we remain ignorant of the caufe and nature
of its moft interefting phenomena, and but imperfeCtly
informed with refpeCt to thofe in which its elafticity has
no fhare; and itMs convenient to attend to this diftinc-
tijjp in our refearches, in order to underftand thofe
phenomena which depend folely or chiefly on compref-
tibility and elafticity. This obfervation is important ;
for here elafticity appears in its moft Ample form, unac¬
companied with any other mechanical affe&ion of matter
(if we except gravity), and lies moft open to our obfer¬
vation, whether employed for inveftigating the nature
of this very property of bodies, or for explaining its mode
of aCtion. We ftiall even find that the conftitution of
an avowedly elaftic fluid, whofe compreffibility is fo
very fenfible, will give us the diftin&eft notions of flui¬
dity in geneial, and enable us to underftand its charac-
tenjiic appearances) by which it is diftinguiftied from fo-
lidit} j namely, the cjuable diftribution of preffure thro’
•all its parts in every dire&ion, and the horizontality
which its furface affumes by the aftion of gravity : phe-
-» j°lne.ua "'hich have been affumed as equivalent to the
definition of a perfeft fluid, and from which all'the laws
hydroftatics and hydraulics have been derived. And
■ r.
I>e Uton
:term.
A T I C' S.
thefe laws have been applied to the explanation of the
phenomena around us; and water, mercury, oil, &c.
have been denominated fluid only becaufe their appear¬
ances have been found to tally exaCtly with thefe confe-
quences of this definition, while the definition itfelf re¬
mains in the form of an affumption, unfupported by any
other proof of its obtaining in nature. A real mecha¬
nical philofopher will therefore attach himfelf with great
eagernefs to this property, and confider it as an intro¬
duction to much natural fcience.
Of all the fenfibly compreffible fluids air is the moft. Air the
familiar, was the firft ftudied, and the moft minutely
examined. It has therefore been generally taken as the
example of their mechanical properties, while thofe Tne-fluid,
chanical properties which are peculiar to any of them,
and therefore charaCteriftic, have ufually been treated
as an appendix to the general fcience of pneumatics.
No objection occurs to us againft this method, which
will therefore be adopted in treating this article. ^
But although the mechanical properties are the pro- Different
per fubjeCts of our confideration, it will be impoffible properties
to avoid coniidering occafionally properties which are *i£*
more of a chemical nature ; becaufe they occafion fuch
modifications of the mechanical properties as would fre¬
quently be unintelligible without confidering them in
conjunction with the other; and, on the other hand,
the mechanical properties produce fuch modifications of
the properties merely chemical, and of very interefting
phenomena confequent on them, that thefe would often
pafs unexplained unlefs we give an account of them in
this place. 5
By mechanical properties we would be underftood to Mechanical
mean fuch as produce, or are connected with, fenfible 1'roI’ertie5*
changes of motion, and which indicate the prefence and
agency of moving or mechanical powers. They are
therefore the fubjeCt of mathematical difeuffion ; admit¬
ting of meafure, number, and direction, notions purely
mathematical.
_ We (hall therefore begin with the confideration of
air.
_ It is by no means an idle queftion, “ IVhat is this What is
air of which fo much is faid and written We feeair-
nothing, we feel nothing. We find ourfelves at libertv
to move about in any direction without any let or hin-
derance. Whence, then, the affertion, that we arc fur-
rounded with a matter called air ? A few very Ample
obfervations and experiments will ffiow us that this affer¬
tion is well founded. ^
We are accuftomed to fay, that a veffel is empty Proofs
when we have poured out of it the water which it con-that 13
tained. Take a cylindrical glafs jar (fig. 1.), having
a fmall hole in its bottom 5 and having {topped this hole, CCCXClX
fill the jar with water, and then pour out the water, V
leaving the glafs empty, in the common acceptation of
the word. Now, throw a bit of cork, or any light
body, on the furface of water.in a ciftern-: cover this
with the glafs jar held in the hand with its bottom up¬
wards, and move it downwards, keeping it all the while
in an upright pofition. Thecork will continue to fioat
on the furface of the water in the infide of the glafs,
v L 2 and
S+
p N E U M A T I C S.
rnd win moll diflmdly fhow whereabouts that furface
is. It will thus be feen, that the water within the
.rlafs has its furface conliderably lower than that of the
furrounding water ; and however deep we immerge the
<rlafs, we fhall find that the water will never rife in the
infide of it fo as to fill it. If plunged to the depth of
~ 2 feet, the water will only haif fill it ; and yet the
acknowledged laws of hydroflatics tell us, that the. wa¬
ter would fill the glafs If there were nothing to hinder
it. There is therefore fomething already within tha
glafs which prevents the water from getting into it;
manifefting in this manner the moft diftinctive property
of matter, viz. the hindering other matter from occu-
pying the fame place at the fame time.
V ffdTe 1 of ” While things are in this condition, pull the Hopper
irnpuitiv* ‘ out of the hole in the bottom of the jar, and the water
force, wiH inftantly rife in the infide of the jar, and Hand at
an equal height within and w-ithout. This, is juftly
aferibed to the efcape through the hole of the matter
which formerly obftm&ed the entry of the water .: for if
the hand be held before the hole, a puff wIU be dillin&ly
felt, or a feather held there will be- blown afide ; indi¬
cating in this manner that what prevented the entry of
the water, and now efcapes, pofTefies another chara&er-
ittic property of matter, impul/ive force. The materi¬
ality is concluded from this appearance in the fame
manner that the materiality of water is concluded from
the impulfe of a jet from a pipe. We alfo fee the mo¬
bility of the formerly pent up, and now liberated, fub-
ilance, in coniequence of external preffurt, viz. the
prefiure of the furrounding water.
. Alfo, if we take a Imooth cylindrical tube, {hut at
fciiity, one end, and fit a plug or cork to its open end, lo as
to Aide along it, but fo tightly as to prevent all pafTage
by its fides ; and if the plug be well foaked in greafe,
we {hall find that no force whatever can pufh it to the
bottom of the tube. There is therefore fomeibing with¬
in the tube prevent'ng by its impenetrability the entry
of the plug, and therefore pofiefiing this charadlerillic
tf of matter.
Eladkitv, In like manner, if, after having opened a pair of
common bellows, we {hut up the nozzle and valve hole,
and try to bring the boards together, we find it im-
poffiblc. There is fomething included which prevents
this, in the fame manner as if the bellows were filled
with wool ; but on opening the nozzle we can eafily
{hut them, viz. by expelling this fomething ; and if
the compreflion is forcible, the fomething will ifiiie with
confiderable force, and very fenfibly impel any thing in
la its way.
Inertia, and It is not accurate to fay, that we move about with-
snobility. out any ohilruftion ; for we find, that if we endeavour
to move a large fan with rapidity, a very fenfible hin-
derance is perceived, and that a very fenfible force muft
be exerted ; and a fenfible wind is produced, which will
agitate the neighbouring bodies. It is therefore juftly
concluded that the motion is pofiible only in confe-
quence of having driven this obltrudling fubftance out
of the way ; and that this impenetrable, refilling,
moveable, impelling fubftance, is matter. We perceive
the perfeverance of this matter in its ftate of reft when
we wave a fan, in the fame manner that we perceive
the inertia of water when we move a paddle through it.
The effects of wind in impelling our {hips and mills, in
tearing up tree*, and overturning buildings, are equal'
indications of its perfeverance in a ftate of motion.
To this matter, when at reft, we give the name Air. ;
and when it is in motion we call it Wind. 13
Air, therefore, is a material fluid: a fluid, becaufeTt
its parts are eafily moved, and yield to the Tmalleft in- re fp*-
r rr temi Umi
equality 01 prelmre. ’
Air poflefies fome others of the very general, though Heavy, anj
not effential, properties of matter. It is heavy. This
appears from the following fa£ls.
1. It always accompanies this globe in its orbit round
the fun, furrounding it to a certain diftance, under the
name of the Atmosphere, which indicates the being
connefted with the earth by its general force of gravity.
It is chiefly in confequenee of this that it is continually
moving round the earth from eaft to weft ; forming what
is called the trade-wind, to be more particularly conii-
dered afterwards. All that is to be obierved on this,
fobject at prefent is, that, in confequence of the dil-
turbing force of the fun and moon, there is an accumu¬
lation of the air of the atmofphere, in the fame manner
as of the waters of the ocean, in thole parts of the
globe which have the moon near their zenith or nadir:
and as this happens Xucceflively, going from the eaft to
the weft (by the rotation of the earth round its axis in
the oppofite direction), the accumulated air muft gra¬
dually flow along to form the elevation. This is chiefly
to be obferved in the torrid zone; and the generality
and regularity of this motion are greatly dilturbed by
the changes which are continually taking place in differ¬
ent parts of the atmofphere from caufes which are not
mechanical. J(
2. It is in like manner owing to the gravity of the Support
air that it fupports the clouds and vapours which wethe Dv';
fee conftantly floating in it. We have even feen bodies
of no inconfiderable weight float, and even rife, in the
air. Soap bubbles, and balloons filled with inflammable
gas, rife and float in the fame manner as a. cork rifes in
water. This phenomenon proves the weight of the air
in the fame manner that the fwimming of a piece of
wood indicates the weight of the water which flip-
ports it. I(s
3. But we are not left to thefe refined ubfervationsFamili:ir
for the proof of the air’s gravity. Wfc may obferve^0^’
familiar phenomena, which would be immediate eonfe-*6'®
quences of the fuppofition that air is a heavy fluid, and,
like other heavy fluids, prefi'es on the outfides of all
bodies immerfed in or furrounded by it. Thus, for
inftance, if w^e {hut the nozzle and valve hole of a pair
of bellows after having fqueezed the air out of them,
we {hall find that a very great force, even fome hundred
pounds, is necefiary for feparating the boards. They
are kept together by the preflfure of the heavy air which
furrounds them in the lame manner as if they wrere im¬
merfed in w'ater. In like manner, if we Hop the end
of a fyringe after its pifton has been preffed dowm to the
bottom, and then attempt to draw up the pifton, we
{hall find a confiderable force necefiary, viz. about 15
or 16 pounds for every fquare inch of the fetftion of the
fyringe. Exerting this force, we can draw' up the pifton
to the top, and we can hold it there; but the moment
we ceafe ailing, the pifton rulhes dowm and ftrikes the
bottom. It is called a fuilion, as w^e feel fomething as
it were drawing in the pifton ; but it is really the weight
P N E U
> *
INI
MV e
cce CiX
It rn
•'Vrn ;
t.ei.' d.
cf the inaunbent air prtiTmg It in. Ar,i this obtruns
in ever)' pofition of the fyringe ; becaufe the air is a
fluid, and prefies in ever)' direction. Nay, it predes on
the fyringe as well as on the pilton ; and if the pifton
be hung by its ring on a rial:, the fyringe requires force
to draw it down (juft as much as to draw lire pifton up);
and if it be let go, it will fpring up, unlefs loaded with
at leaft 15 pounds for every fquare inch of its tranfverfc
feftion (fee fig. 2.)
4. But the moft direfb proof of the weight of the air
is had by weighing a veftel empty cf air, and then
weighing it again when the air has been admitted ;
and this, as it is the moft obvious confequence of its
weight, has been aiferted as long ago as the days of
Ariftotle. He fays (fv. a.), That all bo-
tncs are heavy* in their place except fire: even air is
heavy; for a blown bladder is heavier than when it is
empty. It is iomewhat furprtfing that his followers
fhould have gone into the oppolite opinion, while pro-
fcfling to maintain the doctrine of their leader. If we
take a very large and limber bladder, and fqueeze out
the air vers* carefully, and weigh it, and then fill it till
the wrinkles juft begin to difappear, and weigh it again,
we fhall find no difference in the weight. But this is
not Ariftotle’s meaning ; becaufe the bladder, confider-
ed as a veiTtl, is equally full in both cafes, its dimeniions
being changed. We cannot take the air out of a blad¬
der without its immediately collapfing. But what would
be true of a bladder would be equally true of any veffel.
Therefore, take a round vefiel A (fig. 3.), fitted with
a llopcock B, and fyringe C. Fill the whole with
water, and prefs the pifton to the bottom of the fyringe.
Then keeping the cock open, and holding the vefiel
upright, with the fyringe undermoft, draw down the
pifton. The water will follow it by its weight, and
leave part of the veffel empty. Now {hut the cock,
a^d again pufli up the pifton to the bottom of the fy¬
ringe ; the water efcapes through the pifton valve, as
will be explained afterward : then opening the cock,
and again drawing down the pifton, more water will
come out of the veffel. Repeat this operation till dl
the water have come out. Shut the cock, unferew the
ivringe, and weigh the veffel veiy accurately. Now
open the cock, and admit the air, and weigh the veffel
again, it will be found heavier than before, and this ad¬
ditional weight is the weight of the air which fills it ;
and it will be found, to be 523 grains, about an ounce
and a fifth avoirdupoife, for every cubic foot that the
veffel contains. Now fince a cubic foot of water would
weigh 1000 ounces, this experiment would fbow that
water is about 840 times heavier than air. The moft
accurate judgment of this kind of which we have met
with an account is that recorded by Sir George Shuck-
bourgh, which is m the 67th voL of the Philofophical
iraniactions, p. 560. From this it follows, that when
of temperature 53, and the barometer
.+°S a -n2^ lnc^ie8> am is 836 times lighter than
vvater. Lut the experiment is not fufceptible of fuffi-
nuit accuracy for determining the exacl weight of a
veffd ! 7' ItS We;Sht is vei7 M ; and the
veffel muft be ftrong and heavy, f0 as to overload any
balance that is fi.fficiently nice for the experiment.
, • ? r0ld th,s “convenience, the whole may !>e
Nth of lt 1 l0ad,nS the veffd fo as to “ake
pnj his. P i ^derate an ounce or two in the water. By this
oft
!?nv Art
A T I C S. S5
means the balance will be loaded only with this fmall
preporderancy. But even in this cafe there are confi-
derable fources of error, ariiirig from changes in the
fpecific gravity of the water and other caufes. The
experiment has often been repeated with this view, and
the air has been found at a medium to be about 840
times as light as water, but with great variations, as
may be expected from its very heterogeneous nature, in
confequence of its being the menftruum of almoft every
fluid, of all vapours, and even of moft foil'd bodies; all
which it holds in folution, forming a fluid pcrfe&ly
Iran {parent, and of very different denfity according to
its compoiition. It is found, for inftance, that perfect¬
ly pure air of the temperature of our ordinary lummer
is confiderably denfer than when it has diffolved about
hull as much water as it can hold in that temperature;
and that with this quantity of vvater the difference of
denfity increafes in proportion as the mafs grows warmer,
for damp air is more expanfible by heat than dry air.
e fhall have occaiion to coniider this fubjeft agaT,
when we treat of the connexion of the mechanical pro¬
perties of air with the ilate of the weather. See
Weat her.
Such is the refult of the experiment fuggefted by phJPr*.
Anftotle, evidently proving the weight of the air ; and petty of *
yet, as has been obferved, the Peripatetics, who profefs 'hr eeniH
to follow the difoua of Ariftotle, uniformly refufed it b7 tl'c l>e"
this property. It was a matter long debated among
the philofophers of the lalt century. The reafon was,know'e'g-
that Ariftotle, with that indiftinflneft and inconfiftencyef^ ,iy dux
which is ohferved in all his writings which relate tomaacr‘
matters of faift and experience, affigns a different caufe
to many phenomena which any man led by common
observation would aferibe to the weight of the air. Of
this kind is the rife of water in pumps and fyphons,
which all the Peripatetics had for ages aferibed to fome-
t nng which they called nature's abhorrence of a void*
Ariftotle had afferted (for reafons not our bufinefs to
adduce at prefent), that all nature was full of being,
and that nature abhorred a void. He adduces marv
faHs, m which it appears, that if not abfohitely impoi-
iible, it is very difficult, and requires great force to
produce a fpaee void of matter. When the operation
of pumps and fyphons came to be known, the philofc
pliers of Europe (who had all embraced the Peripatetic
cloctnnes) found in this fancied horror of a fancied mind
(what die is this that nature abhors ?) a ready folutiou
of the phenomena. We fhall ftate the facts, that every
reader may fee what kinds of reafoning were received
among the learned not two centuries a^o
Ja'TZTthen “nll™ae<\in the
r I .. & ^ 4*) was ^ water tion of
ot the well A. i his w'as fitted with a fucker or pifton PunX,s ;u
E, having a long rod CF, and was furnifhed with arh,:lalL
valve B at the bottom, and a lateral pipe DE at theCCI!tUrjf*
place of deliver)*, alfo furnifhed with a valve. The fact
is, that if the pifton be thruft down to the bottom, and'
then drawn up, the water will follow it ; and upon the
pi ton being again puffed down, the water ffuts the
va ve B by its weight, and efcapes or is expelled at the
vulve h ; and on drawing up the pifton again the valve
-L is Ifiut, the water again rifes after the pifton, and is
agani exjxilltd at its next defeent.
i he Peripatetics explain all this by faying, that if
the water did not folium the fjjion there would be a void-'
■ bet wet. 3 i
.86
p N E U M
between them. But nature abhors a void ; or a void
Their ope- jg impoffible : therefore the water follows the piiton.-
ration ac- It worth whlle to criticife the wretched reaioning
A T I C S.
countedfor ^ 13 WUILU T Tt aU overturned
by the Pe- in this pretence to explanatton. It is nli oveiru
ripatetics. bv one obfervation. Suppofe the pipe nu
bottom, the pifton can be drawn up, and thus a \o
produced. No, fay the Peripatetics; and they fpeak
of certain fpirits, effluvia, See. which occupy the place.
But if fo, why needs the water rife ? 1 his thererore is
not the caufe of its afeent. It is a curious and on-
Gali!ifirftF°The fagacious Galileo feems to have been the firft
accounted who ferioufly aferibed this to the weight or t .e air.
f.or it„ra Many before him had fuppofed air heavy ; and thus ex-
tionaly piaine(i the difficulty of raffing the board of bellows,
or the pifton of a fyringe, Sec. But he diftin„tly ap¬
plies to this allowed weight of the air all the confequen-
ces of hydroftatical laws ; and he reafons as fellows.
By the The heavy air refts on the water m the cittern, and
weight cf ffes it w(th its weight. It does the fame with the
^LT"' water in the pipe, and therefore both are on a level:
‘ but if the pifton, after being in contaft with the furface
of the water, be drawn up, there is no longer any pn?l-
fure on the furface of the water within the pipe j f°r
the air now refts on the pifton only, and thus cccabons a
difficulty in drawing it up. The water in the pipG
therefore, is in the fame fituation as if more water were
poured into the ciftern, that is, as much as would exert
the fame preffure on its furface as the air does. In this
cafe we are certain that the water will be prefled into
the pipe, and will raffie up the water already in it, and
follow it till it is equally high within and without. The
fame preffure of the air (huts the valve E'during the
24 defeent of the pifton. (See Gal. Difcourfes.)
And i re- He did not wait for the very obvious objection, that
didted the t^e rjfe 0f the water was the effect of the air’s pm-
t0 fure, it would alfo be its meafure, and would be raifed
ter‘would* and fupported only to a certain height. He direftly
-rife in faid f0, and adduced this as a deeffive experiment. It
ihem. tke horror of a void be the caufe, fays he, the water
muft rife to any height however great; but if it be
owing to the preffure of the air, it will only rife till
the weight of the water in the pipe is in eqmhbno with
the preffure of the air, according to the common laws
of hydroftatics. And he adds, that this is w ell know n ;
for it is a faft, that pumps will not draw water much
above forty palms, although they may he made to pro-
pel it, or to lift it to any height. He then makes an
affertion, which, if true, will be deeffive. Let a very
long pipe, {hut at one end, be filled with water, and
let ft be ere&ed perpendicularly with the clofe end up-
permoft, and a ftopper in the other end, and then its
lower orifice immerfed into a veffel of water; the wa¬
ter will fubfide in the pipe upon removing the ftopper,
tiU the remaining column is in equilibrio with the prei-
fure of the external air. This expenment he propofes.
to the curious; faying, however, that he thought it
unneceffary, there being already fuch abundant proofs
1$ of the air’s preffure.
His predic- jt ;s probable that the cumberfomenefs of the necef-
tTd ]wTo Iary apparatus protrafted the making of this experiment.
rkelH’s ex-' Another equally conclufive, and much gaffer, was made
periment In 1642 after Galileo’s death, by his zealous and learned
difciple Toricelli. He filled a glafs tube, clofe at one end,
tvfth mercury ; judging, that if the fupport of the water
was owing to the preffure of the air, and was the mea-
fure of this preffure, mercury would in like manner be
fupported by it, and this at a height which was alfo the
meafure of the air’s preffure, and therefore 13 times lefs
than water. He had the pleafure of feeing his expec¬
tation verified in the completeft manner; the mercury
defending in the tube AB (fig. 5-)> and finaUy fet* FIjte
tling at the height /B of 29? Roman inches : and he ^CCXCIJi
found, that when the tube was inclined, the point / w^as
imthe fame horizontal plane writh J in the upright tube,
according to the received laws of hydroftatical preffure.
The experiment was often repeated, and foon became
famous, exciting great controverfies among the philo-
fophers about the polfibility of a vacuum. About three
years afterwards the faftie experiment wras pubhfhed, at
Warfaw' in Poland, by Valerianus Magnus .as his own
fuggeftion and difeovery : but it appears plain from the
letters of Roberval, not only that Toricelli w’as prior,
and that his experiment was the general topic of dif-
cuffion among the curious ; but alfo highly probable
that Valerianus Magnus wras informed of it when at
Rome, and daily converfant with thofe wrho had feen
it. He denies, however, even having heard of the name
of Toricelli.
This was the era of philofophical ardour; and we
think that it was Galileo’s invention and immediate ap¬
plication of the telefcope which gave it vigour. DH-
coveries of the moll wonderful kind in the hea\ens, and
which required no extent of previous knowledge to un-
derftand them, were thus put into the handsof everyperfon
who could purchafe a fpy-glafs ; while the high degree
of credibility which fome of the difeoveries, fuch as the
phafes of Venus and the rotation and fatellites of Jupi¬
ter, gave to the Copernican fyftem, immediately fet the
whole body of the learned in motion. Galileo joined
to his ardour a great extent of learning, particularly of
mathematical knowledge and found logic, and was even
the firft who formally united mathematics with phyfics ;
and his treatife on accelerated motion was the firft, and
a precious fruit of this union. About the years 16.^2 Origin*
and 1644, we find clubs of gentlemen affociated in Ox-th^
ford and London for the cultivation of knowledge by™
experiment ; and before 1655 a^ doeftrines of hy¬
droftatics and pneumatics were familiar there, eftablifhed
upon experiment. Mr Boyle procured a coalition and
correfpondence of thefe clubs under the name of the
Invifible and Philofophical Society. In May 1658
Mr Hooke finiffied for Mr Boyle an air-pump, which
had employed him a. long time, and occafioned him fe-
veral journeys to London for things which the work¬
men of Oxford could not execute. He fpeaks of this
as a great improvement on Mr Boyle s own pump,
which he had been ufing fome time before. Boyle if
therefore muft have invented his air-pump, and wasin«“°
not indebted for it to Schottus’s account of Otto Gue-^
rick’s, publiffled in his (Schottus) Mecbamca Hydiauk-'
pneumatica in 1657, as he afferts (Te:hna Curio/,:).
The Royal Society of London arofe in 1656 from the
coalition of thefe clubs, after 15 years co-operation and
correfpondence. The Montmorine Society at Paris
had fubfifted nearly about the fame time; for we find
pafchal in 1648 fpeaking of the meetings in the Sor-
bonne College, from which we know that fociety ori¬
ginated.—Nuremberg, in Germany, was alfo a diftin-
tmilhed feminary of experimental philofophy. The
mainftrates,
1
Tice
rf‘
Gfe
Tin
rj»l
»
,
‘ft
8;
P N E U M
YTttgiflrates, fenfible of its valuable influence in manu-
fa&ures, the fource of the opulence and profperity of
their city, and many of them philofophers, gave philo-
fophy a profefled and munificent patronage, furnilhirtg
the philofophers with a copious apparatus, a place of
aflembly, and a fund for the expence af their experi¬
ments ; fo that this was the firlt academy of fciences
out of Italy under the patronage of government.^ In
Italy, indeed, there had long exifled inftitutions of this
kind. Rome was the centre of church-government,
48 and the refort of all expectants for preferment. The
rhelej - clergy were the majority of the learned in all Chriftian
v'e! I'd nations, and particularly of the fyftematic philofophers.
£ * Each, eager to recommend himfelf to notice, brought
. orice
a( if- forward every thing that was curious ; and they were
ifed. the willing vehicles of philofophical communication.
Thus the experiments of Galileo and Toricelli were ra¬
pidly diffufed by perfons of rank, the dignitaries of the
church, or by the monks their obfequious fervants.
Perhaps the recent defection of England, and the want
of a refiding embaffy at Rome, made her fometimes late
in receiving or fpreading philofophical refearches, and
was the caufe that more was done there prcprio Marie.
We hope to be excufed for this digreffion. We were
naturally led into it by the pretenfions of Valerianus
Magnus to originality in the experiment of the mercury
Dil-1|45 , fupported by the preffure of the air. Such is the
aai w.'Vj ftrength of national attachment, that there were not
ua- ■ ^ ie^ wanting fome who found that Toricelli had borrowed
rfx fctJ- s his experiment from Honoratus Fabri, who had pro-
pofed and explained it in 1641 ; but whoever knows
the writings of Toricelli, and Galileo’s high opinion of
him, will never think that he could need fuch helps.
(See this furmife of Mounier in Schott. Tech. Cur. III.
at the end.
Galileo mull be confidered as the author of the expe¬
riment when he propofes it to be made. Valerianus
Magnus owns himfelf indebted to him for the principle
and the contrivance of the experiment. It is neither
wonderful that many ingenious men, of one opinion,
and inftruCIed by Galileo, fhould feparately hit on fo
obvious a thing; nor that Toricelli, his immediate dif-
ciple, his enthufiaftic admirer, and who was in the ha¬
bits of corrcfponding with him till his death in 1642,
fhould be the firft to put it in praftice. It became
the fubjeCI of difpute from the national arrogance and
felf-conceit of fome Frenchmen, who have always fhown
themfelvcs difpofed to' confider their nation as at the
head of the republic of letters, and cannot brook the
concurrence of any foreigners. Roberval was in this
inftance, however, the champion of Toricelli; but thofe
who know his controverfies with the mathematicians of
France at this time will eafily account for this ex¬
ception.
ni y* - nov'[ agree in givl"ng Toricelli the honour of the
jirjl invention; and it univerfally paffes by the name of
the Toricellian-Experiment. The tube is called
the T. oricellian Tube; and the fpace left by the
mercury is caUed the Toricellian Vacuum, to di-
itinguilh it from the Boylean Vacuum, which is only
3, an extreme rarefa&ion.
: 'va‘ experiment was repeated in various forms, and
•§^01! 11 r ltl ^PP^r^us which enabled philofophers to examine
y 01
eves
lies; I
aad
6421
O
k\
Ad
aail
tiK
,0r\.
tbii
;vfl
irms. Pevt;ral effefts wkich the vacuum produced on bodies
expofed ia it. This was done by making the upper
A T I C S.
part of the tube terminate in a veiTel of feme capacity,
or communicate with fuch a vefiel, in which were in¬
cluded along with the mercury bodies on which the ex¬
periments were to be made. When the mercury had
run out, the phenomena of thefe bodies were carefully
obferved. 3 4
An objection was made to the conclufion drawn An objtc*
from Toricelli’s experiment, which appears formidable.tlon 11 thc
If the Toricellian tube be fufpended on the arm of a ^awMfn'rh
balance, it is found that the counterpoife muft be equal ,t obviated,
to the weight both of the U be and of the mercury it
contains. This could not be, fay the objectors, if the
mercury were fupported by the air. It is evidently
fupported by the balance ; and this gave rife to another
notion of the caufe different from the peripatetic fuga
vcuui: a fufpenfive force, or rather attra£lion, was af-
figned to the upper part of the tube.
But the true explanation of the phenomenon is moll
eafy and fatisfa&ory. Suppofe the mercury in the
ciftern and tube to freeze, but without adhering to the
tube, fo that the tube could be freely drawn up and
down. In this cafe the mercury is fupported by the
bale, without any dependence on the preffure of the air;
arid the tube is in the fame condition as before, and the
folid mercury performs the office of a pillon to this
kind of fyringe. Suppofe the tube thrult down till the
top of it touches the top of the mercury. It is evident
that it muff be drawn up in oppofition to the preffure
of the external air, and it is precifely limilar to the fy¬
ringe mentioned in n9 16. The weight fuftained there¬
fore by this arm of the balance is the weight of the
tube and the downward preffure of the atmofphere on
its top.
The curiofity of philofophers being thus excited by Galileo’s
this very manageable experiment, it was natural now to on?‘na* e-s*
try the original experiment propofed by Galileo.
cordingly Berti in Italy, Pafchal in France, and many
others in different places, made the experiment with a
tube filled with water, wine, oil, &c. and all with the
fuccefs which might be expedled in fo fimple a matter ;
and the do&rine of the weight and preffure of the air
was eftablifhed beyond contradiction or doubt. All was
done before the year 1648.—A very beautiful experi¬
ment was exhibited by Auzout, which completely fa-
tisfied all who had any remaining doubts. 34
A fmall box or phial EFGH (fig. 6.) had two glafsAn eiqeri.
tubes, AB, CD, three feet long, inferted into it in fuchmcnt ^7
a manner as to be firmly fixed in one end, and to reach Opiate
nearly to the other end. AB was open at both ends, CCCXCHX
and CD was clofe at D. This apparatus was complete-,
ly filled with mercury, by unferewing the tube AB, fil¬
ling the box, and the hole CD ; then ferewing in the
tube AB, and filling it : then holding a finger on the
orifice A, the whole was inverted and fet upright in
the pofition reprefented in figure /?, immerfing the ori¬
fice A (now a) in a fmall veffel of quickfilver. The
refult was, that the mercury ran out at the orifice at
till its furface m n within the phial defeended to the top
of the tube b a. The mercury alfo began to defeemi
in the tube dc (formerly DC) and run over into the
tube b a, and ran out at cty till the mercury in dc was
very near equal in a level with m r. The mercury de-
feending \n b a till it ftood at ky 29!- inches above the
furface o/> of the mercury in the ciftern, juft as in the
Toricellian tube.
8
The
S3
r>
t e
t .on
P N F. U M
The rationale of this experiment is very eafy. The
whole apparatus may full be conhdered as a L oricelhan
tube of an uncommon fhape, and the mercury would
flow out at But as focn as a drop of mercury comes
out, leaving a fpaoe above m n, there is nothing to keep
up the mercury in the tube dc. Its mercury therefore
defeends alio ; and running over into ha, continues to
fupply its expence till the tube dc is almoll empty, or
can no longer fupply the waile of b a; I he inner inr-
face therefore falls us low as it can, till it is level with
l. No more mercury can enter be, yet its column
is too heavy to be fupported by the preffure of the air
on the mercury in the ciflern below ; it therefore de¬
feends in b o, and finally fettles at the height k c, equal
to that of the mercury in the Toricellian tube,
ifive t f The prettied cireumdance of the experiment remains,
quef- Make a fmall hole % in the upper cap of the box. The
external air immediately rufhes in by its weight, and now
prefles on the mercuryin the box. This immediatelyraiies
the mercury in the tube dc to /, 29 ‘ inches above m v.
It preffes on the mercury at k in the tube b <2, balancing
the preffure of the air in the cidern. The mercury in
the tube therefore is left to the influence of its own
weight, and it defeends to the bottom. Nothing can
be more appoiite or doc dive.
And thus the do&rine of the gravity and predure of
the air is edablifhed by the mod unexceptionable evi¬
dence : and we are intitled to affurne it as a llatical
principle, and to affirm a prion all its legitimate confe-
quences.
And in the fil'd place, we obtain an exafl mcafure cf
the preffure of the atmofphere. It is precifely equal to
the weight of the column of mercury, of water, of oil,
&c. which it can fupport; and the Toricellian tube, or
others fitted up upon the fame principle, are judly termed
bar0[topes and boromeUrs with refpetd to the air. Now
it is obferved that water is fupported at the height of
^ 32 feet nearly: The weight of the column is exadly
iDcafu^e < f 2000 avoirdupois pounds oa every fquare foot of bafe,
the preffuic or I 3 on ever)' fquare inch. rl he fame conclufion
the at- very nearly may be drawn from the column of mercury,
which is nearly 29* inches high when in equilibrium with
the preffure of the ah . We may here obferve, that the
meadu-e taken from the height of a column of water,
wine, fpirits, and the other fluids of confide ruble volati¬
lity, as chemids term it, is not fo exatl as that taken
from mercury, oil, and the like. For it is obferved
36
The gravi¬
ty of the
.f r there-
Jore a fla-
t:cal prin
ciple from
which we
obtain
37
exavt
mofphen
tliat the volatile fluids ai-e converted by the ordinary
lieat of our climates into vapour when the confining
nreffiire of the air is removed ; and this vapour, by its
elafiicity, exerts a fmall preffnre on the furface of the
water, rio. in the pipe, and thus counteracts a fmall
part of the external preffure ; raid therefore the column
fupported by tbe remaining preffure mud be lighter,
that is, ihorter. Thus it is found, that rectified fpirits
.vill not Hand much higher than is competent to a
weight of 1 3 pounds on an inch, the elullrcity of its
‘vnpour balancing about of the pnflnre of the air.
hVe ihad afterwards have occafiun to confider this mat¬
ter more particularly.
As the medium height of the mercury in the baro¬
meter is 291 inches, we fee that the whole globe fudains
cup re ffure equal to the whole weight of a body of mer-
- ary of this, height ; and that ail bodies on its furface
A T I C S.
fndain a unit of tins in proportion to their iurfaeen.
An ordinary fixed man iuftain-- a preffure of feverat .5
ihoufand pounds. How comes it then that we are not \
feafibie of a pit dure which one liiould think enough
crufn us together? This has beer confidered as a drong
objebtiou to the preffure of the air ; for when a man is
plunged a few feet under water, he is very ftnfible of
the predure. The anfwer is by ho means fo eafy as is
commonly imagined. We feel very didinctly the ef-
febls ox removing this predure frx<m any part of the
Hedy. If any one will apply the open end of a fy-
ringe to his hand, and then draw up the pifton, he will
find his hand fucked into the fyringe with great force,
and it will give pain ; and the foft part of the hand wdl
fwell into it, being preded in by the neighbouring parts,
which are fobjeCt to the action of the external air. If
one lays his hand on the top of a long perpendicular
pipe, inch as a pump filled to the brim w.th water,
which is at fird prevented from running out by the valve
below; and if the valve be then opened, fo that the
water defeends, he will then find his hand io hard pref-
fed to the top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away.
But why do we only feel the inequaiiy of preffure?
There is a fimilar indance herein we do net feel it,
although we cannot doubt of its exidence. When a
man goes fiowly to a great deptii under water in a
diving-bell, we know unquef cion ably that he is expcled
to a new and very great pieffure, yet he does not feel
it. But thofe faeds are not diffidently familiar for ge¬
neral argument. The human body is a bundle of fo-
lids, hard or foft, filled or mixed v i h fluids, and there
are few or no parts of it which are empty. All com¬
municate either by veffels or pores; and the wht blur-
face is a fieve through which the infcnliblc* peifpiration
is performed. The whole extended furface of the lungs
is open to the pu flute of the atmofphere ; every thing
is therefore in equilibria : and il f ee or fptedy accrfs be
given to every part, the body will not b: damaged by
the preflure, however great, any more than a wet ip urge
would be deranged by plunging it any depth ih water,
The preffure is inftar.taneoufly diftufed by means .ef the
incompreffible fluids with which the pasts are filled; ami
if any parts are filled with air or other eompreffib.e
fluids, thefe are compreffed till their daflxity again ba¬
lances the p red lire. Btfides, all our fluids are acquired
ffijwlv, and gradually mixt d with that proportion oi
air which they can ddiolve or contain, k'lie whole ani¬
mal has grown up in this manner from the flrfi. vital
atom of the embry o. For fuch reafons the preffure can
occaiiou no change of ffiape by fqueezing together tl.e*
flexible pasts ; nor any cL llruclLcn by comprefiing tbe
vtffels or pores. We cannot fay w hat would be felt by
a nun, were it poffible that he could have been produ¬
ced and grown up in <vi.cuo, and then fubje&ed to the
compreffion. Wc even know that any hidden and con*
iiderobie change of general preffure is very feverely felt.
I’erfons in a diving bed have been aimolt killed by fit¬
ting there down or drawing tlrem up too fuddehly. In
drawing up, the elailic matters witliin Itave iuddeidy
iwelled, and not finding an immediate efcape have burit
the veffels. Dr Halley experienced this, the blood
guffiing out from his.-ears by the expanlion of air con¬
tained in the internal cavities of this organ, from wired
there arc but very {lender nallages.
PNEUMATICS
89
The ea-
ther. afs.
li I
ale,
vif I
.4 :
F»i
iH ?, B
imil ,
«1 iThe ref-
fure ’ the
air iij pro¬
port 1 to
Be va-
t folion
A '>■
t.' .1
..,;~|irf ap-
“ ■efil te*
and fchal
iV;;; Itid oved
.. |y < >eri-
0 - .
jab: I
mirfC
l£jj|
t vpl
't ^1
XI
|J It
■tW
a cj
M
A
' il
' I
\$\
m
nidJ
■ coj
/if I
A very important obfervation recurs here: the pref-
fure of the atmofphere is variable. This was obferved
almoft as foon as philofophers began to attend to the
barometer. Pafchal ’obferved it in France, and Del-
cartes obferved it in Sweden in 1650. Mr Boyle and
others obferved it in England in 1656. And before
this, obfervers, who took, notice of the concomitancy of
thefe changes of aerial preffure with the Hate of the at¬
mofphere, remarked, that it was generally greateft in
winter and in the night ; and certainly molt variable
during winter and in the northern regions. Familiar
now with the weight of the air, and confidering it as
the vehicle of the clouds and vapours, they noted with
care the conne&ion between the weather and the pref¬
fure of the air, and found that a great preffure of the
air was generally accompanied with fair weather, and a
diminution of it with rain and miffs. Hence the baro¬
meter came to be confidered as an index not only of the
prefent ftate of the air's weight, but alfo as indicating
by its variations changes of weather. It became a
Weather-glass, and continued to be anxioully ob¬
ferved with this view. This is ap important fubjeft,
and will afterwards be treated in fome detail.
In the next place, we may conclude that the preffure
of the air will be different in different places, according
to their elevation above the furface of the ocean : for
if air be'an heavy fluid, it muff prefs in fome propor¬
tion according to its perpendicular height. If it be a
homogeneous fluid of equal denfity and weight in all
its parts, the mercury in the ciftern of a barometer muff
be preffed precifely in proportion to the depth to which
that ciftern is .immerfed in it; and as this preffure is ex¬
actly meafured by the height of the mercury in the
tube, the height of the mercury in the Toricellian tube
muff be exaftly proportional to the depth of the place
of obfervation under the furface of the atmofphere.
The celebrated Defcartes firft entertained this thought
(Epift. 67. of Pr. III.), and foon after him Pafchal.
His occupation in Paris not permitting him to try the
juftnefs of his conjecture, he requefted Mr Perrier, a
gentleman of Clermont in Auvergne, to make the ex¬
periment, by obferving the height of the mercury at
one and the fame time at Clermont and on the top of
a very high mountain in the neighbourhood. His let¬
ters to Mr Perrier in 1647 are ftill extant. Accord¬
ingly Mr Perrier, in September 1648, filled two equal
tubes with mercury, and obferved the heights of both
to be the fame, viz. 26T7T inches, in the garden of the
convent of the Friars Minims, fftuated in the loweft part
of Clermont. Leaving one of them there, and one of
the fathers to obferve it, he took the other to the top
of Puy de Domme, which was elevated nearly 500
French fathoms above the garden. He found its height
to be 23 A inches. On his return to the town, in a
place called Font de l' Arbre, 150 fathoms above the
garden, he found it 25 inches; when he returned to the
garden it was again 26A> and the perfon fet to watch
the tube which had been left faid that it had not varied
the whole day. rLhus a difference of elevation of 3000
French feet had occafioned a depreflion of 3-g- inches ;
from which it may be concluded, that 3-^ inches of
mercury weighs as much as 3000 feet of air, and one-
tenth of an inch of mercury as much as 96 feet of air.
Fhe next day he found, that taking the tube to the top
Ox a fteepl: 120 feet high made a fall of one-iixth of an
-Vol. XV. Part I.
41
inch. This gives 72 feet of air for one-tenth of an inch of
mercury ; but ill agreeing with the former experiment.
But it is to be obferved, that a very fmall error of ob¬
fervation of the barometer would correfpond to a great
difference of elevation, and alfo that the height ol the
mountain had not been meafured with any precifion.
This has been fince done (Mem. Acad. par. 1703), and
found to be 529 French toifes.
Pafchal publifhed an account of this great experi-Which
ment (Grande Exp. fur la Fefanteur de l'Air), and ft we(e rf"
was quickly repeated in many places of the world. In other3< y
1653 it was repeated in England by Dr Power (Power’s
Exper. Phil.); and in Scotland, in 1661,by Mr Sinclair
profeffor of philofophy in the univerfity of Glafgow, who
obferved the barometer at Lanark, on the top of mount
Tintock in Clydfdale, and on the top of Arthur’s Sear,
at Edinburgh. He found a depreflion of two inches be¬
tween Glafgow and the top of Tintock, three quarters of
an inch between the bottom and top of Arthur’s Seat, and
of an inch at the cathedral of Glafgow on a height
of 126 feet. See Sinclair’s Ars Novaet Magna Gravi-
tntis et Eevitatis ; Sturmii Collegium Experimentale, and
Schott i Technic a Curio fa. 43
Hence we may derive a method of meafuring the Hence a
heights of mountains. Having afeertained with great rnet^°<?
precifion the elevation correfponding to a fall of one-heights,
tenth of an inch of mercury, which is nearly 90 feet,
we have only to obferve the length of the mercurial co¬
lumn at the top and bottom of the mountain, and to
allow 90 feet for every tenth of an inch. Accordingly
this method has been praftifed with great fuccefs : but
it requires an attention to many things not yet confi¬
dered ; fuch as the change of denfity of the mercury
by heat and cold ; the changes of denfity of air, which
arc much more remarkable from the fame caufes; and
above all, the chan'ges of the denfity of air from its
compreflibility; a change immediately connedled with
or dependent on the very elevation we with to meafure.
Of all thefe afterwards. ^
Thefe obfervations give us the moft accurate meafure Alfo a
of the denfity of the air and its fpecific gravity. This meafure of
is but vaguely though direftly meafured by weinhiner' r2/1 en^l'y
air in a bladder or vellel. 1 he weight of a manageable
quantity is fo fmall, that a balance fufficiently ticldifti to
indicate even veiy fenfible fradtions of it is overloaded
by the weight of the veffel which contains it, and ceafes
to be exadt: and when we take Bernoulli’s ingenious
method of fulpending it in water, we expofe ourfelves
to great rifle of error by the variation of the water’s
denfity. Alfo it muff neceffarily be humid air which
we can examine in this way : but the proportion of an
elevation in the atmofphere to the depreflion of the co¬
lumn of mercury or other fluid, by which we meafure
its preffure, gives us at once the proportion of this
weight or their fpecific gravity. Thus fince it is found
that in fuch a ftate of preffure that the barometer Hands
at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 32", 87 feet of rife
produces one-tenth of an inch of fall in the barometer,
the air and the mercury being both of the freezing tem¬
perature, we muff conclude- that mercury is 10,440 times
heavier or denfer than air. Then, by comparing mer¬
cury and water, we get nearly for the denfity of
air relative to water : but this varies fo much by heat
and moiffure, that it is ufekfs to retain any thing more
than a general notion of it; nor is it eafy to determine
M whether
go P N E U M
whether this rri?jtho<i. or that by aftual weighing is pre¬
ferable. It is extremely difficult to, observe the height
of the mercury, in the barometer nearer, than T’-W of an
inch; anchthis. will produce a difference of even five feet,
otnyof the whole. Perhaps this is a greater propor-
4? tion than the error ift weighing.
And foms From the fame experiments we alio derive fome know-
knowledge ie(jge 0f tjie height of the aerial covering which furrounds
hd^ ht of our globe. When we raife our barometer 87 feet above
theatmo. the furfape of the fea, the meic.iry falls about one-tenth
tj.iwre. qf an inch in the barometer : therefore if the barome¬
ter (hows .30 inches at the fea-Cbore, we may expeft that,
by raifing it 360 times 87 feet or 5 miles, t)ie mercury'
ig the tube will defeend to the level of the ciftern, and.
that this is the. height of our atmofphtre. But other
appearances lead us to fuppofe a much greater height.
Meteors are feea with us much hjgltev than this, and
which yet give undoubted indication of being fupported
by our air, There can be little doubt, too, that the vi¬
ability of the e^panfe- above us is owing to the reflec¬
tion of the fun’s light by our air. Were the heavenly
fpaces perfectly tranfparent, we fhould no more fee them
than the purelt water through which we fee other ob¬
jects ; and we fee them as we fee water tinged with milk
or other hecuhe. Now it is eafy to ihow, that the light
which gives us what is called twilight muft be reflected
from the height of at leaf! 50 miles ; for we hayc it when
the fun is depreffed 18 degrees below our hoiizon.
Why this A little attention to the conftitution of our air will
knowledge convince us, that the atmofphere mull extend to a much
is not ac- grcater height than 300 times. 87 feet. We fee from
cma.e. t^e moft familiar fafts that it is compveflilfe ; we can
fqueeze it in an ox-bladder. It is alio heavy ; prefling
on the air in this bladder with a very great force, not
lefs than 1500 pounds. We mull therefore coniider -t
as in a fl.ate of compreflion, exifting in fmuller room tiian
it would afiume if it were not comprefled by the incum¬
bent air. It mult therefore be in a condition fomething
refembling that of a quantity-of line carded wool thrown
loofely into a deep pit ; the lower ilrata carrying tlie
weight of the upper ft rata, and being comp.rc fled by them;
and fo much the more comprefled they ave further
down, and only the upper ftratum in its unconftrained
and moft expanded flute. If we (hall fuppofe this wool
thrown in by a hundred weight at a time, it will be di¬
vided into ft rata of equal weights, but of unequal tliick-
nefs ; the loweft being the thinneft, and the fuperior
ftrata gradually increaiing in thicknefs. Now, fuppofe
the pit filled with air, and reaching, to the top of the
atmofphere, the weights of all the Itrata above any ho¬
rizontal plane in it is meafured by the height of the mer¬
cury in the Toriceliian tube placed in that plane ; and
one-tenth of an inch of mercury is juft equal to the
weight of the 1 owe ft ftratum 87 feet thick : for on
rafting the tube 87 feet from the fea, the furface of the
mercury will defeend one-tenth of an inch, Raife the
tube till the mercury fall another tenth : This ftratum
muft. be more than 87 feet thick ; how much more we
cannot tell, being ignorant of the law of the air’s ex-
panfion. In order to make it fall a third tenth, we
muft raife it through a ftratum ftill thicker; and fo on
continually.
All this is abundantly confirmed by the very firft ex¬
periment made by the order and directions of Pafchal:
For by carrying the tube from the garden of the con-
A T I (2 S.
vent to a.place 150 fathoms higher, the mercury foil lT*T
inches, or 1,2917 ; which gives about 69 feet 8 inche«
of aerial ftratum for 11^ of an inch of mercury ; and by
carrying it from thence to a place 350.fathoms higher,
the mercury fell 1 v£, or 1,9167 inches, which give*
109 feet 7 inches forof an inch of mercury. Thefe
experiments were not accurately made ; for at that time
the philofophers, though zealous, were but f ho'drs in
the fa tine of experimenting, and novices in the art. But
the refults abundantly (how this general truth, and they
are completely, confirmed by thoufands of fubiequent ob*
fervations. It is evident from the whole tenor of them,,
that the ftrata of air decreafe in denfity as we amend'
through the atmofphere ; but it remained to be difeo-
vered what is the force of this decreafe, that is, the
law of the air’s expanfion. Till this be done we carr
fay nothing about the conftitution of our atmofphere-:
we cannot tell in what manner it is fitteft* fpr railing-
and fupporting the exhalations and vapours rvhich are
continually arifmg-froin the inhabited regions ; not a*
an excrementitious. wafte, but to be lupported, perhaps
manufactured, in that valt laboratory of nature, and U><
be returned to us in beneficent Ihow'ers. We cannot,
ufe our knowledge for the curious, and frequently ufcful,
purpofeof meafuring the heights of mountains and taking
the levels of exteniive regions ; in ftrort, without an ac¬
curate knowledge of this, we can hardly acquire any
acquaintance wnth thofe mechanical properties which
diltinguiflr air from tlrofe liquids which circulate here
below. .. I
Having therefore confkRved at fome length the lead-Compel! I
log confequences of the air’s fluidity and gravity, letbilityofi |
us coniider its compreifibility with the fame care ; andair
then, combining the agency of both, we (hall anfwer all
the purpofes of philosophy, dilcover the laws, explain'
the phenomena of nature, and improve art. We pro¬
ceed therefore to confider a little the pltenomena which
indicate and charade rife this other property of the air.
All fluids are elaftii; and comprefifible as well as air;
but in them the. compreffibility makes no figure, orders
not intereft ns while we are confide ring thtrr preflur 3,
motions, and impulfions. But in air the comprcfiibility
and expanfion draw our chief attention, and make it a
proper reprefentative of this clals of fluids. .j
Nothing is more familiar than the compreffibility of 4 famili
air. It is feen in a bladder filled with it, which we eanphemuu
forcibly fqueeze into Icfs room ; it is feen in a fynege, non> ^
of w hich w e can pufh the plug farther and farther as
w e increafe the preflure.
But thefe appearances bring into view another,
the moft interefting, property of air, viz* its elujitaty. e[aftiGtj
When we have fqueezed the air in the bladder or fy-
ringe into lefs room, w e find that the force with which
w.e comprejjed it is neceflary to keep it in this bulk ; and
that if we ceafe to prefs it together, it will fwell out
and regain its natural dimeniions. This diftingufthes
it efientially from fuch a body as a, mafs of flour, fait*
or fuch like, which remain in the comprefled flute to
which we reduce them, <0
There is therefore fomething which oppofes the com-Refift'0
prefiion different from the Ample impenetrability offorce’■
the air: there is fomething that oppofes mechanical
force : there is fomething too which produces motion,
not only refilling compreflion, but pufhing back the
compreffing body, and communicating motion to it. As
1 aft
p N E U M
arrow is gradually accelerated by the bow firing
prefilng it forward, and at the moment of its diicharge
is brought to a ftate of rapid motion ; fo the ball from
a pop-gun or wind-gun is gradually accelerated along
the barrel by the preffure of the air during its expan.
fion from its compreffed Hate, and finally quits it with
an accumulated velocity. Thefe two motions are in¬
dications perfectly fimilar of the elalhcity of the bow
, and of the air.
of Thus it appears that air is heavy and elaltic. It
needs little confideration to convince us in a vague man¬
ner that it is fluid. The eafe with which it is pene¬
trated, and driven about in every dire&ion, and the mo¬
tion of it in pipes and channels, however crooked and
intricate, intitle it to this character. But bcfoie we
can proceed to deduce confcquences from its fluidity,
and to offer them as a true account of what will happen
in thefe circumflances, it is necefl'ary to exhibit feme
diftina and Ample cafe, in which the charaaeriltic me¬
chanical property of a fluid is clearly and unequivocally
obferved in it. That property of fluids from which all
the law's of hydroitatics and hydraulics are derived with
ftriadt evidence is, that any preflure applied to any
part of them is propagated through the whole mats in
every direction ; and that in confequence of this diffu-
flon of prefiure, any two external forces can be nut in
equilibno by the nrterpofition of a fluid, in the lame
way as they can be put in equilibrio by the interven-
j tion of any mechanical engine.
imen- Let a clofe velfel ABC (fig. 7.), of any form, have
two upright pipes EDC, GFB, inferted into any parts
of its top, fides, or bottom, and let water be pouted
into them, fo as to Hand in equilibrio with the horizon¬
tal furfaces at E, D,G, b, and let D 1/, h /, be hori¬
zontal lines, it -wiU be foancf that the height of the co¬
lumn E <7 is fenfibly equal to that of the column Of.
This is a fact univerfally obferved in whatever way the
pipes are inferted.
d. hJow' the furface of the water at I) is undoubtedly
prefled upwards with a force equal to a column of wa¬
ter, having its furface for its bale, and Y.d for its height;
it is therefore prevented from rifing by fume oppolite
force. This can be nothing but the elallicity of the
confined air preffing it down. The very fame thing
muft be faid of the furface at F; and thus there are
turn external preffures at D and F fet in equilibrio by
the interpofition of air. The force exerted on the. fur-
face D, by the prefiure of the column E .7, is therefore
propagated to the furface at F; and thus air has this
charaeferiflie mark of fluidity-
in this exper ment the weight ot the air is infen Able
when the vefiel is of fmall fixe, and has no fenlible lhare
\ in the preflure reaching at D and F. But if the ele¬
vation of the point F above 1) is very great, the column
E d tvi/l be ob/erved fenfibly to exceed the column G f.
Thus if F be 70 feet higher than 1), E d will be an incli
longer than the column G f: for in this cafe there is
reafting at D, not only the preflure propagated from F,
but alfo the weight of a column of air, having the fur¬
face at D for its bafe and 70 feet high. This is equal
to the weight of a column of water one inch high.
It is by this propagation of prefiure, this jiuidiiv,
that the pellet is dtfeharged from a child’s pop-gun. It
Hicks fait in the muzzle ; and he forces in another pel¬
let at the other end, which he prdfes forward with tin;
a t 1 c s. 91
rummer, ccnderfmg the air 'between them, and
.propagating to the otlier.pellet the preffure which he
exerts, till the friction is overcome, and the pellet is
difeharged iby the air expanding and following it.
There is a pretty philofophical plaything wdrich fl-
luHrates this property of air in a very perfpicuous man¬
ner, and which w'c fhnll afterwards have occafion to con-
fider as converted into a moH ufeful hydraulic machine.
This is w'hat is ufually called Hero’s fountain, having Hero’s
been invented by a Syracufan of that name. It con- fountain.
liHsof two veflels KLMN (fig. 8.), OPQR, which are
clofe on all fides. A tube AB, having a tunnel a-top,
pafles through the uppermoH veflel without communi¬
cating with it, being ioldered into its top and bottom.
It alio paffes through the top of the under-veffel, where
it is alio foldercd, and reaches almolt to its bottom.
This tube is open at both ends. There is another open
tube bT, which is foldered into the top of the under-
velfcl and the bottom of the upper veflel, and reaches
abnofl to its top. Thefe two tubes ferve alfo to iup-
port the upper veffcl. A third tube GF is foldered
into the top of the upper veflel, and reaches almolt to
its bottom. This tube is open at both ends, but the
orifice G is very fmall. Now fuppofe the uppermoH.
veflel filled with water to the height’LN, Ee being its
furface a little below T. Stop the orifice G with the
finger, and pour in water at A. Thb will deicend
through AB, and comprefs the air in OQRP into lefb
room. Suppofe the water in the under vefiel to have
acquired the furf .ee C , the air winch formerly occupied
the whole of the fpaces OPQR and K.L<?E will now
be contained in the fpaces apt. C and KL E; and its
elaflicity will be in equilibrio with the weight of the
column of water, whole bafe is the furface E e, and
whofe height is Ar. As this prefiure is exerted in
every part of the air, it will be exerted on the furface
E e of the w'ater of the upper vefiel; and if the pipe
EG were continued upwards, the water would be fup-
ported in it to an height e If above E equal to A a.
Therefore if the finger be now' taken from off the ori¬
fice G, the water will fpout up to the fame height as
if it had been immediately forced out by a column of
water A c without the intervention of the air, that is,
nearly to H. If inflead of the funnel at A, the veffel
Live a brim w hich w ill caufe the water difeharged at G
to run down the pipe AB, this fountain vviii play till
all the water in the upper veflel is expended. The ope¬
ration of this fecond fountain will be better underffood
from fig. 9. which an intelligent reader will fee is per¬
fectly equivalent to fig. 8. A very powerful engine for
railing water upon this principle has long been employed
in the Hungarian mines ; w here the pipe AB is about
200 feet high, and the pipe EG about 120 ; and the
condenlation is made in the upper veffel, and com¬
municated to the lower, at the bottom of the mine, by
a long pipe. See IVmnn-lVorks- ^
We may now apply to air all the laws of hydroffatics Lav % of
and hydraulics, in perfect confidence that their legiti-jV
mate confequences w ill be obferved in all its fituations. cy V t'0 Jlr,
We iliall in future fubHitute, in place of any force act¬
ing on a furface of air, a column of water, nu rcury, or
any other fluid whole weight is equal to this force :
and as we know diftinftly from theory what will be the
confequences of this hydroffatic preflure, we {hall de¬
termine a jri.ri the phenomena in air; and in cafes
M 2 where
92
56
More re¬
fined expe
riments,
fuch as
* 57 ,
■A method
P N E U M
where theory does not enable us to fay with precifion
what is the effea of this preffure, experience informs
us in the cafe of water, and analogy enables us to tranf-
fer this to air. We (hall find this of great fervice in
feme cafes, which otherwife are almoft defperate in the
prefent ftate of our knowledge.
From fuch familiar and fimple obfervations and expe¬
riments, the fluidity, the heavinefs, and elafticity, are
difeovered of the fubilance with which we are furround-
ed, and which we call air. But to underitand thefe pro¬
perties, and completely to explain their numerous and
important confequences, wre muft call in the aid of more
refined obfervations and experiments which even this
fcanty knowledge of them enables us to make j we
mult contrive fome methods of producing writh preci¬
fion any degree of conde ifation or rarefadtion, of em¬
ploying or excluding the gravitating prelfure of air, and
of modifying at pleafure the adtion of all its mechanical
properties.
Nothing can be more obvious than a method ofcorti-
<>£ compref- prefling a quantity of air to any degree. 1 ake a cy-
/mg the air or pnfmatic tube AB (fig. IO.) {hut at one end,
and fit it with a piften or plug C, fo nicely that no air
can pafs by its fides. 1 his will be belt done in a cy-
lindric tube by a turned {topper, covered with oiled
leather, and fitted with a long handle CD. When this
is thrult down, the air which formerly occupied the
whole capacity of the tube is condenfed into lefs room.
The force neceffary to produce any degree of compref-
fion may be concluded from the weight neceflary for
pulhing down the plug to any depth. But this inltru-
ment leaves us little opportunity of making interefting
experiments on or in this condenfed air ; and the force
required to make any degree of comprefiion cannot be
meafured with much accuracy ; becaufe the pilton mult
be very clofe, and have great fritiion, in order to be
fufficiently tight : And as the compreflion is increafed,
the leather is more iqueezed to the fide of the tube ;
and the proportion of the external force, which is em¬
ployed merely to overcome this variable and uncertain
friction, cannot be afeertained with any tolerable pre¬
cifion. To get rid of thefe imperfections, the following
addition may be made to the inltrument, which then
becomes what is called the condenfmg fyringe.
The end of the fyringe is. perforated with a very
fmall hole ef; and being externally turned to a fmall
cylinder, a narrow- flip of bladder, or of thin leather,
foaked in a mixture of oil and tallow-, mult be tied over
the hole. Now let us fuppofe the pillon puflied down
to the bottom of the barrel to which it applies clofe ;
when it is drawn up to the top, it leaves a void behind,
and the weight of the external air prefles on the flip of
bladder, which therefore claps clofe to the brafs, and
thus performs the part- of a valve, and keeps it clofe fo
that no air can enter. But the pillon having reached
the top of the barrel, a hole F in the fide of it is jull
below- the pillon, and the air rulhes through this hole
and fills the barrel. Now pulh the pillon dow-n again,
it immediately pafles the hole F, and no air efcapes
through it; it therefore forces open the valve at f, and
efcapes w-hile.the pillon moves to the bottom.
Now let E be any veffel, fuch as a glafs bottle, ha¬
ving its mouth furnilhed with a brafs cap firmly ce¬
mented to it, having a hollow ferew which fits a folid
ferew p c, turned on the cylindric nozzle of the fyringe.
5?
The con-
denfing fy-
liiige with
59
Its veifel or
A T I C S.
Screw- the fyringe into this cap, and it is evident that
the air forced out of the fyringe will be accumulated in
this vefiel: for upon drawing up the pillon the valve
f always Units by the elallicity or expanding force of.
the air in E ; and on pufhing it down again, the valve
w-ill open as foon as the pilton has got fo far dow-n that
the air in the lower part of the barrel is more powerful
than the air already in the veflel. Thus at every- itroke
an additional barrel ful of air will be forced into the
veflel E ; and it will be found, that after every itroke
the pillon mull be farther pulhed down before the valve
will open. It cannot open till the preflure arifing from
the elallicity of the air condenfed in the barrel is fupe-
rior to the elallicity of the air condenfed in the vefiel;
that is, till the condenfation of the firll, or its denfity,
is fomewhat greater than that of the lall, in order to
overcome the llraining of the valve on the hole and the
ilicking occafioned by the clammy matter employed to
make it air-tight. ^
Sometimes the fyringe is conllrudled with a valve in A dim
the pillon. This pillon, inftead of being of one piece condm.
and folid, conlills of two pieces perforated. The upper .l0tu^
part iknm is connected with the rod or handle, and *nn^'
has its lower part turned dow-n to a fmall cylinder,
w-hich is ferewed into the lower part k Ion; and has
a perforation g h going up in the axis, and terminating
in a bole h in one fide of the rod, a piece of oiled
leather is llrained acrofs the hole g. When the pillon
is draw-n up and a void left below it, the weight of the
external air forces it through the hole hg, opens the
valve gy and fills the barrel. Then, on pulhrng down
the pillon, the air being fqueezed into lefs room, prelfes
on the valve gy Ihuts it ; and none efcaping through
the pillon, it is gradually condenfed as the pillon de-
feends till it opens the valve f, and is added to that al¬
ready accumulated in the vefiel E. ^
Having in this manner forced a quantity of air into guicr
the velfel E, we can make many experiments in it inofthea
this Hate of condenfation. We are chiefly- concernedincrcal;
at prefent w-ith the elfecl which this produces on its ,'bo[li
elallicity. We fee this to be greatly increafed; for
we find more and more force required for introducing
every fucceffive barrelful. When the fyringe is unferew-
ed, w-e fee the air rulh out w-ith great violence, and
every indication of great expanding force. If the fy-
ringe be connetted with the veflel E iu the fame man¬
ner as the fyringe in n° 17, viz. by interpoling a Hop-
cock B betw-een them (fee fig. 3.), and if this Hop-
cock have a pipe at its extremity, reaching near to the
bottom of the veffel, which is previoufly half filled with
water* w-e can obferve diHindlly when the elallicity of
the air in the fyringe exceeds that of the air in the re-
ceiver: for the piHon muft. be pulhed down a certain
length before the air from the fyringe bubbles up thro!
the w-ater, and the pillon mull he farther down at each
Iticceflive llroke before this appearance is ohferved;
When the air has thus been accumulated in the re¬
ceiver, it prefles the fides of it outward, and will buril
it if not itrong enough. It alfo prefles on the furface
of the water; and ifi we now IHut the cock, unferevv
the fyringe, and open the cock again, tire air will force
the w-ater through the pipe with great velocity, caufing
it to rife in a beautiful jet. When a metal-receiver is
ufed, the condenfation may be pulhed to a great length,
and the jet will then rife to a great height; which gra¬
dually
P N E U M
dually dimmlfhes as the water Is expended and room
11 given to the air to expand itfelf. See the figure.
An e od We judge of the condenfation of air in the veflel E
©f jut ng by the number of ftrokes and the proportion of the
«f «hj on- capacity 0f the fyringe to that of the vefiel. Suppofe
,1enfa n, the firft to be one-tenth of the laft; then we know,
that after 10 ftrokes the quantity of air in the veffel is
doubled, and therefore its denfxty double, and fo on af¬
ter any number of ftrokes. Let the capacity of the fy¬
ringe (when the pifton is drawn to the top) be a, and
that of the veftel be b, and the number of ftrokes be «,
&c.
the denfity of air in the veffel will be
. n a
or
t
No- j
rate.
: c.-.|
"C1
f
cl
I
I
ly I
iioB
Ifbe :r
jetl i.
Bvit this is on the fuppofition that the pifton accu-
toftlj ccu-rately fills the barrel, the bottom of the one applying
clofe to that of the other, and that no force is neceffary
for opening either of the valves : but the firft cannot
be infured, and the laft is very far from being true. In
the conftru&ion now defcribed, it will require at leaft
one twentieth-part of the ordinary preffure of the air
to open the pifton valve : therefore the air which gets
in will want at leaft this proportion of its complete
elafticity ; and there is 'always a fimilar part of the
elafticity employed in opening the nozzle valve. The
condenfation therefore is never nearly equal to what is
here determined.
It is accurately enough meafured by a gage fitted to,
the inftrument. A glafs tube GH of a cylindric bore,
and clofe at the end* is fere wed into the fide of the cap
on the mouth of the veffel E. A fmall drop of water
6r mercury is taken into this tube by warming it a little
in the hand, which expands the contained air, fo that
when the open end is dipped into water, and the whole
allowed to cool, the water advances a little into the tube.
The tube is furnifhed with a fcale divided into fmall
Cquab parts, numbered from the clofe end of the tube.
Since this tube communicates with the veffel, it is evi¬
dent that the condenfation will force the water along
the tube, a&ing like a pifton on the air beyond it, and
die air in the tube and veffel will always be of one den¬
fity. Stippofe the number at which the drop ftands
before the condenfation is made to be r, and that it
ftands at d when the condenfation has attained the de¬
gree required, the denfity of the air in the remote end
of the gage, and confequently in the veffel, will be
c
the
naJ-1
top-1
top; I
tk L Ji .
,, p ' nation
ifM Ki it!
y of I
:«• I
•tain I
;adi I
veil
>
,tiril Fyr: ;es
, lor eat
" *cn ufa.
tioi
Sometimes there is ufed any bit of tube clofe at one
end, having a drop of water in it, fimply laid into the
vefl’el E, and furnifhed or not with a fcale : but this
can only be ufed with glafs veffels, and thefe are too
weak to refill the preffure arifing from great condenfa-
lion. In fuch experiments metalline veffels are ufed,
ntted with a variety of apparatus for different experi-
nunts. Some of thefe will be occafionally mentioned
afterwards.
It muft be obferved in this place, that very great con-
denfations require great force, and therefore fmall fy-
nnges. It is therefore convenient to have them of va-
nouo izes, and to begin with thofe of a larger diame-
i °Perate more quickly ; and when the con-
afmalle^1 beC°meS fat%uIng> ^ change the fyringe for
A T I C S. <J3
For this reafon, and in general to make the conden- 67
fing apparatus more convenient, it is proper to have a
ftop-cock interpofed between the fyringe and the veffel, :ween t£c
or as it is ufually called the receiver. This confifts of a fyringe and
brafs piper which has a well-ground cock in its middle, •eceivu .
and has a hollow ferew at one end, which receives the
nozzle ferew of the fyringe, and a folid ferew at the
other end, which fits the ferew of the receiver. See
fig. 3. , 6f
By thefe gages, or contrivances fimilar to them, we Inftancc* of
have been able to afeertain veiy great degrees of con- ^re^.t fon-
denfation in the courfe of fome experiments. Dr Hales * !uva,10:1
found, that when dry wood was put into a ftrong veffel,
which it almofl filled, and the remainder was filled with
water, the fwelling of the wood, occafioned by its im¬
bibition of water, condenfed the air of his gage into the
thoufandth of its original bulk. He found that peafe
treated in the fame way generated elaftic air, which
prefling on the air in the gage condenfed it into the
fifteen hundredth part of its bulk. This is the greateft
condenfation that has been afcertahied wi th 1 irecifion,
although in other experiments it has certainly been car¬
ried much farther; but the precife degree could not be
afeertained. ^.
The only ufe to be made of this obfervation at pre- Air and
fent is, that fince we have been able to exhibit air in a water tn he ‘
denfitv a thoufand times greater than the ordinary den-
r c , , ,0. r . 1 . dinerent;
iity or the air we breathe, it cannot, as lome imagine,
be only a different form of water ; for in this ftate it
it is as denfe or denfer than water, and yet retains its
great expanfibility. -0
Another important obfervation is, that in every ftate And Ihow
of deniity in which we find' it, it retains its perfectt,lc error of
fluidity, tranfmitting all preffures which are applied to |““ie °‘ji'
it with undiminiftied force, as appears by the equality
conftantly obferved between the oppofing columns of elafticity, \
water or other fluid by which it is compreffed, and by
the facility with which all motions are performed in it
in the moft compreffed ftates in which wre can make ob-
fervations of this kind. This fail is totally incompa¬
tible with the opinion of thofe wdio aferihe the elaftici¬
ty of air to the fpringy ramified ftru&ure of its particles,
touching each other like fo many pieces-of fponge or
foot-balls. A collection of fuch particles might indeed
be pervaded by folid bodies with confiderable eafe, iff
they were merely touching each other, and not fubjeCt-
ed to any external preffure. But the moment fuch
preflure is exerted, and the aflemblage fqueezed into a
fmaller fpace, each preffes on its adjoining particles :
they are individually compreffed, flattened in their touch¬
ing furfaces, and before the denfity is doubled they art-
fqueezed into the form of perfeCt cubes, and compofe a
mafs, which may indeed propagate preffure from one
place to another in an imperfeCt manner, and with great
diminution of its intenfity, but will no more be fluid
than a rnafs of foft clay. It will be of ufe to keep this
obfervation in mind.
We have feen that air is heavy and compreffihle, and Confequen- -
might now proceed to deduce in order the explanation ces of the
of the appearances confequent on each of thefe pro-ait.8 elai"
perties. But, as has been already obferved, the elafti-UCl i*
city of air modifies the effeCls of its gravity fo remark¬
ably, that they woilld be imperfectly underftood if both
qualities were not combined in our confideration of ei¬
ther. At aoy rate, fome farther confequencea of its elai-
tieity ?
91
1- N E U M A T I C S.
7»
Its prea'
ttcity mull be conf. Jercdj before we underflaiul th-e nisaas
of varying at pieafure the ofFec'ts of its gravity.
Since air is heavy, the lower ftrata of a mafs of air
An be
V
V + B
xpanfibili- muft fupport the upper; and, being comprelhble, they
In this ftate of
mult be condenfed by their weight,
compreffion the elallicity of the lower ft rata of air adts
in oppofition to the weight of the incumbent air, and
the denfity of .common air being x : for
V + B:V=i5v + B* ?7
The piflon requires force to raife it, and it is raifed We mfe
in oppofition to the preffure of the incumbent atmo-the dnii
fpliere ; for this had formerly been balanced by^the'J^j
K'M
byasu1
balances it. There is no reafon which fhould make us tTlafticity of the common air: and we conclude from
fuppofe that its expanding force belongs to it only when thot force is required to raife the pfion, that the air,
in inch a ftate of comprefiion. Itjs more probable, that, elafticity of the expanded air is lefs than that of air in
Poved by
experiment
74
Attempts
if we could free it from this preflure, the air would ex
pand itfelf into Hill greater bulk. This is moil diilindlly
feen in the following experiment.
Into the cvlmdric jar ABCI) (fig* ti.), which has
a fmaU hole* in its bottom, and is fumifhed with an
air-tight piilon E, put a linaU iiabcid bladder, having its rej.
mouth tied tight with a ilring. Having puihed the
piilon near to the bottom, and noticed the Hate of the
bladder, flop up the hole in the bottom of the jar with
the finger, and draw up the piilon, which will require
a confulerafele force. Yon will obfevve the bladder Iweli
out, as it air hail been blown into it ; and it will again
coliapfe on allowing the piilon to defeend. Nothing
can be more unexceptionable than the conclufion from
this experiment, that ordinary air is in a dlate of com¬
prefiion, and that its elafticity is not limited to this Hate,
The bladder being flaccid, dhows that the included air ' ’ ' ’
is in the fame Hate with the air which furrounds it;
*vnd the fame mufl be affirmed of it while it fvvells but
Hill remains flaccid. We mull conclude, that the whole
air within the veflel expands, and continues to fill it,
when its capacity has been enlarged. And fince this
is obferved to go on as long as we give it more room,
we conclude, that by fuch experiments we have not yet
given it fa much room as it can occupy.
It was a natural objeft of curiofity to difeover the
its ordinary' Hate; and an accurate obfervation of the
force neceflary to raife it would fiiow how much the
elaflicity is diminiflied. When therefore the piflon is
let go, it will defeend as long as the preflhre of the
atmofphere exceeds the elaflicity of the air in the bar-
that is, till the air in the barrel is in a Hate of or¬
dinary denfity. To put it further down will require
force, becaufe the air mufl be compreffed in the barrel *,
but if we now-open the cock 13, the atr will be ex¬
pelled through it, ami the piilon will reach the bottom
Now Hurt the difeburgi ig cock 13, and open the cock Andci
- - • • rv,, • i • i *i la'eitit
C, and draw up the piflon. The air which occupied
V
fity,
the fpace V, with the denfity y , g,
the fpace Vfl-B, if it expands fo far.
will now occupy
To have its
bulk V+B is to its
V
As its prefent
former bulk V, fo is its former denfity y to its
VxV
which will therefore be =:
new denfitv
V+BxV-tB*
V
V + Bi
It is evident, that if the air continues to expand,
difeover of this expanfion ; to know what was the natural
the denfity of the air in the veflel after the third draw.
u^thiTex unconflrained bulk of a quantity of air, beyond which
ing up of the piilon will be
V
A fyri
panfioii by it would not expand though all external compreffing
force were removed. Accordingly philofophers con-
flrufted inflrumente for rarefying the air. The common
water-pump had been long familiar, and appeared very
proper for this purpofe. The mufl obvious is the
following.
Let the barrel of the fyringe AB (fig. 12.) commu¬
nicate with the veflel V, with a ilopcock C between
them. Let it communic; te with the external air by
another orifice D, in any convenient iituation, alfo
furniihed with a ftopcock. Let this fyringe have a
pifton very' accurately fitted to it fo as to touch the
bottom all over when puihed down, and have no va¬
cancy about tire ikies.
Now fuppofe the piflon at the bottom, the cock C
open, and the cock D ilrut, diaw the pifton to the
top. The air which filled the veflel V will expand fo
as to fill both that veflel and the barrel AB ; and as no
reafon can be given to the contrary, we muft fuppofe
that the air will be uniformly drftufed through both.
Calling V and B the capacity of the veflel and barrel,
it k? plain that the bulk of the air will now be V + B ;
and fince the quantity of matter remains the fame, and
the deniity of a fluid is as it s quantity of matter direcllv
and its bulk ieverfely, the denfity of the expanded air
V + Bl
after the fourth
it will be
will be
V
V + B
V "
and after any number of ftrokes n
Thus,
if the veflel is four times as
V+B ’ ' ,
large as the barrel, the denfity after the fifth ftrpke
will be -i rir* neariy y of its ordinary denfity.
On the other hand, the number n of ilrokes
reducing air to the denfity D is
neceflary for
Log D
Log V—Log (V + B)'
, 76
From the
operation
cf which
Thus we fee that this mftrument can never abftrafl Sore
the whole air in confequence of its expanfion, but only con"'
rarefy it continually as hmg as it continues to expand;^;,
nay, there is a hunt beyond which the rarefattion can-
not go. When the pifton has reached the bottom,
there remains a finall ipace between it and the cock
C filled with common air. When the prion is drawn
up, this final! quantity of air expands, and alfo a fimilar
quantity in the neck i f the other cock ; and no air
will come out of the receiver V till the expanded air
in the barrel is of a fmaller denfity than the air in the
receiver. This circmnitance evidently directs us t«>
make thefe two fpaces as fmall as poflible, or by feme
contrivance
oA
/+
Op
■' 8»
erwedi
r ajKit
[J;, I
tit1
a
tta
rij
tin
til
n a
tit
bar.
rail
a-
■.an.
ipid]
capy
e its
3 its
3 its
7b’
-mI,
la*
3Urtli s.
Utfi
, 'auj‘
es *
irokj
rokti cor
) isMi
I
M
4 ?
a^:-iera
can-jJ
lOlh [
COfi [
ra«fi I
[B^ 1
)3i'
dsfl
,tkt|
st’l
jut*
P N E tU M
rrmtnvance t» fifl tknem up altosrether. Perhaps this
may be done effeftually in the following manner.
Let BE (ftg. 13.) reprefent the bottom of the bar-
r rel, and let the curie HKI be the feftion of the key
of the cook, of a large diameter, and place it as near
tn the barrel as can be. Let this communicate with
the barrel by means of an hole FG widening upwards,
as the fruftum of a hollow obtufe cone. Let the bottom
of the pillon b fh be (haped fo as to fit the bottom
of the barrel and this hole exactly. Let the cock be
pierced with two holes. One of them, HI, pafies
perpendicularly through its axis, and forms the commu¬
nication between the receiver and barrel. The. other
bole, KL, has one extremity K on the fame circum¬
ference with H, fo that when the key is turned a fourth
part round, K will come into the place of H : but this
hole is pierced obliquely into tbe key, and thus keeps
clear of the hole HI. It goes no further than the
axis, where it communicates with a holt bored along
the axis and terminating at its extremity. Th s hole
forms the communication with the external air, and
ferves for difeharging the air in the barrel. (A fide
view of the key is ieen in fig. 14.) Fig. 12. fhows the
pofstion of the cock while the piiton is moving upwards,
and fig: 14. fhows its pofition while the pillon is moving
downwards. When the piiton has reached the bottom,
the conical piece f hg of the pifton, which may be of
firm leather,, fills the hole FHG, and therefore com¬
pletely expels the air from the barrel. The canal KL /
of-the cock contains air of the common denfity; but
this is turned aiide into the pofition KL (fig. 13.),
while the pillon is ftill touching the cock. It cannot
expand into the barrel during the afeent of the pifton. In
place of it the perforation HLI comes under the pifton,
filled with air that had been turned afide with it when
the pifton was at the top of- the barrel, and therefore
of the fame denfity with the air of the receiver. It ap¬
pears therefore that there is no limit to the rarefaction
as long as the air will expand.
n This mftrume-nt is called an Exhausting Syringe.
] It is more generally made in another form, which is
much lefs expenfive, and more convenient in its ufe.
Inftead of being furnilbed with cocks for eftablifhing
the communications and fhutting them, as is necefi
fary, it has valves like thofe of the condenftng fy-
ringe* but opening in the oppofite direction. It is
thus made:
The pipe of communication- or conduit MN
(fig. 15.), has a male ferew-in its extremity, and over
this is tied a flip of bladder or leather M. The lower
half of the pifton has alio a male ferew on it, covered
at the end with a flip of bladder O. This is ferewed
into the upper half of the pifton, which is pierced with
a hole H coming out of the fide of the rod.
,n. . Now fuppole the fyringe ferewed to the conducting
pipe, and that ferewed into the receiver V, and the
pifton at the bottom of the barrel. When the pifton
is drawn up, the preflure of the external air Ihuts the
valve O, and a void is left below the pifton: there is
therefore no preffure on the upper fide of the valve M
to-balance the elafticity of the air in the receiver which
formerly balanced the weight of the atmofphere. The
air therefore in the receiver lifts this valve, and diftri-
butes itfelf between the vefTel and the barrel i fo that
A T 1 C S. 9;
when the pifton ha* reached the top the dcnfity of the
V
air in both receiver and barrel is as before y-_£-g.
When the pifton is let go it defeends, becaufe the 86
elafticity of the expanded air is not a balance for the
preflure of the atmofphere, which therefore prefles down
the pifton with the difference, keeping the pifton-valve
fhut ail the while. At the fame time the valve M
allb fhuts : for it was opened by the prevailing elafticity
of the air in the receiver, and while it is open the two
airs have equal denfity and elafticity; but the moment
the pifton defeends, the capacity of the barrel is di-
mimftied, the elafticity of its air increafes by collapfing,
and now prevailing over that of the air in the receiver
fhuts the valve M.
When it has arrived at fuch a part of the barrel 87
that the air in it is of the denfity of the external air,
there is no force to pufh it farther down ; the hand
muft therefore pirfs it. This attempts to condenfe
the air in the b- ivel, and therefore inereafes its elafticity ;
fo that it lifts the valve O and efiapes, and the pifton
gets to the bottom. When drawn Up again, greater
force is required than the laft time, becaufe the elafti¬
city of the included air is lefs than in the former ftroke.
The pifton rifes further before the valve M is lifted up,and
when it has reached the top of the barrel the denfity of
V i*
the included air is   . The piffon, when let go,.
V + li, 1 h r
will defeend further than it did before ere the pifton-
valve open, and the preffure of tlic hand will again
pufh it to the bottom, all the air deaping through O.
The rarefaction will go on at every fuccellive ftroke in;
the fame manner as witli the other fyringe. ^
This fyringe is evidently more eafy iiv its ufe, re^ \(>vai C3„C#
quiring no attendance to the cocks to open and ihutof this fy-
them at the proper times. On this-account this con-r'nKc orer
ftriuftion of an exhaufting fyringe is. much more gene- ^ormcr*
rally ufed. a
But it. is greatly inferior to-the fyringe with cocks Ttl< jn^r£0-
with refpeCl to its power of rarefaCtion. Its operation rfty.
is greatly limited. It is evident that no air will come
out of the receiver unlefs its. elafticity exceed that of the
air in the barrel by a difference able to lift up the valve
M. A piece of oiled leather tied acrofs this hole can
hardly be made tight and certain of clapping to the
hole without iome finall ftrarning, which imut therefore
be overcome. It mult be very gentle indeed not to
require a force equal to the weight of two inches of
water, and this is equal to about the 200th part of the • •
whole elafticity of the ordinary air; and therefore this-
fyringe, for this reafon alone, cannot rarefy air above
200 times, even though air were capable of an indefinite
expanlion. In like manner the valve O cannot be
raifed without a fimilar prevalence of the elafticity of
the air in the barrel above the weight of the atmofphere.
Thele caufes united, make it difficult to rarefy the air
mare than 100 times, and very few fuch fyfcinges will
rarefy it more than 50 times ; whereas the fyringe with
cocks, when new and in good order, will rarefy it
1000 times.
But, on the other hand, fyringes with cocks areThc^formej
much more expenfive, efpecially when furnifhed with fyringe,
apparatus for opening and fluitting the cocks. They *'‘OWt v.er’
arc more difficult to make equally tight, and (which is ™0^1^1®
tke order*
96
Airvpump.
91.
Invention
of the air-
pump by
Gueriike.
91
Conftruc-
tion < f his
pump.
Its imper*
fe^lionsk
P N E U M
the greateft objeftion) do not remain long in good or¬
der. The cocks, by fo frequently opening and (hut¬
ting, grow loofe, and allow the air to efcape. No
me\hod has been found of preventing this. They mull
be ground tight by means of emery or other cutting
powders^ Some of thefe unavoidably (lick in the metal,
and continue to wear it down. For this reafon phdo-
fopliers, and the makers of philofophical inftriiments,
have turned their chief attention to the improvement of
the fyringe with valves. We have been thus minute in
the account of the operation of rarefa&ion, that the
reader may better underhand the value of thefe improve¬
ments, and in general the operation of the principal
pneumatic engines.
Of the Air-Pump.
An Air-Pump is nothing but an exhaufting fyringe
accommodated to a variety of experiments. It was firft
invented by Otto Guericke, a gentleman of Magde-
burgh in Germany, about the year 1654. We truft
that it will not be unacceptable to our readers to fee
this inftrument, which now makes a principal article in
a philofophical apparatus, in its iiril form, and to trace
it through its fucceflive Heps to its prefent Hate of im¬
provement.
Guericke, indifferent about the folitary pofTeflion of
an invention which gave entertainment to numbers who
came to fee his wonderful experiments,- gave a minute
defcription of all his pneumatic apparatus to Gafpar
Schottus profcffor of mathematics at Wirtemberg, who
immediately publi(hed it with the author’s confent, with
an account of fome of its performances, firft in 1657,
in his Mechamca Hydraulico-pneumatica ; and then in his
Techn'ica Curiofny in 1664, a curious colle&ion of all
the wonderful performances of art which he colled!ed by
a eorrefpondence over all Europe.
Otto Guericke’s air-pump confifts of a glafs receiver
A (fig. 16.), of a form nearly fpherical, fitted up with
a brafs cap and cock B. The nozzle of the cap was
fixed to a fyringe CDE, alfo of brafs, bent at D into
half a right angle. This had a valve at D, opening
from the receiver into the fyringe, and fhutting when
preffed in the oppofite direction. In the upper fide
of the fyringe there is another valve F, opening from
the fyringe into the external air, and {putting when
prefled inwards. The pifton had no valve. The
fyringe, the cock B, and the joint of the tube, were
immerfed in a ciftern filled with water. From this
defcription it is eafy to underhand the operation of
the inftniment. When the pifton was drawn up from
the bottom of the fyringe, the valve F was kept fhut
by the preflure of the external air, and the valve D
opened by the elafticity of the air in the receiver.
When it was pufhed down again, the valve D immediately
(hut by the fuperior elafticity of the air in the fyringe;
and when this was fufficiently compreffed, it opened
the valve F, and was difcharged. It was immerfed in
water, that no air might find its way through the joints
or cocks.
It would feem that this machine was not very per-
feft, for Guericke fays that it took feveral hours to
produce an evacuation of a moderate-fized vefiel; but
he fays, that when it was in good order, the rarefaction
(for he acknowledges that it was not, nor could be, a
complete evacuation.) was fo great, that when the cock
A T I C S.
was opened, and water admitted, it filled the receiver Air.pu
fo as fometimes to leave n© more than the bulk of a pea
filled with air. This is a little furprifing; for if .the
valve F be placed as far from the bottom of the fyringe
as in Schottus’s figure, it would appear that the rare¬
faction could not be greater than what muft arife from
the air in DF expanding till it filled the whole fyringe:
becaufe as foon as the pifton in its defcent paffes F it
can difcharge no more air, but muft -comprefs it between
F and the bottom, to be expanded again when the pifton
is drawn up. It is probable that the pifton was not very
tight, but that on prefling it down it allowed the air to
pafs it; and the water in which the whole was immerfed
prevented the return of the air when it was drawn up
again : and this accounts for the great time neceflary for
producing the defired rarefaftion.
Guericke, being a gentleman of fortune, fpared noH^
expence, and added a part to the machine, which favedprovti
his numerous vifitants the trouble of hours attendance0^
before they could fee the curious experiments with the
rarefied air. He made a large copper veffel G (fig. 17.),
having a pipe and cock below, which palled through the
floor of the chamber into an under apartment, where it
was joined to the fyringe immerfed in the ciftern of water,
and worked by a lever. The upper part of the veffel
terminated in a pipe, furnifhed with a ftopcock H, fur-
rounded with a fmall brim to hold water for preventing
the ingrefs of air. On the top was another cap I, alfo
filled with water, to protec! the junction of the pipes
with the receiver K. This great veffel was always kept
exhaulled, and workmen attended below. When ex¬
periments were to be performed in the receiver K, it was
fet on the top of the great veffel, and the cock H was
opened. The air in K immediately diffufed itfelf equal¬
ly between the two veffels, and was fo much more rare¬
fied as the receiver K was fmaller than the veffel G.
When this rarefaftion was not fufficient, the attendants
below immediately worked the pump.
Thefe particulars deferve to be recorded, as they (how
the inventive genius of this celebrated philofopher, and
beeaufe they are ufeful even in the prefent advanced
ftate of the ftudy. Guericke’s method of excluding
air from all the joints of his apparatus, by immerfmg
thefe joints in water, is the only method that has to this
day been found effe&ual; and there frequently occur
experiments where this exclufion for a long time is ab-
folutely neceffary. In fuch cafes it is neceflary to con-
ftrud! little cups or oifterns at ever)’- joint, and to fill
them with water or oil. In a letter to Schottus, 1662-3,
he defcribea very ingenious contrivances for producing
complete rarefarfion after the elafticity of the remaining
air has been fo far diminiftied that it is not able to open
the valves. He opens the exhaufting valves by a plug,
which is puftied in by the hand; and the difcharging
valve is opened by a fmall pump placed on its outfide, fo
that it opens into a void inftead of opening againft the
preffure of the atmofphere. (See Schotti Technica Curio fa,
p. 68, 70.) Thefe contrivances have been lately added
to air-pumps by Haas and Hurter as new inventions.
It muft be acknowledged, that the application of the
pump or fyringe to the exhauftion of air was a very ob-
viofts thought on the principle exhibited in nw 17. and
in this way it was alfo employed by Guericke, who
firft filled the receiver with water, and then applied the
fyringe. But this was. by no means either his object or
2 his
ivaterj
veffdi
[, fur-1
■ntinjl
alfol
pipfs
5 kept[
n ex¬
it vra
i war
c
: rare-' fi! 1,
'cl G.
ulants'
’(hot
■, and
anced
udinf
erfing
Lotki
occ*
isal>
a con-
tofJ
)6>$
[ucii?
aininf
i op®
plu?i
irgif
le,fc
ft*
iritfa j
jddedj
IS-
ftbt
.•Ob- PI;
aid Ci r,
d*
PNEUMATICS.
p- kts principk. His objedi was not fokly to procure a
“ vefTel void of air. but to exbauft the air which was al-
f ready in it; and his principle was. the power which he
fufpefted to be in air of expanding itfelf into a greater
fpace when the force was removed which he fuppofed
to comprefs it. He exprefsly fays (Trad, de Expert-
mentis Magdeburgicis, et in Epijl. ad Schottwn)y that the
contrivance occurred to him accidentally when occupied
with experiments in the Toricellian tube, in which he
found that the air would really expand, and completely
fill a much larger fpace than what it ufually occupied, and
that he had found no limits to the expanfion, evincing
this by fat'ts which we fhall perfedlly underfland by and
by. This was a dcflrine quite new, and required a
pliilofophical mind to view it in a general and fyftematic
manner ; and it muft be owned that his manner of
treating the fubjefl is equally remarkable for ingenuity
and for modefty. (Epijl. ad Schottum.)
His doctrine and his machine were foon fpread over
ft1* Europe. It was the age of literary ardour and philofophi-
eal curiofity; and it is moil pleafant to us, who, (landing
on the (boulders of our predecefibrs, can fee far around us,
to obferve the eagernefs with which every new, and to us
frivolous, experiment was repeated and canvaiTed. The
worfhippersofArillotle were daily receiving fevere morti¬
fications from the experimenters, or empirics as theyaffedl-
ed to call them, and they exerted themfelves ftrenuoufiy
in fupport of his now tottering caufe. This contribu¬
ted to the rapid propagation of every difcovery ; and
it was a mod profitable and refpeftable bufinefs to go
through the chief cities of Germany and France exhi¬
biting philofophical experiments.
About this time the foundations of the Royal Society
,f of London were laid. Mr Boyle, Mr Wren, Lord
Brounker, Dr Wallis, and other curious gentlemen,
held meetings at Oxford, in which were received ac¬
counts of whatever was doing in the iludy of nature ;
and many experiments were exhibited. The refearches
of Galileo, T bvicelli, and Pafchal concerning the pref-
fure of the air, greatly engaged their attention, and
many additions were made to their difeoveries. Mr
Boyle, the moll ardent and fuccefsful ftudier of nature,
had the principal lhare in thefe improvements, his in-
quifitive mind being aided by an opulent fortune. In
a letter to his nephew Lord Dungarvon, he fays that
he had made many attempts to fee the appearances ex¬
hibited by bodies freed from the preflure of the air.
He had made Toricellian tubes, having a fmall veffel
a-top, into which he put fome bodies before filling the
tubes with mercury; fo that when the tube was fet
upright, and the mercury' run out, the bodies were in
vacuo. He had alfo abftra&ed the water from a
vefiel, by a final! pump, by means of its weight, in
the manner deferibed in n° 17, having previoully put
bodies into the veflel along with the water. But all
thefe ways were very troublefome and imperfect. He
was delighted when he learned from Schottus’s firft
publication, that CounfeUor Guericke had effeaed this
by the expanfive power of the air; and immediately fet
about conllruaing a machine from his own ideas, no
delcriptron of Guericke’s being then publifhed.
It confifted of a receiver A (fig. 18.), furnilhed with
a ftopcocK B, and fynnge CD placed in a vertical po-
fitron below the receiver. Its valve C was in its bot-
tom dole adjoining to the entry of the pipe of com-
Vol. XV. Part I.
97
munication; and the hole by which the air iilued was Air-pump
farther fecured by a plug which could be removed. 'J
The pifton was moved by a wheel and rackwork. The Hi» air-
receiver of Guericke’s pump was but ill adapted for pump,
any confiderable variety of experiments; and accord¬
ingly very few were made in it. Mr Boyle’s receiver
had a large opening EF, with a Ilrong glafs margin.
To this was fitted a Ilrong brafs cap, pierced with a
hole G in its middle, to which was fitted a plug ground
into it, and fhaped like the key of a cock. The ex¬
tremity of this key was furnilhed with a ferevv, to
which could be affixed a hook, or a variety of pieces for
fupporting what was to be examined in the receiver, or
for producing various motions within it, without ad¬
mitting the air. This was farther guarded againfl by
means of oil poured round the key, where it was re¬
tained by the hollow cup-like form of the cover. With
all thefc precautions, however, Mr Boyle ingenuoufly
confefles, that it was but feldom, and with great diffi¬
culty, that he could produce an extreme degree'of rare- •
fadlion ; and it appears by Guericke’s letter to Schottus,
that in this refpe^l the Magdeburgh machine had the
advantage. But moil of Boyle's very interelling ex¬
periments did not require this extreme rarefaftion ; and
the variety of them, and their philofophic importance,
compenfated for this defeat, and foon eclipfed the fame
of the inventor to fuch a degree, that the date of air in
the receiver was generally denominated the vacuum
Boyleanum, and the air-pump was called machina Bo vic¬
una. It does not appear that Guericke was at all feli¬
citous to maintain his claim to priority or invention.
He appears to have been of a truly noble and philofo¬
phical mind, aiming at nothing but the advancement of
fcience. 99
Mr Boyle found, that to make a veflel air-tight, itH*8Contri-
was fufficient to place a piece of wet or oiled leather on n^keVir-
its brim, and to lay a flat plate of metal upon this. veffeU
The preflure of the external air fqueezed the two folidti^ht.
bodies fo hard together, that the loft leather effedlually
excluded it. This enabled him to render the whole
machine incomparably more convenient for a variety of
experiments. He caufed the conduit-pipe to termi¬
nate in a flat plate which he covered with leather, and
on this he fet the glafs ball or receiver, which had both
its upper and lower brim ground flat. He covered the
upper orifice in like manner with a piece of oiled lea¬
ther and a flat plate, having cocks and a variety of other
perforations and contrivances fuited to his purpofes.
This he found infinitely more expeditious, and alfo
tighter, than the clammy cements which he had formerly
ufed for fecuring the joints.
He was now affilled by Dr Hooke, the moll ingeni-pj. joke’s
ous and inventive mechanic that the world has ever feen. impruve-'
This perfon made a great improvement on the air-pump, oierrt of
by applying two fyrmges whofe pifton-rods were worked Boyle’s air*
by the fame wheel, as in fig. 20, n° 1, and putting valves PumP
in the pillons in the fame manner as in the pillon of a
common pump. This evidently doubled the expedition
of the pump’s operation : but it alfo greatly diminilhed
the labour of pumping; for it mull be obierved, that
the pifton H muft be drawn up againft the prefiure of
the external air, and when the rarefa&ion is nearly per-
feft this requires a force of nearly 15 pounds for every
inch of the area of the pifton. Now when one pifton
H is at the bottom of the barrel, the other K is at
N the
5)8
ioi
Generally
adopted.
p N E
A^ump. the top of the barrel, and the air below K is equally
^ rare with that in the receiver. Theteiore the preffure
of the external air on the piiton K is nearly equal to
that on the piiton Id. Both, therefore, are aft.ng m
eppofite directions on the wheel which gave them mo¬
tion ; and the force neceflary for railing H is only
the difference between the elafticxty of the air m the
barrel H and that of the air in the barrel K. i his
is very fmall in the beginning of the ftroke, but
gradually increales as the pilton K defeends, and
becomes equal to the whole excels of the air’s preflure
above the elafticity of the remaining air of the receiver
when the air at K of the natural denfity begins to
open the pifton valves. An accurate attention to the
circumftances will (how us that the force requisite for
working the purnp is greateft at firff, and gradually
dirainifties as the rarefaction advances; and when this
is nearly complete, hardly any more force is required
than what is neceffary for overcoming the fridtion of
the piftons, except during the diicharge of the air at
the end of each ffroke. # .
This is therefore the form of the air-pump which is
moft generally ufed all over Europe, borne traces of
national prepoffefiion remain. In Germany, air-pumps
are frequently made after the original model of Gue¬
ricke’s (Wolff Cyclomathefis) ; and the French gene¬
rally ufe the pump made by Fapin, though extremely
aukward. We fhall give a defcription of Boyle’s air-
pump as finally improved by Hawkefbee, which, with
fome fmall accommodations to particular views, Hill
remains the moft approved form.
Here follows the defcription from Defaguliers.
   It confifts of two brafs barrels a a (fig. 19.), 12
provements jnc^es an(l 2 wide. The piftons are railed and de-
rrlu u Puffed by turning the winch b l. This is faftened to an
L ~ axis paffing through a ftrong toothed wheel, which lays
hold of the teeth of the racks cccc. Then the one
is railed while the other is depreffed ; by which means
the valves, which are made of limber bladder, fixed in
the upper part of each pifton, as well as in the open¬
ings into the bottom of the barrels, perform their office
of difeharging the air from the barrels, and admitting
into them the air from the receiver to be afterwards dif-
eharged; and when the receiver comes to be pretty
well exhaufted of its air, the preffure of the atmofphere
in the defeending pifton is nearly fo great, that the
power required to raife the other is little more than is
neceffary for overcoming the fndiion of the pifton,
which renders this pump preferable to all others, which
require more force to work them as the rarefaftion of
the air in the receiver advances.
The barrels are fet in a brafs difh about two inches
deep, filled with water or oil to prevent the infinuation
of air. The barrels are ferewed tight down by the nuts
ee>ee, which force the frontifpiece ff down on them,
through which the two pillars ggygg pafs.
Br»fs° Ve Frora between the barrels rifes a fiender brafs pipe h h>
&.c!b 1 ’ communicating with each by a perforation in the tranf-
verfe piece of brafs on which they ftand. The upper end
of this pipe communicates with another perforated piece
of brafs, which ferews on underneath the plate i i i i, of
ten inches diameter, and furrounded with a brafs rim
to prevent the fhedding of water ufed in fome experi¬
ments. This piece of brafs has three branches: ift,
An horizontal one communicating with the conduit-
U M A T I C S.
ICi
Hawkef-
hec’s im-
103
Barrels.
10J
Stopco
pipe h h. 2. An upright one ferewed into' the middle A!r.pw
of the pump-plate, and terminating in a fmall pipe k, —
riling about an inch above it. 3d, Is a perpendicular
one, looking downwards in the continuation of the
pipe k, and having a.hollow ferew in its end receiving
the brafs cap of the gage-pipe ////, which is of glafs,
34 inches long, and immerfed in a glafs cittern m m
filled with mercury. This is covered a-top with a cork
float, carrying the weight of a light wooden fcafe di¬
vided into inches, which are numbered from the furface
of the mercury in the cittern. This fcale will there¬
fore rife and fall with the mercury in the cittern, and
indicate the true elevation of that in the tube.
There is a ftopcock immediately above the infertion
of the gage-pipe, by which its communication may be
cut off. There is another at », by which a communi¬
cation is opened with the external air for allowing its
readmiffion; and there is fometimes another immediately
within the infertion of the conduct-pipe for cutting off
the communication between the receiver and the pump.
This is particularly ufeful when the rarefaction is
to be continued long, as there are by thefe means
fewer chances of the infinuation of air by the many
joints. . 10
The receivers are made tight by limply fetting them Recti'
on the pump-plate with a piece of wet or oiled leather
between ; and the receivers, which are open a-top, have
a brafs cover fet on them in the fame manner. In
thefe covers there are various perforations and contri¬
vances for various purpofes. The one in the figure has
a flip wive paffing through a collar of oiled leather, ha¬
ving a hook or a ferew in its lower end for hanging any
thing on or producing a variety of motions. k
Sometimes the receivers are fet on another plate, which Conti
has a pipe ferewed into its middle, furnifhed with avi"“
ftopcock and a ferew, which fits the middle pipe Lths
When the rarefaClion has been made in it, the cock is
fhut, and then the whole may be unferewed from the
pump, and removed to any convenient place. This is
called a tran [porter plate.
It only remains to explain the gage IIIL In the^
ordinary ttate of the air its elafticity balances the pref- ,(,e{
fure of the incumbent atmofphere. We find this from coni
the force that is neceffary to fqueeze it into lefs bulked,
in oppofition to this elafticity. Therefore the elaftici¬
ty of the air increafes with the vicinity of its particles.
It is therefore reafonable to expedl, that when we al¬
low it to occupy more room, and its particles are far¬
ther afunder, its elafticity will be diminiftied though
not annihilated; that is, it will no longer balance the
whole preffure of the atmofphere, though it may ftill
balance part of it. If therefore an upright pipe have
its lower end immerfed in a veffel of mercury, and com¬
municate by its upper end with a veffel containing rare¬
fied, therefore lefs elaftic, air, we ftiould expedl that the
preffure of the air will prevail, and force the mercury
into the tube, and caufe it to rife to fuch an height that
the weight of the mercury, joined to the elafticity of the
rarefied air adding on its upper furface, lhall be exadtly
equal to the whole preffure of the atmofphere. The
height of the mercury is the exadd meafure of that part
of the whole preffure which is not balanced by the ela¬
fticity of the rarefied air, and its deficiency from the
height of the mercury in the Toricellian tube is the
exadd meafure of this remaining elafticity.
P N E U M
*P- it is evident therefore, that the pipe will he a fcale of
~ the elafticity of the remaining air, and will indicate in
•n fome fort the degree of rarefaction : for there mult be
ie fome analogy between the denfity of the air and its
>f elaftici’ty; and vve have no reafon to imagine that they
‘or- do not increafe and diminifh together, although we
may be ignorant of the law, that is, of the change of
elafticity correfponding to a known change of denfity.
This is to be difeovered by experiment; and the air-pump
itfelf fumifhes us with the belt experiments for this pur-
pofe. After rarefying till the mercury in the gage has
attained half the height of that in the Toricellian tube,
fhut the communication with the barrels and gage, and
admit the water into the receiver. It will go in till
all is again in equilibrio with the preflure of the at-
mofphere ; that is, till the air in the receiver has collap-
fed into its natural bulk. This we can accurately mca-
fure, and compare with the whole capacity of the re¬
ceiver ; and thus obtain the precife degree of rarefaftion
coiTciponding to half the natural tlaflicity. We can
do the fame thing with the elafticity reduced to one
third, one fourth, &c. and thus difeover the whole
law.
This gage mull be conudered as one of the moft in¬
genious and convenient parts of Hawkelbee’s pump ;
and it is well difpofed, being in a fituation prote&ed
againft accidents: but it necefTarrly increases greatly
the ft ze of the machine, and cannot be applied to the
: tabk-pump,reprefented in fig. 20, n° i. When it is wanted
here, a fmall plate is added behind, or between the bar¬
rels and receiver; and on this is let a fmall tubulated (as
it is termed) receiver, covering a common weather-glafs
tube.—This receiver being rarefied along with the other,
the prefiure on the mercury in the ciftern arifing from
the elafticity of the remaining air is diminifhed fo as
to be no longer able to fupport the mercury at its full
height; and it therefore defeends till the height at
which it Hands puts it in equilibrio with the elafticity.
In this form, therefore, the height of the mercury is di-
reftly a meafure of the remaining elafticity; while in
the other it meafures the remaining unbalanced preffure
of the atmofpbere. But this gage is extremely cum-
berfome, and liable to accidents. Wc are feldom much
mtereftea m the rarefaction till it is great; a contrafted
form of this gage is therefore very ufeful, and was early
ed. ufed. A fyphon ABCD (fig. 20, n% 2.), each branch of
which is about four inches long, clofe at A and open at
D, is filled with boiling mercury till it occupies the branch
AB and a very fmall part of CD, having its furface at
_ Tins is fixed to a fmall (land, and fixed into the
receiver, along with the tilings that are to be exhibited
»n the rarefied air. . When the air has been rarefied till
its remaining elafticity is not able to fupport the column
n ’ ^ends in AB, and rifes in CD,
«n t e remaining elafticity will always be meafured by
i ’ie mercuiy in AB above that in the
ieg CD. Could the exhauftion be perfefted, the furfaces
m ot egs \\ ould be on a level. Another gage might
be Put into the fame foot, having a fmall "bubble of air
^ "1S would move from the beginning of the rare-
, 'on » bllt «nr ignorance of the analogy between the
v*enfity and elafticity hinders us from ufmg it as a
meaiure of either.
It is enough for out prefent pnrpofe to obferve, that
a.ometer or fyphon gage is a perfect indication
A T I C S. 99
and meafure of the performance ot an air-pump, and pi nq>.
that a pump is (ceteris paribus) fo much the more per-
fe6f, as it is able to ruffe the mercuiy higher in the gage. \ complete
It is in this way that we tliicover that none can pro- exhaiilhon
ducc a complete exhauftion, and that their operation j‘ot
is only a very great rarefaftion : for none can raife y, air
the mercury to that height at which it Hands in the 1
Toricellian tube, well purged of air. Few pumps will
bring it within Vo an inch. Hawkefbee’s, fitted up
according to his inftruttions, will feldom bring it
within f. Pumps with cocks, when conftrudled ac¬
cording to the principles mentioned when fpeaking of
the exhaufting fyringe, and new and in fine order, will
in favourable circumftanccs bring it within TV. None
with valves fitted up with wet leather, or when water
or volatile fluids are allowed accefs into any part, will
bring it nearer than Nay, a pump of the heft kird,
and in the fineft order, will have its rarefying power
reduced to the low eft ftandard, as meafured by this gage,
if we put into the receiver the tenth part of a fquaio
inch of white fhetp-fkin, frefh from the (hops, or of any
fubllance equally damp. This is a difeovery made tv
means of the improved air-pump, and leads to very ex-
tenlive and important confequences in general pln iics ;
fome of which will be treated of under this article: and
the obfervation is made thus early, that our readers may
better underftand the improvements which have been
made on this celebrated machine. ,
It would require a volume to deferibe all the changes Various
which have been made on it. An inftrument of fuch ,rilProvp;
multifarious ufe, and in the hands of curious men, each
diving into the fecrets of nature in his favourite line, chine,
mult have received many alterations and real improve¬
ments in many particular refpc&s. But thefe are be-
fide our prefent purpofe ; which is to confider it merely
as h machine for rarefying elaftic or expaufive fluids.
We muft therefore confine ourfelves to this view of if;
and (hall carefully ftate to our readers every improve¬
ment founded on principle, and on pneumatical laws. nx
All wrho ufed it perceived the limit fet to the rarefac-By at-
tion by the refiitance of the valves, and tried to perfc&teniPt'n?
the conftru&ion of the cocks. The Abbe Nollet and
Gravcfande, two of the moft eminent experimental phi- f>n,&ion of
lofophers in Europe, were the meft fuccefsful. the cocks.
Mr Gravefande juftly preferred Hooke’s plan of a , JI*
double pump, and contrived an apparatus for turning
the cocks by the motion of the pump’s handle. This pfovemen:,
is far from either being limple or eafy in working; and
occafions great jerks and concuflions in the whole ma¬
chine. This, however, is not neceflarily connedled
with the truly pneumatical improvement. His pifton
has no valve, and the rod is conn.'&ed with it by a
ftirrup D (fig. 21), as in a common pump. The rod
has a cylindric part c p, which pafles through the ftirrup,
and has a ftiff motion in it up and down of about half an
inch ; being (topped by the (boulder c above and the
nut below. The round plate fupported by this (tirrup
has a ihort fquare tube n dy which fits tight into the
hole of a piece of cork F. The round plate E has a
fquare (hank ^ which goes into the fquare tube « </. A
piece of thin leather/, (baked in oil, is put between the
cork and the plate E, and another between the cork
and the plate which forms the fide of the ftirrup. All
thefe pieces are ferewed together bythe nail ey whofe flat
head covers the hole r. Suppofe, therefore, the pifton
N 2 touchino-
9
ICO
Air-pump.
116
And man-
j;er of uiing
it.
pneumatics.
*17
A ufeful
contri¬
vance.
11$.
1X9
Its iuconve
tiiencea
xao
Remedietl
iat
HigWy ex
toiled, but
124
IJmited in
its opera¬
tion.
touching the bottom of the brurel, and the winch tuiu-
inp- to raife it again, the fritlion of the pifton on tiK
barrel keeps it in its place, and the rod is drawn up
through the ftirrup D. Thus the wheel has liberty to
turn about an inch; and this is fufheient lor turning tne
cock, fo as to cut off the communication with the ex¬
ternal air, and to open the communication with the re¬
ceiver. This being done, and the motion of the winch
continued, the pifton is raifed to the top of the barre,.
When the winch is turned in the oppofite direftion, the
pifton remains fixed till the cock is turned,, fo as to
fhut the communication with the receiver, and open that
with the external air.
This is a pretty contrivance, and does not at lirit ap¬
pear neceffary; becaufe the cocks might be made to turn
at the beginning and end of the ftroke without it. Ba-
this is juft poflible; and the fmalleft error of adjuftment,
or wearing of the apparatus, will caufe them to be open
at improper times. Befides, the cocks are not- turned
in an inftant, and are improperly open during fome very
1'mall time; but this contrivance completely obviates
this difficulty. r -l j
The cock is precifely fimilar to that formerly defenbed,
having one perforation diametrically through it and ano¬
ther entering at right angles to this, and after reading
the centre, it paffes along the axis of the cock, and comes
out to the open air.
It is evident, that by this conftrufti«n of the cock,
the ingenious improvement of Dr Hooke, by which tne
preffure of the atmofphere on one pifton is made to
balance (in great part) the preffure on the other, is given
up: for, wdienever the communication with the air is
opened, it rufhea in, and immediately Jialances the pn f-
fure on the upper fide of the pifton in this barrel; fo
that the whole preffure in the other mult be overcome
by the perfon working the pump. Gravefande, aware
of this, put a valve on the orifice of the cock ; that
is, tied a flip of wet bladder or oiled leather acrofs it;
and now the pifton is preffed down, as long as the air
in the barrel is rarer than the outward air, in the fame
manner as when the valve is in the pifton ittelf.
This is all that is neceffary to be deferibed in Mr
Gravefande’s air-pump. Its performance is highly ex¬
tolled by him, as far exceeding his former pumps with
valves. The fame preference was given to it. by his
fucceffor Mufchenbroek. But, while they both prepa¬
red the piftons and valves and leathers of the pump,
by fteeping them in oil, and then in a mixture of water
and fpmts of wine, we are certain that no juft eftnnate
could be made of its performance. For with this pre¬
paration it could not bring the gage within -f of an inch
of the barometer. We even fee other limits to its rare-
fadion : from its conltrudion, it is plain that a very
confiderable fpace is left between the pifton and cock,
not lefs than an inch, from which the air is never ex¬
pelled ; and if this be made extremely final!, it is
plain that the pump muft be worked very flow, other-
wdfe there will not be time for the air to diffufe itfelf
from the receiver into the barrel, efpecially towards the
end, when the expelling force, viz., the elafticity of
the remaining air, is very fmall. There is alfo the
fame limit to the rarefadion, as in Hooke’s or Hawkef-
bee’s pump, oppofed by the valve E, which will not
open till the air below the pifton is confiderably denfer
than the external air ; and this pump toon loft any ad¬
vantages it poffeffed when frcfli from the workman’s A-ir-paj
hands, by the cock’s growing loofe and admitting air.
It is furprifing that Gravefande omitted Hawkelbee S[B ob^
fecurity againft this, by placing the barrels in a diih filledfpe& ia]
with oilwhich would effedually have prevented this nor to
. • Uawkcl
inconvenience. _ ^ . tee’s.
. We muit not omit a feemingly paradoxical obicivation ^
of Gravefande, that in a pump conftruded vritn valves, Ad^nt
and worked with a determined uniform velocity, the re-of ik*
quired degree of rai'efadion is fooner produced ay llioit a‘re •
barrels than by long ones. It would requiie too much
time to give a general demonftration of tins, out it will
eafily be feen by an example. Suppofe the long barrel
to have equal capacity with the receiver, then at tlm end
of the fir ft ftroke the air in the receiver will have ft its na¬
tural denfity. Now, let the fliort barrels have half this ca-
pacity : at the end of the firft ftroke the uenlity of the
air in the receiver is y, and at the end of the fecond ftioke
it is ij-, which is lets than 4» and the two ftrokes o: the
fliort barrel are fuppofed to be made in the fame tinie
with one of the longeft, <Scc. __ ,
Hawkefbee’s pump maintained its pre-eminence with-
out rival in Britain, and generally too on the continent,
except in France, where every thing took the ton ol the ^
Academy, which abhorred being indebted to foreigners
for any thing in faience, till about the year lyS0* when
it engaged the attention of Mr John Smeaton, a perfon ot
uncommon knowledge, and fecond to none but Dr
Hooke in fagaeity and mechanical refource. He was
then a maker of philofophical inftruments, and made
many attempts to perfect the pumps with cocks, but
found, that whatever perfedlion he could bring them
to, he could not enable them to preferve it; and he
never would fell one of this conitruftion. He there¬
fore attached himfelf folely to the valve pumps. i
The firft thing was to dimimih the refiftance to the Bye
entry of the air from the receiver into the barrels: thisj^
he rendered almoft nothing, by enlarging the fin-face onva
which this feebly elaftic air was to prefs. Inftead of
making thefe valves to open by7- its preffure on a circle
of of an inch in diameter, he made the valve-hole
one inch in diameter, enlarging the furface 4-0 times;
and, to prevent this piece of thin leather from being
burft by the great preffure on it, when the pifton in its
defeent was approaching the bottom of the barrel, lie
fupported it by a delicate but ftrong grating, dividing
the valve-hole like the feftion of a honey-comb, as re-
prefented in fig. 2 2, n° 3 ; and the ribs of this grating j
are feen edgevvife in fig. 22, n° I, at _ Cl
The valve was a piece of thin membrane or oiled ^
filk, gently {trained over the mouth of the valve-hole,Clw;
and tied on by a fine filk thread wound round it _iit^|
the fame manner that the narrow flips had been
on formerly. This done, he cut with a pointed knife
the leather round the edge,, nearly four quadrants!
arcs, leaving a fmall tongue between each, as in fig.
22, n° 3. The {trained valve immediately {brinks
inwards, as reprefented by the fhaded parts; and the
{train by which it is kept down is now greatly dinu-
nifhed, taking place only at the corners. The gratings
being reduced nearly to an edge (but not quite, left
they°fhould cut), there is very little preffure to produce
adhefion by the clammy oil. Thus it appears, that a
very fmall elafticity of the air in the receiver will be
Efficient to raife the valve; and Mr Smeaton found,
that
I'ifc I
. Air amp.
PNEUMATICS.
Ire ifing
the :pel-
-'ijlir.j j(cc.
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: iritl
Id I
, tkl
ul
v.™
19
Strilure
>. pl¬
ot tit I'ollnr
iM th' ,ar'
1 Po;
wbfflj ace
(oaol
C CCI.
it Di
leva
ndt
s, bu
then
rdk
thal
to til
:
ace#
cadh
, ciril
,-e.hok
times!
bebj
1 initi
■t\,b
s‘M
asK"
•ratinj
that when it was not able to do this at firft, when only
about 3-^ of the natural daificity, it would do it after
keeping the pifton up eight or ten fecouds, the air
having^been all the while undermining the valve, and
gradually detaching it from the grating. _
Unfortunately he could not follow this method with
the pifton valve. There was not room round the rod
for fuch an expanded valve ; and it would have obliged
him to have a great fpace bdow the valve, from whtch
he could not expel the air by the defeent of the pifton.
His ingenuity hit on a way of increafmg the expelling
force through the common valve : he inclofed the rod of
the pifton in a collar of leather /, through which it
moved freely without allowing any air to get pail its
lides. For greater fecurity, the collar of leather was
contained in a box terminating in a cup filled with oil.
As this makes a material change in the principle of con-
ftru&ion of the air-pump (and indeed of pneumatic en¬
gines in general), and as it has been adopted in all the
fubiequent attempts to improve them, it merits a parti¬
cular confideration.
The pifton itfelf confifts of two pieces of brafs fatten¬
ed by ferews from below. The uppermoft, which is of
one folid piece with the rod GH (fig. 22, n° 1.), is of a
diameter fomewhat lefs than the barrel; fo that when
they are ferewed together, apiece of leather foaked in a
mixture of boiled oil and tallow, is put between them ;
and when the pifton is thmft into the barrel from above,
the leather comes up around the fide of the pifton, and
fills the barrel,making the pifton perfectly air-tight. The
lower half of the pifton projects upwards into the upper,
which has a hollow g b eg to receive it There is a
fmall hole through the lower half at o to admit the air;
and a hole c d in the upper half to let it through, and
there Is a flip of oiled lilk drained acrofs the hole a by
way of valve, and there is room enough left at ^ r for
this valve to rife a little when prefled from below. The
rod GH pafles through the piece of brafs which forms
the top of the barrel fo as to move freely, but without
any fenfible {hake: this top is formed into a hollow box,
confifting of two pieces ECDF and CNOD, which
ferew together at CD. This box is filled with rings
of oiled leather exa&ly fitted to its diameter, each having
a hole in it for the rod to pafs through. When the
piece FCDF is ferewed down, it comprefies the leathers;
fqueezing them to the rod, fo that no air can pafs be¬
tween them ; and, to feenre us againft all ingrefs of air,
the upper part is formed into a cup EF, which is kept
filled with oil.
The top of the barrel is alfo pierced with a hole LK,
which rifts above the fiat furface NO, and has a flip of
oiled filk tied over it to aft as a valve ; opening when
prefled from below, but {hutting when prefled from
above.
T. he communication between the barrel and receiver
is made by means of the pipe ABPQ^; and there goes
Irom the hole lv in the top of the barrel a pipe ERST,
which either communicates with the open air or with
the receiver, by means of the cock at its extremity T.
TL he conduit pipe ABPQ^has alfo a cock at Q, by which
it is made to communicate either with the receiver or
with the open air. T hefe channels of communication
are varioufiy condufted and terminated, according to
t re views of the. maker : the {ketch in this figure is fuf-
scient for explaining the principle, and is fuited to the
TO!
general form of the pump, as it has been frequently
made by Nairne and other artifts in Loudon. j ^ ,l
Let us now fuppofethe pifton at the top of the barrel, g jjeriority
and that it applies to it all over, and that the air in tne of :hi* con-
barrel is very much rarefied: in the common pump theftruflicn
pifton valve is prefled hard down by the atmofphere, and
continues (hut till the pifton gets far down, condenfes
the air below it beyond its natural ttate, and enables
it to force up the valves. But here, as loon as the
pifton quits the top of the barrel, it leaves a void be¬
hind it; for no air gets in round the pifton rod, and
the valve at K is fhut by the prefTure of the atmo¬
fphere. There is nothing now to oppofe the elafti-
city of the air below but the ftiffnefs of the valve he;
and thus the expelling (or more accurately the libera¬
ting) force is prodigioully increafed- ^ 13*'
The fuperiority of this confirufticm will be beft feen shown
by an example. Suppofe the ftiffnefs of the valve equal
to the weight of TV of an inch of mercury, when the ba- ’
rometer Hands at 32 inches, and that the the pump gage
Hands at 29.9; then, in an ordinary pump, the. valve in
the pifton will not rife till the pifton has get within the
3DCth part of the bottom of the barrel, and it will leave
the valve-hole filled with air of the ordinary denfity. But
in this pump the valve will rife as foon as the pifton
quits the top of the barrel; and when it is quite down,
the valve-hole a will contain only the 3CO.th part of the-
air which it would have contained in a pump of the ordi¬
nary form. Suppofe further,, that the barrel is of equal
capacity with the receiver, and that both pumps are 10
badly conftrufted, that the fpace left below the pifton is
the 300th part of the barrel. In the common pump the
ptfton valve will rife no more,, and the rarefaftion can
be carried no farther, however delicate the barrel valve
may be ; but in this pump the next ttrokq will raife
the gage to 29.05, and the pifton valve will again rife
as foon as the pifton gets half way down the barrel.
lire limit to the rarefaftiou by this pump depends
chiefly on the fpace contained in the hole LK ; and in
the fpace bed of the pifton. When the pifton is brought
up to the top, and applied clofe to it, thofe fpaces re¬
main filled with air of tire ordinary denfity, which will
expand as the pifton defeends, and thus will retard the
opening of the pifton valve. The rarefaftion will ftop
when the elafticity of this fmall quantity of air, expand¬
ed fo as to fill the whole barrel (by the deicent of the
pifton to the bottom), is juft equal to the force requiiite
for opening the pifton valve- _ _ s
Another advantage attending this confti uffion is,ft is caiily
that in drawing up the pifton, we are not refilled by worked,
the whole preflure of the air ; becaufe the air is rarefied
above this pifton as well as below it, and the pifton is in
precifely the fame ftate of prelfure as if connefted with
another pillon in a double pump. The refiftance to
the afeent of the pifton is the excefs of the elafticity of
the air above it over the elafticity ot the air below:
this, toward the end of the rarefaftion, is very fmall,
while the pifton is near the bottom of the barrel, but
gradually increafes as the pifton rifes, and reduces the
air above it into fmaller dimenfions, and becomes equal
to the preflure of the atmofphere, when the air above
the piiton is of the common denfity. If we Ihould raife
the pifton ftill farther, we mull condenfe the air above,
it: but Mr Smeaton has here made an ifluc for the air
by a fmall hole in the top of the barrel, covered with a.
4" ‘ delicate
ton <
jump.
4;jj P N E U M
Air pump, delicate valve. This allows the ah* to efcape, and {huts
—v“—• again as foon as the pifton bigins to defcend, leaving
almoft a perfect void behind it as before.
This pump has another advantage. It may be chan¬
ged in a moment from a rarefying to a condenfmg en¬
gine, by fimply turning the cocks at Q^and T. While
T communicates with the open air and Q^with the re¬
ceiver, it is a rarefying engine or air-pump : but when
T communicates with the receivei, aud Q_with the
open air, it is a condenfing engine.
Plate Fig. 23. reprefents Mr Smeaton’s air-pump as it is
(X’CClt. ufua}[y niade by Nairne. Upon a folid bafe or ta-
DefJnptionWe are fet up three pillars F, H, H: the pHlar F
><ȣ Sir.ea- fupports the pump-plate A ; and the pillars ri, rl, lup-
jxsrt the front or head, containing a brafs cog-wheel,
which is turned by the handle B, and works in the rack
C fattened to the upper end of the pilton rod. The
whole is Hill farther fteadyed by two pieces of brafs c b
and 0 k, which connect the pump-plate with the front,
and have perforations communicating between the hole
a in the middle of the plate and the barrel, as will be
defcribed immediately. DE is the barrel of the pump,
firmly fixed to the table by fcrews thro’ its upper flanch:
e f dc & (lender brafs tube fcrewed to the bottom of
the barrel, and to the under hole of the horizontal ca¬
nal c b. In this canal there is a cock which opens a
• communication between the barrel and the receiver,
when the key is in the pofition reprefented here : but
when the key is at right angles with this pofition, this
-communication is cut off. If that fide of the key which
is here drawn next to the pump-plate be turned out¬
ward, the external air is admitted into the receiver; hut
if turned inwards, the air is admitted into the barrel.
g b is another {lender brafs pipe, leading from the dif-
charging valve at g to the horizontal canal h k, to the un¬
der fide of which it is fcrewed faff. In this horizontal
canal there is a cock n which opens a paffage from the
barrel to the receiver when the key is in the pofition
here drawn ; but opens a paffage from the barrel to the
external a’r when the key' is turned outwards, and from
the receiver to the external air when the key is turned
inwards. This communication with tire external air is
not immediate but through a fort of box 1; the ufc of this
box is to receive the oil which is difeharged through
the top valve g.. In order to keep the pump tight, and
in working Order, it is proper fometimes to pour a table-
fpoonful of olive-oil into the hole a of the pump-plate,
and then to work the pump. The oil goes along the
conduit bedf e, gets into the barrel and through the
pifton-valve, when the piilon is preffed to the bottom of
the barrel, and is then drawn up, and forced through the
difeharging valve g along the pipe g h, the horizontal
paffage b and finally into the box i. This box has a
fmall hole in its fide near the top, through which the
air efcapes.
From the upper fide of the canal c b there rifes a {len¬
der pipe which bends outward and then turns down¬
wards, and is joined to a fmall box, which cannot be
feen in this view. From the bottom of this box pro¬
ceeds downwards the gage-pipe of glafs, which enters
the ciffern of mercury G fixed below.
On the upper fide of the other canal at 0 is fecn a
fmall ftud, having a fhort pipe of glafs projecting- hori¬
zontally from it, clofe by and parallel to the front piece
the pump, and reaching to the other canal. This
A T I C S.
pipe is clofe at the farther end, and has a fmall drop of A»r.|njmp,
mere my or oil in it at the end 0. This ferves as a gage v—■*
in condennng, indicating the degree of condenfation by
the place of the drop : For this drop is forced along
the pipe, condenfing the air before it in the fame de¬
gree that it is condenfed in the barrel and receiver.
In conftrudling this pump, Mr Smeaton introduced MetM 0{
a method of joining together the different pipes andi'^r"-
other pieces, which has great advantages over the ufual
-‘manner of ferewing them together with leather between, 3^
and which is now much ufed in hydraulic and pneuma¬
tic engines. We {hall explain this to our readers by a
defeription of the manner in which the exhaufting gage
is joined to the horizontal dudt c b.
The piece h tp> in fig. 22, n° 2. is the fame with the p!ate
little cylinder obfcrvable on the upper fide of the hori- COCCI,
zontal canal cd, in fig. 23. The upper part hi is
formed into an outfide (crew, to fit the hollow ferew of
the piece deed. The top of this laft piece has a hole
in its middle, giving an eafy paffage to the bent tube
c b a, fo as to (lip along it with freedom. To the end c
of this bent tube is foldered a piece of brafs cfg, perfo¬
rated in continuation of the tube, and having its end
ground flat on the top of the piece h i/>, and alfo cover¬
ed with a flip of thin leather drained acrofs it and
pierced with a hole in the middle.
It is plain from this form, that if the furface be
applied to the top of b /, and the cover deed be fcrew¬
ed down on it, it will draw or prefs them together, fo
that no air can efcape by the joint, and this without
turning the whole tube eba round, as is neceffary in
the ufual way. This method is now adopted for join¬
ing together the conducing pipes of the machines for
extinguiftiing fires, an operation which was extremely
troublefome before this improvement.
The conduit pipeE^f r (fig.23.)isfaftened to the bot¬
tom of the barrel, and the difeharging pipe g/i to its top, irr
the fame manner. But to return to the gage ; the bent
pipe t b a enters the box j t near one fide, and obliquely,
and the gage pipe q r is inferted through its bottom
towards the oppofite fide. The ufe of this box is to
catch any drops of mercury which may fometimes be
dafhed up through the gage pipe by an accidental
ofcillation. This, by going through the paffages of
the pump, would corrode them, and would a£t parti¬
cular^ on the joints, which are generally foldered with
tin. When this happens to an air-pump, it muff be
cleaned with the moll fcrupulous attention, otherwife it
will be quickly deftroyed.
This account of Smeaton’s pump is fufficient for Great
enabling the reader to underftand its operation and to p°.wers!
fee its fuperiority. It is reckoned a very fine pump of1*111111111
the ordinary conltrurition which will rarefy 200 times,
or raife the gage to 29.85, the barometer Handing at
30. But Mr Smeaton found, that his pump, even after
long ufing, raifed it to 29.95, which we confider as
equivalent to rarefying 600 times. When in fine order,
he found no hounds to its rarefaction, frequently railing
the gage as high as the barometer; and he thought its
performance fo perfect, that the barometer-gage was
not fufficiently delicate for meafuring the rarefaction.
He therefore iubllituted the fyphon gage already de¬
fcribed, which he gives lome veafons for preferring $
but even this he found not fufficiently fenfible.
He contrived unether, which could be carried to
3
P N K U M
> /i »ump any degree of fenfibib'ty. It confifted of a glafs body
—— A (fig. 24.), of a pear Oiape, and was therefore called
P the pear-gage. This had a fmall projecting orifice at
IT>' ivarc - an^ at t^e ot^cr en<^ a tu^e whofie capacity was
»f nea- the hundredth part of the capacity of the whole veflel.
*0 ^his was fufpended at the flip-wire of the receiver, and
I ^ there was fet below it a fmall cup with mercury. When
■i: ■ u ' the pump was worked, the air in the pear-gage was ra¬
refied along with the reft. When the rarefaction was
brought to the degree intended, the gage was let down
till B reached the bottom of the mercury. The exter¬
nal air being now let in, the mercury" was raifed into
the pear, and ftood at fome height E in the tube CD.
The length of this tube being divided into 100 parts,
;■ 1 j)]?
and thofe numbered from D, it is evident that — wHl
?■ DB
a
I h?
'V t uige-
Bu
Lifed
rh| tten-
tre of the
lit ay
w. d.
f
1
•Git'l
F:
m
tt
N
39
hu¬
ts u-.th
[' Mr
ne
exprefs the degree of rarefaction which had been pro¬
duced when the gage was immerfed into the mercury :
or if DC be of the whole capacity", and be divided
into too pails by a fcale annexed to it, each unit of
the fcale will be °f the whole.
This was a very ingenious contrivance, and has been
the means of making fome very curious and important
difeoveries which at prefent engage the attention of phi-
lofophers. By this gage Mr Smeaton found, that his
pump frequently rarefied a thoufand, ten thoufand, nay
an hundred thoufand, times. But though he in every
inftance faw the great fuperiority of his pump above all
others, he frequently found irregularities which he could
not explain, and a want of correfpondence between the
pear and the barometer gages which puzzled him.
The pear-gage frequently indicated a prodigious rare-
faCtion, when the barometer-gage would not fliow more
than 600.
Thefe unaccountable phenomena excited the curiofity
of philofophers, who by this time were making continual
ufe of the air-pump in their meteorological refearches,
and much interefted in every thing connected with the
ft ate or conftitution of elaftic fluids. Mr Nairne, a
moft ingenious and accurate maker of philofophical in-
ftruments, made many curious experiments in the exa¬
mination and comparifon of Mr Smeaton’s pump with
thofe of the ufual conftruction, attending to every cir-
cumftance which could contribute to the inferiority of
the common pumps or to their improvement, fo as to
bring them nearer to this rival machine. This rigorous
comparifon brought into view feveral circumftances in
the conftitution of the atmofpheric air, and its relation
to other bodies, which are of the moft extenfive and im¬
portant influence in the operations of nature. We {hall
notice, at prefent fuch only as have a relation to the
operation of tlte air-pump in extracting air from the
receiver.
. ^a'rne found, that when a little water, or even a
bit of paper damped with water, was expofed under the
receiver of Mr Smeaton’s air-pump, when in the moft
perteCt condition, railing the mercury in the barometer-
gage to 29.95, he could not make it rife above 29.8
if Fahrenheit’s thermometer indicated the temperature
L°r a 29*7 ^ the thermometer ftood at 55° ;
^ * u t0 gage to this height and keep it
there, the operation of the pump muft be continued for
a ong time after the water had difappeared or the pa¬
per become perfeCUy dry. He found that a drop of
pints, or paper moiftened with fpirits, could not in
A T I C S. roj
thofe circrmftances allow the mercury in the gage to Air-pump.
rife to near that height; and that fimilar effeCts follow- ' '
td from admitting any volatile body whatever into the
receiver or any part of the apparatus. ^
This (bowed him at once how improper the direc- Show the
tions were which had been given by Gueriche, Boyle, imPro[)r‘c-
Gravcfande, and others, for fitting up the air-pump for^
experiment, by foaking the leather in water, covering ther with**'
the joints with water, or in fhort, admitting water or water,
any other volatile body near it. I4I
He therefore took his pumps to pieces, cleared them And the
of all the moifture which he could drive from them by °f
heat, and then leathered them anew with leather foahed^jj^,^11^
in a mixture of olive oil and tallow, from which he hadtalluw.
expelled all the water it ufually contains, by boiling it
till the firft frothing was over. When the pumps were
fitted up in this manner, he uniformly found that Mr
Smeaton’s pump rarefied the gage to 29.95, and the
belt common pump to 29.87, the firft of which he com¬
puted to indicate a rarefaCtion to 600, and the other to
230. But in this ftate he again found that a piece of
damp paper, leather, wood, &c. in the receiver, reduced
the performance in the fame manner as before.
But the moft remarkable phenomenon was, that when a remark-
he made ufe of the pear-gage with the pump cleared from able phen»»
all moifture, it indicated the fame degree of rarefaCtion meii0a
with the barometer-gage : but when he expofed a bit
of paper moiftened with fpirits* and thus reduced the
rarefaCfion of the pump to what he called 50, the baro¬
meter-gage Handing at 29.4, the pear-gage indicated a
rarefaCtion exceeding 100,000 ; in (hurt, it was not
meafurable ; and this phenomenon was almoft conftant.
Whenever he expofed any fubitance fufceptible of eva¬
poration, he found the rarefaCtion indicated by the ba¬
rometer-gage greatly reduced, while that indicated by
the pear-gage was prodigioufly increafed; and both thefe
effects were more remarkable as the fubjeCt was of ealier
evaporation, or the temperament of the air of the cham¬
ber was warmer.
This uniform refult fuggefted the true caufe. Water Accounted?;
boils at the temperature 212, that is, it then con-fcr*
verted in o a vapour which is permanently elaftic while
of that temperature, and its elafticity balances the pref-
fure of the atmofphere. If this preflure be diminifhed
by rarefying the air above it, a lower temperature will
now allow it to be converted into elaltic vapour, and
keep it in that ftate. Water will boil in the receiver
of an air-pump at the temperament 96, or even under it.
Philofophers did not think of examining the ftate of the
vapour in temperatures lower than what produced ebul¬
lition. But it now appears, that in much lower heats
than this the fuperficial water is converted into elaftic
vapour, which continues to exhale from it as long as
the water lafts, and, fupplying the place of air in the
receiver, exerts the fame elafticity, and hinders the mer-
cury from rifing in the gage in the fame manner as fo
much air of equal elafticity would have done.
When Mr Nairne was exhibiting thefe experiments Expl-ri4-
to the Honourable Henry Cavendifh in 1776, this gen-meats il--
tleman informed him that it appeared from a feries 0flu^ratil,S
experiments of his father Lord Charles Cavendifli, thatthis ac'
when water is of the temperature 72°, it is convertedC U ^
into vapour, under any preflure lefs than three-fourths
of an inch of mercury, and at 410 it becomes vapour
when the preffurc is lefs than one-fourth of an inch:
Even
I
*04 .P.N E U M
Air-pump, Even mercury evaporates in this manner when all prcflure
^—v ' is removed. A dewy appearance is frequently obferved
coverin'* the irifide of the tube of a barometer, where
we ufually fuppofe a vacuum. This dew, when viewed
through a microfcope, appears to be a fet of detached
globules of mercury, and upon inclining the tube fo
that the mercury may afcend along it, thefe globuies
will be all licked up, and the tube become clear. The
dew which lined it was the vapour of the mercury con-
denfed by the fide of the tube; and it is never obferved
but when one fide is expofed to a ftream of cold air
from a window, &c.
To return to the vapour in the air-pump receiver, it
mu ft be obferved, that as long as the water continues to
yield it, we may continue to work the pump ; and it
will be continually abftracled by the barrels, and dif-
charged in the form of water, becaufe it collapfes as
.foon as expofed to the external preffure. All this
while the gage will not indicate any more rarefaction,
.becaufe the thing immediately indicated by the baro¬
meter-gage is diminifhed elajlicity, which does not hap¬
pen here. When all the water which the temperature
of the room can keep elaftic has evaporated under a
certain preiTure, fuppofe i an inch of mercury, the gage
/landing at 29.5, the vapour which now fills the re¬
ceiver expands, and by its diminifhed elafticity the gage
rifes, and now fome more water which bad been attach¬
ed to bodies by chemical or corpufcuhr attraction is de¬
tached, and a new fupply continues to fupport the gage
at a greater height; and this goes on continually till
a!mo ft all has been abftraCted : but there will remain fome
which no art take can away ; for as it partes through
the barrels, and gets between the pifton and the top, it
fucceffively collapfes into water during the afeent of the
pillon, and again expands into vapour when we pufb
the pifton down again. Whenever this happens there
is an end of the rarefaCtion.
Airland While this operation is going on, the air comes out
■♦apflur not along with the vapour ; but we cannot fay in what pro-
uniformly p'ortftjn< Jf ft were always uniformly mixed with the
mixed to- vapour> ft wouia diminifh rapidly ; but this does not
appear to be the cafe. There is a certain period of
rarefaftion in which a tranfient cloudinefs is perceived
in the receiver. This is watery vapour formed at that
degree of rarefaCtion, mingled with, but not diflolved in
or united with, the air, otherwife it would he tranfpa-
rent. A fimilar cloud will appear if damp air be ad¬
mitted fuddenly into an exhaufted receiver. The va¬
pour, which formed an uniform tranfparent mafs with
the air, is either fuddenly expanded and thus detached
from the other ingredient, or is fuddenly let go by the
air, which expands more than ft does. We cannot af¬
firm with probability which of thefe is the cafe : diffe¬
rent compofitions of air, that is, air loaded with vapours
from different fubflances, exhibit remarkable differen¬
ces in this refpeCt. But we fee from this and other
phenomena, which (hall he mentioned in their proper
places, that the air and vapour are not always intimately
•united ; and therefore will not always be drawn out to¬
gether by the air-pump. But let them be ever fo con-
fufedly blended, we fee that the air mufl come out along
with the vapour, and its quantity remaining in the re¬
ceiver muff be prodigioufly diminirtied by this aflbeia-
tion, probably much more than could be, had the receiver
only contained pure air.
gether.
A T I C S.
Let us now confider what mufl happen in the pear* Air.puni|
gage. As the air and vapour are continually drawn off
from the receiver, the air‘in the pear expands and goes
off with it. We (hall fuppofe that the generated va-^ofThj
pour hinders the gage from rifing beyond 29.5. Du-different
ring the continued working of the pump, the air in^P«r
the pear, vvhofe elalticity is 0.5, flowly mixes withmet£r
the vapour at the mouth of the pear, and the mix- giges.
ture even advances into its infide, fo that if the
pumping be long enough continued, what is in the
pear is nearly of the fame compofition with what is
in the receiver, confiding perhaps of 20 parts of vapour
and one part of air, all of the elaflicity of 0.5.
When the pear is plunged into the mercury, and the
external air allowed to get into the receiver, the mercu¬
ry rifes in the pear-gage, and leaves not
I-, but-1
60 60X20
or — * of it filled with common air, the vapour ha-
1200
Thus
ving collapfed into an inviiible atom of water,
the pear-gage will indicate a rarefaction of 1200, while
the barometer-gage only Ihowed 60, that is, fhowed
the elafticity of the included fubftance diminirtied 60
times. The conclufion to be drawn from thefe two
meafures (the one of the rarefaCtion of air, and the
other of the diminution of elafticity) is, that the matter
with which the receiver was filled, immediately before
the readmiflion of the air, confifted of one part of in-
condenfible air, and , or 20 parts of water)' vapour.
60
W
The only obfeure part of this account is what relates DifEcul
to the compofition of the matter which filled the pear-|nar“l
gage before the admiflion of the mercury. It is not eafyj”° ecf
to fee how the vapour of the receiver comes in by anar-thefeco
rowmouth while the air is coming out by the fame pafiage. kqueue
Accordingly it requires a very long time to produce this
extreme rarefaftion in the pear-gage ; and there are
great irregularities in any two fucceeding experiments,
as may be feen by looking at Mr Nairne’s account of
them in Philofophical TranfaClions, Vol. LXVII. Some
vapours appear to have mixed much more readily with
the air than others ; and there are fome unaccountable
cafes where vitriolic acid and fulphureous bodies were
included, in which the diminution of denfity indicated by
the pear-gage was uniformly lefs than the diminution of
elafticity indicated by the barometer-gage. It is enough
for us at prefent to have eftabliftied, by unqueftionable
fafts, this produftion of elalllo vapour, and the necef-
lity of attending to it, both in the conftruftion of the ,
air-pump and in drawing rcfults from experiments exhi¬
bited in it. r4g
Mr Smeaton’s pump, when in good order, and per-The fu
feftly free from all moifture^ will in dry weather rarefy”'^1)'
air about 600 times, raifingthe barometer-gage to with-
in 4ts of an inch of a fine barometer. This was a per-neW
formance fo much fuperior to that of all others, and by prove-
means of Mr Nairne’s experiments opened fo new a field meB^
of obfervation, that the air-pump once more became a ca- .
pital inftrument among the experimental philofbphers.
The caufes of its fuperiority were alfo fo diftinft, that
artifts were immediately excited to a farther improvement
of the machine; fo that this becomes a new epoch in its
hiftory.
This is one imperfeftion which Mr Smeaton has not
attempted to remove. The difeharging valve is ftill open¬
ed
P N E U M
up. tl againft tlie preffurc of the atmofphere. An author
— of the Swedifh academy adds a fublidiary pump to this
valve, which exhaufts the air from above it, and thus
■e* puts it in the fituation of the pifton valve. We do
np not find that this improvement has been adopted fo as
ted to become general. Indeed the quantity of air which
remains in the paflage to this valve is fo exceedingly
little, that it does not feem to merit attention. Suppo-
fingthe valve-hole TV of an inch wide and as deep (and
it need not be more), it will not occupy more than
part of a barrel twelve inches long and two inches
wide.
Mr Smeaton,by his ingenious conftru&ion, has great¬
ly diminiihed, but has not annihilated, the obllru&ions
to the paflage of the air from the receiver into the bar¬
rel, His fuccefs encouraged farther attempts. One of
the firfi: and moft ingenious was that of Profeflbr Ruf-
fel of the univerfity of Edinburgh, who about the year
1770 conftru&ed a pump in which both cocks and valves
were avoided.
The pifton is folid, as reprefented in fig. 25. and its
‘eli rod pafles through a collar of leather on the top of the
barrel. This collar is divided into three portions by
two brafs rings tf, f>, which leave a very fmall fpace round
the pifton rod. The upper ring a communicates by
means of a lateral perforation with the bent tube lmny
which enters the barrel at its middle n. The lower ring
l communicates with the bent tube c dy which commu¬
nicates with the horizontal paflage d e, going to the
•middle e of the pump plate. By the way, however,
it communicates alfo with a barometer gage /> 0, Hand¬
ing in a ciftern of mercury c, and covered with a
glafs tube clofe at the top. Beyond r, on the oppofite
circumference of the receiver plate,' there is a cock or
■plug f communicating with the atmofphere.
The pifton rod is clofely embraced by the three col¬
lars of leather ; but, as already faid, has a free fpace
round it in the two brafs rings. To produce this prel-
fure of the leathers to the rod, the brafs rings which fe-
parate them are turned thinner on the inner fide, fo that
their crofs feftion along a diameter would be a taper
wedge. In the fide of the pifton rod are two cavities
qr, t s, about one-tenth of an inch wide and deep, and
of a length equal to the thicknefs of the two rings a, b,
and the intermediate collar of leathers. Thefe cavities
are fo placed on the pifton-rod, that when the pifton
n applied to the bottom of the barrel, the cavity t s in
the upper end of the rod has its upper end oppofite to
the ring a, and its lower end oppofite to the ring b, or
to the mouth of the pipe c d. Therefore, if there be a
void in the barrel, the air from the receiver will come
from the pipe c d into the cavity in the pifton rod, and
by it will get paft the collar of leather between the rings,
and thus will get into the fmall interftice between the
rod and the upper ring, and then into the pipe / m n, and
barrt:1- When the pifton is drawn up,
the fohd rod immediately fhuts up this paflage, and the
pifton drives the air through the difeharging valve /.
M hen it has reached the top of the barrel, and is clofely
applied toil, the cavity qr is in the fituation in which
j ormer y was, and the communication is again opened
between the receiver and the empty barrel, and the air
i agcUn d.lffufed ^tween them. Bulbing down the pi-
on expe s t re air by the lower difeharging pipe and
VU v '' a7nd thus the operation may be continued.
VOL. XV. Pact I.
A T 1 C S. ic5
This mull be acknowledged to be a moft fimple and Air-pomp,
ingenious conftruction, and can neither be called a cock —v"—^
nor a valve. It feems to oppofe no obftru6tion what¬
ever : and it has the fuperior advantage of rarefying
both during the afeent and the defeent of the pifton,
doubling the expedition of the performance, and the
operator is not oppofed by the preftiire of the atmo¬
fphere except towards the end of each ftroke. The ex¬
pedition, however, is not fo great as one ftiould expeft;
for nothing is going on while the pifton is in motion,
and the operator muft ftop a while at the end of each
ftroke, that the air may have time to come through this
long, narrow, and crooked paflage, to fill the barrel.
But the chief difficulty which occurred in the execu¬
tion arofe from the clammy oil with which it was ne-
ceflary to impregnate the collar of leathers. Thefe were
always in a itate of ftrong compreffion, that they might
clofely grafp the pifton rod, and prevent all paflage of
air during the motion of the pifton. Whenever there¬
fore the cavities in the pifton rod come into the fituations
neceftary for conne&ing the receiver and barrel, this oil
is fqueezed into them, and choaks them up. Hence it
always happened that it was feme time after the ftroke
before the air could force its way round the pifton rod,
carrying with it the clammy oil which choaked up the
tube Imn ; and when the rarefa&ion had proceeded a
certain length, the diminilhed elafticity of the air was
not able to make its way through thefe obltruftions.
The death of the ingenious author put a ftop to the
improvements by which he hoped to remedy this defeft,
and we have not heard that any other perfon has lince
attempted it. We have inferted it here, becaufe it*
principle of conftru&ion is not only very ingenious, but
entirely different from all others, and may furnifti very
ufeful hints to thofe who are much engaged in the con-
ftrudlion of pneumatic engines. +
In the 73d volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, By Haas
Mr Tiberius Cavallo has given the defeription of an anii
air-pump cpntrired and executed by Mefl'rs Haas and ter’
Hurter, inftrument-makers in London, where thefe ar- \
tiffs have revived Guericke’s method of opening the bar¬
rel-valve during the lall ftroke* of the pump by a force
acting from without. We fttall infert fo much of this
defeription as relates to this diftinguifhing circumftance
of its conftrudftion.
Fig. 26. reprefents a feftion of the bottom of the
barrel, where A A is the barrel and BB the bottom,
which has in its middle a hollow cylinder CCFF, pro-
je&ing about half an inch into the barrel at CC, and
extending a good way downwards to FF. The fpace
between this projection and the tides of the barrel is
filled up by a brafs ring DD, over the top of which is
ftiained a piece of oiled iilk LE, which performs the
office of a valve, covering the hole CC. But this hole
is filled up by a piece of brafs, or rather an affemblage
of pieces ferewed together GGHH1I. It conliits of
three projecting fillets or ihoulders GG, HH, II, which
form two hollows between them, and which are filled
with rings of oiled leather OO, PP, firmly ferewed to¬
gether. The extreme fillets GG, II, are of equal dia¬
meter with the infide of the cylinder, fo as to fill it ex¬
actly, and the whole fluffed with oiled leather, Hide up
and down without allowing any air to pafs. The middle
fillet HH is not fo broad, but thicker. I„ the upper
fillet GG there is formed a fhallow difh about £ of an inch
© deep
M
353
T54
By Orifice,
P N E U
deeo and wide. This difh is covered with a thin plate,
pierced with a grating like Mr Smeaton’s valve-plate.
There is a perforation VX along the axis of thxs piece
which has a paffage out at one fide H, through t
middle fillet, Oppofite to this paffage, and in the fide ot
the cylinder CCFF, is a hole M, communicating with
the conduit pipe MN, which leads to the receiver. Into
the lower end of the perforation is ferewed the pin XL.,
whole tail L paffes through the cap FF. I he tail X
is connefted with a lever RQ^ moveable round the
joint Q. This lever is pulhed upwards by a ipnng,
and thus the whole piece which we have been delcn-
bing is kept in contact with the flip of oiled filk or
valve EE. This is the ufual fituation of things.
Now fuppofe a void formed in the barrel by draw¬
ing up the pifton ; the elafticky of the air in the re¬
ceiver, in the pipe NM, and in the paffage XV, wdl
prefs on the great furface of the valve expofed through
the grating, will raife it, and the pump will perform
precifely as Mr Smeaton’s does. But fuppofe the rare-
faaion to have been fo long continued, that the air is
no longer able to raife the valve ; this will be feen by
the mercury rifing no more in the pump-gage. When
this is perceived, the operator muff prefs with Ins foot
on the end R of the lever RQ^ This draws down the
pin KL, and with it the whole hollow plug with its
Crated top. And thus, inftead of raifing the valve from
its plate, the plate is here drawn down from the valve.
The air now gets in without any obftru&ion.whatever,
and the rarefa&ion proceeds as long as the pifton rifes.
When it is at the top of the barrel, the operator takes
his foot from the. lever, and the fpring preffes up the
pluo- again and fhuts the valve. The pifton rod paffes
through a collar of leather, as in Mr Smeaton’s pump,
and the air is finally difeharged through an outward
valve in the top of the barrel. Thcfe parts have nothing
peculiar in them. . r .
This is an ingenious contnvarxe, iimilar to what
was adapted by Guericke himfelf; and we have no doubt
of thefe pumps performing extremely well if carefully
made : and it feems not difficult to keep the plug per¬
fectly air-tight by fupplying plenty of oil to the lea¬
thers. We cannot fay, however, with precilion what
may be expefted from it, as no account has been given
of its effects befides what Mr Cavalio publifhed in Phk
lofophical Tranfaftions 1783, where he only fays, that
when it had been long ufed, it had, in the courfe of
fome experiments, rarefied 600 times..
Aiming ftill at the removing the obftruttions to
Plate
CCCvJH.
the entry" of the air from the receiver into the bar¬
rels, Mr Prince, an American, has conftrufted a pump
in which there is no valve or cock whatever be¬
tween them. In this pump the pifton rod paffes
through a collar of leathers, and the air is finally dif¬
eharged through a valve, as in the two laft. But we
are chiefly to attend-, in this place, to the communi¬
cation between the barrel and the receiver'. The barrel
widens below into a fort of ciftern ABCD (fig. 27.),
communicating with the receiver by the pipe EF. As
foon, therefore, as the pifton gets into this wider part,
where there is a vacancy all round it, the air of the re¬
ceiver expands freely through the paffage FEE into
the barrel, in which the defeent of the pifton had made
a void. When the pifton is again drawn up, as foon
as it gets into the cylindric part of the barrel,, which
A T I C Sv
it exa&ly fills, it carries up the air before it, and ex- Air.pun
pels it by the top valve; and, that this may be done
more completely, this valve opens into a fecond barrel
or air-pump whofe pifton is rifing at the fame time*
and therefore the valve ef communication (which is the
difeharging valve of the primary pump) opens with the
fame facility as Mr Smeaton’s pifton valve. While the
pifton is rifing, the ah" in the receiver expands into the
barrel; and when the pifton defeends, the air in the
barrel again collapfes till the pifton gets again into the
ciftern, when the air paffes out, and fills the evacuated
barrel, to be expelled by the pifton as before.
No diftinft account has as yet been given of the per¬
formance of this pump. We only learn that great irr-
conveniences were experienced from the ofcillations of
the mercury in the gage. As foon as the pifton comes-
into the ciftern, the air from the receiver immediately
nifties into the barrel, and the mercuiy fhoots up in
the gage, and gets into a Hate of ofcillation. The fub-
fequent rife of the pifton will frequently keep time with
the fecond ofeillation* and increafe it. The defeent of
the pifton produces a downward ofcillation, by allow¬
ing the air below it to collapfe j and, by improperly
timing the ftrokes, this ofcillation becomes fo great as
to make the mercury enter the pump. To prevent this,
and a greater irregularity of working as a condenfer,
valves were put in the pifton • but as thefe require
force to open them, the addition feemed rather to in¬
creafe the evil, by rendering the ofcillations more iimul-
taneous with the ordinary rate of working. If this could
be got over, the conftruaion feems very promifing.
It appears, however, of very difficult execution. It has.
many long, {lender, and crooked paffages, which mult
be drilled through broad plates of brafs, fome of them
appearing fcarcely practicable. It is rare to find plates and
other pieces of brafs without air-holes, which it. would
be very difficult to find out and to clofe t und it mull
be very difficult to clear it of obftruaions : fo that it
appears rather a fuggeftion of theory than a thing war¬
ranted by its aaual performance.
Mr Lavoifier, or fome of the naturalifts who were By
occupied in concert with him in the. inveftigation of thefier,
different fpecies of gas which are difengaged from bo¬
dies in the courfe of chemical operations, has contined-
an air-pump which has great appearance 01 fimplicity,
and, being very different from all others, dtferves to be¬
taken notice of. .
It confifls of two barrels /> m, fig. 28. with folid pi-
ftons k k. The pump-plate a b is pierced at its centre c
with a hole which branches towards each of the baiiels*
as reprefented by cc/y c e.. Between the plate and t e
barrels Aides another plate hi, pierced in the middle with
a branched hcle/^, and near the ends with two holes
h h, i i, which go from its underiide to the ends. The
holes in thefe two.plates are fa adjufted, that when the
plate b i is drawn fo far towards h that the hole 1 comes
within the barrel w, the branch df of the hole in the
middle plate coincides vvi.h the branch c d of the uppet
• plate, and the holes f, g are (hut. Thus a communi¬
cation is eftahlilhed between the barrel / and the re¬
ceiver on the pump-plate, and between, the barrel « and
the external air. In this fituatiou the barrel / will ex-
hauft, and m will difeharge. When the Plfton .
/ is at its mouth, and that of m touches its bottom, t -
Aiding plate is (hiked over to the other fide, io tn
O r COEl*
P N E U M
Atr-j np. rn communicates with the receiver through the paflage
w-- — eCi an(l / communicates with the air by the paflages
It is evident that this Aiding plate performs the of-
- fice of four cocks in a very beautiful and Ample man¬
ner, and that if the piftons apply clofe to the ends
of the barrels, fo as to expel the whole air, the pump
will be perfect. It works, indeed, againft the whole
preflure of the external air. But this may be avoided
by putting valves on the holes A, i ; and thefe can do
no harm, becaufe the air remaining in them never gets
back into the barrel till the pifton be at the farther
end, and the exhauftion of that ftroke completed. But
the bell workmen of London think that it will be in¬
comparably more difficult to execute this cock (for it
is a cock of an unufual form), in fuch a manner that
it lhall be air-tight and yet move with tolerable eafe,
and that it is much more liable to wearing loofe than
common cocks. No accurate accounts have been re¬
ceived of its performance. It mud be acknowledged
to be ingenious, and it may fugged to an intelligent artid
a method of combining common conical cocks upon
one axis fo as to anfwer the fame purpofes much
more effectually ; for which reafon we have inferted it
here.
The lad improvement which we dial! mention is that
publilhed by Mr Cuthbertfon philofophical indrument-
maker in Amderdam. His pump has given fuch evi¬
dences of its perfection, that we can hardly expeCt or
wifh for any thing more complete. But we mud be
allowed to obferve, beforehand, that the fame con-
druCtion was invented, and, in .part, executed before
the end of 1779, by Dr Daniel Rutherford, now pro-
feffor of botany in the univerfity of Edinburgh, who
was at that time engaged in experiments on the pro¬
duction of air during the combudion of bodies in con¬
tact with nitre, and who was vadly dedrous of pro¬
curing a more complete abdraCtion of pure aerial mat¬
ter than could be effected hy Mr Smeaton’s pump.
The compiler of this article had then an opportunity
of perufing the DoCtor’s differtation on this fubjeCt,
which was read in the Philofophical Society of Edin¬
burgh. In this differtation the DoCtor appears fufly
apprifed of the exidence of pure vital air in the ni¬
trous acid as its chief ingredient, and as the caufe of
its mod remarkable phenomena, and to want but a
dep to the difcoveries which have ennobled the name
of Mr Lavoifier. He was particularly anxious to ob¬
tain apart this didingui'diing. ingredient in its compoff-
tion, and, for this purpofe, to abdraCt completely
from the veffel in which he fubjeCted it to examination,
eveiy particle of eladic matter. The writer of this ar¬
ticle propofed to him to cover the bottom of Mr Smea¬
ton’s pidon w ith fome clammy matter, which fhould
take hold of the bottom valve, and Jlart it when the pi-
don was drawm up. A few days after, the DoClor diow-
cd him a drawing of a pump, having a conical me¬
tal valve m the bottom, lurnilhed with a long llender
VVireL-?din-g *n . infide of the pidon-rod with a
gentfc fiiCtion, fudicient for lifting the valve, and fe-
nfc,*™ y
Cut ert
F fu
) ii
mii
tlffi
null
them
5 ant
A T I C S.
cured againft all chance of failure by a fpring a-top, Air-pump.^
which took hold of a notch in the indde of the pillon-
rod about a quarter of an inch from the lower end, fo
as certainly to lift the valve during the laft quarter of
an inch of the pidon’s motion. Being an excellent me¬
chanic, he had executed a valVe on this principle, and
was fully fatisfied with its performance. But having
already condrmed his doftrines refpe&ing the nitrous
acid by incontrovertible experiments, his wifhes to im¬
prove the air-pump lod their incitement, and he thought
no more of it; and not long after this, the ardour of
the philofophers of the Teylerian Society at Haerlem
and Amderdam excited the efforts of Mr Cuthbertfon,
their indrument-maker, to the fame purpofe, and pro¬
duced the mod perfedt air-pump that has yet appeared.
We diall give a defeription of it, and an account of its
performance, in the inventor’s owrn words.
Cuthbertson’s Air-Pump.
Plate CCCCVIII. is a perfpedlive view of this *57
pump, with its two principal gages ferewed into their
places. Thefe need not be ufed together, except
in cafes where the utmod exadlnefs is required. In
common experiments one of them is removed, and a
dop-ferew put in its place. When the pear-gage is
ufed, a fmall round plate, on which the receiver may
dand, mud be fird ferewed into the hole at A ; but this
hole is dopped on other occafions with a fcrewr. When
all the three gages are ufed, and the receiver is exhaud-
ed, the dop-lcrew B, at the bottom of the pump, mud
be uoferewed, to admit the air into the receiver; but
wffien they are not all ufed, either of the other dop-
fcrewrs wall anfwer this purpofe.
Fig. 2. reprefents a crofs-bar for preventing the bar¬
rels from being fliaken by working the pump or by any
accident. Its place in fig. 1. is reprefented by the dot¬
ted lines. It is confined in its place, and kept clofe
down on the barrels by two flips of wrood NN, which
mud be drawn out, as wTell as the ferews OO, when
the pump is to be taken afunder.
Plate CCCCIX. is a fedtion of all the wTorking parts
of the pump, except the wheel and rack, in which there
is nothing uncommon.
Fig. 1. is a fe&ion of one of the barrels, with all
its internal parts; and fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5, are diffe¬
rent parts of the pidon, proportioned to the fize of
the barrel ( a ) and to one another.
In fig. 1. CD reprefents the barrel, F the collar
of leathers, G a hollow cylindrical veffel to contain
oil, R is alfo an oil-veffel to receive the oil which is
drawn, along with the air, through the hole a a, when
the pidon is drawn upwards ; and, when this is full, the
eil is carried over with the air, along the tube T, into
the oil-veffel G. c c is a wire which is driven upwards
from the hole a a by the paffage of the air ; and as
fcon as this has eleaped, it falls down again by its own
weight, fhuts up the hole, and prevents all return of
the air into the barrel. At d d are fixed two pieces
of brafs, to keep the wire ft in'a vertical diredtion,
that it may accurately ‘flint the hole. H is a cylindri-
O 2 : cal
(a) The pidon and barrel are 1,65 inches in diameter, in proportion to which the fcale is drawn. Figures 2,
& J- are, however, of double fi'ze.
10$ P N E U M
Air-pum:'. cal wire or rod which carries the pijfton I, and is made
- jr-. to receive a long vvire^.f, which opens and
{huts the hole L ; and on the other end of the wire
O is fcrewed a nut, which, by Hopping in the narrow-
eft part of the hole, prevents the wire from being
Plate driven up too far. This wire and fcrew are more clear-
CCCCIX, ]y feen in fig. 2. and 6 ; they Hide in a collar of lea¬
ther r r, fig. 2. and 5. in the middle piece of the pifton.
Tig. 4, and 5. are the two mean parts which compofe
the pifton, and, when the pieces 3. and 6. are added to
it, the whole is reprefented by fig. 2. Fig. 5. is a piece
of brats of a conical form, with a {houlder at the bot¬
tom. A long hollow fcrew is cut in it, about f of its
length, and the remainder of the hole, in which there
is no fcrew, is of about the fame diameter with the
icrewed part, except a thin plate at the end, which is
of a width exactly equal to the thicknefs of gg. That
part of the infide of the conical brafs in which no thread
is cut, is filled with oiled leathers with holes through
which gg can Aide ftiffly. There is alfo a male fcrew
with a hole in it, fitted to^, ferving to comprefs the
leathers r r. In fig. 4. naan is the outfide of the pi-
ilon, the infide of which is turned fo as exaftly to fit
the outfide of fig. 5. b b are round leathers about 60
in number, r r is a circular piece of brafs of the fize of
the leathers, and J d is a fcrew ferving to comprefs them.
The fcrew at the end of fig. 3. is made to fit the fcrew
in fig. 5. Now if fig. 6. be puftxed into fig. 5, this in¬
to fig. 4, and fig. 3. be fcrewed into the end of fig. 5,
thefe will compofe the whole of the pifton, as repre¬
fented in fig. 2. H in fig. 1. reprefent^ the fame part
as H in fig. 2, and is that to which the rack is fixed.
If, therefore, this be drawn upwards, it will caufe fig. 5.
to fiiut clofe into fig. 4, and drive out the air above
it; and when it is pufiied downward, it will open as
far as the {houlder a a will permit, and fuffer air to
pafs through. A A fig. 7. is the receiver plate, BB is
a long fquare piece of brafs, fcrewed into the under
fide of the plate, through which a hole is drilled corre-
fponding to that in the centre of the receiver-plates
and with three female fcrews bt c.
The rarefa&ion of the air in the receiver is effected
as follows. Suppofe the pifton at the bottom of the
barrel. The infide of the barrel, from the top of the
pifton to a, contains common air. When the rod is
drawn up, the upper part of the pifton fticks faft in
the barrel till the conical part connected with the rod
fhuts the conical hole, and its {houlder applies clofe to
its bottom. The pifton is now (hut, and therefore the
whole is drawn up by the rack-work, driving the air
, before it through the hole a a, into the oil-veffel at R,
and out into the room by the tube T. The pifton will
then be at the top of the barrel at a, and the wire g g,
will ftand nearly as reprefented in the figure juft raifed
from the hole L, and prevented from riling higher
by the nut O. During this motion the air will expand
in the receiver, and come along the bent tu£e m into
the barrel. Thus the barrel will be filled with air,
which, as the pifton rifes, will be rarefied in proportion
as the capacity of the receiver, pipes, and barrel is to
the barrel alone. When the pifton is moved down again
by the rack-work, it will force the conical part fig. 5.
eut of the hollow part fig. 4. as far as the {boulders ;
£g. 2. will reft on a a fig. 4, which will then be fo
far open as to permit the air to pafs freely through, it,
A T I C S.
while at the fame time the end oFgg is forced againft Air.
the top of the hole, and ftmts k in order to prevent ~”
any air from returning into the receiver. Thus the
pifton, moving downwards, fuffers the air to pafs out
between the fides of fig. 4. and 5. j and, when it is at
the bottom of the barrel, will have the column of air
above it; and, consequently, when drawn upwards it
will lhut, and drive out this air, and, by opening the
hole L at the fame time, will give a free paffage to
more air from the receiver^ This procefs being con¬
tinued, the air of the receiver will be rarefied as far
as its ex pat Jive power will permit. For in this machine
there are no valves to be forced open by the elafticity
of the air in the receiver,, which at laft it is unable to
effect. There is therefore nothing to prevent the air
from expanding to its utmoft degree.
It may be fufpe&ed here, that as the air muft efcape
thro’ the difcharging pafi'age acy Plate CCCCIX. fig. 1.
againft the preffure of a column of oil and the weight
of the wire, there will remain in this paffage a quanti¬
ty of air of confiderable denfity, which will expand
again into the ban-el during the defcent of the pifton,
and thus put a flop to the progrefs of rarefa&ion. This
is the cafe in Mr Smeaton’s pump, and all which have
valves in the pifton. But it is the peculiar excellency
of this pump, that whatever be the denfity of the air
remaining in a r, the rarefaction will ftill go on. It is
worth while to be perfectly convinced of this. Let us
fuppofe that the air contained in ^ r is j part of the
common air which would fill the barrel, and that the
capacity of the barrel is equal to that of the receiver
and paffages, and that the air in the receiver and bar¬
rel is of the fame denfity, the pifton being at the bot¬
tom of the barrel: The barrel will therefore contain
rushy parts of its natural quantity, and the receiver
tuu-u* Now let the pifton be drawn up. No air will
be difcharged at a c, becaufe it will contain the whole
air which was in the barrel, and which has now col-
lap fed into its ordinary bulk. But this does not in the
leaft hinder the air of the receiver from expanding inta
the barrel, and diffufing itfelf equally between both.
Each will now contain of their ordinary quantity
when the pifton is at the top, and a c will contain
as before, or -ruuu* Now pulh down the pifton. The
hole L is inftantly {hut, and the air mac expands in¬
to the barrel, and the barrel now contains ruuty* When
the pifton has reached the bottom, let it be again drawn
up. There will be ToVu difcharged through c, and.
the air in the receiver will again be equally diftributed
between it and the barrel. Therefore the receiver will
pum
now contain ■
1000
When the pifton reaches the bot_
12x . '
tom, there will be—^j-in the barrel. When again
drawn up to the top, there will be
1000
difcharged,
and the receiver will contain—^4 and when the pifton
reaches the bottom, there will be
11
1000
At the
o.-
next ftroke the receiver will contain only &c
1 1000
&c.
Thus it appears, that notwkhftanding the which.
„ always
P N E U M
fair, mp. always expands back again out of the hole a c into the
— barrel, the rarity of the air in the receiver will be
doubled at every Itroke. There is therefore no need
of a fubfidiary air-pump at c, as in the American air-
pump, and in the Swedifh attempt to improve Smea-
ton’s.
In ufmg this air-pump no particular dire&ions are
neceffary, nor is any peculiar care neceffary for keeping
it in order, except that the oil-vefiel A be always.kept
about half full of oil. When the pump has flood long
without being ufed, it wiH be proper to draw a table-
fpoonful of olive-oil through it, by pouring it into the
hole in the middle of the receiver-plate when the pi-
fton is at the bottom of the barrel. Then by work¬
ing the piiton, the oil will be drawn through all the
parts of the pump, and the furplus will be driven
through the tube T into the oil-veflel G- Near the
top of the pifton-rod at H there is a hole which lets
fome oil into the infide of the rod, which gets at the
collar of leathers r r, and keeps the wire air-tight.
When the pump is ufed for condenfation at the fame
time that it rarefies, or ieparately, the piece oontain-
I} i*e kent tube T muft be removed, and fig. 8. put
CC «1X. into its place, and fixed by its ferevvs. Fig. 8. as drawn
in the plate, is intended for a double barreled pump. But
for a fingle barrel only one pieee is ufed, reprefented by
6 a a> the double piece being cut off at the dotted
line a a. In this piece is a female ferew to receive
the end of a long brafs tube, to which a bladder (if
fufficient for the experiment of condenfation), or a
glafs, properly fecured for this purpofe, mull be
ferevved. Then the air which is abllradded from the
receiver on the pump-plate will be forced into the blad¬
der or glafs. But if the pump be double, the appa¬
ratus fig. 8- is ufed, and the long brafs tube ferewed
tm at c.
Fig. g. and 10. reprefent the two gages, which will
be fufficiently explained afterwards. Fig. 9. is ferewed
into c or into the ferew at the other end of c fig. 7.
and fig. 1 o. into the ferew a b fig, 7.
If it be ufed as a fingle pump, either to rarefy or
condenfe, the ferew K, which fallens the rack to the
pilton-rod H, mull be taken out. Then turning the
winch till H is deprelfed as low as polfrble, the ma¬
chine will be fitted to exhauft as a fingle pump; and if
it be required to condenfe, the direftion in n° 8. mull
be obferved with regard to the tube T, and fig. 8.
“ I took (fays Mr Cuthbertfon) two barometer-tubes
of an equal bore with that fixed to the pump. Thefe
were filled with mercury four times boiled. They were
then compared, and Hood exactly at the fame height.
The mercury in one of them was boiled in it four times
moie, without making any change in their height; they
were therefore judged very perfea. One of thefe was
jmmerfed in the ciilern of the pump-gage, and fallened
*n ^ pofition parallel to it, and a Hiding fcale of one
inch was attached to it. This fcale, when the gage
is ufed, mult have its upper edge fet equal with the
lurlace of the mercury in the boiled tube after ex-
haultion,^ and the difference between the height of the
metcury in this and in the other barometer tube may
e o erved to the of an inch; and being clofe
oget ler, no error anfes from their not being exa6lly
vertical, if they are only parallel. This gage will be
better underftood by infpe&ing. fig. 10,
A T I C S. 109
** I ufed a fecond g&ge» which I fhall call a double A r-pump.
fyphon. See Plate CCCCIX. fig. 9. This was alfo ,
prepared with the utmoft care. I had a fcale for mea-
furing the difference between the height of the co¬
lumns in the two legs. It was an inch lorfg, and
divided as the former, and kept in a truly vertical po¬
fition by fufpending it from a point with a weight
hung to it, as reprefented in the figure. Upon compa¬
ring thefe tw'o gages, I always found them to indicate
the fame degree of rarefadlion. I alfo ufed a pear-gage,
though the mofl imperfeft of all, in order to repeat
the curious experiments of Mr Nairne and others.”
When experiments require the utmoft rarefying
power of the pump, the receiver muft not be placed
on leather, either oiled or foaked in water, as is ufually
done. The pump-plate and the edge of the receiver
muft be ground very flat and true, and this with very
fine emery, that no roughnefs may remain. The plate
of the pump muft then be wiped very clean and very'
dry, and the receiver rubbed with a warm cloth till it
become ele£lrical. The receiver being now' fet on the
plate, hog’s lard, either alone or mixed with a little
oil, which has been cleared of water by boiling, muft
be fmeared round its outfide edge. In this condition
the pump will rarefy its utmofl, and what Hill remains
in the receiver will be permanent air. Or a little of this
compofition may be thinly fmeared on the pump-plate;
this will prevent all rifle of feratching it with the edge
of the receiver. Leather of very uniform thicknefs,
long dried Ixdbre a fire, and w-ell foaked in this com¬
pofition, which mufl be cleared of all water by the
firit boiling, wall anfwer very well, and is expeditious,
when receivers are to be frequently fhifted. Other
leathers fhould be at temd foaked in a compoiition con¬
taining a little rofin. This gives it a clamminefs which,
renders it impermeable to air, and is very proper at all
joints of the pump, and all apparatus for pneumatic ex¬
periments. As it is impoflible to render the pear-gage
as dry as other parts of the apparatus, thei'e will be
generally fome variation between this and the other
gages.
When it is only intended to fhow the utmofl power
of the pump, without intending to afeertain the qna*--
lity,of the refiduum, the receiver may be fet on wet
leather. If, in this condition, the air be rarefied as far
as pofiible, the fyphon and barometer gage will indi¬
cate a lefs degree of rarefaction than in the former ex¬
periments. But when the air is let in again, the pear-
‘ffage will point out a rarefaclion forae thoufands of
times greater than it did before. If the true quality
of permanent air after exhauftion be required, the pear-
gage will be nearefl the truth: for w hen the air is
rarefied to a certain degree, the moiftened leather emits
an expanfible fluid, which, filling the receiver, forces
out the permanent air; and the two firll gages indicate
a degree of exhauftion which relates to the whole ela-
flic matter remaining in the receiver, viz, to the ex¬
panfible fluid together with the permanent air ; whereas,
the pear-gage points out the degree of exhauftion, with
relation to the permanent air alone, w hich remains in
the receiver; for by the preflure of the air admitted
into the receiver, the elaflic vapour is reduced to its
former bulk, which is imperceptible.
Many bodies emit this elaftic fluid when the preflure
of the air is much diminilhed; a piece of leather, in its
ordinary
no P N E u M
Alr-puniSTordhimr damp ftate, about an inch fquare, or a bit of
ereen or dry wood, will fupply this for a great while.
When fuch fluids have been generated in any expe¬
riments, the pump muft be carefully cleared of them,
for they remain not only in the receiver, but in t.ie
barrels and paffages, and will again expand when the
exhauftiort has been carried far. .
The bell method of clearing the pmnp is to take a
very large receiver, and, ufing every precaution to ex-
hauft it as far as poffible. Then the expanfible matter
lurking in the barrels and pafles will be diffufed through
the receiver alfo, or will be carried off along wit i its
air. It will be as much rarer than it was before, as the
aggregate capacity of the receiver barrels and paffes is
larger than that of the two laft. . _
The performance of the pump may be judged ot
from the four following experiments.
The two gages being fcrewed into their places, and
the hole in the receiver-plate fliut up, the pump was
made to exhauft as fait as it could. The mercury in
the legs of the fyphon was only ^ of an inch out or
the level, and that in the boiled barometer-tube of
an inch higher than in the one fcrewed to _ the pump.
A ftandard barometer then ftood at 30 inches, and
therefore the pump rarefied the permanent air 1200
times. This is twice as much as Mr Nairne found
Mr Smeaton’s do in its beft flate.. Mr Cavallo feems
difpofed to give a favourable (while we muff fuppofe
it a juft) account of Haas and Hurter’s pump, and
it appears never to have exceeded 600 times.. Mr
Cuthbertfon has often found the mercury within
of an inch of the level in the fyphon-gage, indicating
a rarefa&ion of 3000.
To one end of a glafs tube, 2 inches diameter and
30 inches long, was fitted a brafs cap and collar of
leather, through which a wire was inferted, reaching
about two inches within the tube. This was connefted
with the condu&or of an ekaric machine. The other
end was ground flat and fet on the pump plate.. When
the gages indicated a rarefaaion of 300> t^e ^e“
came fteady and uniform, of a pale colour, though a
little tinged with purple; at 600 the light was of a
pale dullcy white; when 1200 it difappeared in the
middle of the tube, and the tube conduced fo well
that the prime conductor only gave fparks fo faint and
fhort as to be fcarcely perceptible. After taking off
the tube, and making it as dry as pofiible, it was again
connefted with the condu&or, which was giving fparks
two inches long. When the air in it was rarefied ten
times, the fparks were of the fame length. Sometimes
a pencil of light darted along the tube. When the
rarefa&ion was 20, the fpark did not exceed an inch*
and light ftreamed the whole length of the tube. When
the rarefa&ion was 30, the fparks were half an inch,
/and the light ruflied along the tube in great ftreams.
When the rarefa&ion was 100, the fparks were about -f
]ong, and the light filled the tube in an uninterrupted
body. When 300, the appearances were as before.
When 600, the fparks were an<l the light was of
a faint white colour in the middle, but tinged with
purple toward the ends. When 1200, the light was
hardly perceptible in the middle, and was much fainter
at the ends than before, but ftill ruddy. When 1400,
/which was the meft the pump could produce, fix inches
ATI C s.
of the middle of the tube were quite dark, and the Ait pun,
ends free of any tinge of red, and the fparks did not
exceed of an inch.
We tmft that Out readers will not be difpleafed with The beft
the preceding hiftory of the air-pump. The occalionalimprove,
information which it gives yill be of great ufe to everyof
perfon much engaged in pneumatic experiments, andp^^
help him in the contrivance and conftru&ion of the bee:, mu
neceffary apparatus. inhriuii
We may be indulged in one remark, that although
this noble inftrument originated in Germany, all its
improvements were made in this kingdom. Both the
mechanical and pneumatical principles of Mr Boyle’s
conftru&ion were extremely different from the German,
and, in refpe& of expedition and conveniency, much fu-
perior. The double barrel and gage by Hawkefbee were
capital improvements, and on principle; and Mr Smea¬
ton’s method of making the pifton work in rarefied air
made a complete change in the whole procefs.
Aided by this machine, we can make experiments Utility t
eftablifhing and illuftrating the gravity and elafticity of the air.
the air in a much more perfpicuous manner than couldPumP'
be done by the fpontaneous phenomena of nature.
It allows us in the firft place to fiiow the materialityEipcri.
of air in a very diftin& manner. Bodies cannot movememstt
about in the atmofphere without difplacing it. This1^1™^
requires force; and the refiftance of the air always di-utu^'
minifhes the velocity of bodies moving in it. A heavy
body therefore has the velocity of its fall .dkninifhed;
and if the quantity of air difplaced be very great, the
diminution will !be very confiderable. This is the rea-
fon why light bodies, fuch as feathers, fall very (lowly.
Their moving force is very fmall, and can therefore
difplace a great quantity of air only with a very fmall
velocity. But if the fame body be dropped in vacuo,
when there is no air to be difplaced, it falls writh the
whole velocity competent to its gravity. Fig. 29.
Plate CCCCII. reprefents an apparatus by which
a guinea and a downy feather are dropped at the fame
inllant, by opening the forceps which holds them by
means of the flip-wdre in the top of the receiver. If
this be done after the air has been pumped out, the
guinea and the feather will be obferved to reach the
bottom at the fame inffant.
Fig. 30. reprefents another apparatus for (bowing the
fame thing. It confifts of twro fets of brafs vanes put
in feparate axles, in the manner of windmill fails. One
fet has their edges placed in the dire&ion of their
whirling motion, that is, in a plane to which the axis
is perpendicular. The planes of the other fet pafs
through the axis, and they are therefore trimmed fo as
dire&ly to front the air through which they move.
Two fprings a& upon pins proje&ing from the axis;
and their ftrength or tenfions are fo adjufted, that when
they are difengaged in vacuo, the tw'o fets continue in
motion equally long. If they are difengaged in the
air, the vanes which beat the air wdth their planes will
(top long before thofe which cut it edgewdfe.
.We can now abftra& the air almoft completely from jtf;
a dry veffel, fo as to know the precife wTeight of the
air which filled it. The firft experiment we have of
this kind, done wdth accuracy, is that of Dr Hooke,-
Feb, 10. 1664, when he found 114 pints of air to
weigh
' Air.
T;, Tl.
is? ef;
tlie
im
' in
P N E U M
One pint of water was 8TV ounces.
of air
irf*r veiT
ate
:cn.
64
Kj
imp. weigh 945 grains.
  This gives for the fpecific gravity
3 nesince we are thus immerfed in a gravitating fluid, it
on follows, that every body preponderates only with the ex-
■eight cefs of its own weight above that of the air which it
lies difplaces ; for every body lofes by this immerfion the
:rfcd weight of the difplaced air. A cubic foot lofes about
521 grains in frofty weather. We fee balloons even
rife in the air, as a piece of cork rifes in water. A
mafs of water which really contains 850 pounds will
load the fcale of a balance with 849 only, and will be
balanced by about 849t pounds of brafs. This is
evinced by a very pretty experiment, rejprefented iu
fig. 31. A fmall beam is fufpended within a receiver.
To one end of the beam is appended a thin glafs or
copper ball, clofe in every part. This is balanced by
a fmall piece of lead hung on the other arm.. As the
air is pumped out of the receiver, the ball will gradu¬
ally preponderate, and will Regain its equilibrium when
the air is re-admitted.
Some naturalifts have propofed, and actually ufed, a
large globe of light make, fufpended at a beam, for a
barometer. If its capacity is a cubic foot, lTV grains
will indicate the fame change that is indicated by A,
of an inch . of an ordinary barometer.’ But a veffel of
this fize will load a balance too much to leave it fuffr-
ciently fenfible to fmall changes of denlity. Befides,
it is affected by heat and cold, and would require a
very troublefome equation to cor re ft their effects.
It may perhaps be worth while to attend to this in
buying and felling precious commodities ; fuch as pearls,
diamonds, iilk, and fome drugs. As they are generally
fold by brafs or leaden weights, the buyer will have
fome advantage when the air is heavy and the barome¬
ter high. On the other hand, he will have the advan¬
tage in buying gold and mercury when the air is light.
It is needkfs to coniine this obfervation to precious
commodities, for the advantage is the fame in all in
proportion to their levity."
There is a cafe in which this obfervation is of confe-
quence to the philofopher: we mean the meafuring of
time by pendulums. As the accelerating force on a
pendulum is not its whole weight, but the excefs of its
weight over that of the difplaced air, it follows that a
pendulum will vibrate more llowly in the air than in va¬
cuo. A pendulum compofed of lead, iron, and brafs,
may be about 8400 times heavier than the air which
it difplaces when the barometer is at 30 inches and
the thermometer at 32°, and the accelerating force will
be diminilhed about Ty|oo* This will caufe a fecond
pendulum to make about live vibrations lefs in a day
than it would do in vacuo. In order therefore to de¬
duce the accelerative power of gravity from the length
of a pendulum vibrating in the air, we mult, make an
allowance of o ', 17, or AV °f a fecond, per day for
every inch that the barometer Hands lower than 30
inches. But we muff alfo note the temperature of the
air; becaufe when the air is warm it is lefs denfe when
lupporting by its elafticity the fame weight of atmo-
fphere, and we muff know how much its denfity is di-
minifhed by an increafe of temperature. The correftion
is ftill more complicated ; for the change of denfity af-
fe^ts the reflffance of the air, and this affefts the time
ol the vibration,, and this by a law that is not yet well
ift6
A T I C S. in
afeertained. As far as we can determine from any ex- Air rump.
periments that have been made, it appears that the y
change arifing from the altered refiftance takes off about
of the change produced by the altered denfity, and
that a fecond pendulum makes but three vibrations a-
day more in vacuo than in the open air. This is a very
unexpefted refult; but it muff be owned that the expe¬
riments have neither been numerous nor very nicely
made.
The air-pump alfo allows us to Ihow the effefts of the
air’s preffure in a great number of amuflng and inftruc-
tive phenomena. _ 167
When the air is abftrafted from the receiver, it is Experi-
ftrongly preffed to the pump-plate by the incumbent
atmofphere, and it fupports this great preffure in con- efpc(^s 0c
fequence of its circular form. Being equally compreffed the air’s
on all fides, there is no place where it fhould give way preflure,
rather than another p but if it be thin, and not very
round, which is fometimes the cafe, it will be cruftied
to pieces. If we take a fquare thin phial, and apply
an exhaufting fyringe to its mouth, it will not fail be¬
ing cruihed.
As the operation of pumping is fomething like
fucking, many of thefe phenomena are in common dif-
courfe aferibed to fuftion, a word much abufed ; and
this abufe mifleads the mind exceedingly in its contem¬
plation of natural phenomena. Nothing is more ufual
than to fpeak of the fuftion of a fyringe, the fuftion
and draught of a chimney, &c. The following expe¬
riment puts the true caufe of the ftrong adheiion of the
receiver beyond a doubt.
Place a fmall receiver or cupping-glafs on the pump-
plate without covering the central hole, as reprefented piate
in fig. 32. and cover it with a larger receiver. Exhauft CCcCUl
the air from it; then admit it as fuddenly as poffible.
The outer receiver, which after the rarefaftion adhered
ftrongly to the plate, is now loofe, and the cupping-
glafs will be found {ticking faff to it. While the rare¬
faftion was going on^ the air in the fmall receiver alfo
expanded, efcaped from it, and was abffrafted by the
pump. When the external air was fuddenly admitted,
it preffed on the fmali receiver^ and forced it down to
the plate, and thus {hut up all entry. The fmall re¬
ceiver muff now adhere; and there can be no fuftion,
for the pipe of the pump was on the out fide of the
cuppiug-glafs.
This experiment fometimes does not fucceed, becaufe
the air fometimes finds a paffage under the brim of the
cupping-glafs. ■ But if the cupping-glafs be preffed
down by the hand on the greafy leather or plate, every
thing will be made fmooth, and the glafs will be fo little
raifed by the txpanfion of its air during the pumping,
that it will inffantly clap clofe when the air is re-ad- :~
mitted.
In like manner, if a thin fquare phial be fnrniffied 16&
with a valve, opening from within, but {hutting when
preffed from without, and if this phial be put uiider a
receiver, and the air be abftrafted from the receiver, the
air in the phial will expand during the rarefaftion, will
efcape through the valve, and be at laft in a very rare¬
fied Hate within the phial- If the air be now admitted
into the receiver, it will prefs on the flat fides of the
included phial and crufh it to pieces. See fig. 33.
If a piece of wet ox-bladder be laid over the top of
a receiver whofe orifice is about four inches wide, and
5 tire
i,2 P N E U M
Air-purnp the aif be exhaulled from within it, the incumbent at-
   mofphere will prefs down the bladder into a hollow
Plate form, and then burft it inward with a prodigious noife.
CCCClIh See fig. 34. Or if a piece of thin flat glafs be laid over
the receiver, with an oiled leather between them to
make the junftare air-tight, the glafs will be ‘broken
downwards. This muft be done with caution, becauie
the pieces of glafs fometimes fly about with great force._
£70 If there be formed two hemifpherical cups of brafs,
with very flat thick brims, and one of them be fitted
with a neck and ftopcock, as reprefented by fig. 35.
the air may be abflrafted from them by ferewing the
* neck into the hole in the pump-plate. To prevent the
infinuation of air, a ring of oiled leather may be put
between ,the rims. Now unferew the fphere from the
pump, and fix hooks to each, and fufpend them from a
ilrong nail, and hang a fcale to the loweft. It will re¬
quire a confiderable weight to feparate them ; namely,
about 15 pounds for every fquare inch of the great
circle of the fphere. If tin's be' four inches diameter,
it will require near T90 pounds. This pretty experi¬
ment was firft made by Otto Guericke, and on a very
great fcale. His fphere was of a large iize, and, when
exhaufted, the hem'ifpheres could not be drawn afunder
by 20 horfes. It was exhibited, along with many others
equally curious and magnificent, to the Emperor of
Germany and his court, at the breaking up of the diet
of Ratifbon in •1654.
171 If the loaded fyringe mentioned in n° 16. he fufpend-
ed by its prfton from the hook in the top plate of the
receiver, as in fig. 36,- and the air be abftrafted by the
pump, the fyringe will gradually defeend (becaufe the
elafticity of the air, which formerly balanced the pref-
fure of the atmofphere, is now diminifhed by its expan-
fion, and is therefore no longer able to prefs the fyringe
to the piilon), and it will at laft drop off. If the air
be admitted before this happens, the fyringe will imme¬
diately rife again.
s?1 Screw a fhort brafs pipe into the neck of a tranfpor-
ter, n° 107.. on which is fet a tall receiver, and immerTe
it into a cillern of water. On opening the cork the
preffure of the air ow the furface of the water in the
ciftern will force it up through the pipe, and caufe it
to fpout into the receiver with a ftrong jet, becaufe
there is no air within to balance by its elafticity the
173 preffure of the atmofphere. See fig. 37.
liy means jt js jn fame way that the gage of the air-pump
preffure the 0rm8 office. The preflure of the atmofphere
gage of an raifes the mercury in the gage -till the weight of the
air-pump mercury, together with the remaining elafticity of the
acts, ajr jn receiver, are in equilibrio with the whole
preffure of the atmofphere: therefore the height and
weight of the mercury in the gage is the excefs of the
weight of the atmofphere above the elafticity of the in¬
cluded air; and the deficiency of this height from that
of the mercury in the Toricellian tube is the meafure
of this remaining elafticity.
174. If a Toricellian tube be put under a tall receiver, as
fhown in fig. 38. and the air be exhaufted, the mercury
in the tube will defeend while that in the gage will rife ;
and the fum of their heights will always be the fame,
. that is, equal to the height in an ordinary barometer.
The height of the mercury in the receiver is the effeft
and meafure of the remaining elafticity of the included
and the height in the pump-gage is the unbalanced
A T t C S.
preffure of the. atmofphere. This is a very inftru&iveAir pumj
experiment, perfectly iimilar to Mr Auzout’s, mentioned v-»*
in n° 34. and completely eftablifhes and illuilrates the
whole dexftrine of atmofpheric preffure.
We get a fimilar illuftration and confirmation (ifwate/rif
fuch a thing be now needed) of the cauie of the rife of in pumps,
water in pumps, by ferewing a fyringe into the top
plate of a receiver, which fyringe has a ffiort glafs pipe
plunging into a fmall cup of water. See fig. 39. When
the pifton-rod is drawn up, the water rifes in the glafs
pipe, as in any other pump, of which this is a minia¬
ture reprefentation. But if the air has been previoufly
exhaufted from the receiver, there is nothing to prefs
on the water in the Iktle jar ; and it will not rife in the
glafs pipe though the pifton of the fyringe be drawn
to the top. 174
Analagous to the rife of water in pumps is its rife and more
and motion in fyphons. Suppofe a pipe A BCD, fig. 4c- in fyph®
bent at right angles at B and C, and having its two
ends immerfed in the cilterns of water A and D. Let
the kg CD be longer than ths leg BA, and let the
whole be full of water. The water is preffed upwards
at A with a force equal to the weight of the column
of air EA reaching to the top of the atmofphere ; but
it is preffed downwards by the weight of the column
of water BA. The water at E is preffed downwards
by the weight of the column CD, and upwards by .the
weight of the column of air FD reaching to the top
of the atmofpherc. The two columns of air differ very
little in their weight, and may without any fenfible
error be confidered as equal. Therefore there is a fu-
periority of preffure downwards at D, and the water
will flow out there. The preffure of the air will raife
the water in the leg AB, and thus the ftream will be
kept up till the veffel A is emptied as low as the orifice of
the leg BA, provided the height of AB is not greater
than what the preffure of the atmofphere can balance,
that is, does not exceed 32 or 33 feet for water, 33
inches for mercury, &c.
A fyphon then will always run from that veffel whofe
furface is higheft ; the form of the pipe is indifferent,
becaufe the hydroftatical preffures depend on the verti¬
cal height only. It muft; be filled with water by fome
other contrivance, fuch as a funnel, or a pump ap¬
plied a-top ; and the funnel muft be flopped up, other-
wife the air would get in, and the water would fall in
both kgs.
If the fyphon have equal kgs, as in fig. 41. and be *77
turned up at the ends, it will remain full of water, and
be ready for ufe. It need only he dipped into any vef¬
fel of water, and the water will then flow out at the
other end of the fyphon. This is call the Wirtinberg
fyphon, and is reprefented in fig. 41. Syphons will al-
terwards be confidered more minutely under the title of
Pkhumatical Engines, at the end of this article- 17?
What is called the fyphon fountain, conft rafted on this Thefyjh
principle, is fhown in fig. 42. where AB is a tall re-f0UIlta111,
ceiver, ftanding in a wide bafon DE, which is fup-
ported on the pedeilal H by the hollow pillar EG. In
the centre of the receiver is a jet pipe C, and in the
top a ground ftopper A. Near the bafe of the pillar
is a cock N, and in the pedeftal is another cock O.
Fill the bafon DE with water within half an inch of
the brim. Then pour in water at the top of the re¬
ceiver (the coek N being Ihut) till it is about half full,
6 and
5
r.
it;
;
i
I> N 3E U M
ieri. and then put in the ftopper. A little water will run
ts on out into the veflcl DE. But before it runs over, open
> &c- t^e cock N, and thawater will run into the cittern El;
ancj by the time that the pipe C appears above water,
a jet will rife from it, and continue as long as water
is fupplied from the bafon DE. The paflage into the
bafe cittern may be fo tempered by the cock N that
the water within the receiver (hall keep at the fame
height, and what runs into the bafe may be received
from the cock O into another vefiel, and returned into
DE, to keep up the ftream.
Uier cf This pretty philofophical toy may be conftru&ed in
mftruc- the following manner. BB, fig. 42. nQ 2. is the fer-
a?d ril or cap into which the receiver is cemented. From
Se"’ Jts centre defeends the jet pipe Cfl, Hoping outwards,
CCII1. to give room for the difeharging pipe b d of larger dia¬
meter, whole lower extremity d fits tightly into the
top of the hollow pillar FG.
The operation of the toy is eafily underftood. Sup-
pofe the dittance from C to H ( n° 1. j three feet, which is
about tt of the height at which the atmofphere would
fupport a column of water. The water poured into
AB would defeend through FG (the hole A being
ihut) till the air has expanded and then it would
Hop. If the pipe Ca be now opened, the preffure of
the air on the furface of the water in the cittern DE
will caufe it to fpout through C to the height of three
feet nearly, and the water will continue to defeend
through the pipe FG. By tempering the cock N fo as to
allow the water to pafs through it as fall as it is fupplied
by the jet, the amufement may be continued a long
time. It will flop at latt, however; becaufe, as the jet
is made into rarefied air, a little air will be extricated
from the water, which will gradually accumulate in the
receiver, and diminilh its rarefaftion, which is the mo¬
ving caufe of the jet. This indeed is an inconvenience
felt in every employment of fyphons, fo much the
more remarkably as their top is higher than the furface
of the water in the cittern of fupply.
Cafes of this employment of a fyphon ate not unfne-
quent. When water collefted at A (fig. 43.) is to be
conduced in a pipe to C, fituated in a lower part
of the country, it fometimes happens, as between
Eochend and Leith, that the intervening ground is
higher than the fountain-head as at B. A forcing
pump is ere&ed at A, and the water forced along the
pipe. Once it runs out at C, the pump may be re¬
moved, and the water will continue to run on the fy¬
phon principle, provided BD do not exceed 33 feet.
But the water in that part of the conduit which is
above the horizontal plane AD, is in the fame Hate as
in a receiver of rarefied air, and gives out fome of the
air which is chemically united with it. This gradually
accumulates in the elevated part of the conduit, and at
lall choaks it entirely. When this happens, the forcing
pump mutt again be worked. Although the eleva-
tion in the Leith conduit is only about eight or ten
feet, it will feldom run for 12 hours. N. B. This air
cannot be dilcharged by the ufual air-cocks; for if
there were an opening at B, the air would rutti in, and
immediately Hop the motion.
rLis combination of air with water is very dittin£l-
ly feen by means of the air-pump. If a fmall glais con¬
taining cold water, frefh drawn from the fpring, be ex-
poied, as in fig. 44. under the receiver, and the air
Vol. XV. Part L
1S9
ihons
often
i thus.
181
ie air-
mp dif-
vers the
ubina-
n of air
th water,
A T I C S , 113
rarefied, fmall bubbles will be obferved to form on the hlafticity,
inner furface of the glafs, or on the furface of any body 'c' .
immerfed in it, which will increafe in fize, and then piate
detach themfclvgs from the glafs and reach the top ; CCCCIW
as the rarefaction advances, the whole water be¬
gins to fhow very minute air-bubbles rifing to the
top; and this appearance will continue for a very
long time, till it be completely difengaged. Wanning
the water will occafion a ftill farther reparation of
air, and a boiling heat will feparate all that can be
difengaged. The reafon afligned for thefe air-bubbles
firft appearing on the furfaee of the glafs, &c. is,
that air is attracted by bodies, and adheres to their
furface. This may be fo. But it is more probably
owing to the attraction of the water for the glafs,
which caufes it to quit the air which it held in folution,
in the fame manner as we fee it happen when it is mix¬
ed with fpirits-of-wine, with vitriolic acid, &c. or when
falts or fugar are diflblved in it. For if we pour out
the water which has been purged of air by boiling in
vacuoy and fill the glafs with frefh water, we fhall ob-
ferve the fame thing, although a film of the purified
water was left adhering to the glafs. In this cafe there
can be no air adhering to the glafs.
Water thus purged of air by boiling (or even with* 18*
out boiling) in vacuo, will again abforb air when expo-
fed to the atmofphere. The bell demonftration of this
is to fill with this water a phial, leaving about the fize
of a pea not filled. Immerfe this in a vefiel of water,
with the mouth undermolt, by which means the air-
bubble will mount up to the bottom of the phial. Af¬
ter fome days Handing in this condition, the air-bubble
will be completely abforbed, and the veflel quite filled
with water.
The air in this Hate of chemical folution has lolt
its elatticity, for the water is not more compretti-
ble than common water. It is alfo found that water
brought up from a great depth under ground contains
much more air than water at the lurlace. Indeed foun¬
tain waters differ exceedingly in this refpeCl. The wa¬
ter which now comes into the city of Edinburgh by
pipes contains fo much as to throw it into a confiderable
ebullition in vacuo. Other liquors contain much great¬
er quantities of elaftic fluids in this ioofely combined
ftate. A glafs of beer treated in the fame way will be
almoft wholly converted into froth by the efcape of its
fixed air, and will have loft entirely the prickling fmart-
nefs which is fo agreeable, and it become quite vapid.
The air-pump gives us, in the next place, a great va-And illir-
riety of experiments illuftrative of the air's elafticity and’>rate^^e
expanfibility. The very operation of exhauttion, as it ar)lJ
is called, is an inttance of its great, and hitherto un-expanfibi-
limited, expanfibility. But this is not palpably exhibited fity.
to view. The following experiments fhow it moll di-
ftindlly. 1S4.
1 ft, Put a flaccid bladder, of which the neck isExpcri-
firmly tied with a thread, under a receiver, and workT61^8
the pump. The bladder will gradually fwell, and will thefc'pro-
even be fully dillended. ETpon readmitting the air pertics.
into the receiver, the bladder gradually collapfes again
into its former dimenfions ; while the bladder is flaccid,
the air within it is of the fame denfity and elafticity
with the furrounding air, and its elafticity balances
the preffure of the atmofphere. When part of the air
oi the receiver is abftracted, the remainder ex.pands fo
’•P as
m r N R u M
Frprsi. a, (Ul! to fill the receiver; but by cxpsudlug, its dafij-
mcuts on cjty jg plainly dimmiftied ; for we fee by the tad, t.iat
w*,r- , the elafticity of the air of the receiver no longer balan¬
ces the elafticity of that in the bladder, as it no longer
keeps it in its dimenfions. The air in the bladder ex¬
pands alio: it expands till its diminifhed elafticity is again
in equilibrio with the diminifhed elafticity ot the air m
the receiver ; that is, till its denfity is the fame. When
all the wrinkles of the bladder have difappeared, its, atr
can expand no more, although we continue to diminifh
the elafticity of the air ot the receiver by further rare-
fadion. The bladder now tends to burit; and if it be
pierced by a point or knife faftened to the flip-wire, the
air will rufh out, and the mercury defcend rapidly in the
gage. _
185 If a phial or tube be partly filled with water, and im-
merfed in a vefTel of water with tlie mouth downwards,
the air will occupy the upper part of the phial.. It this
apparatus be put under a receiver, and the air be ab-
Itraded, the air in the phial will gradually expand, al¬
lowing the water to run out by its weight till the fur-
face of the water be on a level within and without.
When this is the cafe, we muft grant that the denfity
and elafticity of the air in the phial is the fame with that
in the receiver. When we work the pump again, we
fhall obferve the air in the phial expand ftill more, and
come out of the water in bubbles. Continuing the ope¬
ration, we {hail fee the air continually efcaping from the
phial: when this is over, it (hows that the pump can ra¬
refy no more. If we now admit the air into the receiver,
we {hall fee the water rife into the phial, and at laft
almoft completely fill it, leaving only a very fmall bubble
cf air at top. This bubble had expanded fo as to fill the
oTeCIV w^°^e See this reprefented in fig. 45.
jSG ' Every one muft have obferved a cavity at the big end
of an egg between the (hell and die white. rI he white
and yolk are contained in a thin membrane or bladder
which adheres loofely to the fliell, but is detached from
it at that part; and this cavity increafes by keeping the
egg in a dry place. One may form a judgment of its
fixe, and therefore of the frefhnefs of the egg, by touch¬
ing it with the tongue ; for the {hell, where it is not in
contadl with the contents, will prefently feel warm, be¬
ing quickly heated by the tongue, while the reft oi the
egg will feel cold.
* If a hole be made in the oppofite end of the egg, and
it be fet on a little tripod, and put under a receiver,
the expanlion of the air in the cavity of the egg
will force the contents through the hole till the egg
, be quite emptied : or, if nearly one half of the egg be
taken away at the other end, and the white and yolk
taken out, and the Ihell he put under a receiver, and
the air ahft rafted, the air in the cavity of the egg
will expand, gradually detaching the membrane from
the {hell, till it caufes it to fwell out, and gives the
whole the appearance of an entire egg.— In like man¬
ner {hriveiled apples and other fruits will fwell in vacuo
by the expanfion ©f the air confined in their cavities.
187 If a piece of wood, a twig with green leaves, charcoal,
plafter of Paris, &c. be kept under water in vacuo, a
prodigious quantity of air will be extrafted ; and if we
readmit the air into the receiver, it will force the water
into the pores of the body. In this cafe the body will
not fwim in water as it did before, {bowing that the
vegetable fibres are fpccifically heavier than water. It
A T I C S,
is found, however, that the air contained in the pith and
bark, fuch as cork, is not ail extricated in this way ; and &c
that much of it is contained in vehicles which have no —v*“-
outlet: being feertted into them in the procefs of vegeta¬
tion, as it is iecreted into the air-bladder of fifties, where
k is generally found in a pretty comprefied Hate, confi-
derably denier than the furrounding air. 'The air-bladder
of a lifti is furrounded by circular and longitudinal muf-
cles, by which the fifti can comprefs the air ftill further;
and, by ceafing to aft with them, allow it to fwell out
again. It is in this manner that the fiih can fuit its
fpecific gravity to its fituation in the water, fo as to
have no tendency cither to rife or fink: but if the fifti
be. put into the receiver of an air-pump, the rarefaftion
of the air obliges the fifti to aft more ftrongly with
thefe contrafting rnufcles, in order to adjuft its fpecific
gravity ; and ft too much air has.been abftrafted from
the receiver, the fifti is no longer able to keep its air-
bladder in the proper degree of comprefiion. It becomes
therefore too buoyant, and comes to the top of the wa¬
ter, and is obliged to Itruggle with its tail and fins ia
order to get down; frequently in vain. The air-bladder
fometxmes burfts, and the filh goes to the bottom, and
can no longer keep above without the continual attion
of its tail and fins. When fifties die, they commonly
float at top, their contraftive aftion being now at an end.
All this may be illuftrated (but very imperfeftly) by a
imall half-blown bladder, to which is appended a bit of
lead, juft fo heavy as to make it fink in water: when
this is put under a receiver, and the air abftracfed, the
bubble will rife to the top; and, by nicely adjufting the
rarefaftion, it maybe kept at any height. See fig. 46.
The play-things called Cartejian devils are fimilar to 18?
this : they are hollow glafs figures, having a fmaii aper¬
ture in the lower part of the figures, as at the point oft
the foot; their weight is adjufted fo tliat they fwim up¬
right in water. When put ii)to a tall jar filled to the
top, and having a piece of leather tied over it, thev will
fink in the water, by preffing on the leather with the
ball of the hand : this, by compreffing the water, forces
feme of it to enter into the figure and makes it hea¬
vier than the water; for which reafon it finks, but riles
again on removing the preflhre of the hand. See fip.
47, n° I. and 2.
If a half-blown ox-bladder be put into a box, and
great weights laid on it, and the whole be put under a
receiver, and the air abftrafted ; the air will, by expand¬
ing, lift up the weights, though above an hundred
pounds. See fig. 4S. ^
By fuch experiments the great expanfibility of the Comprti
air is abundantly illuftrated, as its compreffibility wasif'
formerly by means of the condenlmg fyringe. We^^l
now fee that the two fets of experiments form an unin- r0 {late
terrupted chain ; and that there is no particular ftate of the airvi
the air’s denfity where the compreflibility and expanfi-dl®ro1^
bility is remarkably diflimilar. Air in its ordinary ftate
expands ; becaufe its ordinary ftate is a ftate of com-
preflion by the weight of the atmofphere : and if there
were a pit about 33 miles deep, the air at the bottom
would probably be as denfe as water ; and if it were 50
miles deep, it would be as denfe as gold, if ft did not be¬
come a liquid before this depth ; nay, if a bottle with
its mouth undermoft -were immerfed fix miles under
water, it would probably be as denfe as water; we fay
probably, for this depends on the nature of its compref¬
fibility .
'91
H ii y ex-
pi ned as
fejied to
P N E U M
fibilitv ; that is, on the relation which fubfifls between
the cornprefiion and the force which produces it.
This is the circurnilance of its conllitution, which we
now proceed to examine; and it is evidently a very im¬
portant circumllnnce. We have long ago obferved,
that the great comprefiibility and permanent fluidity of
air, obferved in a vafl variety of phenomena, is totally
inexplicable, on the fuppofltion that the particles of air
are like fo many baHs ot fponge or fo many foot-balls.
Give to thofe what comprefiibility you pleafe, common
air could no more be fluid than a mafs of clay ; it could
no more be fluid than a mafs of fuch balls prefled into a
box. It can be demonfirated (and indeed hardly needs
a demonftration), that before a parcel of fuch balls, juil
touching each other, can be fqueezed into half their
prefent dimeniions, their globular (hape will be entirely
gone, and each will have become a perfect cube, touch¬
ing fix other cubes with it's whole furface; and thefe
cubes will be ftrongly comprelTed together, fo that mo¬
tion could never be performed through among them by
any folid body without a very great force. Whereas
we know that in this (late air is juft as permeable to
ever)' body as the common air that we breathe. There
is no way in which we can reprefent this fluidity to our
imagination but by conceiving air to coniift of particles,
not only diferete, but diftant from each other, and actu¬
ated by repuliive forces, or fomething analogous to them.
It is an idle fubterfuge, to which fome naturalifts have
recourfe, faying, that they are kept afunder by an in¬
tervening ether, or elaftic fluid of any other name.
This is only removing the difficulty a ftep farther off:
ror the elalticity of this fluid requires the fame explana¬
tion ; and therefore it is neceflary, in obedience to the
rules or juft reafoning, to begin the inquiry here ; that
is, to determine from the phenomena what is the analo¬
gy between the diftances of the particles and the repul-
tive forces exerted at thele diftances, proceeding in the
lame way as in the examination of planetary gravitation.
We lhall learn the analogy by attending to the analogy
between the compreffmg force and the denlity.
For the denfity depends on the diftance between the
particles; the nearer they are to each other, the denfer
is the air. Suppofe a fquare pipe one inch wide and
eight inches long, {hut at one end, and filled with com¬
mon air; then fuppofe a plug fo nicely fitted to this
pipe that no air can pafs by it {ides ; fuppofe this pi-
iton thruft down to within an inch of the bottom ; it is
evident that the air which formerly filled the whole pipe
now occupies the fpace of one cubic inch, which con¬
tains the fame number of particles as were formerly dif-
luled over eight cubic inches.
1 he condenfation would have been the fame if the air
which fills a cube whofe fide is two inches had been
quecze into a cube of one inch, for the cube of two
inches alfo contains eight inches. Now, in this cafe it
s evi ent t at the diftance between the particles would
•r rC ?Cet f° lts hah in every diredftion. In like manner,
a cube whofe fide is three inches, and which theiefore
ran f rt7 lnCheS? 1>e fTieezed into, one inch, the dtf-
<r "7 °f the Particles will be one third of what it was: in
general the diftance of tlie particles will be as the cube-
thef^aceh^ in^° which they are compreffed. If
,v.„ £nCe e T’ V’ ^c* it8 former dimeniions,
z ithe pfichwiu be - t> h &c. Nov;
• ^y> m its Itndf fenfe, expreffes the vicini-
A T I C S. r 15
ty of the particles; denfi arbnres are trees grooving near Compreffi-
each other. The meafure of this vicinity therefore is &c.
the true meafure of the denfity ; and when 27 inches of v™—-'
air are compnefled into one, we ftiould fay that it is
three times as denfe 5 but we fay, that it is 27 times
denfer. T9>
Denfity is therefore ufed in a fenfe different from itsD ■ier
ftrifteft acceptation: it expreffes the comparative number cxtdana*
of equidiftant particles contained in the fame bulk/1011*
This is alfo abundantly preciie, when we compare bodies
of the fame kind, differing in denfity only; but we alfo
fay, that gold is 19 times denfer than water, becaufe
the fame bulk of it is 19 times heavier. This affertion
proceeds on the affumption, or the fa&, that every ulti¬
mate atom of terreftrial matter is equally heavy : a par¬
ticle of gold may contain more or fewer atoms of matter
than a particle of water. In fuch a cafe, therefore, the
term denfity has little or no reference to the vicinity of
the particles ; and is only a term of comparifon of other
qualities or accidents.
But when we fpeak of the refpe&ive denfities of the
fame fubftanee in its different Hates of compreffion, the
word dcr.ftty is ftriftly conne&ed with vicinity of parti¬
cles, and we may fafely take either of the meafure?.
We {hall .abide by the common acceptation, and call
that air eight times as denfe which has eight times as
many particles in the fame bulk, although the particles
are only twice as near to each other.
Thus then we fee, that by obferving the analogy he-The aiu
tween the compreffing force and the denfity, we fliall lo£y
difeover the analogy between the compi effing force andtv'^tT! ll d
the diftance of the particles. Now the force which is n,,"1 force
neceffary for eomprefiing two particles of air to a cer-and the de¬
tain vicinity is a proper meafure of the elafticity of the ftance *>(
particles correfponding to that vicinity or diftance ; for*'//*/ '
it balances it, and forces which balance mult be efteem- ’L’’ ^
ed equal. Elafticity is a diftindtive name for that cor-
pufeuiar force which keeps the particles at that diftance :
therefore oblervations made oh the analogy between
the comprefiing force and the denfity of air will give us
the law of its corpufcular force, in the fame way that
obfervations on tire fimultaneous deflections of the pla¬
nets towards the fun give us the law of celeftial gravi¬
tation.
But the fenflble comprefling forces which we are able
to apply is at once exerted on unknown thoufands of
particles, while it is the law of adtion of a Angle par¬
ticle that we want to difeover. We mult therefore
know the proportion of the numbers of particles on which
the compreffing force is exerted. It is eafy to fee, that
fince the diftance of the particles is as the cube root of
the denfity inverfely, the number of particles in phyfical
eontadft with the comprefiing furface mult be as the
fquare of this root. Thus when a cube of 8 inches is
compreffed into one inch, and the particles are twice as
near each other as they were before, there muft he four
times the number of particles in contadt with each of
the lides of this cubical inch ; or, when we have pufhed
down the fquare pifton of the pipe fpoken of above to
within an inch ot the bottom, there will be four times
the number of particles immediately contiguous to the
pifton, and refilling the Comprefiion ; and in order to
obtain the force really exerted on one particle, and the
elafticity of that particle, we muft divide the whole com¬
prefiing force by 4. In like manner, if we have com-
P z
ii 6
P N E
prelTed air into of its former bulk, and brought the
particles to -f of their former didance, we mull divide
the comprefling force by 9. In general if rfexpiels t e
u M A T I C S.
denfity,
tides
will exprefs the diitance .’c of the par-
will exprefs the vicinity or real
WJ ,
3V'V; or dr.
'9*
7xp*’ri-
denfity; and will exprefs the number of particles
adding on the compreffing furface : and if / exprefs the
accumulated external comprefling force, /- will exprefs
<r
the force adding on one particle ; and therefore the
elaldicity of that particle correfponding to the diidance x.
We may now proceed to confider the experiments oy
comprcf-
fion.
i<)6
Compreffi--
j.4*.vv r- iiiciy iiuv'v y 1    —r.
^Kn.tS e^a* "'kiol1 iaw °f compreffion is to be eltabliihed,
of The firft experiments to this purpofe were thofe made
by Mr Boyle, pubhfhed in 1661 in his Ijtfcrijio Doc¬
trine de /lei is Elatere contra 1 inumy and exhibited before
the Royal Society the year before. Mariotte made ex¬
periments cf the fame kind, which were pubhfhed in 1676
in bis EJfaifur la Nature de l* Air and Trade cles Mauve mens
des Eaux. The mod copious experiments are thofe by
Sulzer (Mem. Berlin, ix.), thdfe by Fontana (Opufc.
Phyfico-Math.)y and thofe by Sir George Shuckbourgh
and Gen. Roy.
  In order to examine the comprefiibility of air that is
bifity of air not rarer than the atmofphere at the furface of the
not rarer we employ a bent tube or fyphon ABCD
lmorPhete(fig. 49-)> Hermetically feakd at A and open at D.
at the The fhort leg AB mud,be very, accurately divided in
earth’s fur-the proportion of its folid contents, and fitted with a
*aCp, fcale whofe units denote equal increments, not of length,
CCCCIV. but capacity. There are various ways of doing this ;
but it requires the mod fcrupulous attention, and with¬
out this the experiments are of no value. In particu¬
lar, the arched form at A mud be noticed. A fmall
quantity of mercury mud then be poured into the tube,
and paffed backwards and forwards till it dands (the
tube being held in a vertical pofition) on a level at B
and C. Then we are certain that the included air is
of the fame denfity with that of the contiguous atmo-
1'phere. Mercury is now poured into the leg DC,
which will fill it, fuppofe to G, and will comprefs the
air into a fmaller fpace AE. Draw the horizontal
line EF : the new bulk of the comprefled air is evi¬
dently AE, meafured by the adjacent fcale, and the ad¬
dition made to the compreffing force of the atmofphere
is the weight of the column GF. Produce GF down¬
wards to H, till FH is equal to the height fhown by a
Toricellian tube filled with the fame mercury ; then the
whole comprefling force is HG. This is evidently
the meafure of the eladicity of the comprefled air in
AE, for it balances it. Now pour in more mercury,
and let it rife to £, cemprefiing the air into A e. Draw
the horizontal line e/, and make fA equal t« FH; then
AB
A e wiTi be the new bulk of the comprefled air, 
A e
will be its new denfity, and Ag will be the meafure of
the new eladicity. This operation may be extended as
far as »rc pleafe, by lengthening the tube CD? and ta¬
king care that it be drong enough to refid the great Co
preffure. Great care mud" be taken to keep the whole
in a coridant temperature, becaufe the eladicity of air is
greatly affe&ed by heat, and the change by any increafe
of temperature is diderent according to its denfity or
compreffion.
The experiments of Boyle, Mariotte, Amontons, and tixpe.i.
others, were not extended to very great compreffions,
the denfity of the air not having been quadrupled in
any of them; nor do they feem to have^ been made n;ceiyma(i
with very great nicety. It may be collefted trom them in n k extim
general, that the eladicity of the air is very nearly pro-e<i to ver,
portioned to its denfity ; and accordingly this law
almod immediately acquiefced in, and was called the1
Boy'ean law : it is accordingly aflumed by almod all
writers on the fubjeft as exacd. Of late years, how¬
ever, there occurred queftions in which it was of im*
portance that this point fhould be more fcrupuloufly
fettled, and the former experiments were repeated and
extended. Sulzer and Fontana have carried them far¬
ther than any other. Sulzer compreffed air into | of
its former dimenfions. < _ 19?
Confiderable varieties and irregularities are to be ob- Varieue-,
fervedin thefe experiments. It is extremely difficult to
preferve the temperature of the apparatus, particularly'
of the leg AB, which is mod handled. A great quan¬
tity of mercury mud be employed ; and it does not ap¬
pear that philofophers have been careful to have it pre-
cifely fimilar to that in the barometer, which gives us
the unit of compreffing force and of eladicity. The
mercury in the barometer fhould be pure and boiled.
If the mercury in the fyphon is adulterated with bif-
muth and tin, which it commonly is to a confiderable
degree, the compreffing force, and confequently the
eladicity, will appear greater than the truth. If the
barometer has not been nicely fitted, it will be lower
than it fliould be, and the compreffing force will appear
too great, becaufe the unit is too fmall; and this error
will be mod remarkable in the fmaller compreffions.
The greated fource of error and irregularity in the Heteroi
experiments is the very heterogeneous nature of the air :ie0U5J
itfelf. Air is a folvent of all fluids, all vapours, andTrethe
perhaps of many folid bodies. It is highly improbable ^eatell
that the different compounds Avail have the fame eladi-foufcei
city, or even the fame law of eladicity : and it is wellerror'
known, that air, loaded with water or other volatile
bodies, is much more expanfible by heat than pure air;
nay, it would appear from many experiments, that cer¬
tain determinate changes both of denfity and of tempe¬
rature, caufe air to let go the vapours which it holds in
folution. Cold caufes it to precipitate water, as appears
in dew; fo does rarefaction, as is feen in the receiver of
an air-pump.
In general, it appears that the eladicity of air does The a;
not increafe quite fo fad as its denfity. This will be
bed feen by the following tables, calculated from the jncfe2:
experiments of Mr Sulzer, The column E in each fetfaftas
of experiments expreffes the length of the column GH, denfr',
the unit being FH, while the column D expreffes
AB
AE’
i ft Set.
D
1,000
1,100
1)24-2
1,375
M71
1,692
l»833
2, coo
2,288
2.444
3’T43
3,666
4,coo
4>444
4,8a8
5»500
5,882
E
I ,coo
p
24 Set.
N E U
3<1 Set.
M
D
E
1,000
»i94
1 >375
i»°93 J !>23^
1,211
1,284
1*5 >9
1,669
1,796
^958
2,130
2,37*
2,936
3*391
3,706
4 °3>
4’43^
4,922
5,522
1
r
1,466
i»57'
1,692
2,000
2,444
1,000
1,224
1,288
i>3?2
1,41^
'>5l5
1,647
1,964
2.392
3>T 43 ! 3-°78
3,6^6 13,575
4.444 4.320
5,500.5,096
7.333 6>694
D
l,OCO
1,091
1,200
I»333
1,500
i.7H
2,000
2,400
3,000
4,000
6,coo
8,000
E
1,000
1,076
1,183
1>472
1,659
1,900
2,241
2.793
3.631
5.297
6,835
Tlierc appears in thefe experiments fulFicient grounds
for calling in queftion the Boylean law; and the writer
of this article thought it incumbent on him to repeat
them with fome precautions, which probably had not
been attended to by Mr Sulzer. He was particularly
anxious to have the air as free as poffible from moifture.
For tills purpofe, having detached the fhort leg of the
fyphon, which was 34 inches long, he boiled mercury in
it, and filled it with mercury boiling hot. He took a
tinplate veffel of fufficient capacity, and put into it a
quantity of powdered quicklime juft taken from the
kiln ; and having clofed tire mouth, he agitated the
lime through the air in the veffel, and allowed it to re¬
main there all night. He then emptied the mercury
out of the fyphon into this veffel, keeping the open end
far within it. By this means the fhort leg of the fy¬
phon was filled with very dry air. The other part
was now joined, and boiled mercury put into the bend
of the fyphon ; and the experiment was then profecuted
with mercury which had been recently boiled, and wa's
the fame with which the barometer had been carefully
filled.
The refults of the experiments are expreffed in the
followinrr table.
Dry Air.
D
1,003
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,500
6,003
7,620
E
1,000
‘.957
2,848
3 737
4.950
5.342
< 6,490
Moift Air.
D
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,500
6,000
7,620
1,000
1,920
2,839
3,726
5,000
5,452
6,775
Camp. Air.
D
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
1,000
1,909
2,845
3>7I8
5 500 I 5>104
6,000 : 5,463
7,620 I 6,812
^wi-e — aPPears again in the cleareft manner that the
dafticities do not increafe as fall as the denfities, and
the differences are even greater than in Mr Sulzer’s ex¬
periments.
The fecand table contains the refults of experiment;
A T I C S. 117
made on very damp air in a warm fummev’s morning. EMicity.
In thefe it appears that the elafticities are almofl pre- v-—'
cifely proportional to the denfities -f- a fmall conftant
quantity, nearly o, 1 x deviating from this rule chiefly
between the denfities 1 and 1,5, within which limits we
have very nearly D=.E100 1T As this air is nearer
to the confutation of atmofpheric air than the former,
this rule may be fafely followed in cafes where atmofphe¬
ric air is concerned, as in meafuring the depths of pits -
by the barometer.
The third table fhows the compreffion and elafticity 204
of air ftrongly impregnated with the vapours of cam-
phire. Here the Boylean law appears pretty exa£t, or
rather the elafticity feems to increafe a little fafter than
the denfity.
Dr Hooke examined the comprefiion of air by im- 2:>5
merfing a bottle to great depths in the fea, and weigh¬
ing the water which, got into it without any efcape of
air. But this method was liable to great uncertainty,
on account of the unknown temperature of the fea at
great depths. . ,o(5
Hitherto we have confidered only fuch air as is notM. deof
rarer than what we breathe ; we muft take a Very dif-exaniinin£-
ferent method for examining the elafticity of rarefied1
alr- _ refied air.
Let^ i (fig. 50.) be a long tube, formed a-top into Plate
a cup, and of fulficient diameter to receive another fmall- CCCCIV’.'’
er tube a /, open at firft at both ends. Let the outer
tube and cup be filled with mercury, which will rife in
the inner tube to the fame level. Let a f now be flop¬
ped at a. It contains air of the fame denfity and elaf¬
ticity with the adjoining atmofphere. Note exadtly the
{pace a b which it occupies. Draw it up into the pofi-
tion of fig. 51 • and let the mercury Hand in it at the
height de, while ce is the height of the mercury in the
barometer. It is evident that the column de is in >
equilibrio between the' preffure of the atmofphere and
the elallicity of the air included in the fpace a d. And
fince the weight oi c e would be in equilibrio with the
whole preffure of the atmofphere, the weight oi c d is --
equivalent to the elafticity of the included air. While
therefore r e is the meafure of the elafticity of the fur¬
rounding atmofphere, c d will be the meafure-of the
elafticity of the included air ; and fince the air origi¬
nally occupied the fpace a br and has now expanded in¬
to a dy we have — for the meafure of its denfity. N. B.
a d
c e and c d are meafured by the perpendicular heights of
the columns, but a b and a d mull be meafured by their
folid capacities.
By railing the inner tube flill higher, the mercury _
will alfo rife higher, and the included air will expand
ft ill farther, and we obtain another c dy and another
-- ; and in this manner the relation between the den-
a d
fity and elafticity of rarefied air may be difeovered. a0S
This examination may be managed more eafily by An eafier
means of the air-pump. Suppofe a tube a e (fig. 52.) met^0<^8?
containing a fmall quantity of air a by fet up in a ciftern
of mercury, which is fupported in the tube at the height ^ump.
e b, and let t c be the height of the mercury in the ba¬
rometer. Let this apparatus be fet under a tubulated
receiver on the pump-plate, and let £ « be the pump-
gage, and « be made equal to c e.
Then,
i if)
fjxpari-
?nent» on
Air.
209
Arot ht r
t-aly me-
thod
L’late
P N E U M
Tlien, aa hat been already ibown, c l h the meafwe
of the elafticity of the air in * t>, correfpondmg to the
bulk a b. Now let fome air be abltracted from the re¬
ceiver. The elafticity of the remainder will be dimi-
nifhed by its expanfion ; and therefore the mercury m
the tube a e will defcend to fome point d. For the lame
reafon, the mercury in the gage will rile to fome point
c, and m o will exprels the elafticity of the. air m the
receiver. This would fopport the mercury in. the tube
a e at the height e r, if the fpace a r were entirely void
of air. Therefore r d is the efte£l and meafure of the
elafticity of the included air when it has expanded to
the bulk ad; and thus its elafticity, under a variety of
other bulks, may be .compared with its elafticity when
of the bulk a l. When the air has been fo far abftraa.
ed from the receiver that the mercury in a e defeends to
r, then m o will be the precife meafure of its eiafticity.
In all thefe cafes it is neceftary to compare its bulk
a b with its natural bulk, in which its elafticity balances
the preflure of tlve atmofphere. This may be oone by
laying the tube a e horizontally, and then the air will
collapfe into its ordinary bulk.
Another eafy method may be taken for this exami¬
nation. Let an apparatus a b c def (tig. 55.) be made,
confuting of a horizontal tube a r of even bore, a ball
CCCCiV ^ a lar£e diameter, and a fwan-neck tube hf. Let
' the ball and part of the tube g e b be filled with mer¬
cury, fo that the tube may be in the fame horizontal
plane with the furface d e of the mercury in the ball.
Then feal up the end a, and connect / with an air-pump.
When the air is abftradted from the furface de, the air
inab will expand into a larger bulk a c> and the mercury
in the pump-gage will rife to fome diftance below the
barometric height. It is evident that this diftance,
without any farther calculation, will be the meafure of
the elafticity of the air prefiing on the furface and
2Q therefore of the air in a c.
The mod The moft exaft of all methods is to fufpend in the
cxa<ft mode receiver of an air-pump a glafs veflel, having a very
examin- narrow rnouth over a ciftern of mercury, and then ab-
Kchls the air till the gage rifes to fome determined
height. The difference e between this height and the
barometric height determines the elafticity of the air in
the receiver and in the fufpended veffel. Now lower
down that veffel by the flip-wire till its mouth is im-
merfed into the mercury, and admit the air into the re¬
ceiver ; jt will prefs the mercury into the little veffel.
Lower it ftill farther down, till the mercury within it
is level with that without ; then flop its mouth, take
it out and weigh the mercury, and let its weight be 'a-.
Subtract this weight from the weight v of the mer¬
cury, which would completely fill the whole veffel;
then the natural bulk of the air will be v-m), while
its bulk, when of the -elafticity e in the rarefied receiver,
was the bulk or capacity to of the veffel. Its denfity
therefore, correfponding to this elafticity t, was ^
TO
And thus may the relation between the denfity and
elafticity in ail cafes be obtained.
A great variety of experiments to this purpofe have
been made, with different degrees of att ention, accord¬
ing to the intereft which the philoibphers had in the
refult. Thofe made by M. de Luc, General Roy, Mr
Trembley, and Sir George Shuckbourgh, are bv far
ehifticity.
*tr
Varmu's ex¬
periments
b ave been
made to
this pur-
’ pofe.
A T I C S,
the moft accurate ; but they ate all confined to very mo. baA
derate rarefactions. The general refult has been, that the L‘lW
elafticity of rarefied air is very nearly proportional to its r
denfity. We cannot fay with confidence that any regular
deviation from this law has been obferved, there being
as many obfervations on one fide as on the other; but
we think that it is not unworthy the attention of phi-
lofophers to determine it with precifion iu the cafes
of extreme rarefaction, where the irregularities are '
moft; remarkable. The great fource of error is a ter-
tain adhefive lluggiftmcfs of the mercury when the im¬
pelling forces are very fmall; and other fluids can liard-
ly be ufed, becaufe they either fmear the infide of the
tube and diminifh its capacity, or they are converted
into vapour, which alters the law of elafticity.
Let us, upon the whole, affume the Boylean law, The lie
viz. that the elafticity of the air is proportional to its an law
denfity. The law deviates not in any fenfible degree
from the truth in thofe cafes which are of the greateft
practical importance, that is, when the denfity does not
much exceed or fall fnort of that of ordinary air.
Let us now fee what information this gives us withlnveii]
refpeCt to the aCtion of the particles on each other. “
The inveftigation is extremely eafy. We have feen.,,^'
that a force eight times greater than the preffure ofcie»0D
the atmofphere will comprefs common air into the other,
eighth part of its common bulk, and give it eight times
its common denfity : and in this caie we know, that
the particles are at half their former diftance, and that
the number which are now aCting on the furface ol the
pifton employed to comprefs them is quadruple of the
number which aft on it when it is of the common den-
fity. Therefore, when this eightfold compreffing force
is diftributed over a fourfold number of particles, the
portion of it which afts on each is double. In like
manner, when a compreffmg force 27 is employed,
the air is compreffed into tV of its former hulk, the
particles are at -f of their former diftance, and the force
is diftributed among 9 times the number of particles ;
the force on each is therefore 3. In ftrort, let — be the
x
diftance of the particles, the number of them in any
given veffel, and therefore the denfity will be as A,
and the number preffing by their elafticity on its whole
internal furface will be as x1. Experiment fhows, that
the compreffmg force is as x3, which being diftributed
over the number as x*. will give the force on each as .v.
Now this force is in immediate equilibrium with the
elafticity of the particle immediately contiguous to the
compreffing furface. This elafticity is therefore as x
and it follows from the nature of perfeft fluidity, that
the particle adjoining to the compreffing furface preffes
with an equal force on its adjoining particles on every
fide. Hence we muft conclude, that the corpuicular
rcpulfions exerted by the adjoining particles are inverfely
as their diltances from each other, or that the adjoining
particles tend to recede from each other with forces in-
verfely proportional to their diftances. j
Sir Ifaac Newton was the firft who reafoned in this Sir I
manner from the phenomena. Indeed he was the firft ^
who had the patience to refleft on the phenomena with ^
any precifion. His difeoveries in gravitation naturally rea|,
gave his thoughts this turn, and he very early hinted
his fufpicions that all the charafteriltic phenomena of °n ,£
7 tangible
4i6
iltlUi'l
e^J
jJ'l
inttfj
)J o11
#1
P N E U M
tanirui’e matter were p roduced by forces which were ex¬
erted by the particles at bnall and infenfible d.'ftances :
And he coniiders the phenomena of air as affording an
excellent example of this invefligation, and deduces from
them the law which we have now demo nil rated ; and
fays, that air confifts of particles which avoid the adjoin¬
ing particles with forces inverlely proportional to their
d;dances from each other. From this he deduces (in
the 2d book of his Principles) feveral beautiful propo-
fitions, determining the mechanical contlitution of the
atmofphere.
e But it muff; be noticed that he limits this adlion to
the adjoining particles: and this is a remark of immenle
confequence, though not attended to by the numerous
experimenters who adopt the lawn.
It is plain that the particles are fuppofed to act at a
diftance, and that this diftance is variable, and that the
forces diminifh as the diffances increase. A very ordi¬
nary air-pump wrill rarefy the air 125 times. The di¬
ftance of the particles is now 5 times greater than be¬
fore ; and yet they ftill repel each other : for air of this
denfity will ilill fupport tire mercury in a fyphon-gage
at the height of 0,24, or -bi- of an inch ; and a better
100
pump will allow this air to expand twice as much, and
ffill leave it elaftic. Thus we fee that whatever is the
diftance of the particles of common air, they can aft
ffve times farther off. The queftion comes now to be.
Whether, in the Hate of common air, they really do aft
five times farther than the diftance of the adjoining par¬
ticles ? While the particle a acts on the particle b with
the force 5, does it alfo aft on the particle c with the
force 2,5, on the particle d with the force 1,667, 011 the
particle e with the force 1,25, on the particle f with the
force 1, on the particlewith the force 0^333, &c ?
Sir Ifaac Newton /hows in the plaineft manner, that
this is by no means the cafe ; for if this were the cafe,
he makes it appear that the fenfible phenomena of con-
denfation would be totally different from what we ob-
ferve. The force neceffary fora quadruple-condenfa-
tion would be eight times greater, and for a nonuple
condenfation the force muff be 2 7 times greater. Two
/pheres filled with condenfed air muff repel each other,
and two fpheres containing air that is rarer than the
furrounding air muft attraft each other, &c. &c. All
tins will appear very clearly, by applying to air the rea-
fomng which Sir Ifaac Newton has employed in dedu¬
cing the feniible law of mutual tendency ofStwo fpheres,
winch confift of particles attrafting each other with
forces proportional to the fquare of the diftance in,
verfely.
If we could fuppofe that the particles of air repelled
each other with invariable forces at all diftances within
ome ma and infenfible limit, this would produce a
compreffibility and elafticity fimilar to what we obferve.
(r??er 3 r°W °f Particles> within this limit,
< ' preffed by an external force applied to the two
Simr^Vk6 aai°n °f the whole row on the extreme
that is'to t? e P™portlo.nal to t^ number of particles,
Ind a nnl V V ankCe lnverfelp and their denfity :
and a number of fuch parcels, ranged in a ftraight line,
Snf the f Ut^ " "T °f 3np “ble magnitude ha!
cornufcul-tfTe 3W of1^omPrtflion. But this law of
Jiature and to^ e^ery thing we obferve in
nature, and t0 the lait degree in p .obabIc>
A T 1 C S. m9
. We muft tlierefore continue the limitation of this mu- Height of
tual repulfion of the particles of air, and be contented Armoi*
ior the prefent with having eib.blifhed it as an experi- fpbere- i
mental faft, that the adjoining particles of air are kept <11%
afunder by forces inverfely proportional to their dif¬
tances; or perhaps it is better to abide by the fenfible
law, that the drnjity of air is proportional to the comprejftng
force. This law is abundantly fufficient for explaining
. all the fubordinate phenomena, and for giving us a com¬
plete knowledge of the mechanical conftitution of our
atmofphere. .
And, in the firll place, this view of the compreffi-The height
bility of the air muft give us a very different notion of of the air
the height of the atmolphere from what we deduced on
a former occafion from our experiments. It is found, confidermg-
that when the air is of the temperature 32° of Fah- itseompiel-
renheit’s thennometer, and the mercury in tlie barome-hbiluy,
ter Hands at 30 inches, it will defeend one-tenth of an
inch if we take it to a place 87 feet higher. Therefore,
if the air were equally denfe and heavy throughout, the
height of the atmofphere would be 30X10X87 feet,
or 5 miles and jgo yards. But the loofe reafoning
adduced on that occafion was enough to ihow us that
it muft be much higher; becauie every ilratum as we
afeend mufl be iucceflively rarer as it is leis comprefled
by incumbent weight. Not knowing to what degree
air expanded when the compreliion was dimini/hed, we
could not tell the fucceflive diminutions of denfity and
confequent augmentation of bulk and height; we could
only fay, that feveral atmofpheric appearances indicated
a much greater height. Clouds have been feen much
higher; but the phenomenon of the twilight is the moll
convincing proof of this. There is no doubt that the
viiibility of the /Ivy or air is owing to its want of per-
feft tramparency, each particle (whether of matter pure¬
ly aerial or heterogeneous) reflefting a little light.
Let b (fig. 54.) be the laft particle of illuminated air
which can be leen in the horizon by a fpeftator at A.
This muft be illuminated by a ray 8D b> touching the
earth’s furface at fome point D. Now it is a known
faft, that the degree of illumination called twilight is
perceived when the fun is 1below the horizon of the
fpeftator, that is, when the angle E Z> S or ACi) is 18
degrees; therefore bQ is the fecant of 9 degrees (it is
lefs, viz. about 81 degrees, on account of refraftion).
We know' the earth’s radius to be about 3970 miles :
hence we conclude <5 B to be about 45 miles ; nay, a
very fenfible illumination is perceptible much farther
from the fun’s place than this, perhaps twice as far, and
the air is fufficiently denfe for refkftmg a fenfible light
at the height of nearly 200 miles. 22r
We have now' feen that air is prodigioufly expanfible. Expeiimen;
None of our experiments have diltinftly fhown us anv tlxes n'»ll'-
lunit. But it does not follow' that it is expanfible w7ith-mff 10 t^e
out end; nor is this at all likely. It is much more
probable that there is a certain diitance of the parts in
which they no longer repel each other ; and this would
be the diftance at which tlvey would arrange themfelves
if they w'ere not heavy. But at the very' fummit of the
atmofphere they will be a very fmall matter neaier to
each other, on account of their gravitation to the earth.
I ill we know' precifely the law' of this mutual repul¬
fion, we cannot fay w hat is the height of the atmo¬
fphere.
i/ut if the air be an elaftic fluid whofe denfity is aB -
way3
320
Elate
CCCClVi
120
Height of
the Atmo-
i'phere.
pneumatics.
121
farther ah*
fervations
on, and in-
veftigation
of, the
height of
the atmo-
tphere.
423
ways proportionable to the comprefling force, we can
tell what is its denfity at any height above the furface
of the earth : and w^e can compare the denfity io calcu¬
lated with the denfity difcovered by obfervation: for
•this laft is meafured by the height at which it fupports
mercury in the barometer. This is the direft meaiure
of the preflure of the external air ; and as we know the
law of gravitation, we can tell what would be the prel-
fure of air having the calculated denfity in ail its
And a third fundamental property is, that the in- Hei>
finitely extended area MAEN is equal to the rectangle'h^
parts.
an
12J
Plate
CCCXJIV
426
Let us therefore fuppofe a prifmatic or cyhndnc co¬
lumn of air reaching to the top of the atmofphere.
Let this be divided into an indefinite number of ftrata
of very fmall and equal depths or thicknefs; and let
us, for greater fimplicity, fuppofe at firft that a particle
of air is of the fame weiglu at all diflances from .the
centre of the earth.
The abfolute weight of any one of thefe ftrata will
on thefe conditions be proportional to the number of
particles or the gravity of air contained in it ; and fince
the depth of each ftratum is the fame, this quantity of
air will evidently be as the denfity of the ftratum : but
the denfity of any ftratum is as the comprefling force;
that is, as the preflure of the ftrata above it; that is,
as their weight; that is, as their quantity of matter—
therefore the quantity of air in each ftratum is pro¬
portional to the quantity of air above it; but the quan¬
tity in each ftratum is the difference between the co¬
lumn incumbent on its bottom and on its top : thefe
differences are therefore proportional to the quantities
of which they are the differences. But when there is a
feries of quantities which are proportional to their own
differences, both the quantities and their differences are
in continual or geometrical progreflion : for let a, b> cf
be three fuch quantities that
b : c~a—b : b—c, then, by altern.
b : a—-bzzc : b—c and by compof.
b : a — c : b
and a : b = b : c
therefore the denfities of thefe ftrata decreafe in a geo¬
metrical progreflion ; that is, when the elevations above
the centre or furface of the earth increafe, or their
depths under the top of the atmofphere decreafe, in an
arithmetical progreflion, the denfities decreafe in a> geo¬
metrical progreflion.
Let ARQ^(fig. 55.) reprefent the fe&ion of the
earth by a plane through its centre O, and let m OAM
' be a vertical line, and AE perpendicular to OA will be
a horizontal line through A, a point on the earth’s
furface. Let AE be taken to reprefent the denlity of
the air at A ; and let J3H, parallel to AE, be taken to
AE as the denfity at D is to the denfity at A : it is
evident, that if a logiftic or logarithmic curve EHN be
drawn, having AN for its axis, and palling through
the points E and H, the denfity of the air at any other
point C, in this vertical line, will be reprefented by CG,
the ordinate to the curve in that point: for it is the
property of this curve, that if portions AB, AC, AD,
of its axis be taken in arithmetical progreffion, the or¬
dinates AE, BE, CG, DH, will be in geometrical pro¬
greflion.
It is another fundamental property of this curve, that
if EK or HS touch the curve in E or H, the fubtan-
gent AK or DS is a conftant quantity.
KAEL of the ordinate and fubtangent ; and, in like
manner, the area MDHN is equal to SD XDH, or
to KAxDH ; ccmfequently the area lying beyond any
ordinate is proportional to that ordinate.
Thefe geometrical properties of this curve are all
analogous to the chief circumftances in the conftitution
of the atmofphere, on the fuppofition of equal gravity.
The area MCGN reprefents the whole quantity of ae,
real matter which is above C : for CG is the denfity
at C, and CD is the thicknefs of the ftratum between C
and D ; and therefore CGHD wall be as the quantity
of matter or air in it; and in like manner of all the
others, and of their fums, or the whole area MCGN:
and as each ordinate is proportional to the area above
it, fo each denfity, and the quantity of air in each ftra¬
tum, is proportional to the quantity of air above it:
and as the whole area MAEN is equal to the rectangle
KAEL, fo the whole air of variable denfity above A
might be contained in a column KA, if, inftead of be¬
ing compreffed by its own weight, it were without
weight, and compreffed by an external force equal to the
preflure of the air at the furface of the earth. In
this cafe, it would be of the uniform denfity AE, which
it has at the furface of the earth, making what we have
repeatedly called the homogeneous .atmofphere.
Hence we derive this important circumftance, that
the height of the homogeneous atmofphere is the fub¬
tangent of that curve whofe ordinates are as the den¬
fities of the air at different heights, on the fuppofition
of equal gravity. This curve may with propriety be
called the atmospherical logarithmic: and as the
different logarithmics are all characferifed by their fub*
tangents, it is of importance to determine this one.
It may be done by comparing the denfities of mer-
cury and air. For a column of air of uniform denfity,
reaching to the top of the homogeneous atmofphere, is
in equilibrio with the mercury in the barometer. Now
it is found, by the bell experiments, that when mer¬
cury and air are of the temperature 32° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, and the barometer Hands at 30 inches, the
mercury is nearly 10440 times denfer than air. There¬
fore the height of the homogeneous atmofphere is 10440
times 30 inches, or 26100 feet, or 8700 yards, or 4350
fathoms, or 5 miles wanting 100 yards.
Or it may be found by obfervations on the barome¬
ter. It is found, that when the mercury and air are
of the above temperature, and the barometer on the
fea-lhore Hands at 30 inches, if we carry- it to a place
884 feet higher it will fall to 29 inches. Now, in ^
logarithmic curves having equal ordinates, the portions
of the axes intercepted between the correfponding pans
of ordinates are proportional to the fubtangents. And
the fubtangents of the curve belonging to our common
tables is 0,4342945, and the difference of the loga*
rithms of 30 and 29 (which is the portion of the
axis intercepted between the ordinates 30 and'29)5 °r
0,0147233, is to 0,4342945 as 883 is to 26058 feet, or
86 8 6 yards, or 43 4 3 fathoms, or 5 miles wanting 1 14yards.
This determination is 14 yards lefs than the other, an
it is uncertain which is the moft exaft. It is extremely
difficult to meafure the refpedtive denfities of mercury
and air; and in meafuring the elevation which PrtV
f?l
1
no-
t
P N E U M
tr.f duces a fail of one inch in the barometer, an error of
T»7 0f an inch would produce all the difference. We
prefer the lafl, as depending on fewer circumflanccs.
But all this inveftigation proceeds on the fuppofition
of equal gravity, whereas we know that the weight of
a particle of air decreafes as the fquare of its diflance
from the centre of the earth increafes. In order, there¬
fore, that a fuperior ftratum may produce an equal pref-
fure at the furface of the earth, it mull be denfer, be-
caufe a particle of it gravitates lefs. The denlity,
therefore, at equal elevations, muff be greater than on
the fuppofition of equal gravity, and the law of dimi¬
nution of denfity muff be different.
Make OD : OA = OA : O.7;
OC : OAz=OA : O ;
OB : OAzrOA : OS &c ;
In that Or/, Or, Ob, OA, may be reciprocals to OD,
OC, OB, OA; and through the points A, b, c, tl, draw
the perpendiculars AE, If, ig, db, making them pro¬
portional to the denfities in A, B, C, D : and let us
fuppofe CD to be exceedingly fmall, fo that the den¬
fity may be fuppofed uniform through the whole lira-
turn. Thus we have
ODxOr/—OA1, =OCxOc
and O :Or/=OD:OC;
and Or : Or—O /~OD : OD-OC,
or Or : c d—OO : DC ;
and rd : CD—Or : OD ;
t>r, becaufe OC and OD are ultimately in the ratio of
equality, we have
cd : CD r O r : OC= OA‘ : OC§,
OA’ OA*
and r r/-CDx and cdXcg— CD Xr ;
, OA!.
but CD X cgX -jtt, is as the preffure at C arifing from
the abfolute weight of the ftratum CD. For this
weight is as the bulk, as th*» denfity, and as the gra¬
vitation of each particle jointly. Now CD exprefies
O A2
the bulk, eg the denfity, and the gravitation of
each particle. Therefore, c dXcg is as the preffure on
C arifing from the weight of the ftratum DC ; but
r r/Xr^ is evidently the element of the curvilineal area
Atf2«E, formed by the curve ]Lfghn and the ordinates
AE, bj, eg, ah, &c. mv. Therefore the fum of all the
elements, fuch as cdhg, that is, the area cmng below
eg, will be as the whole preffure on C, arifing from the
gravitation of all the air above it; but, by the nature
of air, this whole preffure is as the deniity which it
produces, that is, as eg. Therefore the curve Ep« is
of fuch a nature that the area lying below or beyond
any ordinate eg is proportional to that ordinate. This
is die property of the logarithmic curve, and Ecn is a
logarithmic curve.
But farther, this curve is the fame with EGN. For
t continually approach to A, and ultimately coin-
ci e it. It is evident that the ultimate ratio of
5° of BF to bf, is that of equality; and if
' J ’ . e drawn, they will contain equal angles
an<^ cut off equal fubtan-
gents AK,AC The curves EGN, E^n are therefore
the fame, but in oppofite pofitions.
F ^ O'5 Od, &c. be taken in arith-
eticalprogreffion decreafing, their reciprocalsOA,OB,
Vol. XV. Part I.
A T I C S. i2 r
OC, OD, See. will be in barmomcal progreffion increa- He:ght of
fiug, as is well known : but, from the nature of the ^tmo-
logarithmic curve, when OA, Ob, Or, Od, 8cc. are in ^
arithmetical progreflion, the ordinates AE, b/', eg, dh.
Sec. are in geometrical progreffion. Therefore when
OA, OB, OC, OD, See. are in harmonical progreflioh,
the denfities of the air at A, B, C, D, See. are in geo¬
metrical progrefiion ; and thus may the denfity of the
air at all elevations be difeovered. Thus to find the
denfity of the air at K the top of the homogeneous at-
mofphere, make OK : OA" OA : OL, and draw the
ordinate LT, LT is the denfity at K.
The celebrated Dr Halley was the firft who obferved
the relation between the deniity of the air and the or¬
dinates of the logarithmic curve, or common loga¬
rithms. This he did on the fuppofition of equal gra¬
vity ; and his difeovery is acknowledged by Sir Ifaac
Newton in Primip. ii. prop, zz.fcho/. Halley’s difler-
tation on the fubjedft is in n° 185 of the Phil. Tranf.
Newton, with his ufual fagacity, extended the fame rela¬
tion to the true ftate of the cafe, where gravity is as
the fquare of the diftance inverfely; and ihowed that
when the diftances from the earth’s centre are in har¬
monic progrefiion, the denfities are in geometric pro¬
greflion. He ihows indeed, in general, what progrelfion
of the diftance, on any fuppofition of gravity, will
produce a geometrical progrefiion of the denfities, fo
as to obtain a fet of lines OA, O^, Oc, Od, Sec. which
will be logarithms of the denfities. The fubjecl was
afterwards treated in a more familiar manner by Cotes
in his Hydro ft. Lett, and in his Harmunia Menturarum ;
alfo by Dr Brooke Taylor, Meth. Increment; Wolf in his
Acrometr'ia ; Herman in his Phoronomia ; &c. Sec. and
lately by Horfley, Phil. Tranf. tom. Ixiv.
An important corollary is deducible from thefe prin-qq^ j-ia,
ciples, viz. that the air has a finite denfity at an in-a finite
finite diftance from the centre of the earth, namely, denfity at
fuch as will he reprefented by the ordinate OP drawn an nfi1,ite
through the centre. It may he obje&ed to this con-^ qfc
cluiion, that it would infer an infinity of matter in the centre of
univerfe, and that it is inconfiftent with the phenome-tho eaith.
na of the planetary motions, which appear to be per¬
formed in a fpace void of all refiftance, and therefore
of all matter. But this fluid mull be fo rare at great
diftances,that the refiftance will be infenfible,even though
the retardation occafioned by it has been accumulated
for ages. Even at the very moderate diftance of 500
miles, the rarity is fo great that a cubic inch of com¬
mon air expanded to that degree would occupy a fphere
equal to the orbit of Saturn; and the whole retardation
which this planet would fullain after fome millions of
years would not exceed what would be occafioned by
its meeting one bit of matter of half a grain weight.
This being the cafe, it is not unreafonable to fuppofe
the vifible univerfe occupied by air, which, by its gra¬
vitation, wall acciunulate itfelf round every body in it,
in a proportion depending on their quantities of matter,
the larger bodies attratling more of it than the fmaller
ones, and thus forming an atmofphere about each And
many appearances warrant this fuppofition. Jupiter,
Mars, Saturn, and Venus, are evidently furrounded by
atmofpheres. The conftitution of thefe atmofpheres
may differ exceedingly from other caufes. If the pla¬
net has nothing on its furface which can be diffolved
Q_ by
&c.
*35
The atmo-
fphere of
Mars,
*36
Jupiter,
,22 p N E U M
Afmo- by the air or volatilifed by heat, the atmofphere will
fpheres be continuaUy clear and tranfparent, like that of the
of the other moon
Planets, ^ an atmofpbere which appears predfety like
our own, carrying clouds, or depofiting fnows : for
when, by the obliquity of his axis to the plane of his
ecliptic, he turns his north pole towards the fun, it is
obferved to be occupied by a broad white fpot. As
the fummer of that region advances, this fpot gradually
waftes, and fometimes vanifhes, and then the fouth pole
comes in fight, furrounded in like manner with a white
fpot, which undergoes fimilar changes.. This is pre-
cifely the appearance which the fnowy circumpolar re¬
gions of this earth will exhibit to an ahronomei on
Mars. It may not, however, be fnow that we fee ;
thick clouds will hdve the fame appearances.
The atmofphere of the planet Jupiter is alfo very
fimilar to our own. It is divertified by ftreaks or belts
parallel to his equator, which frequently change their
appearance and dimenfions, in the fame manner as thofe
tracks of fimilar Iky which belong to different regions
of this globe. There is a certain kind of weather that
more properly belongs to a particular climate than to
any other. This is nothing but a certain general ftate
of the atmofphere which is prevalent there, though
with confiderable variations. This muff appear to a
fpeftator in the moon like a ftreak fpread over that
climate, diftinguifhing it from others. But the moil
remarkable fimilarity is in the motion of the clouds on
Jupiter. They have plainly a motion from call to Weft,
relative to the body of the planet : for there is a re¬
markable fpot on the furface of the planet, which is
obferved to turn round the axis in qh. 51' 16" ; and
there frequently appear variable and perifhitig fpots in
the belts, which fometimes laft for feveral revolutions.
Thefe are obferved to circulate in 9. 55. 05. Thefe
numbers are the refults of a long feries of obfervations
by Dr Herfchel. This plainly indicates a general cur¬
rent of the clouds weftward, precifely fimilar to what
a fpettator in the moon muft obferve in our atmofphere
arifing from the trade-winds. Mr Schroeter has made
the atmofphere of Jupiter a ftudy for many years ; and
deduces from his oblervations that the motion of the va¬
riable fpots is fubjeft to great variations, but is always
from eaft to weft. This indicates variable wands.
The atmofphere of Venus appears alfo to be like
ours, loaded with vapours, and in a ftate of continual
change of abforption and precipitation. About the
middle of laft century the furface of Venus was pretty
dillinftly feen for many years chequered with irregular
fpots, which are defcribed by Campani, Bianchini, and
other aftronomers in the fouth of Europe, and alfo by
Caffini at Paris, and Hooke and Townley in England.
But the fpots became gradually more faint and indi-
ftinft; and, for near a centuiy, have difappear-ed. The
whole furface appears now of one uniform brilliant
white. The atmofphere is probably fdled with a refleft-
mg vapour, thinly diffufed through it, like water faint-
ly tinged with milk, A great depth of this muft ap¬
pear as white as a fmall depth of milk itfelf; and it
appears to be of a very great depth, and to be refrac¬
tive like our air. For Dr Herfchel has obferved, by
the help of his fine telefcopes, that the illuminated
part of Venus is conliderably more than a hemifphere,
and that the light dies gradually away to the bounding
3.37
J)f V enus,
A T I C S.
margin. This is the veiy appearance that the earth At®a
would make if furnifhed with fuch an atmofphere. The f^'erf
boundary of illumination would have a penumbra reach-
ing about nine degrees beyond it. If this be the con- &£i
ftitution of the atmofphere of Venus, (he may be inha- —r
bited by beings like ourfelves. They would not be
dazzled by the intolerable fplendor of a fun four times
as big and as bright, and fixteen times more glaring,
than ours; for they would feldom or never fee him, but
inftead of him an uniformly bright and white Iky. They
would probably never fee a liar or planet, unlefs the
dog-ftar and Mercury ; and perhaps the earth might
pierce through the bright haze which furrounds their
planet. For the fame reafon the inhabitants would not
perhaps be incommoded by the fun’s heat. It is in¬
deed a very queftionable thing, whether the fun would
caufe any heat, even here, if it were not for the che¬
mical aftion of his rays on our air. This is rendered
not improbable by the intenfe cold felt on the tops of
the higheft mountains, in the cleareft air, and even un¬
der a vertical fun in the torrid zone. 53?
The atmofphere of comets feems of a nature totally And of
different. This feems to be of inconceivable rarity,meii
even when it reflefts a very fenfible light. The tail is
always turned nearly away from the fun. It is thought
that this is by the impulfe of the folar rays. If this
be the cafe, we think it might be difcovered by the
aberration and the refraction of the light by which we
fee the tail: for this light muft come to our eye with
a much fmaller velocity than the fun’s light, if it be
reflected by repulfive or elaftic forces, which there is
every reafon in the world to believe ; and therefore the
velocity of the reflected light will be diminifhed by all the
velocity communicated to the reflecting particles. This is
almoft inconceivably great. The comet of 1680 went half
round the fun in ten hours, and had a tail at leaft a
hundred millions of miles long, which turned round at
the fame time, keeping nearly in the direction oppofite
to the fun. The velocity neceffary for this is prodi¬
gious, approaching to that of light. And perhaps the
tail extends much farther than we fee it, but is vh
flble only as far as the velocity with which its particles
recede from the fun is lefs than a certain quantity,
namely, what would leave a fufficient velocity for the
refleCled light to enable it to affeCt our eyes. And it
may be demonftrated, that although the real form of
the vifible tail is concave on the anterior fide to which,
the comet is moving, it may appear convex on that
fide, in confequence of the very great aberration of the
light by which the remote parts are feen. All this
may be difcovered by properly contrived obfervations ;
and the conjeCture merits attention. But of this di-
grefiion there is enough; and we return to our fubjeCt,
the ceyiflitution of our air. 5
We have ftiown how to determine a fir tori the denfity ^ ^
of the air at different elevations above the furface of theinta|
earth. But the denfities may be difcovered in all accef-heigt
fible elevations by experiments; namely, by obferving
the heights of the mercury in the barometer. This is a
direCt meafure of the preffure of the incumbent atmo¬
fphere ; and this is proportional to the denfity which it
produces.
Therefore, by means of the relation fubfifting between 1
the denfities and the elevations, we can difcover the ele¬
vations by obfervations made on the deufities. by means
2,
I
Ex| na-
tioi f its
life. :c.
antT.l
icP
Sat aetcr. 0f tlie barometer ; and thus we may meafure elevations
  by means of the barometer; and, with very little
trouble, take the level of any extenlive track of country.
Of this we have an iliuftrious example in the fehtion
which the Abbe Chappe D’Auteroche has given of the
whole country between Brelt and Ekaterinenburgh in
Siberia. This is a fubjeft which deferves a minute con-
fideration : we fliall therefore prefent it under a very
fimple and familiar form; and trace the method through
its various Iteps of improvement byDe Luc, Roy,Shuck-
bourgh, &c.
We have already obftrved oftener than once, that if
tlie mercury in the barometer ftands at 30 inches, and if
the air and mercury be of the temperature $2° in Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer, a column of air 87 feet thick
has the fame weight with a column of mercury TV of an
inch thick. Therefore, if we carry the barometer to a
higher place, fo that the mercury finks to 29.9, we have
afcended 87 feet. Now, fuppofe we carry it itill higher,
and that the mercury ftands at 29.8 ; it is required to
know what height we have now got to ? We have evi¬
dently afcended through another ftratum of equal weight
with the former: but it muft be of greater thicknefs,
becaufe the air in it is rarer, being lefs comprefled. We
may call the denfity of the firft ftratum 300, meafuring
the denfity by the number of tenths of an inch of mercu¬
ry which its elafticity proportional to its denfity enables
it to fupport. For the fame reafon, the denfity of the
fecond ftratum muft be 299: but when the weights are
equal, the bulks are inverfely as the denlities ; and when
the bafes of the ftrata are equal, the bulks are as the
thicknefles. Therefore, to obtain the thicknefs of this
fecond ftratum, fay 299:300—8'] :8-],zg-, and this fourth
term is the thicknefs of the fecond ftratum, and we have
afcended in all 174,29 feet. In like manner we may rife
till the barometer ftiows the deniity to be 298: then fay,
298 : 30 = 87 : 87,584 for the thicknefs of the third
ftratum, and 261,875 or 261^ for the whole afeent;
and we may proceed in the fame way for any num¬
ber of mercurial heights, and make a table of the corre-
fponding elements as follows : where the firft column is
the height of the mercury in the barometer, the fecond
column is the thicknefs of the ftratum, or the elevation
above the preceding ftation ; and the third column is
the whole elevation above the firft ftation.
4a
PNEUMATICS. 123
ftation the mercurial height was 29,$, and that at the Taking
upper ftation it was 29,1. . height. t
29,1 793»644
29,8 I74»39I
Bar.
Strat.
Kiev.
3°
29,9
29,8
29*7
29,6
29>*
29*4
29*3
29,2
29,1
29
00,000
87,000
87,291
87,584
87,879
88,176
88,475
88,776
89,079
89,384
89,691
Having done this, we can now meafure any elevation
within the limits of our table, in this manner.
Obferve the barometer at the lower and at the upper
Rations, and write down the correfponding elevations,
v u tract the one from the other, and the remainder is
the height required. Thus fuppofe that at the lower
00,000
87,000
174,291
261,875
349*754
437*930
526,405
615,181
704,260
793»644
883*335
619,353 =:EIevation.
We may do the fame thing with tolerable accuracy
without the table, by taking the medium m of the mer¬
curial heights, and their difference d in tenths of an inch;
and then fay, as m to 300, fo is 87^ to the height requi-
300X8 7r! 26100^
 = • Thus,
red h : or
the
foregoing example, m is 294,5, and d is =7 ; and there¬
fore h — =620,4, differing only one foot from
294*5
the former value.
Either of thefe methods is fufficiently accurate for
molt purpofes, and even in very great elevations will
not produce any error of confequence : the whole error
of the elevation 883 feet 4 inches, which is the extent of
the above table, is only | of an inch.
But we need not confine ourfelves tomethortiof ap¬
proximation, when we have an accurate and fcienti. c
method that is equally eafy. We have feen that, upon
the fuppolition of equal gravity, the deufities of the air
are as the ordinates of a logarithmic curve, having the
line of elevations for its axis. We have alfo feen that,
in the true theory of gravity, if the diftances from the
centre of the earth increafe in a harmonic progreflion, the
logarithm of the denlities will decreafe in an arithmeti¬
cal progreflion ; but if the greateft elevation above the
furface be but a few miles, this harmonic progrefiion
will hardly differ from an arithmetical ene. Thus, if
A4, Ac, A.d, are 1, 2, and 3 miles, we (hall find that
the correfponding elevations AB, AC, AD are fenfibly
in arithmetical progreflion alio: for the earth’s radius
AC is nearly 4000 miles. Hence it plainly follows,
that BC—AB is or ".VT'JTr" of a mile,
, « \Jk s'
4000X4001 16204000
or ^"^°f an inch; a quantity quite infignincant. We
may therefore affirm without hefitation, that in all ac-
ceffible places, the elevations increafe in an arithmetical
progreffion, while the deniities decreafe in a geometrical
progreffion. Therefore the ordinates are proportional
to the numbers which are taken to meafure the denfities,
and the portions of the axis are proportional to the lo¬
garithms of thefe numbers. It follows, therefore, that
we may take fuch a fcale for meafuring the denfities
that the logarithms of the numbers of this fcale ftiall be
the very portions of the axis ; that is, of the vertical line
in feet, yards, fathoms, or what meafure we pleafe : and
we may, on the other hand, choofe fuch a fcale for mea¬
furing our elevations, that the logarithms of our fcale of
denfities ftiall be parts of this fcale of elevations ; and we
may find either of thefe feales fcientifically. For it is a
known property of the logarithmic curves, that when the
ordinates are the fame, the intercepted portions of the
abfeiffie are proportional to their fubtangents. Now we
know the fubtaugent of the atmofpherical logarithmic :
it is the height of the homogeneous atmofphere in any
meafure we pleafe, fuppofe fathoms: we find this height
by comparing the gravities of air and mercury, when
2 both
>4$
I24. P N E U M
Barometer, both are of fonie determined denfity. Thus, in the
^ »  temperature of 32 ’ of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, when
the barometer ftands at 30 inches, it is known (by many
experiments) that mercury is 10423,068 times heavier
than air ; therefore the height of the balancing column
of homogeneous air will be 10423,068 times 30 inches;
that is, 4342,943 Englifli fathoms. Again, it is known
that the fubtangent of our common logarithmic tables,
where 1 is the logarithm of the number 10, is 0,4 242945.
Therefore the number 0,4342943 is to the difference
D of the logarithms of any two barometric heights as
4342,945 fathoms are to the fathoms F contained in
the portion of the axis of the atmofpherical logarith¬
mic, which is intercepted between the ordinates equal
to thefe barometrical heights; or that 0,4342943 : D
rr4342>945 : F>_and 0,4342,945 : 4342,943 =:D : F 1
but 0,4342945 is the ten thoufandth part of 4542,945,
and therefore D is the ten-thoufandth part of F.
a44 And thus it happens, by mere chance, that the loga¬
rithms of the densities, meafured by the inches of mer¬
cury which their elallicity fupports in the barometer,
are jull the ten-thoufandth part of the fathoms con¬
tained in the correfponding portions of the axis of the
atmofpherical logarithmic. Therefore, if we multiply
our common logarithms by 1000c, they will exprefs the
fathoms of the axis of the atmofpherical logarithmic; no¬
thing is. more eafdy done. Our logarithms contain what
is called the index or charadteriftic, which is an integer
and a number of decimal places. Let us juil remove
the integer-place four figures to the right hand: thus
the logarithm of 60 is 1.7781513, which is one integer
and Multiply this by 10,000, and we ob-
*45
546
This me
thod of
IOOOOOOO
tain
5*3 o o 513
 17781,513, or 17781 —
lOOl '' - IOOO*
The pra&ical application of all this reafoning is ob¬
vious and eafy : obferve the heights of the mercury in
the barometer at the upper and lower ftations in inches
and decimals; take the logarithms of thefe, and fub-
tradt the one from the other: the difference between
them (accounting the four firft decimal figures as inte¬
gers) is the difference of elevation of fathoms.
Example.
Merc. Height at the lower ftation 29,8
upper ftation 29,1
Diff. of Log. X10000
1.4742163
1.4638930
0.0103,233
or 103 fathoms and ~o— of a fathom, which is 619,392
feet, or 619 feet 4! inches ; differing from the approxi¬
mated value formerly found about i an inch.
Such is the general nature of the barometric meafure-
i.wu ui ment of heights firft fuggefted by Dr Halley; and it has
meafur ng» been verified by numberlefs comparifons of the heights
heights calculated in this way with the fame height meafured
improved!1 gcometri5fUy. L was indeed in this way that the pre-
eife fpecific gravity of air and mercury was moft accu¬
rately determined; namely, by obferving, that when the
temperature of air and mercury was 32, the difference
of the logarithms of the mercurial heights were precife-
ly the fathoms of elevation. 13ut it requires many cor-
rcttxcr.s to adjuft this method to the cu'cuxuftances of
A T I C S.
the cafe; and it was not till very lately that it has been Taki™
fo far adjufted to them as to become ufeful. We are ^eighti
chiefly indebted to Mr dc Luc for the improvements.
The great elevations in Switzerland enabled him to
make an immenfe number of cbfervations, in almoft
every variety of circumftances. Sir George Shuckbourgh
alfo made a great number with moft accurate inftruments
in much greater elevations, in the fame country ; and he
made many chamber experiments for determining the
laws of variation in the fubordinate circumftances. Gene*
ral Roy alfo made many to the fame purpofe. And to
thefe two gentlemen we are chiefly obliged for the
corrections which are now generally adopted. a}?
It is eafy to perceive that the method, as alreadydrpeii
expreffed, cannot apply to every' cafe : it depends onf1n
the fpecific gravity of air and mercury, combined with
the fuppofition that this is affe&ed only by a change of and met
preffure. Hut fince all'bodies are expanded by heat, c.^y.
and as there is no reafon to fuppofe that they are equal¬
ly expanded by it, it follows that a change of temperature
will change the relative gravity of mercury and air,
even although both fuffer the fame change of tempera¬
ture : and fince the air may be wanned or cooled
when the mercury is not, or may change its tempera¬
ture independent of it, we may expect ftdl greater va¬
riations of fpecific gravity.
The general effect of an augmentation of the fpecific
gravity of the mercury mull be to increafe the fubtan¬
gent of the atmofpherical logarithmic; in which cafe the
logarithms of the denfities, as meafured by inches of
mercury, will exprefs meafures that are greater than fa¬
thoms in the fame proportion that the fubtangent is in-
creafed ; or, when the air is more expanded than-the
mercury, it will require a greater height of homogene¬
ous atmofphere to balance 30 inches of mercury, and a
given fall of mercury will then correfpond to a thicker
ftratum of air.
In order, therefore, to perfeft this method, we mull
learn by experiment how much mercury expands by an
increafe of temperature ; we mull alio learn how much
the air expands by the fame, or any change of tempera¬
ture; and how much its elafticity is affedled by it. Both
thefe circumftances mull be confidered in the cafe of
air ; for it might happen that the elafticity of the air 13
not fo much affedled by heat as its bulk is.
It will, therefore, be proper to ftate in this place the
experiments which have been made for afeertaining
thefe two expanfions.
The moft accurate, and the bell adapted experiments G;ner;
for afeertaining the expanfion of mercury, are thofe of Roy’s
General Roy, publilhed in the 67 th volume of theperiiw
Philofbphical Tranfadlions. He expofed 30 inches of'n
mercury', actually fupported by the atmofphere in a ba-^ercuI
rometer, in a nice apparatus, by which it could be made
of one uniform temperature through its whole length;
and he noted the expanlion of it in decimals of an inch.
Thefe are contained in the following table; where the
firft column expreffes the temperature by Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, the fecond column expreffes the bulk of
the mercury, and the third column the expanlion of an
inch of mercury for an increafe of one degree in the ad¬
joining temperatures.
Tab lb
P N E U M
Bar le’rr.
Tabes A.
rrm!,| Bulk * f Eitpan. f<jr j°
212^
202
192
182
172
162
152
142
J32
122
I 12
102
t;2
82
72
6,2
52
42
32
22
12
2
O
V',4388
30,4652
3°»44-y
3C>4159
30>3902
32,3638
3C»33^7
30,3090
30.2807
30,2518
3°rJ223
3C,t922
30,1615
3°,1302
30,0984
30,0661
30>°33 3
30,0000
29,9662
29»93f9
29,8971
29,8901
0,0000763
0,0000787
c, 0000810
0,00008? 3
0,0000857
0,0000880
0,0000903
0,0000923
0,0000943
0,0000963
0,0000983
0,000 FC03
G,‘>001023
0,0001043
0,0001063
0,0001077
0,0001093
0,0001 I 10
0,000 1127
0,0001 j 43
0,0001160
0,0000177
This table gives rife to feme reftettions. The fcale
of the thermometer Js conftru&ed on the fuppofition
that the fuceefiive degrees of heat are meafured by-
equal increments of bulk in the mercury of the ther¬
mometer. How comes it, therefore, that this is not ac¬
companied by equal increments of bulk in the mercury
of the column, but that the correfponding expansions
of this column do continually diminiih ? General Roy
attributes this to the gradual detachment of elaftie mat¬
ter from the mercury by heat, which preffes on the top
of the column, and therefore lh or tens it. He applied
a boiling heat to the vacuum a-top, without producing
any farther depreffion ; a proof that the barometer had
been carefully filled. It had indeed been boiled through
its whole length. He had attempted to meafure the
mercurial expanfron in the ufual way, by filling 30 inch¬
es of the tube with boiled mercury, and expoiing it to
the heat with the open end uppermoft. Rut here it
is evident that the expanfion of the tube, and its folid
contents, mull be taken into the account. The expan¬
sion of the tube was found fo exceedingly irregular,
and fo incapable of being determined with precifion
for the tubes which were to be employed, that he was
obliged to have recourfe to the method with the real
barometer. In this no regard was neceffary to any
circutnftance but the perpendicular height. There was,
befides, a propriety in examining the mercury in the
very condition in which it was ufed for meafuring the
pre ure o the atmofphere ; becaufe whatever compli¬
cation there was m the refults, it was the fame in the
barometer in actual ufe.
The moft obvious manner of applying thefe experi¬
ments on the expanfioir of mercury to our purpofe, is to
rC T-f c^erved height of the mercurv to what it
would have been if it were cf the temperature 32.
ms, uPP«fe that the obferved mercurial height is
9’2’ an the temperature of the mercury is 72°
1X1 e 3'-i1$Q2 : 30—29,2 : 29,0738'; This will be
A T I C S.
the true meafure of the demlty of the a‘r of the ftan-
dard temperature. In order that we may obtain the
exadt temperature of the mercury, it is proper that
the obfervation be made by means of a thermometer at¬
tached to the barometer-frame, fo as to warm and cool
along with it.
Or, tl is may be done without the help of a table,
and with fufficient accuracy, from the circumflance
that the expanfion of an inch of mercury for one degree
diminishes very nearly y^th part in each fucceeding de¬
gree. If therefore we take from the expanfion at 3 20
its thoufandth part for each degree of any range
above it, we obtain a mean rate of expanfion for
that range. If the obferved temperature of the mer¬
cury is below 32'’, we muft add this correction to
obtain the mean expanfion. This rule will be made
more exa£t if we fuppofe the expanfion at 32° to
be —0,0001127. Then multiply the obferved mer¬
curial height by this expanfion, and we obtain the cor¬
rection to be fubtraCted or added according as the tem¬
perature of the mercury was above or below 3 2°. Thus
to abide by the former example of 720. This exceeds
320 by 40: therefore take 40 from 0,0001127, and
we have 0,0001087 for the medium expanfion for that
range. Multiply this by 40, and we have the whole
expanfion of one inch of mercury, =20,004348. Mul¬
tiply the inches of mercurial height, viz. 29,2, by
this expanfion, and we have for the correction 0,12696;.
which being fubtraCted from the obferved height leaves
29,07304, differing from the accurate quantity lefs than
the thoufandth part of an inch. This rule is very eafily
kept in the memory, and fuperfedes the ufe of a table.
This correction may be made with all neceffary ex-
aCtnefs by a rule (till more fimple; namely, by multi¬
plying the obferved height of the mercury by the dif¬
ference of its temperature from 3 2°, and cutting off
four cyphers before the decimals of the mercurial height.
This will feldom err of an inch. We even believe
that it is the molt exaCt method within the range of
temperatures that can be expeCted to occur in mea¬
furing heights : for it appears, by comparing many
experiments and obfervations, that General Roy’s mea¬
fure of the mercurial expanfion is too great, and that
the expanfion of an inch of mercury between 20° and 70
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer does notexeeed 0,000102
pet degree. Having thus corrected the obferved mer¬
curial heights by reducing them to what they would
have been if the mercury had been of the Itandard tem¬
perature, the logarithms of the corrected heights are ta¬
ken, and their difference, multiplied by 10000, will
give the difference of elevations in Englifh fathoms.
There is another way of applying this correction,
fully more expeditious and equally accurate. The
difference of the logarithms of the mercurial heights is
the meafure of the ratio of thofe heights. In like
manner the difference of the logarithms of the obferved
and corrected heights at any itation is the meafure of
the ratio of thofe heights. Therefore this laft difference
of the logarithms is the meafure of the correction of
this ratio. Now the obferved height is to the cor¬
rected height nearly as 1 to i,sooio2. Tlie logarithm
of this ratio, or the difference of the logarithms of 1
and 1,000102, is 0,0000444. This is the correction for
each degree that the temperature of the mercury differs-
from 32. Therefore multiply 0,0000434 by the diffe¬
rence of the mercurial temperatures from 32, and the
prodnCU
125
Takinc
height*.
2JI
25*
*53
*26 _ P ^ N E- ^
■Barometer, product* wilt be the corrcAlons of the rClpefetive loga-
*3 4 But there is ftill an eafier way of applying the lo¬
garithmic correction. If both the mercurial tempera¬
tures are the fame, the differences of their logarithms
will be the fame, although each may be a good deal
above or below the ftandard temperature, if the ex-
panfion be very nearly equable. The correction will be
neceffary only when the tqpperatures at the two ita-
tions are different, and will be proportional to this-dif¬
ference. Therefore, if the difference of the mercurial
temperatures be multiplied by 0,0000444, the product
will be the correction to be made on the difference or
the logarithms of the mercurial heights.
But farther, fince the differences of the logarithms
of the mercurial heights are alfo the differences of ele¬
vation in Englifh fathoms, it follows that the correc¬
tion is alfo a difference of elevation in Englifh fathoms,
or that the correction for one degree of difference of
mercurial temperature is of a fathom, or 32 inch¬
es, or 2 feet 8 inches.
This correction of 2.8 for every degree of difference
of temperature muff be fubtraCted from the elevation
found by the general rate, when the mercury at the
upper flat ion is colder than that at the lower. For
when this is the cafe, the mercurial column at the up¬
per ftation will appear too fhort, the preffure of the
atmofphere too fmall, and therefore the elevation in the
atmofphere will appear greater than it really is.
Therefore the rule for this correction will be to
multiply 0,0000444 by the degrees of difference be¬
tween the mercurial temperatures at the two Rations,
and to add or fubtraCl the produCt from the elevation
found by the general rule, according as the mercury" at the
upper ftation is hotter or colder than that at the Icwer.
£^5 If the experiments of General Hoy on the expanfion
of the mercury in a real barometer be thought moft de¬
ferring of attention, and the expanfion be confidered as
variable, the logarithmic difference correfponding t® this
expanfion for the wean temperature of the two barome¬
ters may he taken. Thefe logarithmic differences are
contained in the following table, which is carried as far
as 112°, beyond which it is not probable that any ob-
fervations will be made. The number for each tempera¬
ture is the difference between the logarithms of 30 inches,
of the temperature 32, and of 30 inches expanded by
that temperature.
Table B.
M A T I C S.
mercury. The relative gravity of the two, on which
Takhi
the fubtangent of the logarithmic curve depends, and he:gbs,
confequently the unit of our fcale of elevations, is much ^
more affeCted by the heat of the air than by the heat of
the mercury.
This adjuftment is of incomparably greater difficulty
than the former, and we can hardly hope to make it
perfeCt. We fhall narrate the chief experimeats which
have been made on the expanfion of air, and deduce
from them fuch rules as appear to be neceffary confe-
quences of them, and then notice the circumftances
which leave the matter ftill imperfeCt. _ 15?
General Roy compared a mercurial and an air ther- Compari.
rnometer, each of which was graduated arithmetically,
that is, the units of the feales were equal bulks of mer-and air'a
cury, and equal bulks (perhaps different from the for-thet
mer) of air. He found their progrefs as in the follow-ter.
ing table.
b Table C.
Temp.
112°
1C2
92
82
72
62
52
42
3 2
2 2
12
L,og. diff.
O.OOOO427
O.OOOO436
'0.0000444
O.OOOO453
O.OOOO460
O.OCO0468
o.0000475
O.OOOO482
O.OOOO489
O.COOO497
O.OOOO504
Dec. ol
Path.
>4 2 7
>436
>444
>453
,460
,468
>475
,482
,489
>497
>504
Ft. In.
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.9
2. IO
2.10
2.1 1
2.1 t
3°
3-°
Merc.iDiff.
212
192
172
152
132
I 12
92
72
52
32
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Air.
212,0
194>4
176,2
157.4
138,0
118,0
97>2
75>6
53>°
3I>4
11 >4
Diff.
17.6
18,2
18.8
I9>4
20,0
20.8
21.6
22.6
21,6
20,0
l(0
■457
The tens- It is alio neeeffary to attend to the temperature of
perature of air ; and the change that is produced by heat in its
a^fobe TtU.ft muc^ greater confequence than that of the
tended t-a.
It has been eftablifhed by many experiments that
equal increments of heat produce equal increments in
the bulk of mercury. The differences of temperature
are therefore expreffed by tbe fecond column, and may
be confidered as equal; and the numbers of the third
column muft be allowed to exprefs the fame tempera¬
tures with thofe of the firft. They direa/y exprefs the
bulks of the air, and the numbers of the fourth column
exprefs the differences of thefe bulks. Thefe are evi¬
dently unequal, and fhow that common air expands moft
of all when of the temperature 62 nearly.
The next point was to determine what was the a8ual
increafe of bulk by fome known increafe of heat. For
this purpofe he took a tube, having a narrow bore,
a ball at one end. He meafured with great care thecre3feof
capacity of both the ball and the tube, and divided the
tube into equal fpaces which bore a determined Pr0'*,^e°ifcel
portion to the capacity of the ball. This apparatus^
w as fet in a long cylinder filled with frigorific mixtures
or with water, w'hich could be uniformly heated up to
the boiling temperature, and was accompanied by a nice
thermometer. The expanfion of the air wras meafured
by means of a column of mercury which rofe or funk in
the tube. The tube being of a fmall bore, the mercu¬
ry did not drop out of it; and the bore being chofen
as equable as poffible, this column remained of an uni¬
form length, whatever part of the tube it chanced to
occupy. By this contrivance he was able to examine
the expanfibility of air of various denfities. When the
column of mercury contained only a fingle drop or two,
the air was nearly of the denfity of the external air. I‘
he wifhed to examine the expanfion of air twice or thrice
as denfe, he ufed a column of 30 or 60 inches le«g*
and to examine the expanfion of ait that is rarer than
P N E U M
Baron er. the external air, he placed the tube with the ball upper-
'-A - moft, the open end coming through a hole in the bot¬
tom ©f the veil'd containing the mixtures or water. By
this pofition the column of mercury was hanging in the
tube, fupported by the preffure of the atmofphere ; and
the elafticity of the included air was meafured by the
difference between the fufpended column and the com¬
mon barometer.
1 3 The following table contains the expanfion of 1000
parts of air, nearly of the common denfity, by heating it
from o to 212. The firit column contains the height
of the barometer ; the fecond contains this height aug¬
mented by the fmall column of mercuiy in the tube of
the manometer, and therefore expreffes the denfity of
the air examined; the third contains the total expan¬
fion of i ooo parts ; and the fourth contains the expan¬
fion for 1°, fuppofmg it uniform throughout.
Table D.
Barom.
Denfity lEx^anfion
of Air ofiooopts
examined, by ill0.
29,9?
30»°7
29,48
29,90
29,96
29,90
29>95
30>°7
2948
Mean
SM2
3°>77
29,90
30>73
30,92
3°’55
30,60
30,60
30,00
30,62
483,83
482,10
480,74
485,86
489,45
476,04
487,55
482,80
489 47
484,21
Expanfion
by 1®.
2,2825
2,2741
2,2676
2,2918
2,3087
2.2455
2,2998
2,2774
2,3087
2,2840
Hence it appears, that the mean expanfion of icco
parts of air of the denlity 30,62 by one degree of Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer is 2,284, or that 1000 becomes
1002,284.
If this expanfion be fuppofed to follow the fame rate
that was obferved in the comparifon of the mercurial and
air thermometer, we fliall find that the expanfion of a
thoufand parts of air for one degree of heat at the different
intermediate temperatures will be as in the following table.
Table E.
Temp.
212
192
172
152
132
112
92
82
72
62
52
42
32
22
12
o
Total
Ex panflop
Expanfion
for i°.
484,210
444>011
402,452
359>5°3
3 15>T93
269,513
222,006
I97>795
172,671
147,090
121,053
95.929
71,718
48,421
26,038
2,0099
2,0080
2>I475
2,2155
2,2840
2x3754
2,4211
2,5124
2,5581
2,6037
2,5124
2,4211
2.3297
2,2383
2,1698
A T I C S.
If we would have a mean expanfion for any particu*
lar range, as between 120 and 9 2°, which is the moil
likely to comprehend all the geodietical obfervations,
we need only take the difference of the bulks 26,038
and 222,006.= 195,968, and divide this by the inter¬
val of temperature 80and we obtain 2,4496, or 2,45
for the mean expanfion for i°.
It would perhaps be better to adapt the table to a
mafs of 1000 parts of air of the Itandard temperature
320 ; for in its prefent form it fliows the expanfibility
of air originally of the temperature o. This will be
done with fufficient accuracy by faying (for 212°)
1071,718 : 1484,210=1000,: 13849, and fo of the
reft. Thus we (hall conftru£t the following table of the
expanfion of 10,000 parts of air.
Table F.
263
feirp
21 2
192
172
152
132
1 12
92
82
72
62
52
42
32
22
12
o
Bulk.
>3489
13474
13087
12685
12272
11846
11403
I! 177
10942
10704
IC461
10226
10000
9783
9574
9331
Differ.
for 1°.
375
387
392
4j3
426
443
226
235
238
243
235
226
217
209
243
18.7
'9.3
19.6
20.6
21,3
22,1
22.6
23.5
23.8
24»3
23.5
22.6
21,7
20.9
20,2
This will give for the mean expanfion of 1000 parts
of air between 120 and 92 =2,29.
Although it cannot happen that in meafuring the General
differences of elevation near the earth’s furface, we (hall Roy’s ex-
have occafion to employ air greatly exceeding the com- ^r^ent*
mon denfity, we may infert the experiments made by above the
General Roy on fuch airs. They are expreffed in the common
following table; where column firft contains the den-^enhtya
fities meafured by the inches of mercury that they will
fupport when of the temperature 3 2°; column fecond is
the expanfion of loco part's of fuch air by being heated
from o to 212; and column third is the mean expan¬
fion for i°.
Table G.
Mean
Denfity.
101,7
92,3
80.5
54.5
49.7
75.7
Expanfion
for
45'.54
423.23
412,09
439.87
443'24
434
Expanf.
o r i°.
2,130
1,996
1.944
2.075
2,091
2,047
265
We have much more frequent occafion to operate in ' • .
air that is rarer than the ordinary ftate of the fuperficial bdow t£c
, at mo- denfity,
128
Barometer
P N E U M
atmofphere, General Roy accordingly made many ex¬
periments on fuch airs. He found in general, that their
expanfibility by heat was analogous to that of air in its
ordinary denfity, being greateit about the temperatmo
6oQ. He found, too, that its expanfibility by heat di-
minifhed with its denfity, but he could not determine
the law of gradation. When reduced to about f ot
the denfity of common air, its expaniion was as fol¬
lows.
Table H.
Temp.
212
192
172
152
132
I 12
92
72
52
32
Bulk.
I I4I>5°4
l 134,429
I 122,165
I l 08,015
1093,864
1079,636
1064,699
1043,788
10x7,845
1000,000
Difference.
7’°75
12,264
14.H0
i4»I51
14,228
I4>937
20,911
25*943
17.845
Mean expanfion
Expanf.
fur i°.
c 354
0,613
0,708
0,708
0,711
0,747
I, 045
J. 297
0,892
0,786
Air^ofor- From this very extenfive and judicious range of ex-
dinary den-periments, it is evident that the expanfibility of air by
fity ex- }ieat js greateft when the air is about its ordinary den-
Inoft, fity, and that in fmall denfities it is greatly diminifhed.
It appears alfo, that the law of compreffion is altered ;
for in this fpecimen of the rare air half of the whole ex¬
panfion happens about the temperature 990, but in air
of ordinary denfity at 105°. This being the cafe, wo
fee that the experiments of Mr Amontons, narrated in
the Memoirs of the Academy at Paris 1702, &c. are
not inconfiftent witli thofe more perfpicuous experiments
of General Roy. Amontons found, that whatever was
the denfity of the air, at leait in cafes much denfer
than ordinary air, the change of 18o° of temperature
increafed its elafticity in the fame proportion : for he
found, that tire column of mercury which it fupported
when of the temperature 50, was increafed -f at the
temperature 212. Hence he hailily concluded, that
its expanfibility was increafed in the fame proportion ;
but this by no means follows, unlefs we are certain that
in every temperature the elafticity is proportional to die
denfity. This is a point which ftill remains undecided;
and it merits attention, becaufe if true it eftablifhes a
remarkable law concerning the aftion of heat, which
would feem to go to prove that the elafticity of fluids
is the property of the matter of fire, which it fuper-
induces on every body with which it combines in the
467 form of vapour.
The height After this account of the expanfion of air, we fee
Whli'h e# ^iat h<%ht through which we muft rife in order to
sfgiven fall produce a given fall of the mercury in the barometer, or
the thicknefs of the ftratum of air equiponderant with a
tenth of an inch of mercury, muft increafe with the ex-
panfion of air ; and that if . be the expanfion for
in the ba¬
rometer,
increafes
with the
air’s txpa:
fion.
1000
one degree, we muft multiply the excefs of the tempera¬
ture of the air above 320 by 0,00229, and multiply the
produft by 87, in order to obtain the thicknefs of the
ATI C S.
ftratum where the barometer {lands at 30 inches; or Taking
whatever be the elevation indicated by the difference of he>ghtf,
the barometrical heights, upon the fuppofttion that the ' ^
air is of the temperature 32', we muft multiply this by
0,00229 for every degree that the air is warmer or
colder than 32. The produft muft be added to the
elevation in the firft cafe, and fubtrafted in the latter.
Sir George Shuckbourgh deduces 0,0024 from his 16S
experiments as the mean expanfion of air in the ordi¬
nary cafes : and this is probably nearer the truth ; be¬
caufe General Roy’s experiments were made on air
which was freer from damp than the ordinary air in
the fields ; and it appears from his experiments, that a
very minute quantity of damp increafes its expanfibility
by heat in a prodigious degree-. 169
The great difficulty is howto apply this correftion
or rather, how to determine the temperature of the airmQ(1j’of
in thofe extenfive and deep llrata in which the elevations meafurinj
are mcafured. It feldom or never happens that the ftra-heigb.
turn is of the fame temperature throughout. It is com¬
monly much colder aloft; it is alfo of different conftitu-
tions. Below it is warm, loaded with vapour, and very
expanfible 5 above it is cold, much drier, and lefs ex-
panfible, both by its drynefs and its rarity. The cur¬
rents of wind are often difpofed in llrata, which long
retain their places ; and as they come from different re¬
gions, are of different temperatures and different confti-
tutions. We cannot therefore determine the expanfion
of the whole ftratum with precifion, and muft content
ourfelves with an approximation : and the heft appro¬
ximation that we can make is, by fuppoftng the whole
ftratum of a mean temperature between thofe of its up¬
per and lower extremity, and employ the expanfion cor-
refponding to that mean temperature.
This, however, is founded on a gratuitous fuppofition,
that the whole intermediate ftratum expands alike, and
that the expanfion is equable in the different interme¬
diate temperatures ; but neither of thefe are warranted
by experiment. Rare air expands lefs than what is
denfer; and therefore the general expanfion of the whole
ftratum renders its denfity more uniform. Dr Horlley
has pointed out fome curious confequences of this in
Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXIV. There is a particular eleva¬
tion at which the general expanfion, inftead of diminiih-
ing the denfity of the air, increafes it by the fuperior
expanfion of what is below; and we know that the ex¬
panfion is not equable in the intermediate temperatures:
but we cannot find out a rule which will give us a more
accurate correftion than by taking the expanfion for the
mean temperature.
When we have done this, we have carried the me¬
thod of meafuring heights by the barometer as far as it
can go ; and this fource of remaining error makes it
needlefs to attend to fome other very minute equations
which theory points out. Such is the diminution of
the weight of the mercury by the change of diftance
from the centre of the earth. This accompanies the
diminution of the weight of the air, but neither fo as to
compenfate it, nor to go along with it pari pajjii.
After all, there are found cafes where there is a re¬
gular deviation from thpfe rules, of which we cannot
give any very fatisfaftory account. Thus it is found,
that in the province of Quito in Peru, wh ch is at a
great elevation above the furface of the ocean, the
heights obtained by thefe rules fall confiderably ffiort of
It
4
*!
iti;.
ray
«•
CUT.
trc-
nfc
dioa
ltot
pro.
kl;
iup-
ccr
lion,
.’ani
rw-
at #
>rtl?
is c
•IfT?
[nth'
eriot
ett'
iret;
rtit
IK1
anci
tl<
sw
re
jtt
aA
t>
tl>:
tJ
ifc
n*.fetr
P N E U M
er, the real heights; and at Spitsbergen they confiderably
exceed them. It appears that the air in the circumpo¬
lar regions is denfer than the air of the temperate cli¬
mates when of the fame heat and under the fame pref-
fure • and the contrary feems to be the cafe with the
air in the torrid zone. It would feem that the fpecific
gravity of air to mercihry is at Spitsbergen about I to.
10224, and in ^eru about 1 to 13 100. This difference
is with great probability afcribed to the greater drynefs
*of the circumpolar air.
This fource of error will always remain ; and it is
■combined with another, which fnould be attended to
by all who practife this method of meafuring heights,
namely, a difference in the fpecific gravity of the quick-
filver. It is thought fuificiently pure for a barometer
when it is cleared of all calcinable matter, fo as not to
drag or fully the tube. In this Slate it may contain a
considerable portion of other metals, particularly of Sil¬
ver, bifmuth, and tin, which will diminish its fpecific
gravity. It has been obtained by revivification from
cinnabar of the fpecific gravity 14,229, and it is thought
very fine if 13,65. Sir George Shuckbourgh found the
quickfilver which agreed precifely with the atmofpheri-
cal obfervations on which the rules are founded to have
the fpecific gravity 13,61. It is feldom obtained fo
heavy. It is evident that thefe variations will change
the whole refults; and that it is abfolutely neceffary-, in
order to obtain precifion, that we know the denfity of
the mercury employed. The fubtangent of the atmo-
fpherical logarithmic, or the height of the homogeneous
atmofphere, will increafe in the fame proportion with
the denfity of the mercury ; and the elevation corre-
fponding to ^ of an inch of barometric height will
• change in the fame proportion.
We muff be contented with the remaining imperfec¬
tions : and we can readily fee, that, for any purpofe
that can be anfwered by fuch meafurements of great
heights, the method is Sufficiently exact; but it is quite
inadequate to the purpofe of taking accurate levels, for
diredling the conflruftion of canals, aquedinffs, and
other works of this kind, where extreme precifion is ab¬
folutely neceffary.
We Shall now deduce from all that has been faid on
this fubjeft fets of eafy rules for the practice of this
mode of meafurement, illuflrating them by an example.
I. Af. DF. Loo's Method.
■ 1 . -> - . - *
lAod >f I. Subtraft the logarithm of the .barometrical height
meal ng at the upper flatien from the logarithm of that at the
^ k)vver’ ancA count the index and four firfl decimal figures
mete ic- t^le remainder fes fathoms, the reft as a decimal frac-
«ordi ; to tion. Call this the elevation.
J II. Note the different temperatures of the mercury
at the two Stations, fend the mean temperature. Mul¬
tiply the logarithmic expanfion correfponding to this
mean temperature (in Table B, p. 126.) by the differ¬
ence of the two temperatures, and fubtradl the produdl
from the elevation if the barometer has been coldefl at
the upper ftation, otherwife add it. Call the difference
or the fum the approximated elevation,
4 HI* Note the difference of the temperatures of the
air at the two ftations by a detached thermometer, and
alfo the mean temperature and its difference from 3 20.
Multiply this difference by the expanfion of air for the
mean temperature, and multiply the approximate eleva-
V©!,. XV. Part L
A T I C S. . 129
tion by irh: this product, according as the air is above ^^1"™
or below 3 20, The produd is the corred elevation in ,
fathoms and decimals.
Example.
Suppofe that the mercury in the barometer at the
lower ftation was at 29,4 inches, that its temperature
was 50°, and the temperature of the air was 45 ; and
let the height of the mercury at the upper ftation be
2 St'19 inches, its temperature 46, and the temperature
of the air 39. Thus we have
£al Pits. Temp. Mean. Temp. Air. Mean.
48
29>4 50
25,19 46'*
I. Log. o! 29,4
Log. of 25.19
Elevation in fathoms
II. Expanf. for 48? ,473
Multiply by - 4
Approximated elevation
III. Expanf. of air at 42 0,00238
10
4.?
39
42
1.4683473
1.4012282
X4 2—32,= to0
Multiply
By
0,0238
671,191
1,892
660,299
669,2990
1,0238
Produd n: the corred elevation 685,228
2. Sir George Shuckbourgh's Method.
2jt
I. Reduce the barometric heights to whit they would ac¬
he if they were of the temperature 320. Shu*k^ t0
II. The difference of the logarithms of the reduced
barometrical heights will give the approximate eleva¬
tion.
III. Corred the approximated elevation as before.
Same Example*
I. Mean expanf. for from Tab. A, p. 125. is
0,000 ill.
18^X0,000111X29,4= - - 0,059
Subtrad this from - - 29,4
Reduced barometric height - 2 9^34!
Expanf. from Tab. A, p. 125^ is o,ocoi 11.
14°Xo,oooi 11X25,19 - - 0,039
Subtrad from - - 2S’)190
Reduced barometric height
II. Log. 29,341
Log. 25,151
Approximated elevation
III. This multiplied by 1,0238 gives
25,151
1.4674749
*‘4005553
669,196
685,125
272
Remark 1. If 0,000lot be fuppofed the mean ex-Remarks
panlion of mercury for i°, as Sir George Shuckbourgh 0" **liS nic*
determines it, the redudion of the barometric heightsth0 *
will be had fufficiently exad by multiplying the obfer-
R v ved
no P N E U M
Barometer vcd heights of the mercury by the difference of its tem-
 peratures from 32, and cutting off four more decimal
places; thus 29,4. — gives for the reduced height
29,347, and 25,i9X—gives 25,155,
j 0000
and the dif*
273
a?5
A T I C S.
ApETOX. elevation =4123,14 fCrt,
Corn for temp, of mercury, =14X2,83 1132
Correfted elevation in feet
Ditto in fathoms
fcrence of their logarithms gives 669,4 fathoms for the
approximated elevation, which differs from the one given
above by no more than 15 inches.
Remark 2. If 0,0024 be taken for the expanfion of
air for one degree, the corredtion for this expanfion will
be had by multiplying the approximated elevation by
12, and this produdt by the fum of the differences of
the temperatures from 32°, counting that difference as
negative when the temperature is below 32, and cutting
off four places; thus 669,196X12X13 + 07 X—l-— =
10000
16,061, which added to 669,196 gives 685,257, differ¬
ing from the former only 9 inches.
An eafy From the fame premifes we may derive a rule, which
rule with- is abundantly exadl for all geodastical purpofes, and
out the which requires no tables of any kind, and is eafily re-
tibles^ membered.
1. The height through which we muft rife in order
to produce any fall of the mercury in the barometer, is
inverfely proportional to the denfity of the air, that is,
to the height of the mercury in the barometer.
2. When the barometer flands at 30 inches, and the
air and quickfilver are of the temperature 32, we muft
rife through 87 feet, in order to produce a depreffion of
To of an inch.
3. But if the air be of a different temperature, this
87 feet muft be increafed or diminifhed by 0,21 of a
foot for every degree of difference of the temperature
from 32°.
4. Every degree of difference of the temperatures of
the mercury at the two ftations makes a change of 2,833
feet, or 2 feet 1 o inches in the elevation.
Henee the following rule.
Take the difference of the barometric heights in
tenths of an inch. Call this cl.
2. Multiply the difference a between 32, and the
mean temperature of the air by 21, and take the fum or
difference of this produdt and 87 feet. This is the
height through which we muft rife to caufe the baro¬
meter to fall from 30 inches to 29,9. Call this
height h.
Eet m be the mean between the two barometric
heights. Then --° ^ is the approximated elevation ve-
m
ry nearly.
Multiply the difference J of the mercurial tempera¬
tures by 2,83 feet, and add this produft to the ap¬
proximated elevation if the upper barometer has been
the warmeft, otherwife fubtrail it. The refult, that is,
the /urn or difference, will be the corrected elevation.
Same Example*
</= 294—251,9 =42,1
^.■=-87+ 10X0,21,=89,1
29,4+ 2 C.IQ
, *=——^=27x29
4111,92
685,32
Differing from the former only 15 inches.
This rule may be expreffed by the following fimple
and eafily remembered formula, where a is the diffe¬
rence between 3 2^ and the mean temperature of the air,
<7 is the difference of barometric heights in tenths of an
inch, m is the mean barometric height, $ the difference
between the mercurial temperatures, and E is the cor-
reif elevation, E — ^~Z7 c*"'! a X2,83.
Vi
VI
remark
niounuiiA
We fhall now conclude this fubjeil by an account of Height^
feme of the moft remarkable mountains, &c. on the^
earth, above the furface of the ocean, in feet.
Mount Puy de Domme in Auvergne, the firft
mountain meafured by the barometer
Mount Blanc j
Monte Rofa I A1 v
Aiguille d’Argenture r Ps
Monaftery of St Bernard J
Mount Cenis - - .
Pic de los Reyes ^
Pic du Medi I -n ‘
Pic d’Offano rP>'reiln«s
Canegou J
Lake of Geneva
Mount iEtna
Mount Vefuvius
Mount Hekla in Iceland
Snowdown - -
Ben Moir - - »
Ben Laurs - - -
Ben Gloe - - -
Shihallion ...
Ben Lomond - -
Tinto - - -
Table Hill, Cape of Good Hope
Gondar city in Abyflinia
Source of the Nile
Pic of Teneriffe
Chimbora9on
Cayambourow
Antifana ...
Pichinha (fee Peru, n° 56.}
City of Quito (fee ditto)
Cafpian Sea below the ocean
This laft is fo fingular, that it is neceffary to give the
authority on which this determination is founded. It
is deduced from nine years obfervations with the baro¬
meter at Aftrachan by Mr Lecre, compared with a fe-
ries of obfervations made with the fame barometer at
St Peterfburgh.
This employment of the barometer has caufed it tofmpr^
become a very interefting inftrument to the philofopherhar?^^'
and to the traveller; and many attempts have been^^ofl^
made of late to improve it, and render it more portable, rtooke’51
The improvements have either been dire&ed to the en¬
largement
5088
15662
15084
13402
7944
9212
7620
9300
11700
8544
1232
10954
3938
4887
3555
3723
3858
3472
3461
3180
2342
3454
8440
8082
14026
‘9595
‘9391
19290
15670
9977
306
Jtef
|4=!
'941
)211
(621
1300
TOO
514
:22l
>954
i95j
f«87
1555
W
185*
14"1
!j4>
1454
44c
8l
;o;5
1595
I391
p
?
tit
It
ar:*
ft-
it
f :e
cc< IV.
t
!nf? r to
the Ti¬
mor. nc
for i
mea e-
me-: >f
heig 3.
Ho the
ton on
one light
■fee i pro¬
ved
P N E U M
largeitient of its range, or to the more accurate meafure-
ment of its prefent feale. Of the firft kind are Hooke’s
wheel barometer, the diagonal barometer, and the hori¬
zontal barometer, deferibed in a former volume of this
work. See Barometer. In that place are alfo deferi¬
bed two very ingenious contrivances of Mr Rownings,
which are evidently not portable. Of all the barometers
with an enlarged fcale the bell is that invented by Dr
Hooke in 1668, and deferibed in the Phii.Tranf. bPiSy.
The invention was alfo claimed by Huyghens and by
De la Hire ; but Hooke's was publifhed long before.
It conlills of a compound tube ABCDEFG (fig.
56.), of which the parts AB and DE are equally
wide, and EFG as much narrower as we would am¬
plify the fcale. The parts AB and EG mull alfo be
as perfectly cylindrical as poffible. The part HBCDI
is filled with mercury, having a vacuum above in AB.
IF is filled with a light fluid, and FG with another
light fluid which will not mix with that in IF. The
ciilern G is of the fame diameter as AB. It is eafy
to fee that the range of the feparating furface at F
mull be as much gi eater than that of the furface I as
the area of I is greater than that of F. And this
ratio is in our choice. This barometer is free from all
the bad qualities of thofe formerly deferibed, being
moll delicately moveable ; and is by far the fitted for a
chamber, for amufement, by obfervations on the changes
of the atmofpheric preflure. The flightell breeze caufes
it to rife and fall, and it is continually in motion.
But this, and all other contrivances of the kind, are
inferior to the common barometer for meafurement of
heights, on account of their bulk and cumberfome-
nefs : nay, they are inferior for all philofophical pur-
pofes in point of accuracy ; and this for a reafon that
admits of no reply. Their fcale mull be determined in
all its parts by the common barometer ; and therefore,
notwithllanding their great range, they are fufceptible
of no greater accuracy than that with which the fcale
of a common barometer can be obferved and meafured.
This will be evident to any perfon who will take the
trouble of confidering how the points of their fcale mud
be afeertained. The moll accurate method for gradu¬
ating fuch a barometer as we have now deferibed would
be to make a mixture of vitriolic acid and water, which
fiiould have tV of the denfity of mercuiy. Then, let
« long tube dand vertical in this fluid, and connect its
upper end with the open end of the barometer by a
pipe which has a branch to which we can apply the
mouth. Then if we fuck through this pipe, the fluid
will rife both in the barometer and in the other tube;
and 10 inches rife in this tube will correfpond to one inch
defeent in the common barometer. In this manner may
every point of the fcale be adjulted in due proportion to
the red.. But it dill remains to determine what parti-
cular point of the fcale correfponds to fome determined
inch ol the common barometer. This can only be done
y an a ual comparifon; and this being done, the
w-hoie becomes equaUy accurate. Except therefore for
e mere purpo e of chamber amufement, in which cafe
ie arometei' ad deferibed has a decided preference, the
common barometer is to be preferred; and our atten-
pmtabilit ^ entlrcty directed to its improvement and
. . ^°r tk;s purpofe it fhould be furnilhed with two mi-
0 copes oi magnifying glades, one of them dationed
*81
A T I C S.
at the beginning of the fcale ; which iliould either be
moveable, fo that it may always be brought to the fur¬
face of the mercury in the cidern, or the cidern thould
be fo contrived that its furface may always be brought
to the beginning of the fcale. The glafs will enable us
to fee the coincidence with accuracy. The other mi-
crofcope mud be moveable, fo as to be fet oppofite to
the furface of the mercury in the tube; and the fcale
flioukl be furnifhed with a vernier which divides an inch
into 1000 parts, and be made of materials of which we
know the expanfion with great preciiion.
For an account of many ingenious contrivances to
the make indrument accurate, portable, and commodi¬
ous, confult Magellan, Differ, de diverfes Injlr.de Pbyf.i
Phil. Tranf. Ixvii. Ixviii. ; Journ. de Phyf. xix. 108. 346.
xvi. 392. xviii. 391. xxi. 436. xxii. 390.; Sulzer, Acl.
Helvet. iii. 259. ; De Luc, Recberches fur Its Moiifica¬
tions de VAtmofphere, i. 401. ii. 459,490. De Luc’S
feems the mod fimple and perfedt of them all. Cardinal
de Luynes (Mem. Par. 1768); Prinf. De Luc, Re-
cbercbes, § 63.; Van Swindon’s Pofitiones Phyjice t
Com. Acad. Petr op. i. ; Com. Acad. Petrop. Nov.
ii. 20O. viii.
Thus wre have given an elementary account of thd
didinguilhing properties of air as a heavy and compref-
lible fluid, and of the general phenomena which are
immediate confequences of thefe properties. This we
have done in a fet of propofitions analogous to thofe
which form the doctrines of hydrodatics. It remains to
confider it in another point of view, namely, as moveable
and inert. The phenomena confequent on thefe proper¬
ties are exhibited in the velocities which air acquires by
preflurr, in the refidance which bodies meet with to their
motion through the air, and in the impreflion which air
in motion gives to bodies expofed to its adtion.
We fhall fird confider the motions of which air is
fufceptible when the equilibrium of preflure (whether
ariling from its weight or its eladicity) is removed ; and,
in the next place, we fliall confider its adlion on folid
bodies expofed to its current, and the refidance which
it makes to their motion through it. 2g,
In this confideration we fliall avoid the extreme of ge- Do&rine of
nerality, which renders the difeuflion too abdradl anda,rinac-
difficult, and adapt our invedigation to the circum-teir'^c fl"
dances in which compreflible fluids (of which air isadtedon”/
taken for the reprefentative) are mod commonly found, equal and
We fliall confider air therefore as it is commonly found Parai.lcl
in accefllble fituations, as a6led on by equal and parallelgravitjr
gravity ; and we fliall confider it in the fame order in
which water is treated in a fyflem of hydraulics. i8-
In that fcience the leading problem is to determine Analogous
with what velocity the water will move through a givent(:) 1116
orifice when impelled by fome known preflure ; and it !‘oftnne
has been found, that the bed form in which this mob h .Julies,
difficult and intricate propofition can be put, is to de¬
termine the velocity of water flowing through this ori¬
fice when impelled by its weight alone. Having de¬
termined this, we can reduce to this cafe every queftion
which can be propofed; for, in place of the preffure
of any piflon or other mover, we can always fubditiite’pjle2^Io^i
a perpendicular column of water or air whofe weight city with"
fliall be equal to the given preflure. which sir
The fird problem, therefore, is to determine withrufll^ 'Z110
what velocity air will rufli into a void when impelled ft/own *
ft-2 by weight,
332 P N E U M
Air in foy Jts weight alone. This is evidently analogous to the
Mot:°n- hydraulic problem of water flowing out of a veffel.
  And here we muft be contented with referring our
readers to the folutions which have been given of that
problem, and the demonilration that it flows with the
velocity which a heavy body would acquire by falling
from a height equal to the depth of the hole under the
furface of the water in the veflel. In whatever way we
attempt to demon Urate that propofition, every ilep, nay,
every word, of the demonftration applies equally to the
air, or to any fluid whatever. Or, if our readers (hould
vrifh to fee the connexion or analogy of the cafes, we
only defire them to recolleft an undoubted maxim in
the fcience of motion, that •when the moving force and
the matter to be moved vary in the fame proportion, the ve¬
locity luiil be the fame. If therefore there be fimilar
veflels of air, water, oil, or any other fluid, all of the
height of a homogeneous atmofphere, they will all nun
through equal and fimilar holes with the fame velocity ;
for in whatever proportion the quantity of matter mo¬
ving through the hole be varied by a variation of denflty,
the preflure which forces it out, by adding in circum-
ftances perfectly fimilar, varies in the fame proportion
by the fame variation of denfity.
We muft therefore affume it as the leading propofi¬
tion, that air ritjhes from the atmofphere into a void •with
the velocity which a heavy body would acquire by falling
from the top of a homogeneous atmofphere.
It is known that air is about 840 times lighter than
water, and that the preflure of the atmofphere fupports
water at the height of 33 feet nearly. The height
therefore of a homogeneous atmofphere is nearly
33 X 840, or 27720 feet. Moreover, to know the ve¬
locity acquired by any fall, recollett that a heavy body
by falling one foot acquires the velocity of 8 feet per
fecond ; and that the velocities acquired by falling thro’
different heights are as the fquare roots of the heights.
Therefore, to find the velocity correfponding to any
height, expreficd in feet per fecond, multiply the fquare
root of the height by 8. We have therefore in the
prefent inftance 27220, = 8X166,493, =: 1332
feet per fecond. This therefore is the velocity with
which common air will rufti into a void ; and this may
be taken as a ftandard number in pneumatics, as 16 asd
32 are ftandard numbers in the general fcience of me¬
chanics, exprefling the a&ion of gravity at the furface
of the earth.
It is eafy to fee that greater precifion is not neceffary
in this matter. The height of a homogeneous atmo¬
fphere is a variable thing, depending on the temperature
of the air. If this reafon feems any objeftion againft
the ufe of the number 1332, we may retain 8v/H in
place of it, where H exprefles the height of a homoge¬
neous atmofphere of the given temperature. A varia¬
tion of the barometer makes no change in the velocity,
nor in the height of the homogeneous atmofphere, be-
caufe it is accompanied by a proportional variation in
the denfity of the air. When it is increafed for in¬
ftance, the denfity is alfo increafed Yo » and thus the
expelling force and the matter to be moved are changed
in the fame proportion, and the velocity remains the
fame. N. B. We do not here confider the velocity
which the air acquires after its ifluing into the void by
its continual expanfion. This may be aftertained by
a t 1 c s.
the 39th prop, of Newton’s Princtpla, b. i. Nay, which Air in
appears very paradoxical, if a cylinder of air, communi- Motion
eating in this manner with a void, be comprefled by a
pifton loaded with a weight, which prefles it down as
the air flows out, and thus keeps it of the fame denfity,
the velocity of efflux will ftill be the fame however great
the preflure may chance to be : for the firft and imme¬
diate effeft of the load on the pifton is to reduce the air
in the cylinder to fuch a denlity that its elafticity ffiall
exaftly balance the load; and becaufe the elafticity of
air is proportional to its denfity, the denfity of the air
will be increafed in the fame proportion with the load,
that is, with the expelling power (for we are neglecting
at prefent the weight of the included air as too inconfi-
derable to have any fenfible effeCt.) Therefore, fince the
matter to be moved is increafed in the fame proportion
with the preflure, the velocity will be the fame as
before. / ... 2!?
It is equally eafy to determine the velocity with which And the
the air of the atmofphere will rufh into a fpace contain-velocity
ing rarer air. Whatever may be the denfity of this air,
its elafticity, which follows the proportion of its denfity,in,oa^a;!
will balance a proportional part of the preflure of the containing
atmofphere ; and it is the excefs of this laft only which rater ^1
is the moving force. The matter to be moved is the
fame as before. Let D be the natural denfity of the
air, and s the denfity of die air contained in the veflel
into wliich it is fuppofed to run, and let P be the
preflure of the atmofphere, and therefore equal to the
force which impels it into a void; and let r be the
force with which this rarer air would run into a void.
PS
We have D : ^=:P: and Now the moving
P^
force in the prefent inftance is P—r, or P—jy.
Laftly, let V be the velocity of air ruffling into a void,
and v the velocity with which it will ruffi into this
rarefied air..
It is a theorem in the motion of fluids, that the
prefliires are as- the fquares of the velocities of efflux.
P r
Therefore P:P—-jj =:V* : a>*. Hence we derive
dcrV^l-
D
and vzzVX
We do not
here confider the lefiftance which the air of the atmo*
fphere will meet with from the inertia of that in the
veflel which it muft difplace in its motion.
Here we fee that there will always be a current into
the veffel while $ is lefs than D.
We alfo learn the gradual diminution of the velocity
as the veflel fills j for <*' continually increafes, and there-*
s
fore I — jy continually diminiflies.
It remains to determine die time t exprefled in fe-
conds, in which the air of the atmofphere will flow
into this veflel from its ftate of vacuity till the air in the
veflel has acquired any propofed denfity
For this purpofe let H, exprefled in feet, be the
height through which a heavy body muft fall in order
to acquire the velocity V, exprefled alfo in feet per fe¬
cond. This we fliall exprefs more briefly in future, by
calling it the height producing the velocity V. Let
C reprefent the capacity of the veflel, exprefled in cubic
ill Airl:
N Motw
P N E U M
feet and O the area or fe&ion of the orifice, expreffed
in fuperficial or ^uare feet; and let the natural denfity
of the air be D. „ . , ^ . , •
Sin'-e the quantity of aerial matter contained in a
vefiel depends on the capacity of the veffel and the
denfity of the air jointly, we may exprefs the air which
would fill this veffel by the fymbol CD when the air
is in its ordinary ftate, and by C J when it has the
denfity /. In order to obtain the rate at which it fills,
we muft take the fluxion of this quantity C This
is C j ; for C is a conftant quantity, and i is a variable
or flowing quantity. r . . , ,
But we alfo obtain the rate of influx by our know¬
ledge of the velocity, and the area of the orifice, and
the"denfity. The velocity is V, or B^/H, at the firft
inftant; and when the air in the vefiel has acquired the
denfity <?, that is, at the end of the time /, the velocity
is vh^/ °r
D
a/V-J
VD
; X
—i
A T I C S.
the time in feconds of completely filling it will be
8" 1152"
Ti*666’ or 666
of a fquare inch, that is, if its fide is to
or 1,7297
or Bv^hl
V xj
The rate of influx therefore (which may be con¬
ceived as meafured by the little mafs of air which ^ ill
enter during the time / with tills velocity) will be
Bty/HOPy'D—f t , or B-v/HOv'D'/D—mul-
7d ~
tiplying the velocity by the orifice and by the denfity..
Here then we have two values of the rate of influx.
By ftating them as equal we have a fluxionary equation,
from which we may obtain the fluents, that is, the
time t in feconds neceffary for bringing the air in the
veffel to the denfity or the denfity J1 which will be
produced at the end of any time t. We have the equa¬
tion Sy'HOy'DV'D—Hence we derive
C >
Of this the fluent is
f “Bv'HO^D
C . 
^=4v7HO\/D^' ^ +in which A is a con¬
ditional conilant quantity. The condition which de¬
termines it is, that t muft be nothing when <> is nothing,
that is, when a/D—^zrA^D; for this is evidently
the cafe at the beginning of the nlotion. Hence it
follows, that the conftant quantity is VD, and the
complete fluent, fuited to the cafe, is
C
miuftr ;d
by'ex
iiniplt n
iiflfiib 5.
qVHOv'D x v'D — a/D
The motion ce.afes when the air in the veffel has ac¬
quired the denfity of the external air; that is, when
J=D, or when t = X ^D, = •
1 herefore the time of completely filling the veflel is.
4VHO*
Let us illuftrate this by an example in numbers.
Suppofing then that air is 840 times lighter than
water, and the height of the homogeneous atmofphere
27720 feet, we have 4v'H = 666. Let us further
iuppofe the veffel to contain 8 cubic feet, which is
nearly a wine hogfhead, and that the hole by which the
air of the ordinary denfity, which we ftiall make = i,
enters is, an inch fquare, or of a fquare fpot. Then
Platt
ccccvr;
If the hole is only
of an
inch, the time of completely filling the hogfhead will
be 1737 very neatly, or fomething lefs than three
minutes.
If we make the experiment with a hole cut in a thin
plate, we fhall find the time greater nearly in the pro¬
portion of 63 to 100, for reafons obvious to all who
have ftudied Irydraulics. In like manner we can tell
the time neceffary for bringing the air in the velfel to £
of its ordinary denfity. The only variable part of our
fluent is the coefficient — or a/737. Let be
— I, then a/ 1—^=^1 = 4, and 1 — 1—1.— 4- ;
and the time is 864-" very nearly when the hole is
an inch wide.
Let us now fuppofe that the air in the veffel ABCD
(fig. 64.) is compreffed by a weight a£ting on the
cover AD, which is moveable down the veffel, and is ^
thus expelled into the external air. city 0f
The immediate effect of this external preffure is tow;th the
comprefs the air and give it another denfity. The additional
denfity D of the external air correfponds to its preffure iniPuJ^ °£
P. Let the additional preffure on the cover of the joying
veffel be p, and the denfity of the air in the veffel down tha
be cl. We fhall have P : —D : d; and therefore veffcU
d—n
/» = PX—g—. Then, becaufe the preffure which ex¬
pels the air is the difference between the force which
compreffes the air in the veffel and the force which
compreffes the external air, the expelling force is
p. And becaufe the quantities of motion are a& the
forces which finrilarly produce them, we fhall have
d-T>
where M and m exprefs
the quantities of matter expelled, V expreffes the velo¬
city with which air rufhes into a void, and v expreffes
the velocity fought. But becaufe the quantities of
aerial matter which iffue from the fame orifice in a mo¬
ment are as the denfities and velocities jointly, we fhall
have MV : mv — DVV : dvv, zrDV1 : dvz. There-
d—D
fore P : p—^—irDV1 : dv. Hence we deduce
P:PX-j)—= MV
*=vv/-
D_
D!
We may have another expreffion of the velocity with¬
out confidering the denfity. We had D: P-fpzr D : dc
therefore </=? + and d—D=D,
__D XP + p—DP
and
_P + ^-P
_ P
P+/’
d—D __D X Y+p—DP
d D X P+p
therefore-
P-pp P-f-p ^ v p
which is a very Ample and convenient expreffion. ^
Hitherto we have confidered the motion of air as The efftifl
produced by its weight only. Let us now confider the of the air’s-
cffedl of its elafticity. elafticity
Let ABCD (fig. 64.) be a veffel containing air 0fconluicre(I»
any denfity D. This air is in a ftate of compreffion ;
and if* the comprcffing force be removed, it will expand,
and its elafticity will diminifh along with its denfity.
Its
*34
Air in
Motion
P N E U M
tts eladicity trt any Hate is nieafured by the foice which
keeps it in'that ftate. The force which keeps common
air in its ordinary denfxty is the weight of the atmo-
fphere, and is the fame with the weight of a column of
water 33 feet high. If therefore we fuppofe that this
air, inftead of being confined by the top of the veflelj
is preffed down by a moveable pifton carrying a column
of water 33 feet high, its clafiicity will balance this
preffure as it balances the prefiure of tlie atmofphere}
and as it is a fluid, and propagates through every part
the prefiurc exerted on any one part, it will prefs on
any little portion of the veffel by its elafticity in the
fame manner as when loaded with this column.
The confequence of this reafoning is, that if this
fmall portion of the veflel be removed, and thus a paf-
fage be made into a void, the air wrill begin to flow out
with the fame velocity with w'hich it would flow wdien
impelled by its weight alone, or with the velocity ac¬
quired by falling from the top of a homogeneous atmo¬
fphere, or 1332 feet in a fecond nearly.
But as foon as fome air has come out, the deniity
of the remaining air is diminiflied, and its elafticity is
diminifhed; therefore the expelling force is diminifhed.
But the matter to be moved is diminiAied in the very
fame proportion, becaufe the deniity and elafticity are
found to vary according to the fame law ; therefore the
velocity will continue the fame from the beginning to the
end of the efflux.
This may be feen in another way. Let P be the
jpreflure of the atmofphere, which being the counter¬
balance and meafure of the initial elafticity, is equal to
the expelling force at the firft inftant. Let D be the
initial denfity, and V the initial velocity. Let d be its
denfity at the end of the time t of efflux, and u the
contemporaneous velocity'. It is plain that at the end
. c ?d
of this time we fliall have the expelling force
/ ¥d\
for D : ^=:P : * jjJ.
Thefe forces are proportional to the quantities of
motion which they produce ; and the quantities of mo¬
tion are proportional to the quantities of matter M and
m and the velocities V and v jointly : therefore we have
T:^=MV : mv. But the quantities of matter
which efcape through a given orifice are as the denfities
and velocities jointly ; that is, M : w = DV :dv: there-
Vd Pi/DV*
fore P : = I>V’ : dv\ and PX^*=-^—=Pr/V%
and V1 zri)1, and Vzzv, and the velocity of efflux is
conftant. Hence follows, what appears very unlikely
at firft fight, that however much the air in the veflel is
condenfed, it will always iflue into a void with the fame
189 velocity.
Quantity In order to find the quantity of aerial matter which
©f air ilfu- vv;q J{fue during any time t, and confequently the den-
mto a ^ remaining air at the end of this time, we
given time.muft get the rate or efflux. In the element of time
and the t there ifiues (by what has been faid above) the bulk
denfity at gv'HO/ (for the velocity V is conftant); and there-
flaattime. ^ore t^e fiy'HCL//. On the other hand, the
quantity of air at the beginning was CD, C being the
capacity of the veflel; and when the air has acquired
the denfity dt the quantity is C dt and the quantity
A T I C S,
run out is CD—-C d; therefore the quantity which has Air!, ,it
run out in the time t muft be the fluxion of CD—C d, iJ
or —Cj. Therefore we have the equation gy'HOJi ^ ^
r, • , . —C ^ C d
— ^d, and t =gv/H0^; '“'‘By'HO'* d'
The fluent of this is t —g^/jqo loS‘ ^ This fluent
muft be fo taken that t may be=: o when d~D. There-
C D
fore the corre& fluent will be t — log-T > for
D
‘Sy'HO d
log.*jj = log. I, = 0. We deduce from this, that it
requires an infinite time for the whole air of a veffel
to flow out of it into a void. N. B. By log. dy &c. is
meant the hyperbolic logarithm of dy &c. ^
Let us next fuppofe that the veflel, inftead of letting Men tki
out its air into a void, emits it into air of a lefs den-y^wi
fity, which remains conftant during the efflux, as we11 int0*!
may fuppofe to be the cafe when a veflel containing
condenfed air emits it into the furrounding atmo¬
fphere. Let the initial denfity of the air in the veffd
be ■1, and that of the atmofphere D. Then it is plain
PD
that the expelling force is P—■*■
PJ PD
&
and that after
the time t it is
> JPI)
We have therefore P—
PD
——r-~MV : mvy =: «T V* : dvz. Whence we
derive
v = V /i£j
V
—D
d jLTd
From this equation we learn that the motion will be
at an end when d=.D: and if £=:D there can be no
efflux. iqi
To find the relation between the time and the den-Relatia
fity, let H as before be the height producing the velo-^'*^
city V. The height producing the velocity of effluxan(j ^(ij
J d— D _ v.nai
v muft be H X T—^r, and the little pared of airinci!l1111
d s* void.
which will flow out in the time / will be zzrSv/HO/i
Jj
m
'■.vl
hk
iiteU
i d - D
h ~ ~
. / —=£=-. On the other hand> it is =— Ci
v d S—D
Hence we deduce the fluxionary equation i —
Cv'JLTD —j
^ The fluent of this, corred-
T)
Sv^HOv/J'"
ed fo as to make /=0 when d=J* is  
Sv'HO^
f ^ D-f-y/J * D^ ^
x D-j- \/d^—Dd J’
lV + 4/J'—l)d
completing the efflux, when dzzj)t is t
And the time of
Cv/^jT
X log. (-
DJ
rD
).
Laftly, let ABCD, CFGH (fig. 65.) be two vef- ^
fels containing airs of different denfities, and comma- ^
nicating by the orifice C, there will be a current from Men ^
^ V ^ /* * * J .1 A A   . A* m —^ ft . It 0^ I
the veffel containing the denfer air into that containing mg 1
the rarer : fuppofe from ABCD into CFGH. ■
Let P be the daftic force of the air in ABCD?
its*
ve
PNEUMATICS.
■■■ . ».
•AIp>
\Moticf
' {ts denfity, and V Its velocity, and D the depfity of
the air in CFGH. And, after the time /, let the
denfity of the air in A BCD be y, its velocity v, and
the deniity of the air in CFGH be The expelling
. PD , „.
force from ABCD will be P—-Q-at the hrft ihftant,
Py P^
and at the end of the time/ it will beQ-—^Therefore
PD Py Pi1
we lhall have P - -q-: : wlllc^ glves
v—VX -J,andthemotionwillceafewhenJ'-y.
Let A be the capacity of the fir ft. veffel, and B
that of the fecond. We have the fecond equation
A(Q—y) + BD.
AQJ-BD — Ay+B^» and therefore^ =   
Subftituting this value of ^in the former value ofi», wehave
^=vx which gives
the relation between the velocity v and the denfity y.
In order to afeertain the time when the air in
ABCD has acquired the deniity y, it will be conve¬
nient to abridge the work by fome fubftitutions. There¬
fore make Qj^B f A) rxM, BQD-1-BQhr.N, BQ—
* N
BD—R and w. Then, proceeding as before, we
obtain the fluxionary equation 8V/HOy^_.^ZL^ / —
Ry'' y
ACT—Ay =-— Ay whence t ——y 7
WHO^M
of which the fluent, completed fo that t—o when 7=0,
A . /D ^ ^
Air
' iZK
: exp«ll
C-’ ^nxv
bsilo
oft I
10;
Plan
.:occ
irre? I
Ay/R
Sy/HOy/M'
ri»i-r\/(QyQJ
)
3/
is t —    
y—\m + \/(q*rnq) ,
Some of thefe queftions are of difficult folution, and
, ^^y are not of frequent ufe in the more important and
ufual ^ applications of the doctrines of pneumatics, at
leaft in their prefent form. i'he cafes of greateft ufe
arc when the air is expelled from a veffcl by an exter¬
nal foree, as when bellows are worked, whether of the
ordinary form or confifting of a cylinder fitted with a
moveable pifton. This lalt cafe merits a particular con-
fideration; and, fortunately, the inveftigation is ex¬
tremely eafy.
Let AD fig. 64. be confidered as a pifton moving
downward with the uniform velocity/, and let the area
of the pifton be n times the area of the hole of efflux,
t en the veloaty of efflux arifing from the motion
of the pifton will be nf. Add this to the velocity V
produced by the elafticity of the air in the firft queftion,
nd the whole veloaty will be V+n/. It will be the
cZ2 0tlTS; The Problem alfo ^ed from the
now on t?™ 1 ■ °f effluX- F°r this
yZ intr^r C1S ° ^ Pill°n* 11 is ftiU> however, a
th7time T t0 afcertain the relation between
he time and the denfity, even though the pifton is
TonZT f°r at the beSin™g ^ ^ mo-
Lends hi ™ denfltT As the pifton de-
denfitv of tZ1 \and "TP^8. the aIr’ aild the
manner asalf Z Vt^ varfes a very intricate
thi‘ reaF ° ^ a re lda^ce or reaftion on the pifton. For
an ater.^ fa pifto" whlch m°ves uniformly by means of
ernal foice will never make an uniform blaft by fuc-
ceffive ftrokes; it will always be weaker at the beginning
of the ftroke. The beft way for fecuring an uniform blait ^odon'
is to employ the external force only for lifting up the ' v ” 1 *
pifton, and then to let the pifton defeend by its own
weight. In this way it wall quickly fink down, com-
preffing the air, till its denfity and correfponding ela¬
fticity exadtiy balance the weight of the pifton. Af¬
ter this the pifton will defeend equably, and the blaft.
will be uniform. We {hall have occalion to confidi. r
this more particulary under the head of Pnevmatical
Machines. Thefe obferyations and theorems will ferve
to determine the initial velocity of the air in all im¬
portant cafes of its expulfion. The philofopher will learn
the rate of its efflux out of one veffel into another;
the chemift will be able to calculate the quantities of
the different gafts wliich are employed, in the curious
experiments of the ingenious but unfortunate Lavoi-
fter on Combuftion, and will find them extremely diffe¬
rent from what he fuppoled ; the engineer will learn
how to proportion the morfve force of his machine to
the quantity of aerial matter which his bellows muft
fupply. But it is not enough, for this purpofe, that
the air begin to iffue in the proper quantity ; we muft
lee whether it be not affeded by die circumllances
of its fubfequent paffage. ^
AH the modifications of motion which are obfervedPaff/e of
in water conduits take place alio in the paffage of ak,air through
through pipes and holes of all kinds. There is the^jf
fame diminution of quantity paffing through a hole
a thin plate that is obferved in water.. We know of water ia
that (abating the fmall effeft of fridtion) water if-conJusta.
fues with the velocity acquired by falling from the
furfaceand yet if we calculate by this velocity and
by the area of the orifice, we ftiall find the quan¬
tity of water deficient nearly in the proportion of 63
to 100. This is owing to the water preffing towards
the orifice from all tides, which occaiions a contradlion
of the jet. The fame thing happens in the efflux of
air. Alfo the motion of water is greatly impeded by
all contradlions of its paffage. Thefe oblige it to ac¬
celerate its velocity, and therefore require an increafe
of preffure to force it through them, and diis in pro¬
portion to the fquares of the velocities. Thus, if a
machine working a pump caufes it to give a certain
number of ftrokes in a minute, it will deliver a deter¬
mined quantity of water in that time. Should it hap¬
pen that the paffage of the water is contradled to one
half in any part of the machine (a thing which fre¬
quently happens at the valves), the water muft move
through this contradlion with twice die velocity that
it has in the reft cf the paffage. This will require
four times the force to be exerted on the pifton. Nay
(which will appear very odd, and is never fufpedted
by engineers), if no part of the paffage is narrower
than the barrel of the pump, but on the contrary
a part much wider, and if the conduit be again con¬
tracted to the width of the barrel, an. additional force-
muft be applied to the pifton to drive the water through,
this paffage, which would not have been neceffary if
the paffage had not been widened in any part. It will
icquire a force equal to the weight of a column of
water of the height neceffary for communicating a ve¬
locity the fquare of which is equal to the difference
of the fquares of the velocities of the water in the wide
and the narrow part of the conduit.
* Tfc«
*95
Air fuffers
the fame
retardation
along pipes
as water,
and the
neceffity of
attending
•to this.
P N
The fame thing takes place in the motion of air, and
therefore all contra&ions and dilatations muft be care¬
fully avoided, when we want to preferve the velocity
Un Ai^alfo fuffers the fame retardation in its motion
along pipes. By not knowing, or not attending to that,
engineers of the firft reputation have been prodigioully
disappointed in their expectations of the quantity of
air which will be delivered by long pipes. Its extreme
mobility and lightnefs hindered them from fufpeCting
that it would fuffer any fenlible retardation. Dr Fa-
pin, a mod ingenious man, propofed this as the mod:
effectual method of transferring the aCtion of a moving
power to a great diftance. Suppofe, for inflance, that
ft was required to raife water out of a mine by a wa¬
ter-machine, and that there was no fall of water nearer
than a mile’s diftance. He employed this water to
drive a pifton, which ftiould comprefs the air in a cy¬
linder communicating, by a long pipe, with another
cylinder at the mouth of the mine. This feeond cy¬
linder had a pifton in it, whofe rod was to give motion
to the pumps at the mine. He expefted, that a* loon
as the pifton at the water-machine had compreffed the
air fufficiently, it would caufe the air in the cylinder
at the mine to force up its pifton, and thus woik the
pumps. Doctor Hooke made many obje&ions to the
method, when laid before the Royal Society, and
it was much debated there. But dynamics was at
this time an infant fcience, and very little underftood.
Newton had not then taken any part in the bufinefs of
the fociety, otherwife the true obje&ions would not
liave efcaped his fagacious mind. Notwithftandnig Pa¬
pin’s great reputation as an engineer and mechanic, he
coukTnot bring his fcheme into life in England; but
afterwards, in France and in Germany, where he fettled,
he got feme perfons of great fortunes to employ him
'in this proje& ; and he ere&ed great machines in Au¬
vergne and Weftphalia for draining mines. But, fo far
from being effe&ive machines, they would not even be¬
gin to move. He attributed the failure to. the quan¬
tity of air in the pipe of communication, which muft be
condenfed before it can condenfe the air in the remote
cylinder. This indeed is true, and he fhould have
thought of this earlier. He therefore diminilhed the
ftze of this pipe, and made his water-machine exhauft
inftead of condenfing, and had no doubt but that the
immenfe velocity with which air rufhes into a void would
make a rapid and effe&ual communication of power.
But he was equally difappointed here, and the machine
at the mine ftood ilill as before.
Near a century after this, a very intelligent engineer
attempted a much more feafible thing of this kind at an
iron-foundery in Wales. He ere&ed a machine at a
powerful fall of water, which worked a fet of cylinder
bellows, the blow pipe of which was condu&ed to the
diftance of a mile and a half, where it was applied to a
blaft furnace. But notwithftanding every care to make
the condu&ing pipe very air-tight, of great five, and as
fmooth as poflible, it would hardly blow out a candle.
The failure was aferibed to the impofiibility of making
the pipe air-tight. But, what was furprifing, above
ten minutes elapfed after the a&ion of the piftons in
the bellows before the leaft wind could be perceived at
the end of the pipe; whereas the engineer expe&ed an
interval of 6 feconds only.
E u M A T i C S.
No very diftin& theory can be delivered on this hib- A!r!n
je& ; but we may derive conftderable afliftance in un«
derftanding the caufes of the obftru&ion to the motion TT
of water in long pipes, by confidering what happens No difti,,;
to air-. The elafticity of the air, and its great com-theory on
preftibility, have given Us the diftin&eft notions of flui-,his%t
dity in general, fhowing us, in a way that can hardly
be controverted, that the particles of a fluid are kept
at a diftance from each other, and from other bodies,
by the corpufcular forces. We (hall therefore take this
opportunity to give a view of the fubje&, which did
not occur to us when treating of the motion of water
in pipes, referring a further difeuffiom to the articles
River, IVATER-lVorks. . ^
The writers on hydrodynamics have always confider- How ikij
edthe obftru&ion to the motion of fluids along canalsa eo!’-
of any kind, as owing to fomething like the fri&ion by
which the motion of folid bodies on each other is
ftru&ed; but we cannot form-to ourfelves any diftin&nals.
notion of refemblarice, or even analogy between them.
The fa& is, however, that a fluid running along a ca¬
nal has its motion obftru&ed ; and that this obftruc-
tion is greateft in the immediate vicinity of the folid
canal, and gradually diminifhes to the middle of the
ftream. It appears, therefore, that the parts of fluids
can no more move among each other than among fo¬
lid bodies, without fuffering a diminution of their mo¬
tion. The parts in phyfiCal conta& with the ftdes and
bottom are retarded by thefe immoveable bodies. The
particles of the rtext llratum of fluid cannot preferve
their inttial velocities without overpafting the particles
of the firft ftratum ; and it appears from the fa& that
they are by this means retarded. They retard in the
fame manner the particles of the third ftratum, and fo
ion to the middle ftratum or thread of fluid. It ap¬
pears from the fa&, therefore, that this fort of fri&iofi
is not a confequence of rigidity alone, but tliat it is
equally competent to fluids. Nay, fmee it is a matter
of fa& in air, and is even more remarkable there than
in any' other fluid, as we {hall fee by the experiments
which have been made on the fubje&; and as our ex¬
periments on the compreflion of air (how us the par-
ticls of air ten times nearer to each other in feme cafes
than in others (viz. when we fee air a thoufand times
denfer in thefe cafes), and therefore force us to ac¬
knowledge that they are not in conta&; it is plain that
this obftru&ion has no analogy to fri&ioa, which flip"
pofes roughnefs or inequality of furface. No fuch in¬
equality can be fuppofed in the furface of an aerial
particle; nor would it be of any fervice in explaining
the obftru&ion, fmee the particles do not rub on each
other, but pafs each other at fome fmall and imper¬
ceptible diftance.
We rmift therefore have recourfe to fome other mode
of explication. We {hall apply this to air only in this
place ; and, fmee it is proved by the uncontrovertible
experiments of Canton, Zimmerman, and others, that
water, mercury, oil, &c. are alfo comprefiible and per-
fe&ly elaftic, the argument from this principle, which
is conclufive in air, muft equally explain the fimilar
phenomenon in hydraulics.
The moft highly polilhed body which we know muft
be conceived as having an uneven furface when we
compare it with the fmall fpaces in which the corpur
cular forces are exerted ; and a quantity of air moving
ni
i ■
PNEUMATICS.
ir‘n in a isoUHied pipe may fee compared to a quantity of locity of the particle; but what vrc obferve is tlie ve-
[otion. fmaii q10t {hiling down a channel with undulated iides locity of the mafs, and we judge of it perhaps by the
   an4 bottom. The row,vof particles immediately conti- motion of a feather carried along by it. Let us fup-
guousto the Tides will therefore have an undulated mo- pofe a Tingle atom to be a fenfible objeft, and let us at-
tJon ; but this undulation of the contiguous particles tend to two fuch particles, one at the Tide, and the other
of ai"r will not be To great as that of the furface in the middle : although we cannot perceive the undu-
along which they glide ; for not only every motion lations of thefe particles during their progreffive mo-
requires force to produce it, but alfo every change of tions, we fee the progreffive motions themielves. Let
19le* of motion. The particles of air refill this change from us fuppofe then that the middle particle has moved
refill* a a rectilineal to an undulating motion; and, being ela- without any undulation whatever, and that it has ad-
nge ftic, that is, repelling each other and other bodies, vanced ten feet. rl he lateral particle will alfh have
*37
Air in
Motion.
the particles of air and the particles of a fluid quite une- pear to us to have been retarded in its motion : and in
laftic is, in this refpedt, fomewhatlike the difference be- like manner each thread of particles will be more and
tween die motion of a fpring-carriage and that of a com¬
mon carriage. When the common carriage paffes along a
road not perfe&ly fmooth, the line deferibed by the
centre of gravity of the carriage keeps perfeftly pa-
more retarded (apparently only) as it recedes farther
from the axis of the canal, or what is ufually called
the thread of the ftream.
And thus the obferved faft is ffiown to be a necef-But on the
rallel to that deferibed by the axis of the wheels, ri- fary confequence of what we know to be the nature me
fling and falling along with it. Now let a fprjng a compreffible or elailic fluid; and that without hlp-motjon ig3,
body be put on the fame wheels and pafs along die poiing any diminution in the real velocity of each par-,ea! ob-
fame road. When the axis rifes over an eminence tide, there will be a diminution of the velocity of the ftrinStion,
fenlible threads of the general ftream, and a diminution
of the whole quantity of air which paffes along it du->
ring a given time.
Let us now fuppofe a parcel of air impelled along
a pipe, which is perfectly fmooth, out of a lar-
perhaps half an inch, finks down again into the next
hollow, and then rifes a fecond time, and fo on, the
centre of gravityof the body deferibes a much ftraight-
er line; for upon the riflng of the wheels, the body
reflfts the motion, and compreffes the fprings, and thus
remains lower than it would have been had the fprings ger veffel, and iffuing from this pipe with a certain
A
hi
ct
Cl
oi
V,
l\
0:
not been interpofed. In like manner, it does not link
fo low as the axle does when the wheels go into a hol¬
low. And thus the motion of fpring-carriages be¬
comes lefs violently undulated than the road along which
they pafs. This illuftration wiU, we hope, enable the
reader to conceive how the deviation of the particles
next to the Tides and bottom of the canal from a recti-
198 lineal motion is lefs than that of the canal itfelf.
the It is evident that the fame reafoning will prove that
^a”on the undulation of the next row of particles will be lefs
l row than that of the firft, that the undulation of the third
articles row will be lefs than that of the fecond, and fo on, as
be lefs fs reprefented in fig. A. Plate CCCCV. And thus it
^ firft appears, that while the mafs of air has a progreffive
motion along the pipe or canal, each particle is de-
feribing a waving line, of which a line parallel to the
dirc&ion of the canal is the axis, cutting all thefe undu¬
lations. This axis of each undulated path will be
ftraight or curved as the canal is, and the excurfions
of the path on each fide of its axis will be lefs and
lefs as the axis of the path is nearer to the axis of the
canal.
Let us now fee what fenjible effe£l this will have; for
all the motion which we here fpeak of is imperceptible,
no ve» It is demonftrated in mechanics, that if a body moving
with any velocity be defle&ed From its re&ilineal path by
a curved and perfe&ly fmooth channel, to which the recti¬
lineal path is a tangent, it will proceed along this channel
with undiminifhed velocity. Now the path, in the pre*
font cafe, may be confidered as perfeClly fmooth, fince
the particles do not touch it. It is one of the undu¬
lations which we are confidering, and we- may at pre¬
font conceive this as without any fubordinate inequali¬
ties. There fhould not, therefore, be any diminution
of the velocity. Let us graet this of the abfolute vc-
' ViH,. XY. Part I.
*99
:h par-
e ap-
irs to
ity
velocity. It requires a certain force to change its ve¬
locity in the vcffel to the greater velocity which it has
in the pipe. This is abundantly demo nitrated. How
long foever we fuppofe this pipe, there will be no
change in the velocity, or in the force to keep it up.
But let us fuppofe that about the middle of this pipe
there is a part of it which has fuddenly got an undu¬
lated furface, however imperceptible. Let us further
fuppofe that the final velocity of the middle thread is
the fame as before. In this cafe it is evident that the
fum total of the motions of all the particles is greater
than before, becaufe the abfolute motions of the lateral
particles is greater than that of the central particle,
which we fuppofe the fame as before. This abfolute
increafe of motion cannot be without an increafe of
propelling force : the force afting now, therefore, mull
be greater than the force ailing formerly. Therefore,
if only the former force had continued to ail, the fame
motion of the central particle could not have been
preferved, or the progreffive motion of the whole ftream
mull be diminilhed.
And thus we foe that this internal infenfible undula-
tory motion becomes a real obftruilion to the fenfible
motion which we obferve, and occafions an expence of
power. 30r
Let us fee what will be the confequence of extend- An addl¬
ing this obllruiling furface further along the canal, tfona! force
It mull evidently be accompanied by an augmentation ”ectflan^
of the, motion produced, if the central velocity be Hill a gf*
kept up; for the particles which are now in contailven pro.
with the Tides do not continue-to occupy that fituation: greffivemo-
thc middle particles moving Taller forward get over ;101,»
them, and in their turn come next the fide ; and as
they are really moving equally fait, but not in the di¬
rection into which 'they are now to be forced, force is
6 ne cellar y
^8
Air in
Morton-
3CS’
Ef|ccial!y
through
»ny con-
ti'.iOiioi).
P N E U M
ppceltary for changing the direftion alfo ; and this is
in .addition to the force neeeflary for producing the un¬
dulations fo minutely treated of. The confequence
of this mull be, that an additional force will be necef-
fary for preferving a given progreffive motion in a
longer abjlrua'uig pipe, and that the motion produced in a
pipe of greater length by a given force will be lefs than
in a (horter one, and the efflux will be diminiffled.
There is another confideration which mull have an
influence here. Nothing is more irrefragably demon-
ilrated than the peceffity of an additional force for pro¬
ducing an efflux through any contraction, even though
it thould be fucceeded by a dilatation of the palfage.
Now both the inequalities of the lides and the undula¬
tions of the motions of each particle are equivalent to
a fucceffion of contractions and dilatations ; although
each of thefe is next to infinitely fmall; their number
is alfo next to infinitely great, and therefore the total
effeCt may be fenfible.
We have hitherto fuppofed that the abfolute velocity
of the particles was not diminilhed: this we did, ha¬
ving affumed that the interval of each undulation of
the fides was without inequalities. But this was gra¬
tuitous : it was alfo gratuitous that the fides were only
undulated. We have no reafon for excluding angular
afperities. Thefe will produce, and moll certainly of¬
ten produce, real diminutions in the velocity of the
contiguous particles; and this mull extend to the
very axis of the canal, and produce a diminution of the
fum total of motion : and in order to preferve the
fame fenfible progreffive motion, a greater force mull
be employed. This is all that can be meant by faying
that there is a refillance to the motion of air through
long pipes.
There remains another caufe of diminution, viz. the
'"erfed flui want Perfe<^ fluidity, whether arifing from the dif-
•.. jV»rvi ino+-i/'\n r\r irvliri »r»l*ac in ra i ninri rvr* rr~r\m
303
There are
hefides
nther ob
{Iru&ion?,
as angular
afperitiee,
&c.
304
And a
want of
dny
femination of folid particles in a real fluid, or from the
vifeidity of the fluid. We fhall not infill on this at pre-
fent, becaufe it cannot be Ihown to obtain in air, at
leall in any cafe which deferves confideration. It feems
of no importance to determine the motion of air hur¬
rying along with it foot or dull. The effed of fogs
on a particular modification of the motion of air will
be conlidered under the article Sound. What has been
faid on this fubjeCl is fufficient for our purpofe, as ex¬
plaining the prodigious and unexpeCled obltruClion to
the paffage of air through long and narrow pipes. We
are able to QolIeCl an important maxim from it, viz.
that all pipes of communication fhould be made as wide
as circumllances will permit: for it is plain that the
obflruction depends on the internal furface, and the
force to overcome it mull be in proportion to the mafs
of matter which is in motion. The firll increafes as
the diameter of the pipe, and the lall as the fquare. The
obllru&ion mull therefore bear a greater proportion to
the whole motion in a fmall pipe than in a large one.
The law of It were very defirable to know the law by which the
retardation retardatioil extends from the axis to the fides of the ca-
f orn the* na^ the proportion which fubfills between the
^to the ^Hgths canal and the forces neceffary for overcoming
tides of the the obllruftions when the velocity is given ; as alfo
ca! al un- whether the proportion of the obllruftion to the whole
motion varies with the velocity: but all this is unknown.
It does not, however, feem a defperate cafe in air: we
know pretty diltindly the law of a£lion among its par-
A T I C S.
tides, viz. that their mutual repulfions are inverfety as Air in
their diftances. This promifes to enable us to trace the Motion,
progrefs of undulation from tire fides of the canal to the
axJs- . . . 306
We can fee that the retardations will not increafe fo It will not
fall as the fquare of the velocity. Were the fluid in-increafe fo
comprelfible, fo that the undulatory path of a particle as tke
were invariable, the deflefting forces by which each indl-t^“a^^
vidual particleis madetodeferibeitsundukting path would t;c^
be precifely fuch as arife from the path itfelf and the mo¬
tion in it; for each particle would be in tire fituation of a
body moving along a fixed path. But in a very com¬
prelfible fluid, fuch as air, each particle may be confider-
ed as a folitary body, a&uated by a projeftile and a
tranfverfe force, arifing from the aftion of the adjoining
particles. Its motion mull depend on the adjullment of
thefe forces, in the fame manner as the elliptical motion
of a planet depends on the adjullment of the force of pro-
jeftion, with a gravitation inverfely proportional to the
fquare of the dillance from the focus. The tranfverfe
force in the prefent cafe has its origin in the preffure on
the air which is propelling it along the pipe : this, by
fqueezing the particles together, brings their mutual re-
pulfion into addon. Now it is the property of a per-
fed: fluid, that a preffure exerted on any part of it is
propagated equally through the whole fluid ; therefore
the tranfverfe forces which are excited by this preffure
are proportional to the preffure itfelf: and we know that
the preffures exerted on the furface of a fluid, fo as to
expel it through any orifice, or along any canal, are pro¬
portional to the fquares of the velocities which they pro¬
duce. Therefore, in every point of the undulatory mo¬
tion of any particle, the tranfverfe force by which it is
deflefted into a curve is proportional to the fquare of its
velocity. When this is the cafe, a body would continue
to deferibe the fame curve as before ; but, by the very
comprelfion, the curvatures are increafed, fuppofing them
to remain fimilar. This would require an increafe of
the tranfverfe forces; but this is not to be found : there¬
fore the particle will not deferibe a fimilar curve, but
one which is lefs incurvated in all its parts; confequent-
ly the progreflive velocity of the whole, which is the
only thing perceivable by us, will not be fo much di-
minifhed; that is, the obftrudions will not increafe fo
fail as they would otherwife do, or as the fquares of the
velocities.
3°5
known
This reafoning is equally applicable to all fluids, and
is abundantly confirmed by experiments in hydraulics,
as we fhall fee when confidering the motion of rivers..
We have taken this opportunity of delivering our notions
on this fubjeft; becaufe, as we have often faid, it is in
the avowed diferete conflitution of air that we fee moil
diitinftly the operation of thofe natural powers which
conilitute fluidity in general. 307 .
We would beg leave to mention a form of experiment M. BoiTut
for difeovering the law of retardation with con fide table on
accuracy. Experiments have been made on pipes and pipes ami
canals. Mr Boffut, in his Hydrodynamique, has given canals,
a very beautiful fet made on pipes of an inch and two
inches diameter, and 200 feet long: but although thefe
experiments are very inilraftive, they do not give us
any rule by which we can extend the refult to pipes of
greater length and different diameters.
Let a fmooth cylinder be fet upright in a very large
veffel or pond, and be moveable round its axis: let it be
6 turned
ccccv.
P N E U M
Incity of turned round by means of a wheel and pulley with au
-Vind. uniform motion and determined velocity. It will ex-
ert t]ie fame forc€ on the contiguous water which would
be exerted on it by water turning round it with the
fame velocity: and as this water would have its motion
gradually retarded by the fixed cylinder, fo the moving
cylinder will gradually communicate motion to the fur¬
rounding water. Weihould obferve the water gradually
dragged round by it; and the vortex would extend far¬
ther and farther from it as the motion is continued, and
the velocities of the parts of the vortex will be lefs and
Jefs as we recede from the axis. Now, we apprehend,
that when a point of the furface of the cylinder has moved
over 200 feet, the motion of the water at different diftan-
ces from it will be fimilar and proportional to, if not pre-
cifely the fame with, the retardations of water flowing
200 feet at the fame diftance from the fide of a canal:
. at any rate, the two are fufceptible of an accurate compa-
rifon, and the law of retardation may be accurately de¬
duced from obfervations made on the motions of this
308 vortex.
ind is Air in motion is a very familiar objeft of obfervation;
in mo- and it is interefting. In all languages it has got a name;
n* we call it wind: and it is only upon refle&ion that we
confider air as wund in a quiefcent Hate. Many perfons
hardly know what is meant when air is mentioned ; but
they cannot refufe that the blaft from a bellows is the
expulfion of what they contained; and thus they learn
that wind is air in motion.
It is of confequence to know the velocity of wind ;
but no good and unexceptionable method has been con¬
trived for this purpofe. The belt feems to be by rnea-
furing the fpace pafled over by the fhadow of a cloud ;
but this is extremely fallacious. In the firft place, it is
certain, that although we fuppofe that the cloud has the
velocity of the air in which it is carried along, this is not
an exatl meafure of the current on the furface of the
earth ; we may be almoft certain that it is greater : for
air, like all other fluids, is retarded by the fides and bot¬
tom of the channel in which it moves. But, in the next
place, it is very gratuitous to fuppofe, that the velocity
of the cloud is the velocity of the ftmtum of air between
the cloud and the earth; we are almoft certain that it is
not. It is abundantly proved by Dr Hutton o^'Edin¬
burgh, that clouds are always formed when two parcels of
air of different temperatures mix together, each contain¬
ing a proper quantity of vapour in the Hate of chemical lo-
lution. We know that different ftrata of air will frequent¬
ly flow in different directions for a long time. In 1781
while a great fleet rendezvouzed in Leith Roads during
the Dutch war, there was a brilk eafterly wind for about
five weeks; and, during the laft fortnight of this period,
there was a brilk vvefterly current at the height of about
of a mile. This was diftindtly indicated by frequent fleecy
clouds at a great diftance above a lower ftratum of thefe
clouds, which were driving all this time from the eaft-
wam. . A gentleman who was at the liege of Quebec in
* 759> informed us, that one day while there blew a gale
from the weft, fo hard that the fhips at anchor in the
rner were obliged to ftrike their topmafts, and it was
with the utmoft difficulty that feme well manned boats
could row again!! it, carrying fome artillery ftores to a
poll above the town, feveral Ihells were thrown from the
town to deftroy the boats: one of the (hells burft in the
air near the top of its flight, which was about half a
309
ie velo*
yof
id not
ii)- dif¬
fered.
A .T 1 C S- . . . . >39
mile high. The fmoke of this bomb remained in tha Velocity of
fame fpot for above a quarter of an hour, like a great Wind,
round ball, and gradually diflipated by diffuflon, without " V f
removing many yards from its place. When, therefore,
two ftrata of air come from different quarters, and one
of them flows over the other, it will be only in the con¬
tiguous furfaces that a precipitation of vapour will be
made. This will form a thin fleecy cloud ; and it will
have a velocity and direction which neither belongs to
the upper nor to the low'er ftratum of air which pro¬
duced it. Should one of thefe ftrata come from the eaft
and the other from the weft with equal velocities, the
cloud formed between them will have no motion at all;
fhould one come from the eaft, and the other from the
north, the cloud will more from the north-eaft with a
greater velocity than either of the ftrata. So uncertain
then is the information given by the clouds either of the
velocity or the dire&ion of the wind. A thick fmoke
from a furnace will give us a much lefs equivocal mea¬
fure : and this, combined with the effects of the wind
in impelling bodies, or deflefting a loaded plane from the
perpendicular, or other effedls of this kind, may give tis
meafures of the different currents of wind with a preci-
fion fufficient for all pr&ftical ufes.
The celebrated engineer Mr John Smeaton has given, The rtiuii
in the 5 ift volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtione, the ^
velocities of wind correfponding to the ufual denomina-^”,*,-^’
tions in our language. Thefe are founded on a great on this
number of obfervations made by himfelf in the courfe of head,
his practice in creeling wind-mills. They are contained
in the following table.
Miles
per hour.
I
*
3
4
5
10
15
to
*3
30
35
40
45
50
60
80
too
s:67}
H7>36
146,70
Names.
Light airs.
Breeze.
Brilk gale.
Frelh gale.
Strong gale,,
Hard gale.
Storm.
'Hurricane, turning
[up trees, overturn-
. ing buildings, &c.
See alfo fome valuable experiments by him on this
fubject, Philofophical Tranfaftions 1760 and 1761. „lr
One of the moft ingenious and convenient methods Account nl
for meafuring the velocity of the wind is to employ its *-)r Tynd’s
preffure in fupporting a column of water, in the fame way a’,em<jme*
as Mr Pitot meafures the velocity of a current of water.
We believe that it was firft propofed by Dr James Lynd
of Windfor, a gentleman eminent for his great knowledge
in all the brandies of natural fcicnce, and for his in¬
genuity in every matter of experiment or praclical ap¬
plication.
His anemometer (as thefe inftruments are called) con-
fifts of a glafs tube of the form ABCD (fig. 66.), open
S 2 > at
Plate
CCCCP*
l4o P N £ U M
Velocity of at both ends, and having the branch AB at right angles
Wind t0 the branch CD. This tube contains a few inches ot
*     water or any fldid (the lighter the better) ; it is held
with the part CD upright, and AB horizontal and m
the direaion of the wind ; that is, with the mouth A
fronting the wind. The wind acts in the way of prei-
fure on the air in AB, comprefles it, and caufes it to
prefs on the furface of the liquor; forcing it down to F,
while it rifes to E in the other leg. The velocity of
the wind is concluded from the difference E/between
the heights of the liquor in the legs. As the wind does
not generally blow with uniform velocity, the liquor is
apt to dance in the tube, and render the obfervation dif¬
ficult and uncertain : to remedy this, it is proper to con-
traft very much the communication at C between the
two legs. If the tube has half an inch of diameter (and
it fiiould not have lefs), a hole of -^o an ‘nc^ 18 large
enough ; indeed the hole can hardly be too finall, nor
the tubes too large. . .
It is inge- This inftrumeat is extremely ingenious, and will un-
xrinus and doubtedly give the proportions of the velocities of dif-
■fcfeful. ferent currents with the greateft precilion; for in what¬
ever way the preffure of wind is produced by its motion,
we are certain that the different preffures are as the
fquares of the velocities: if, therefore, we can obtain one
certain meafure of the velocity of the wind, and obferve
the degree to which the preffure produced by it raifes
the liquor, we can at all other times obferve the pref-
fures and compute the velocities from them, making
proper allowances for the temperature and the height
«f the mercury in the barometer ; becaufe the velocity
will be in the fubduplicate ratio of the denlity of the
air inverfely when the preffure is the fame.
It is ufually concluded, that the velocity of the vyind
is that which would be acquired by falling from a height
which is to E/ as the weight of water is to that of an
equal bulk of ain. Thus, fuppoling air to be 84^ times
lighter than water, and that E/" is of an inch, the
velocity will be about 63 feet per fecond, which is that
of a very hard gale, approaching to a ftorm. Hence we
fee by the bye, that the fcale of this inftrument is ex¬
tremely Ihort, and that it would be a great improvement
of it to make the leg CD not perpendicular, but very
much Hoping ; or perhaps the following form of the
inftrument will give it all the perfe&ion of which it is
?,ate capable. Let the horizontal branch AB (fig. 67.) be
■'t'CCCV. contra&ed at B, and continued horizontally for feveral
inches BG of a much fmaller bore, and then turned down
for two or three inches GC, and then upwards with a
wide bore. To ufe the inftrument, hold it with the part
DC perpendicular ; and (having Iheltered the mouth A
from the wind) pour in water at D till it advances along
GB to the point B, whieh is made the beginning
the fcale; thewater in the upright branch Handing at/
in the fame horizontal line vvith BG. Now, turn the
mouth A to the wind; the air in AB wiH be compreffed
and will force the water along BG to F, and caufe it to
yife from / to E; and the range /"E will be to the range
BF on the fcale as the fecfion of the tube BG to that
cf CD. Thus, if the width of DC be i an inch, and
that of BG i£-, we {hall have 25 inches in the fcale for
©ne inch of real preffure E/.
But it has not been demonftrated in a very fatisfa&ory
manner, that the velocity of the wind is that acquired
by falling through the height of a column of air whole
A T I C S.
weight is equal to that of the column of water E/. Ex-Velocity
pcriments made with Pitot’s tube in currents of water WlRd
{how that feveral correftions are neceffary for concluding ’ ^
the velocity of the current from the elevations in the
tube : thefe corrections may however be made, and fafe-
ly applied to the prefent cafe ; and then the inftrument
will enable us to conclude the velocity of the wind im¬
mediately, without any fundamental comparifon of the
elevation, with a velocity actually determined upon other
principles. The chief ufe which we have for this in¬
formation is in our employment of wind as an im¬
pelling power, by which we can aCtuate machinery
or navigate {hips. Thefe are very important appli¬
cations of pneumatical doctrines, and merit a particular
confideration; and this naturally brings us to the laft
part of our fubject, viz. the confideration of the im-
pulfe of air on bodies expofed to its aftion, and the
refiftance which it oppofes to the paffage of bodies
through it. __ # 31J
This is a fubjeCt of the greateft importance; being This fub*
the foundation of that art which has done the greateft i"
honour to the ingenuity of man, and the greateft fervice
to human fociety, by connecting together the moft difq-0
tant inhabitants of this globe, and making a communi¬
cation of benefits which would otherwife have been im-
poffible; we mean the art of Navigation or Seamanftiip.
Of all the machines which human art has conftruCted, a
{hip is not only the greateft and moft magnificent, but
alfo the moft ingenious and intricate; and the clever
feaman poffeffes a knowledge founded on the moft diffi¬
cult and abftrufe doftrines of mechanics. The feaman
probably cannot give any account of his own fcience; and
he poffeffes it rather by a kind of intuition than by any
procefs of reafoning : but the fuccefs and efficacy of all
the mechanifm of this complicated engine, and the
propriety of all the manoeuvres which the feaman prac-
tifes, depend on the invariable laws of mechanics; and
a thorough knowledge of thefe would enable an intel¬
ligent perfon not only to underftand the machine andr
the manner of working it, but to improve both.
Unfortunately this is a fubjeft of very great difficulty ;
and although it has employed the genius of Newton, and
he has confidered it with great care, and his followers
have added more to his labours on this fubjeCt than on
a^iy other, it ftill remains in a very imperfeCt Hate.
A minute difcuffion of this fubjeft cannot therefore
be expedfed in a work like this: we muft content ourfelves
with fuch a general ftatement of the moft approved doc¬
trine on the fubjecf as {hall enable our readers to conceive
it diftindUy, and judge with intelligence and confidence
of the pradtical dedudlions which may be made from it.
It is evidently a branch of the general theory of the fminiift
impulfe and refiftance of fluids, which fliould have beenaildr^r
treated of pnder the article Hydraulics, but was
deferred till;- the mechanical properties of compreffible
fluids fliould alfo be confidered. It was thought very
reafonable to fuppofe that the circumftances of elafticity
would introduce the fame changes in the impulfe and re¬
finance of fluids that it does in folid bodies. It would
greatly divert the attention from tire diftindfive proper¬
ties of air, if we ftiould in this plade enter on this fubjedl#.
which is both extenfive and difficult. We reckon it
better therefore to take the whole together: this
we {hall do under ths article Resistance of Fluids,
and confine ourfelves at prefent to what relates to the
K impulfe
Wo y •i
\v i.
F :e
CC 2V.
s
. Air p-
vine ith
a do le
vein, y
wdl fie-
rall y nt,e!
as t;
fqua of
that lo-
city.
P N E U M
impulse and refiflance of air alone; anticipating a few of
the general propofxtions of that theory, but without de-
monftration, in order to underftand the applications
which may be made of it.
Suppofe then a plane furface, of which a C (fig. 6^.)
is the feftion, expofed to the action of a dream of wind
blowing in the dire&ion QC, perpendicular to «C.
The motion of the wind will be obftrufted, and the fur-
face a C preffed forward. And as all impulfe or pref-
fure is exerted in a direftion perpendicular to the fur-
face, and is refilled in the oppofite direftion, the furface
will be impelled in the diredlion CD, the continuation
of QC. And as the mutual adlions of bodies depend o«
their relative motions, the force a&ing on the furface
a C will be the fame, if we (hall fuppofe the air at red,
and the furface moving equally fwift in the oppofite direc¬
tion. The refidance of the air to the motion of the body
will be equal to the impulfe of the air in the former cafe.
Thus refidance and impulfe are equal and contrary.
If the air be moving twice as fad, its particles will
give a double impulfe; but in this cafe a double num¬
ber of particles will exert their impulfe in the fame time:
the impulfe will therefore be fourfold; and in general
it will be as the fquare of the velocity: or if the air
and body be both in motion, the impulfe and refid¬
ance will be proportional to the fquare of the relative
velocity.
This is the fird propofition on the fubjeft, and it ap¬
peals very confonant to reafon. There will therefore
be fome analogy between the force of the air’s impulfc
or the refidance of a body, and the weight of a column
©f air incumbent on the furface : for it is a principle
in the aftion of fluids, that the heights of the columns
of fluid are as the fquares of the velocities which their
preflures produce. Accordingly the fecond propofition
is, that the abfolute impulfe of a dream of air, blowing
perpendicularly on any furface, is equal to the weight
of a column of air which has that furface for its bafe,
and for its height the fpace through which a body
mud fall in order to acquire the velocity of the air.
Thirdly, Suppofe the furface AC equal to-txC no
longer to be perpendicular to the dream of air, but in¬
clined to it in the angle ACD, which we fliall call the
ang/e of incidence ; then, by the refolution of forces, it
follows, that the aftion of each particle is diminiflied in
the proportion of radius to the fine of the angle of in¬
cidence, or of AC to AL, AL being perpendicular to
CD.
Again : Draw AK parade! to CD. It is plain that
tio air lying farther from CD than KA is will drike
the plane. The quantity of impulfe therefore is dimi-
nifhed dill farther in the proportion of a C to KC, or
of AC to AL. Therefore, on the whole, the abfolute
impulfe is diminilhed in the proportion of AC* to AL1:
hence the propofition, that the impulfe and refidancc of
a given furface are in the proportion of the fquare of the
.fhe of the angle of incidence.
Fourthly, This impulfe is in the direction PL, per¬
pendicular to the impelled furface, and the furface tends
to move in this direction: but fuppofe it moveable only in
iome other dire&ion PO, or that it is in the diredion PO
that we wifh to employ this impulfe, its aftion is there-
ore oblique ; and if we wifh to know the intenfity of
t e impulfe in this direction, it mud be diminifhed dill
er m the proportion of radius to the cofine of the
A T I C S. 141
angle LPO or fine of CPO. Hence the general pro-Velocity of
pofition : The ejfeQive irnpulfe is as the furface h as the ^ ir‘^‘ ^
fquare of the velocity of the windy as the /quart of the fine
of the angle of incidence, and as the fn; of the obliquity
jointly, which we may exprefs by the fymbol R—S'W
I*yf«. O ; and as the impulfe depends on the den-
fity of the impelling fluid, we may take in every circum*
dance by the equation R=.S'D'V*.yi/O. If
the impidfe be edimated in the diredlion of the dream,
the angle of obliquity ACD is the fame with the angle
of incidence, and the impulfe in this diredlion is as the
furface, as the fquare of the velocity, and as the cube of
the angle of incidence jointly.
It evidently follows from thefe premifes, that if ACA'
be a wedge, of which the bafe AA' is perpendicular to
the wind, and the angle AC A bife&ed by its dire&ion,
the direft or perpendicular impulfe on the bafe is to the
oblique impulfe on the fides as radius to the fquare of
the fine of half the angle ACA'.
The fame mud be affirmed of a pyramid or cone
ACA', of which the axis is in the direction of the
wind.
If ACA' (fig. 69.) reprefent the feftion of a folic^,
produced by the revolution of a curve line APC round
the axis CD, which lies in the direction of the wind, the
impidfe on this body may be compared with the dire&
impulfe on its bafe, or the refidance to the motion of
this body through the air may be compared with the
direct relidance of its bafe, by refolving its furface into
elementary planes V p, which are coincident with a tan¬
gent plane PR, and comparing the impulfe on
with the dire61 impulfe on the correfponding part K k
of the bafe.
In this way it follows that the impulfe on a fphere
is one half of the impulfe on its great circle, or on the
bafe of a cylinder of equal diameter. 315
We (hall conclude this (ketch of the doftrine with a,nJPorta£*
very important propofition to determine the mod ad-j^^^
vantageous pofition of a plane furface, when required to dodtrinc. -
move in one dire&ion while it is impelled by the wind
blowing in a different dire£lion. Thus,
Let AB (fig. 7c.) be the fail of a Ihip, CA the di-
reftion in which the wind blows, and AD the line of
the (hip’s courfe. It is required to place the yard AC
in fuch a pofition that the impulfe of the wind upon -■
the fail may have the greated effe6l poffible in impelling _
the (hip along AD.
Let AB, A b, be two pofitions of the fail very near
the bed pofition, but on oppofite fides of it. Draw BE, -
be, perpendicular to CA, and BF, bf, perpendicular to ^
AD, calling AB radius ; it is evident that BE, BF, -
are the fines of impulfe and obliquity, and that‘the ef-
fe6live impulfe is BE*XBF, or b elXbf. ■ This mud be -
a maximum.
Let the points B, continually approach and'ulti¬
mately coincide ; the chord b B will ultimately coincide
with adraight line CBD touching the circle in B ; the
triangles CBE, c b e are fimilar, as alfo the triangles-
DBF, T)bf: therefore BE* : be1—BC3 : be', and
BF: bf zBD : £ D ; and BE’xBF: be'Xbf=ClS'X
BD ic-b'Xb D. '■ • Therefore when AB is in the bed po¬
fition, fo that BE’XBF is greater than £ «ZX^/, we
(hall have CBxBD greater than Cb'XblD, orcB’XBD
is alfo a maximum. This we know to be the cafe when
CB—sBD :- therefore the fail mud be fo placed that.
the '
Wind.
J42 P N E U M
Velocity of the tangent of tlie angle of incidence (hall be double of
the tangent of the angle of the fail and keel. (
In a commort windmill the angle CAD is necefTanly
a rifht angle $ for the fail moves in a circle to which
the wind is perpendicular 1 therefore the belt angle ot
the fail and axle will be y 40.44 nearly.
Such is the theory' of the refinance and impulfe of
the air. It is extremely fimple and of eafy application.
In all phyfical theories there are aifumptions which de¬
pend on other principles, and thofe on the judgment of
the naturalift; fo that it is always proper to confront
the theory’ with experiment. There are even circum-
ftances in the prefent cafe which have not been attended
to in the theory. When a frream of air is obllrufted by
a folid body, or when a folid body moves along in air,
the air is condenfed before it and rarefied behind. There
is therefore a preflure on the anterior parts arifing from
this want of equilibrium in the elafticity of the air.
This mull be fuperadded to the force arifing from the
impetus or inertia of the air. We caiinot tell with pre-
cifion what may be the amount of this condenfation ;
it depends on the velocity with which any condenfation
dillufes itfelf.
Alfo, if the motion be fo rapid that the preffure of
the atmofphere cannot make the air immediately occupy
the place quitted by the body, it wall fuftain this pref-
fure on its forepart to be added to the other forces.
Experiments on this fubjedl are by no means nume¬
rous ; at leaft. fuch experiments as can be depended on
for the foundation of any practical application. The
fir ft that have this character are thofe publifhed by Mr
Robins in 1742 in his treatife on Gunnery'. They
were repeated with fome additions by the Chevalier
Borda, and fome account of them publilhed in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences in 1763. In the
Philofophical Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of Lon¬
don, Vol. LXXIII. there are fome experiments of the
fame kind on a larger fcale by Mr Edgeworth. Thefe
were all made in the way deferibed in Our account of
Mr Robins’s improvements in gunnery. Bodies were
made to move with determined velocities, and the refift-
ances were meafured by weights.
In all thefe experiments the refiftances were found
very exa&ly in the proportion of the fquares of the ve¬
locities ; but they were found confiderably greater than
the weight of the column of air, whofe height would
produce the velocity in a falling body. Mr Robins’s
experiments on a fquare of 16 inches, deferibing 25,2
feet per fecond, indicate the refiftance to be to this
weight nearly as 4 to 3. Borda’s experiments on the
fame iurface ftate the difproportion ftill greater.
The refiftances are found not to be in the proportion
of the furfaces, but increafe conftderably falter. Sur¬
faces of 9, 16, 36, and 81 inches, moving with one ve¬
locity, had refiftances in the proportion of 9, 174, 42^,
and 104!-.
Now as this deviation from the proportion of the fur-
faces increafes with great regularity, it is moft probable
that it continues to increafe in furfaces of ftill greater
extent; and thefe are the moft generally to be met with
in praftice in the adtion of wind on (hips and mills.
Borda’s experiments on 81 inches ftiovv that the im¬
pulfe of wind moving one foot per fecond is about
of a pound on a fquare foot. Therefore to find the
impulfe op a foot correfponding to any velocity, divide
A T I C S.
the fquare of the velocity by 500, and we obtain the Velock;
■M7
Account of
the princi¬
pal experi¬
ments on
this fub-
jedt.
impulfe in pounds. Mr Roufe of Leiceilerfhire made
many experiments, which are mentioned with great ap.
probation by Mr Smeaton. His great fagacity and ex-
perience in the eredtion of windmills oblige us to pay a
confiderable deference to his judgment. Thefe experi-
ments confirm our opinion, that the impulfes increafe
fafter than the furfaces. The following table was cal¬
culated from Mr Roufe’s obfervations, and maybe con-
fidered as pretty near the truth.
Wine
Velocity
hi Feet,
o
IO
20
33
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
no
120
IJO
14a
I50
Impulfe ok a
Foot in Pound*.
0,000
0,129
0,915
2,059
3,660
5*718
8,234
11,207
14,638
18,526
22,872
27,675
32,926
38,654
44,830
51,462
If we multiply the fquare of the velocity in feet by
16, the product will be the impulfe or refiftance on a
fquare foot in grains, according to Mr Roufe’s num¬
bers.
The greateft deviation from the theory occurs in the
oblique impulfes. Mr Robins compared the refiftance
of a wedge, whofe angle was 90°, with the reftftance
of its bafe ; and inftead of finding it lefs in the proper,
tion of to 1, as determined by the theory, he found
it greater in the proportion of 55 to 68 nearly; and
when he formed the body into a pyramid, of which the
fides had the fame furface and the fame inclination as
the fides of the wedge, the refiftance of the bafe and
face were now as 55 to 39 nearly: fo that here the
fame furface with the fame inclination had its refiftance
reduced from 68 to 39 by being put into this form.
Similar deviations occur in the experiments of the Che¬
valier Borda ; and it may be colle&ed from both, that
the refiftances diminifti more nearly in the proportion
of the fines of incidence than in the proportion of the
fquares of thofe fines.
The irregularity in the refiftance of curved furfaces
is as great as in plane furfaces. In general, the theory
gives the oblique impulfes on plane furfaces much too
fmall, and the impulfes on curved furfaces too great.
The reftftance of a fphere does not exceed the fourth
part of the refiftance of its great circle, inftead of being
its half; but the anomaly is fuch as to leave hardly any
room for calculation. It would be very defirable to
have the experiments on this fubjedl repeated in a great¬
er variety of cafes, and on larger furfaces, fo that the
errors of the experiments naay be of left confequence.
Till this matter be reduced to fome rule, the art of
working fhips muft remain very imperfect, as muft alfo
the conftrudtion of windmills.
The cafe in which we are mail interefted in the
know*
P N E U M
KYs Refif ice knowledge of the refinance of the air is the motion of
Is ’ of A in bullets and (hells. Writers on artillery have long been
fenfible of the great effect of the air’s refiftance. It
i feems to have been this confrderation that chiefly enga-
ri It is < gtd Sir Ifaac Newton to conlider the motions of bo-
i great n- ^;es jn a refifting medium. A propofition or two would
aft have fufficed for (bowing the incompatibility of the pla-
refift: e netary motions with the fuppofxtion that the celeftial
M- cf air i fpaces were filled with a fluid matter ; but he has with
the n ion great folicitude coniidered the motion of a i>ody pro-
of^bu ts, je(c^e(j on tjie furface 0f the earth, and its deviation
from the parabolic track affigned by Galileo. He has
beftowed more pains on this problem than any other in
his whole work ; and his inveftigation has pointed out
almoft all the improvements which have been made in
the application of mathematical knowledge to the ftudy
of nature. Nowhere does his fagacity and fertility of
refource appear in fo (Irong a light as in the fecond
book of the Principia, which is almoft wholly occupied
by this problem. The celebrated mathematician John
Bernouilli engaged in it as the fineft opportunity of dif-
playing his fuperiority. A miftake committed by New¬
ton in his attempt to a folution was matter of triumph
to him ; and the whole of his performance, though a
piece of elegant and elaborate geometry, is greatly hurt
by his continually bringing this miftake (which is a
mere trifle) into view. The difficulty of the fubjedf is
fo great, that fubfequent mathematicians feem to have
kept aloof from it; and it has been entirely overlooked
by the many voluminous writers who have treated pro-
feffedly on military proje&iles. They have fpoken in¬
deed of the refiftance of the air as affefting the flight of
(hot, but have faved themfelves from the talk of invef-
tigating this effeft (a talk to which they were unequal),
by fuppofing that it was not fo great as to render their
theories and praftical deduftions very erroneous. Mr
Robins was the firft who ferioufly examined the fubjeft.
He (howed, that even the Newtonian theory (which had
been corre&ed, but not in the fmalleft degree improved
or extended in its principles) was fufficient to (how
that the path of a cannon ball could not refemble a pa¬
rabola. Even this theory (howed that the refiftance
was more than eight times the weight of the ball, and
fhould produce a greater deviation from the parabo¬
la than the parabola deviated from a ftraight line.
This Ample but Angular obfervation was a ftrong
^ proof how faulty the profefted writers on artillery had
fan ;ry ,befen> amufing themfelves with elegant but ufe-
tlnittthi e- 8 apphcations of eafy geometry, than in endeavouring
to give their readers any ufeful information-. He add-
acs I e(i’ J^at the difference between the ranges by the New-
toman theory and by experiment were fo great, that
too , e re“ftance of the air muft be vaftly fuperior to what
£2t, I *. 1 Teory iuppofed. It was this which fuggefted to
im the neceffity of experiments to afeertain this point.
: r. / ^ •een tbe re^t experiments in mode¬
ls Vu TT} that fhey were Efficient for calling
to ! r/r ° eT ‘e,°ry in T^ftion, or at lead for rendering it
Jt' 1 became neceffary therefore to fettle every
: ?r at ^ exP™nt. Here v.us a
I t \ C^. y* we meafure either thefe
i 0f eoCIies wbicb are obferved in the motions
lo moiif, ?n. .ot’ or lbe refiftances which thefe enor-
tv to rlnTVv?8 Robins had the ingenui-
lit i * ^be method which he took for mea*
tty
02!
U»
itln
met
met
jpot,
od
d
ID 2
:tk
and
oraiij
Cti-fhe
tlii
3t
ance
A T I C S 143
furing the velocity of a mu(ket-ball was quite original; ^efiftance
and it was fufceptible of great accuracy. We have al- *n
ready given an account of it under the article Gun- Gunnery>
Nery. Having gained this point, the other was not
difficult. In the moderate velocities he had determined
the refiftances by the forces which balanced them, the
weights which kept the refilled body in a (late of uni¬
form motion. In the great velocities, he propofed to
determine the refiftances by their immediate effe&s, by
the retardations wrhich they occafioned. This was to
be done by firft afeertaining the velocity of the ball,
and then meafuring its velocity after it had paffed thro'
a certain quantity of air. The difference of thefe velo¬
cities is the retardation, and the proper meafure of the
refiftance ; for, by the initial and final velocities of the
ball, we learn the time which was employed in pafling
through this air with the medium velocity. In this
time the air’s refiftance diminifhed the velocity by a
certain quantity. Compare this with the velocity which
a body proje&ed diredUy upwards would lofe in the fame
time by the refiftance of gravity. The two forces mull
be in the proportion of their effedls. Thus we learn
the proportion of the refiftance of the air to the weight
of the ball. It is indeed true, that the time of palfing
through this fpace is not accurately had by taking the
arithmetical medium of the initial and final velocities,
nor does the refiftance deduced from this calculation ac¬
curately correfpond to this mean velocity ; but both
may be accurately found by the experiment by a very
troublefome computation, as is (hown in the yth and
6th propofitions of the fecond book of Newton’s Prin-
cipia* The difference between the quantities thus found.
anjl. thofe deduced from the fimple procefs is quite
trifling, and far within the limits of accuracy attain¬
able in experiments of this kind; it may therefore be
fafely neglected.
Mr Robins made many experiments on this fubjedl; Mr Robins
but unfortunately he has publilhed only a vesy few, mafle many
fuch as were fufficient for afeertaining the point he had cx'3er*~
in view. He intended a regular work on the fubjed,.Sub-
in which the gradual variations of refiftance corre-jeft.
fponding to different velocities (hould all be determined
by experiment: but he was then newly engaged in an
important and laborious employment, as chief engineer
to the Eaft India Company, in whofe fervice he went
out to India, where he died in lefs than two years. It
is to be regretted that no perfon has profeeuted thefe
experiments. It w ould be neither laborious nor diffi¬
cult, and wrould add more to the improvement of artil¬
lery than any thing that has been done iince Mr Ro-
bins’s death, if we except the profecution of his expe¬
riments on the initial velocities of cannon-ftiot by Dr
Charles Hutton royal profeffor at the Woolwich Aca¬
demy. It is to be hoped that this gentleman, after
having with fuch effea and fuccefs extended Mr Ro¬
bins’s experiments on the initial velocities of mufket-
fhot to cannon, will take up this other fubieft, and thus
give the art of artillery all the feientific foundation which,
it can receive in the prefent (late of our mathematical
knowledge. Till then we muft content ourfelves with-
the pra&ical rules which Robins has deduced from his
own experiments. As he has not given us the mode
ot deduction, we muft compare the refults w’ith experi¬
ment.^ He has indeed given a very extenfive compart*
ion with the numerous experiments made both in Britain
and
ti44-
Refinance
of Air in
Gumeiy.
P N E U 'M
3«,
General re
iult of
them, &c.
312
Tartly con
troverted
hy Euler,
but with¬
out fuffi-
cient
grounds.
ana on the continent; and the agreement is very great.
His learned commentator Euler has been at no pains
inveftigate thefe rules, and has employed him.elt cluefiy
in deteftlng errors, moll of which are fuppofed, becaufe
he takes fo^r a finilhed work what Mr Robins only gives
to the public . hafty but ufeful lltctch of a new and
very difficult branch of Icience. . ,
The general refult of Robins’s experiments on the
retardation of muffiet-ffiot is, that although m moderate
velocities the reliftance is fo nearly in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the velocities that we cannot obferve any de¬
lation, yet in velocities exceeding 200 feet per fecond .
the retardations increafe fuller, and the deviation from
this rate increafes rapidly with the velocity. He afenbes
this to the caufes already mentioned, viz, the conden a-
tion of the air before the ball and to the rarefaftion be¬
hind, in conference of the air not immediately qpcu-
pyiug the fpace left by the bullet. Th.s wereafe fo
great, that, if the refinance to a Ball moving with the
velocity of 1700 feet in a fecond be computed on the
fuppofition that the refiiWe obferved in moderate ve¬
locities is increafed in the duplicate ratio of the velocity,
it will be found hardly one-third part of its real quan¬
tity He found, for inftance, that a ball moving thro
1670 feet in a fecond loft about 125 feet per fecond of its
velocity in puffing through 50 feet of air. This it. mull
have done in the T*T of a fecond, in which time it would
have loft one foot if projefted direftly upwards 5 from which
it appears that the refiftance was about 125 times its
weight, and more than three times greater than if it had
increafed from the refiftance in fmall velocities in the
duplicate ratio of the velocities. He relates other ex¬
periments which ffiow fimilar refults. .
But he alfo mentions a Angular circumftance, that
, till the velocities exceed 1100 feet per fecond, the re-
fiftances increafe pretty regularly, m a ratio exceeding
vthe duplicate ratio of the velocities ; but that in greater
velocities the refiftances become fuddenly triple ol what
they would have been, even according to this law of in¬
creafe. He thinks this explicable by the vacuum which
• i? then left behind the ball, it being well known that
air ruffies into a vacuum with the velocity of U 3 2 feet
,-pCr fecond nearly. Mr Euler controverts this conclu-
fioH, as incorffiftent with that gradation which is obferved
in all the operations of nature; and fays, that although
the vacuum is not produced in fmaller velocities than
this, the air behind the ball muft be fo rare (the fpace
being but imperfeaiy filled), that the preffure on the
antenor part of the ball muft gradually approximate to
that preflure which an abfolute vacuum would produce;
but this is like his other criticifms. Robins does no¬
where affert that this hidden change of refiftance hap¬
pens in the tranfition of the velocity from 1132 feet to
■ that of 1131 Ret 11 inches or the like, but only that
it is very fudden and very great. It may be ftnaiy
deinonftrated, that fuch a change muft happen m a nar¬
row enough limit of velocities to juftify the appellation
of fudden : a fimilar fa& may be obferved in the motion
of a folid through water. If it be gradually accelera¬
ted, the water will be found nearly to fill up its place,
till the velocity arrives at a certain magnitude, corre-
fponding to the immerfion of the body in the water;
and then the fmalleft augmentation of its motion imme¬
diately produces a void beliind it, into which the water
A T I C 5.
ruffies in a violent manner and is dallied into froth. A Refif
gentleman, who has had many opportunities for fuch ob- A .
fervations, affures us, that when Handing near the line of J
direction of a cannon difeharging a ball with a large
allotment of powder, fo that the initial velocity certain¬
ly exceeded 1 100 feet per fecond, he always obferved a
very fudden diminution of the noife which the bullet
made during its paffage. Although the ball was coming
i towards him, and therefore its noife, if equable, would
l be continually increafing, he obferved that it was loudeft
'at firft. That this continued for a fecond or two, and
, fuddenly diminiffied, changing to a found which was
not only weaker, but differed in kind, and gradually in-
creafed as the bullet approached him. He faid, that the
firft noife was like the biffing of red-hot iron in water,
and that the fubfequent noife rather refembled a hazy
whiftling. Such a change of found is a neceffary confe-
quence of the different agitation of the air in the two
cafes. We know alfo, that air rufhing into a void, as
when we break an exhaufted bottle, makes a report like
a mufleet.
Mr Robins’s affertion therefore has every argument
for its truth that the nature of the thing will admit.
But we are not left to this vague reafoning : his expe¬
riments ihow us this diminution of refiftance. It clear¬
ly appears from them, that in a velocity of 1700 feet
the refiftance is more than three times the refiftance de¬
termined hy the theory which he fuppofes the common
one. When the velocity was 1065 feet, the a&ual re
fiftance was V °f the theoretical; and when the velo¬
city was 400 feet, the aftual refiftance was about f of
the theoretical. That he affumed a theory of refiftance
which gave them all too fmall, is of no confequence in
the prefent argument.
Mr Robins, in fumming up the refults of his obfer-Rnl
vations on this fubjeft, gives a rule very ealily remem-^;(
beredfor computing the refiftances to thofe very rapid [cfJ
motions. It has been already mentioned in the articleawi 1
Gunnery, but we repeat it here, in order to accornmo-rapi t
date it to the quantities which have been determined mU0L
fome degree by experiment.
A C B D
Let AB reprefent the velocity of 1700 feet per fecond,
and AC any other velocity. Make BD to AD as the
refiftance given by the ordinary theory to the refiftance
a&ually obferved in the velocity 1700: then will CD
be to AD as the refiftance affigned by the ordinary
theory to the velocity AC is to that which really corre-
fponds to it. . _
To accommodate this to experiment, recoiled* that a* f ’
fphere of the fize of a 12 pound iron (hot, moving 25 feet'1" 1
in a fecond, had a refiftance of Tr of a pound. Augment
this in the ratio of 25* to 1700*, and we obtain 210
nearly for the theoretical refiftance to this velocity ;
but by comparing its diameter of 4t inches with j, the
diameter of the leaden ball, which had a refiftance of at
lead 11 pounds with this velocity, we conclude that the
12 pound (hot would have had a refiftance of 396 pounds:
therefore BD : AD=2io : 196, and AB 1 AD=i86 :
396; and AB being 1700, AD will be 3613.
Let AD=.rt, AC=x, and let R be the refiftance to a
12 pound iron fliot moving one foot pec fecond, and
r the refiftance (in pounds) wanted for the velocity *>‘
-
PNEUMATIC S. Plate OCCCTI.
//Jr// //‘rv >> JZi/' /riJ^itc'^/erJ.
//'*, //' ^rri/ !//,r/.' ■
• Sty. <34?.
,^.33.
PTSrtU'ifATIC s.
:v.
Plate CCCCin.
.36.
<L /rtyl ■ 3 &
V r-'
yt
P SET MAT 1C S .
Platte CCC( l\
■ ///,// f'fW" ://'</'. * Jtvr/^fi ryr<'f/ .
t* N E U M
. °n we have r-K—-. Mr Robins’s experiments give
a—x
R~-  very nearly. This gives R,7= 0,263235,
1375°
which is nearly one-fourth.
0,263235 x* ,
rrr—>—  —> or very nearly
H
irh iif-
cul ns <;f
|fna ema-
tid s not
4-
L 15
®o iN and
Ro lb’s
apt ently
K elh
Iz6
tio Df air.
Thus our formula becomes
3613—x ’
fliort of the truth about Toth part. The fimplicity of
the formula recommends it to our ufe, and when we in-
creafe its refult To> it is incomparably nearer to the
true refult of the theory as corrected by Mr Robins than
we can hope that the theory is to the actual refiftance.
We can ealily iee that Mr Robins’s correction is only a
fagacious approximation. If we fuppofe the velocity 36 r 3
feet, a very pofiible thing, the refiftance by this formula
is infinite, which cannot be. We may even fuppofe that
the refiftance given by the formula is near the truth only-
in fuch velocities as do not greatly exceed 1700 feet per
fecond. No military projeftile exceeds 2200, and it is
great folly to make it fo great, becaufe it is reduced to
i 700 almoft in an inftant, by the enormous refiftance.
The refiftance to other balls will be made by taking
them in the duplicate ratio of the diameters.
It has been already obferved, that the firft mathema¬
ticians of Europe have lately employed themfelves in im¬
proving this theory of the motion of bodies in a refift-
ing medium ; but their difcufiions are fuch as few ar-
tillerifts can underftand. The problem can only be
folved by approximation, and this by the quadrature of
very complicated curves. They have not been able
therefore to deduce from them any pra&ical rules of
eafy application, and have been obliged to compute
tables fuited to different cafes. Of thefe performances,
that of the Chevalier Borda, in the Memoirs of the A-
cademy of Sciences in 1769, feems the beft adapted to
military * readers, and the tables are Undoubtedly of con-
fiderable uie ; but it is not too much to fay,"that the
fimple rules of Mr Robins are of as much ftrvice, and
are more eafily remembered : befides, it muft be obfer¬
ved, that the nature.of military fervice does not give
room for the application of any very precife rule. The
only advantage that we can derive from a perfect theory
would be an improvement in the conftruftion of pieces
of ordnance, and a more judicious appropriation of
certain velocities to certain purpofes. The fervice of
a gun or mortar muft always be regulated by the eye.
1 .here is another motion of which air and other
elaftic. fluids, are fufceptible,. viz. an internal vibration
of their particles, or undulation, by which any extended
portion of air is diftributed into alternate parcels of con-
den.fed and rarefied air, which are continually changing
their condition without changing their places. By
this change the condenfation which is produced in one
part of the air is gradually transferred along the mafs
of air to the greateft diftances in all direAiens. It is
of importance to have feme difti„a conception of this
motion. It is found to be by this means that diftant
bodies produce m.us the fenfation of found. See Sound,
Acous-ncs. Sir .Ifaac Newton treated this fubjeft
\vith his accuftomed ingenuity, and has given us a
theory of it m the end of the fecond book of his Prin-
Ct?Z' 1 ? r!'e r7, has betn obj^ed to with refpea
the amdua ofthe argument, and other explanations
Then the ernbient mathematicians.
hCy a??ear t0 differ from Newton’s, their
VoLxvrrlt c fame; ^ on»
A T I C S. • i4j
nation, they differ no more than John Bernouilli’s theo- tfn<’u]atic/a
rem of centripetal forces differs from Newton’s, viz. the A'r' ,
one being expreffed by geometry and the other by lite- *
ral analyfisi The celebrated L)e la Grange reduces
Newton’s inveftigation to a tautological propofition or
identical equation ; but Mr Young of Trinity College,
Dublin, has, by a different turn of exprefiion, freed
Newton’s method from this objeaion. We {hall not
repeat it here, but refer our mathematical readers to the
article Acoustics, it not being our bufinefs at prefent
to confider its connection with found. This will make
the fubje£t of a diftindf article.
But fince Newton publifhed this theory of aerial un- Has-been
dulations, and of their propagation along the air, and ufed t« e*.
fince the theory has been fo corrected and improved a plain a va-»
to be received by the moft accurate philofophers as a 'icty of n*,‘
branch of natural philofophy fufceptible of rigid de- nomena
monftration, it has been freely reforted to by many
writers on other parts of natural fcience, who did not
profefs to be mathematicians, but made ufe of it for
explaining phenomena in their own line on the autho¬
rity of the mathematicians themfelves. Learning from
them that this vibration, and the guaquaver/um propa¬
gation of the pulfes, were the neceffary properties of an
elaftic fluid, and that the rapidity of this propagation
had a certain affignable proportion to the elafticity and
denlity of the fluid, they freely made ufe of thefe con-
ceflions, and have introduced elaftic vibrating fluids in¬
to many fafts, where others would fufpeft no fuch
thing, and have attempted to explain by their means
many abftrufe phenomena of nature. iEthers are every¬
where introduced, endued with great elafticity and te¬
nuity. Vibrations and pulfes are fuppofed in this rether,
and thefe are offered as explanations. The doftrines
of animal fpirits and nervous fluids, and the whole
mechanical fyftem of Hartley, by which the operations
of the foul are faid to be explained, have their foun¬
dation in this theoiy of aerial undulations. If thefe
fancied fluids, and their internal vibrations, really ope¬
rate in the phenomena aferibed to them, any explana¬
tion that can be given of the phenomena from this
principle muft be nothing elfe than (bowing that the
legitimate confequences of thefe undulations are fimilar
to the phenomena; or, if we are no more able to fee
this laft ftep than in the cafe of found (which we know
to be one confequence of the aerial undulations, although
wt cannot tell how), we muft be able to point out, as in
the cafe or found, certain conftant relations between
the general laws of thefe undulations and the general
laws of the phenomena. It is only in this way that we
think ourfelves intitled to fay that the aerial undulations
are caufes, though not the only caufes, of found ; and
it is becaufe there is no fuch relation, but, on the con-
tiaiy, a total diflxmilarity, to be obferved between the
laws of elaftic undulations and the laws of the propaga¬
tion of light, that we affert with confidence that ethe¬
real undulations are not the caufes of vifion.
Explanations of this kind fuppofe, therefore, in the
fuft place, that the philofopher who propofes them un-But thc aP'
derftands precifely the nature of thefe undulations ; in f.oTbdn-
* e ne^ plat;e> that he makes his reader fenfible of made with
thole circumllances of them which are concerned in the fuffici.ent
tfieft to be explained; and, in the third place, thatPrcc*i'101*'b
he makes the. reader underftand how this circumltance
ol the. vibrating fluid is connected with the phenome¬
non, either by fhowing it to be its mechanical caufe,
-as
E U M A T I C S.
>46 p. N . f
Undulation as wlien tlie philofoplier explains the refounding of a
of Air muf3cal chord to a flute or pipe which gave the lame
U"~v  tone ; or by Ihowing that this circumftance of the un- ^ ^
dulation always accompanies the phenomenon, as when ^ _
the philofopher (hows that 233 vibrations of air in a
fecond, in whatever manner or by whatever caufe tliey
are produced, always are followed by the fenfation of
the tone C in the middle of the harpfichord.
Biit here we mull obferve, that, with the exception
of Euler’s unfnccefsful attempt to explain the optical
phenomena by the undulations of ether, we have met
with no explanation of natural phenomena, by means of
elallic and vibrating fluids, where the author has fo much
as attempted any one of thefe three things, fo indif-
penfably requiflte in a logical explanation. They have
talked of vibrations without defcribing them, or giving
the reader the leall notion of what kind they are ; and
in no inftance that we can recolledl have they fliowed
how fuch vibrations could have any influence in the
phenomenon. Indeed, by not defcribing with precifion
the undulations, they were freed from the talk of Ihow¬
ing them to be mechanical caufes of the phenomenon ;
and when any of them Ihow any analogy between the
general laws of elallic undulations and the general laws
of the phenomenon, the analogy is fo vague, indiftindl,
or partial, that no perfon of common prudence would
receive it as argument in any cafe in which he was
much interefted.
We think it our duty to remonftrate againft this flo-
venly way of writing : we would even hold it up to re-
foundation prokation. It lias been chiefly on this faithlefs foun¬
dation that the blind vanity of men has raifed that de¬
grading fyftem of ©pinions called Materialism, by
which the afleftions and faculties of the foul of man
have been refolved into vibrations and pulfes of ether.
We alfo think it our duty to give fome account of
Of thtTmo- this motion of elaftic fluids. It mull be fuch an account
tion f da- as fliall be underftood by thole who are not mathemati-
ftic fluids. cjanS) becaufe thofe only are in danger of being mifled
by the improper application of them. Mathematical
difcuffion is, however, unavoidable in a fubjedt purely
mathematical ; but wre fhall introduce nothing that may
not be eafily underftood or confided in ; and we trull
that mathematical readers wall excufe us for a mode of
reafoning which appears to them lax and inelegant.
The firll thing incumbent on us is to lhowr how elaftic
fluids differ from the unelaftic in the propagation of any
agitation of their parts. When a long tube is filled
with water, and any one part of it pulhed out of its
place, the whole is inllantly moved like a folid mais.
But this is not the cafe with air. If a door be fuddenly
fhut, the window' at the farther end of a long and clofe
room will rattle ; but fome time wall elapfe between the
{hutting of the door and the motion of the window'.
If fome light dull be lying on a braced drum, and ano¬
ther be violently beat at a little dillance from it, an at¬
tentive obferver wall fee the dull dance up from the
parchment; but this wall be at the inllant he hears the
found of the llroke on the other drum, and a fenftble
time after the llroke. Many fuch familiar fads fhow
that the agitation is gradually communicated along the
air ; and therefore that when one particle is agitated
,by any fenfible motion, a finite time, however ■fmall,
mull elapfe before the adjoining particle is agitated in
the fame manner. This w’ould not be the cafe in water
if water be perfectly incompreflible, We think that this Uudu’
may be made intelligible with very little trouble. of Ai
B b
D
320
Has be-
c me the
of rr ate
rialifm.
330
331
How they
differ from
nnelaflic
fluids in
propaga¬
ting any
agitation
of their
parts.
Let A, B, C, D, &c. be a row' of aerial particles,
at fuch diflances that their elallicity yiifl balances the
preflure of the atmofphere ; and let us fuppofe (as is
deducible from the obferved denfity of air being pro¬
portional to the compreffing force) that the elallicity of
the particles, by which they keep each other at a dif.
tance, is as their diflances inverfely. Let us farther fup¬
pofe that the particle A has been carried, with an uni¬
form motion, to a by fome external force. It is evi¬
dent that B cannot remain in its prefent flate; for
being now nearer to a than to C, it is propelled towards
C by the excefs of the elailicity of A above the natural
elallicity of C. Let E be the natural elafticity of the
particles, or the force correfponding to the diftance 13C
or BA, and let F be the force which impels B to¬
wards C, and let f be the force exerted by A when
at a. We have
E :f=T>a : BC, r:Ba : BA ;
and E ly—Er^BaiBA—■
or E : F=B a : A .
Now in fig. 71. let ABC be the fine joining three
particles, to which draw EG, PH parallel, and IAF,
HBG perpendicular. Take IF or HG to reprefent
the elallicity correfponding to the diftance AB. Let
the particle A be fuppofed to have been carried
with an uniform motion to a by fome external force,
and draw RaM perpendicular to RG, and make
FI : RM = : BA. We fhafl then have FI: PM =
Ba : A a; and PM w ill reprefent the force with
which the particle B is urged towards C. Suppofe
this conllrudtion to be made for every point of the line
AB, and that a point M is thus determined for each
of them, mathematicians knowr that all thefe points M
lie in the curve of a hyperbola, of w hich EG and GH
are the afymptotcs. It is alfo known by the elements
of meclianics, that flnee the motion of A a ong AB
is uniform, A a or IP may be taken to reprefent the
time of defcribing A a ; and that the area IPM repre-
fents the whole velocity which B has acquired in its mo¬
tion towards C when A has come to u> the force urging B
being always as the portion PM of the ordinate.
Take GX of any length in HG produced, and let
GX reprefent the velocity which the uniform action of
the natural elallicity IF could communicate to the
particle B during the time that A would uniformly
deferibe AB. Make GX to GY as the redlangle
IEGH to the hyperbolic fpace IERM, and draw YS
cutting MR produced in S, and draw FX cutting
MR in T. It is known to the mathematicians that
the point S is in a curve line F.S s called the logarith¬
mic curve; of which the leading property is, that any
line RS parallel to GX is to GX as the rectangle
IFGH is to the hyperbolic fpace IFRM, and that FX
touches the curve in F.
This being the cafe, it is plain, that becaufe RT in-
creafes in the fame proportion with FR, or w'ith the
rectangle IFRP, and RS increafes in the proportion
of the fpace IFRM, TS increafes in the proportion
of the fpace IPM. Therefore TS is proportional to
the velocity of B when A has reached a3 and RT is
Pis'
CCU
_ P N E U M
r Illation ptoportional to tilt velocity which the uniform aflion
Air
A T I C S. !47
rriiefe computations need not te attended to by fucli Undulati a
of the natural elafticity would communicate to B in as do not with for an accurate knowledge of the precife ofAir‘ ^
the fame time. Then fince FT is as the time, and TS agitation of each particle. It is enough for fuch
is as the velocity, the area FTS will be as the fpace readers to fee clearly that time mufi efcape between the
deferibed by B (urged by the variable force PM) ; agitation of A and that of a diftant particle ; and this
while A, urged by the external force, defenbes A </ { is abundantly manifell from the incomparability (excufe
and the triangle FRT will reprefent the fpace which the ternl)of the nafeent redfangle IFRPwith the nafeent
the uniform action of the natural elallicity would caufe triangle FRT, and the incomparability of FRT with FTS.
What has now been fhown of the communication of
any fenfible motion A a muft hold equally with refpecl
to any change of this motion. Therefore if a tremu¬
lous motion of a body, fuch as a fpring or bell, (hould
agitate the adjoining particle A by pufhing it forward
in the diredtion AB, and then allowing it to come
back again in the dire&ion BA, an agitation fnnilar
to this will take place in all the particles of the row Newton’*
one after the other. Now if this body vibrate accord-dcnnjnftra-
13 to deferibe in the fame time.
And thus it is plain that thefe three motions can be
compared together : the uniform motion of the agitated
particle A, the uniformly accelerated motion which
the natural elafticity would communicate to B by its
eonftant adlion, and the motion produced in B by the
agitation of A. But this comparifon, requiring the
quadrature of the hyperbola and logarithmic curve,
would lead us into moft intricate and tedious computa¬
tions, Of thefe we need only give the refult, and make
Tome other ccmparifons which are palpable.
Let Art be fuppofed indefinitely fmall in comparifon
of AB. The fpace ueferibed by A is therefore inde¬
finitely fmall; but in this cafe we know that the ratio
of the fpace FRT to the re&angle IFRP is inde¬
finitely fmall. There is therefore no comparifon be¬
tween the agitation of A by the external force, and
the agitation which natural elafticity would produce on
a fingle particle in the fame time, the laft being incom¬
parably fmaller than the firft. And this fpace FRT
is incomparably greater than FTS; and therefore the
fpace which B would deferibe by the uniform adtion
of the natural elafticity is incomparably greater than what
it would deferibe in confequence of the agitation of A.
From this reafoning we fee evidently that A muft
be fenfibly moved, or a finite or meafurable time muft
clapfe before B acquires a meafurable motion. In like
manner B muft move during a meafarable time before
C acquires a meafurable motion, &c. 5 and therefore
the agitation of A is communicated to the diftant par¬
ticles in gradual fucceffion.
By a farther comparifon of thefe fpaces we leant
the time in which each fucceeding particle acquires the
very agitation of A. If the particles B and C only
me confidered, and the motion of C negledted, it wall
be found that B has acquired the motion of A a little
before it has deferibed j of the fpace deferibed by A ;
but if the motion of C be confidered, the acceleration
^f B muft be increafed by the retreat of C, and B
muft deferibe a greater fpace in proportion to that de¬
feribed by A. By computation it appears, that when
both B and C have acquired the velocity of A, B has
deferibed nearly 4- of A’s motion, and C more nearly 4 •
Extending this to D, we fhall find that D has deferibed
m more nearly { of A’s motion. And from the na-
tare^of the computation it appears that this approxim^-
tjon goes on rapidly: therefore, fuppofing it accurate
ing to the law of motion of a pendulum vibrating in atior? on .this
cycloid, the neighbouring particle of air zvill of necejfity
vibrate in the fame manner ; and then Newton’s demon-
ftration in art. Acoustics needs no apology. Its only
deficiency was, that itfeemed to prove that this would be
the way in which every particle would of necefiity vi¬
brate ; which is not true, for the fucceffive parcels of
air will be differently agitated according to the original
agitation. Newton only wants to prove the uniform
propagation of the agitations, and he feledts that form
which renders the proof eafieft. He proves, in the
moft unexceptionable manner, that if the particles of*
a pulfe of air are really moving like a cycloidal pendu¬
lum, the forces afting on each particle, in confequence
of the compreffion and dilatation of the different parts
of the pulfe, are preciiely fuch as are neceffary for con¬
tinuing this motion, and therefore no other forces are
required. Then fince each particle is in a certain part
of its path, is moving in a certain dire&ion, and with a
certain velocity, and urged by a determined force, it
mujl move in that very manner. The objection ftarted
by John Bernouilli againft Newton’s demon fixation (in
a fingle line) of the elliptical motion of a body urged
by a force in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the diftance
from the focus, is precifely the fame with the objection
againft. Newton’s demonftration of the progrefs of aerial
undulations, and is equally futile.
It muft, however, be obferved, that Newton’s de¬
monftration proceeds on the fuppofition that the linear
agitations of a particle are incomparably fmaller than
the extent of an undulation. This is not jtri£tly the
cafe in any inftance, and in many it is far from being
true. In a pretty ftrong twang of a harpfichord wire,
the agitation of a particle may be near the 5©th part
of the extent of the undulation. This muft difturb the
regularity of the motion, and caufe the agitations in
the remote undulations to differ from thofe in the firft
y,oes;
r 1—j  —'-j 11. cn-tuitiic pulfe. In the explofion of a cannon, the breaking of
^om t e very firft particle, k follows from the equable an exhaufted bottle, and many inftanees which may be
i° ion o , t lat each fucceeding particle moves through given, the agitations are Hill greater. The commenta-
n equa pace in acquiring the motion of A. tors on Newton’s Princifito, Le Sueur and Jacquier,
e cone u ion which we muft draw from all this is, have fhown, and Euler more clearly, that when the
Jhat wh tl ' ‘ an Lina is, ucivc mown, auu joiner more clearly,
caterH en ie?£,tatlon of A hp9 been fully communi- original agitations are very violent, the particles of air
nartt 1 ° 3 ?1artlc . & ftnfibk diflance, the intervening will acquire a fubordinate vibration compounded with
are a' inovir*|? jonvaM with a common velocity, the regular cycloidal vibration, and the progrefs of the
the firftd 7 a)s to b'nfe, except a very few of pulfes will be fomewhat more rapid ; but the intricacy
propaeJT 1C/Sj ,tIlJs. communication, or this of the calculus is fo great, that they have not been able
tmiform vri \ ^ 0n£ln^ a6ntation> goes on with an to determine with any tolerable preciiion what the
any
change of velocity will be.
T z
All
PNEUMATICS.
148
Undulation All tin's, however, is fully confirmed by experiment
t °‘'• i on lounds. 'I'he found of a cannon at 10 or 20 miles
' 7T3 diltance does not in the kail referable its found when
It is " near. In this cafe it is a loud inilantaneous crack, to
ftrengthen- which we can aifign no mufical pitch : at a diilance, it
ed by Cf|n',-[s a grave found, .of which we can tell the note; and
fnulrf of a ^ begins foftly, fwells to its greateil loudnefs, and then
cannon dies away growling. The fame may be faid of a clap
near and at0f thunder, which we know to be a loud fnap of itill
a diilance. jefs gurat{on. Jt is highly probable that the appre¬
ciable tone which thofe ditlant founds afford are produ¬
ced by the continuance of thefe fubordiaate vibrations
which are added together and fortified in the fucceffive
pulfes, though not perceptible in the firft, in a way
ioraewhat refembling the refonance of a mufical chord.
Newton’s explanation gathers evidence therefore from
this circumllance. And we mull further obferve, that
ail elaftic bodies tremble or vibrate almoft precifely as a
pendulum fwinging in a cycloid, unlefs their vibrations
are uncommonly violent; in which cafe they are quickly
rediiced to a moderate quantity by the reiitlance of the
air. The only very loud founds which we can produce
in this way are from great bells; and in thefe the utmoft
extent of the vibration is very fmall in comparifon with
the breadth of the pulfe. The velocity of thefe founds
has not been compared with that of cannon, or perhaps
it would be found lefs, and an objection againil Newton’s
determination removed. He gives 969 feet per fecond,
Experiment 114.2.
But it is alfo very probable, that in the propagation
through the air, the agitation gradually and rapidly ap¬
proaches to this regular cycloidal form in the fuccefiive
pulfes, in the fame way as we obferve that whatever is
the form of agitation in the middle of a fmooth pond
of water, the fpreading circles are always of one gentle
form without afperities. In like manner, into whatever
form we throw a ftretched cord by the twang which
wre give it, it almofl immediately makes fmooth undu¬
lations, keeping itfelf in the fhape of an elongated tro¬
choid. Of this lad we can demonllrate the neceflity,
becaufn the cafe is fimple. In the w-ave, the inve[li¬
gation is next to impofiible ; but we fee the faft. We
may therefore prefume it in air. And accordingly we
knowr that any noife, however abrupt and jarring, near
at hand, is fmooth at a diflance. Nothing is more rough
and harfh than the fcream of a heron; but at half a
mile’s diflance it is foft. The ruffle of a drum is alfo
fmooth at a diilance
Eig. 72. fhow's the fuccefiive fituations of the particles
of a row. Each line of the figure fhows the fame particles
marked with the fame letters; the firfl particle a being fup-
pofed to be removed fuccefiively from its quiefcent fitua-
tion and back to it again. The mark X is put on that
part of each line where the agitated particles are at their
natural diflances, and the air is of the natural denfity.
The mark 1 is put where the air is mofl of all compref-
fed, and : where it is mofl of all dilated; the curve
line drawn through the lowed line of the figure is in¬
tended to reprefent the denfity in every point, by draw¬
ing ordinates to it from the flraight line: the ordinates
below the line indicate a rarity, and thofe above the
line a denfity, greater than common.
It appears that when a has come back to its natural
fituation, the part of greated denfity is between the
particles i and I’, and the greated rarity between c and d.
We have only to add, that the velocity of this pro¬
334.
The agita¬
tion in a 1
probability
in the fuc
ceffi.'e
pulfes af
fumes a
cycloidal
form.
’Plate
GCCCVI.
pagation depends on the eladicity and denfity of thcUnVaL
fluid. If thefe vary ki the fame proportion, that is, ofA
if the fluid has its eladicity proportional to its denfity, ~'',r 1
the velocity will remain the fame. If the eladicity or
denfity alone be changed, the velocity of the undula¬
tions will change in the dire£l fubduplicate ratio of the
eladicity and the inverfe fubduplicate ratio of the
denfity; for fhould the eladicity be quadrupled, the
quantity of motion produced by it in any given time
will be quadrupled. This will be the cafe if the velo¬
city be doubled; for there wTould then be double the
number of particles doubly agitated. Should the den¬
fity be quadrupled, the eladicity remaining the fame,
the quantity of motion mud remain the fame. This
will be the cafe if the velocity beireducedto one half^
for this will propagate half the agitation to half the
didance, which will communicate it to twice the num¬
ber of particles, and the quantity of motion will re¬
main the fame. The fame may be faid ol other pro-
V'E"
portions, and therefore V= Therefore a change
in the barometer will not affeft the velocity of the un¬
dulations in air, but they wull be accelerated by heat,,
which diminidies its denfity, or increafes its eladicity.
The velocity of the pulfes in inflammable air mull be
at lead thrice as great, becaufe its denfity is but one- -
tenth of that of air when theeladicity of both are the fame. ..
Let us now attend a little to the propagation ofFur^
aerial pulfes as they really happen ; for this hypothefisroiifid.
of a Angle row of particles is nowhere to be obferved. k®ol
Suppofe a fphere A, fig. 73. filled‘.with condenfed”’1^"
air, and that the veflel which contains it is fuddenly an-real|y
nihilated. The air mud expand to its natural dimen-cur.
fions, fuppofe BCD. But it cannot do this without
prefling afide the furrounding air. We have feen that
in any Angle row of particles this cannot be at once
diffufed to a didance, but mud produce a condenfation
in the air adjoining ; which will be gradually propa¬
gated to a didance. Therefore this fphere BCD of
the common denfity will form round it a fhell, bounded
by EFG, of condenfed air. Suppofe that at this in-
dant the inner air BCD becomes folid; The fliell of
condenfed air can expand only outwards. Let it ex¬
pand till it is of the common denfity, ocpqpying the
fhell HIK. This expanfion, in like manner, mud pro¬
duce a fhell of condenfed air without it: at this inflant
let HIK become folid. The furrounding fhell of con¬
denfed air can expand only outward, condenfing ano¬
ther fhell without it. It is plain that this mud go on
continually, and the central agitation will be gradually
propagated to a didance in all directions. But, in this
procefs, it is not the fame numerical particles that go to
a didance. Thofe of the original fphere go no further
than BCD, thofe of the next fhell go no further than
HIK, &c. Farther, the expanfion outwards of any
particle will be more moderate as the diffufion advan¬
ces ; for the whole motion of each fhell cannot exceed
the original quantity of motion ; and the number of
particles in each fuccefllve fliell increafes as the fur(ace,
that is, as the fquare of the didance from the centre:
therefore the agitation of the particks will decreafe-
in the fame ratio, or will be in the inverfe duplicate ra¬
tio of the didance from the centre. Each fuccefiive
fhell, therefore, contains the fame quantity of motionj
and the fueedlive agitations of the particles of any,
o ■ rov*
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r^EUMATIC
P N E U M A
V ilatio- rsw out from the centre will not be equal to the original
air. agitation, as happens in the folitary row. But this
w does not affedt the velocity of the propagation, becaufe
all agitations are propagated equally faft.
We fuppofed the air A to become folid as foon as it
acquired the common denfity ; but this was to facilitate
the conception of the diffufion. It does not ftop at
i tin’s bulk ; for while it was denfer it had a tendency
to expand. Therefore each particle has attained this
dillance with an accelerated motion. It will, there¬
fore, continue this motion like a pendulum that has
paired the perpendicular, till it is brought to red. by
tire air without it; and it is now rarer than common
air, and collapfes again by the greater elafticity of
the air without it. This outward air, therefore, in
regaining its natural denfity, mull expand both ways.
It expands towards the centre, following the collapfing
of the air within it; and it expands outwards, conden-
iing the air beyond it. By expanding inwards, it will
again condenfe the air within it, and this will again ex¬
pand ; a fimilar motion happens in all the outward
{hells ; and thus there is propagated a fucceffion of con-
denfed and rarefied, (hells of air, which gradually fwell
to the greateft diftance.
It may be demonftrated, that when the central air
has for the fecond time acquired the natural denfity, it
will be at reft, and be difturbed no more ; and that
this will happen to all the (hells in fucceflion. But the
demonftration is much too intricate for this place ; we
muft be contented with pointing out a faft perfeftly
analogous. When we drop a fmall pebble into water,
tp ication we fee it produce a feries of circular waves, which go
f J; along the furface of fmooth water to a great diftance,
Jbie g becoming more and more gentle as they recede from the
3: vater. centre ; and the middle, where the agitation was iirft
produced, remains perfeftly fmooth, and this fmooth-
nefs extends continually; that is, each wave when
brought to a level remains at reft. Now thefe waves
are produced and propagated by the depreffion and ele¬
vation made at the centre. The elevation tends to dif-
fufe itfelf; and the force with which each particle of
water is aftuated is a force afting direftly up and down,
and is proportional to the elevation or depreffion of the
particle, d his hydroftatical preffure operates precifely
in the fame way as the condenfation and rarefaftion of
the air; and the mathematical inveftigation of the pro¬
pagation of the circular undulations on fmooth water
is fimilar in every ftep to that of the propagation of
the fpherical waves in ftill air. For this we appeal to
Newton s Principicty or to Eulerhs Opiifculay where he
gives a very beautiful inveftigation of the velocity of
the aeiial pulfes; and to fome memoirs of de la Grange
m the colleftions of the academies of Berlin and Tu¬
rin. Thefe two laft authors have made the inveftigation
as fimple as feems.poffible, and have freed it from every
objeftion which can be ftated againft the geometrical
,, i? one their great teacher Newton,
if le*6* Having faid this much on the fimilarity between the
■n reful Waves °n wa^er an<i aerial undulations, we (hall have
:plain.recourie to them,- as affording us a very fenfible obieft
t0 ^PrHent many affeftions of the other which it
would be extremely difficult to explain. We neither fee
nor ee t e ^enal undulations; and they behoved, there-
rV0 be dHcnbed very abftraftedly and imperfeftly.
motion wave tbere ‘s no permanent progreffive
motion of the water from the centre. Throw a LaU bit of
T I C S. r49
cork on the furface, and it will be obferved to popple Undul/tio»
' up and down without the leaft motion outwards. In like ol'A'r-
manner, the particles of air are only agitated a very v
little outwards and inwards; which motion is commu¬
nicated to the particles beyond them, while they them-
ftlves come to reft, unlefs agitated afrefh ; and this agi¬
tation of the particles is inconceivably fmall. Even the
explofion of a cannon at no great diftance will but
gently agitate a feather, giving it a fingle impulfe out¬
wards, and immediately after another inwards or to¬
wards the cannon. When a harpfichord ware is forcibly
twanged at a few feet diftance, the agitation of the
air is next to infenfible. It is not, however, nothing; and
it differs from that in a watery wave by being really
outwards and inwards. In confequence of this, when
the condenfed (hell reaches an elaftic body, it imoels
it (lightly. If its elafticity be fuch as to make it ac¬
quire the oppefite ffiape at the inftant that the next
agitation and condenfed (hell of air touches it, its agi¬
tation will be doubled, and a third agitation will increafe
it, and fo on, till it acquire the agitation competent
to that of the fhell of air which reaches it, and it is
thrown into fenfible vibration, and gives a found ex¬
tremely faint indeed, becaufe the agitation which it ac¬
quires is that correfponding to a fhell of air confider-
ably removed from the original firing. Hence it hap¬
pens that a muficai chord, pipe, or bell, will caufe
another to refound, whofe vibrations are ifochronous
with its own ; or if the vibrations of the one coin¬
cides with every fecond, or third, or fourth, &c. of the
other ; juft as we can put a Very heavy pendulum into
fenfible motion by giving it a gentle puff with the
breath at every vibration, or at ever}' fecoud, third, or
fourth, &c. A drum ftruck in the neighbourhood of
another drum will agitate it -very [enfibly; for here the
ftroke deprefles a very confiderable furface, and pro¬
duces an agitation of a confiderable mafs of air: it
will even agitate the furface of ftagnant water. The
explofion of a cannon will even break a neighbouring
window. The ffiell of condenfed air which comes
againft the glafs has a great furface and a great agita¬
tion : the bell fecurity in this cafe is to throw up the
fafh; this admits the condenfed air into the room,
which afts on the infide of the window, balancing part
cf the external impulfe. .
It is demonftrated in every elementary treatxfe of na-p 33*
tural philofophy, that when a wave on water meets any warV(,8 of
plane obftacle, it is reflefted by it from a centre equal- r.ir and of
ly removed behind the obftacle; that waves radiating wat«- arc
from the focus of a parabola are reflefted in waves per-in many
pendicular to its axis ; that waves radiating from one ^17*
focus of an ellipfe are made to converge to the other fimilar:,
focus, &c. &c. All this may be affirmed of the aerial
undulations; that when part of a wave gets through a
hole in the obftacle, it becomes the centre of a new fe¬
ries of waves; that waves bend round the extremities
of an obftacle: all this happens in the aerial undula¬
tions. And laftly, that when the furface of water is
thrown into regular undulations by one agitation, ano¬
ther agitation in another place will produce other re¬
gular waves, which will crofs the former without di-
llurbing them in the fmalleft degree. The fame thing
happens in air; and experiments may be made en wa--
ter which will illuftrate in the moft perfeft manner
many other affeftions of the aerial pulfcs, which we
ftiould otherwife conceive very imperfeftly. We would
recoin-
i$o P N E
Undu'at’on recoirii'vond to our curious readers to fliake fome of
of Air. experiments in a large veflel of milk. I ake a
long and narrow plate of lead, which, when fet on the
bottom of the veffel will reach above the furface of the
milk; bend this plate into a parabola, elliptical or
other curve. Make the undulations by dropping milk on
the focus from a fmall pipe, which will caufe the agi¬
tations to fucceed with rapidity, and then all that we
have faid will be moft diftin&ly feen, and the experi¬
ment will be very amufing and iniiractive, efpecially to
the mufical reader.
C uuon to We wou^ now requeft w^° ma‘cc or read exph-
the Cup- nations, of natural phenomena by means of vibrations of
pot ters of ethers, animal fpirits, nervous fluids, &c. to fix their
tethers, ani attention on the nature of the agitation in one of thefe
lpmtS undulations. Let him confide? whether this can pro¬
duce the phenomenon, adling as any matter mull aft, by
impulfe or by preffure. If he fees that it can produce
the phenomenon, he will be able to point out the very
motion it will produce, both in quantity and direftion,
in the fame manner as Sir Ifaac Newton has pointed
out all the irregularities of the moon’s motion produ¬
ced by the difturbing force of the fun. If he cannot
do this, he fails in giving the firft evidence of a me¬
chanical explanation by the aftion of an elaitic vibrating
fluid. Let him then try to point out fome palpable
connection between the general phenomena of elaftic
undulations and the phenomenon inquedion; this would
fhow an accompaniment to have at leaf! fome probabi¬
lity. It is thus only we learn that the Undulations
of air produce found : we Cannot tell how they affeft
the mechanifm of the ear; but we fee that the pheno¬
mena of found always accompany them, and that cer¬
tain modincations of the one are regularly accompanied
by certain modifleations of the other. If we cannot
do this neither, we have derived neither explanation
nor illullration from the elaftic fluid.' And laftly, let
him remember that, even if he fhould be able to fhow
the competency of this fluid to the produftion of the
phenomenon, the whole is ftill an hypothefis, becaufe
we do not know that fuch a fluid exifts.
The tolly We will venture to fay, that whoever will proceed in
of appeal- this prudent manner will foon fee the futility of moft
img to f ch 0f tjje explanations of this kind which have been given,
fubftances are un^lt ^or any ^ut confummate mathematicians;
for they alone really underftand the mechanifm of ae¬
rial undulations, and even they fpeak of them with he-
fitation as a thing but imperfeftly underftood. But
even the unlearned in this fciChce can fee the incom¬
patibility of the hypothefes with many things which
they are brought to explain. To take an inftance of
the conveyance of fenfation along the nerves ; an elaftic
fluid is iuppofed to occupy them, and the undula¬
tions of this fluid are thought to be propagated along
the nerves. Let us juft think a little how the undula¬
tions would be conveyed along the furface of a canal
which was completely filled up with reeds and bul-
ruflies, or let us make the experiment on fuch a canal:
we may reft affured that the undulations in the one
cafe will refembie thofe in the other ; and we may fee
that in the canal there will be no regular or fenfible pro¬
pagation of the waves.
Let thefe obfervations have their influence, along
with others which we have made on other occafions, to
wean our readers froin this fafhionable pronenefs to in-
U M A T I C S.
traduce inviflble fluids and unknown vihrationa into our A1A Pf-d*,
phyfical difeuffions. They have done immenfe, and we ^'e
fear irreparable, mifehief in fcience ; and there is but one
phenomenon that has ever received any explanation by
their means.
This may fuffice for a loofe and popular account of
aerial undulations ; and with it we conclude our ac¬
count of the motion, impulfe, and refiftance of air.
We fliall now explain a number of natural appear¬
ances, depending on its prefliire and clafticity, appear¬
ances not fufficiently general, or too complicated far
the purpofes of argument, while we were employed ia
the inveftigation of thefe properties, but too important
to be pafled over in filence. ^ )t
It is owing to the preffure of the atmofphere that Hie air’i
two furfaces which accurately fit each other cohere with i,ve.^jreofi
fuch force. This is a faft familiarly known to the glafe-
grinders, polifhers of marble, &c. A large lenie or fpe-twoiur.
culum, ground on its tool till it becomes very fmooth, face* acu.
reohires more than any man’s ftrength to feparate it df
reftly from the tool. If the firnface is only a fquare ot^fcr.
inch, it will require i 5 pounds to feparate them perpen¬
dicularly, though a very moderate force will make them
Aide along each other. But this cohefion is not ob-
ferved unlefs the furfaces are wetted or fmeared with
oil or greafe; othenvife the air gets between them, and
they feparate without any trouble. That this cohefion
is owing to the atmofpheric preffure, is evident from the
eafe with which the plate* may be feparated in an ex-
haufted receiver.
To the fame caufe we muft aferibe the very ilrong \ri(j41
adhefion of fnails, periwinkles, limpets, and other uni-the adhs*
valve fhells, to the rocks. The animal forms the rim f|0'; 0‘
of its (hell, fo as to fit the fhape of the rock to which it li,aik ^
intends to cling. It then fills its (hell (if not already
filled by its own body) with water. In this condition
it is evident that we muft aft with a force equal to 15
pounds for every fquare inch of touching furface be¬
fore we can detach it. This may be illuftrated by fill¬
ing a drinking glafs to the brim with water; and having
covered it with a piece of thin wet leather, whelm it on a
table, and then try to pull it ftraight up ; it wall re¬
quire a eonfiderable force. But if we expofe a fnail ad¬
hering to a ftone in the exhaufted receiver, we (hall fee
it drop off by its own weight. I ft the fame manner
do the remora, the polypus, the lamprey', and many
other animals, adhere with fuch firmnefs. Boys fre¬
quently amufe themfelves by pulling out large (tones
from the pavement by means of a circle of ftiff wetted
leather faftened to a ftring. It is owing to the fame
caufe that the bivalve (hell fifties keep themfelves fo firm¬
ly (hut. We think the mufcular force of an oyfter pro¬
digious, becaufe it requires fuch force to open it; but
if we grind off a bit of the convex (hell, fo as to make a
hole in it, though without hurting the fifh in the fmall-
eft degree, it opens with great eafe, as it does alfo in
vacuo*
The preffnre of the air, operating in this way con-other ef4
tributes much to the cohefion of bodies, where vre do k<fts of
not fufpeft its influence. The tenacity of our mortars therair*
and cements would frequently be ineffectual withoutp c
this affiftance.
It is owing to the preffure of the atmofphere that a
ca(k will not run by the cock unfefs a hole be opened in
fome other part of the cafk. If the cafk is not quite
7 foil,
P NEUMATICS.
late
C ^cv.
4
W ■
f. ' > in-
(li iy oo
ca n a
?■ ft- full, fomc liquor indeed will run out, but it will 'top as
A P' f foon as the diminished elafticity of the air above the
e liquor is in equilibrio (together with the liquor) with
'  the atmofpheric preffure. Jn like manner, a teapot
mull have a fmall hole in its lid to enfure its pouring
cat the tea. If indeed the hole in the talk is of large
dimenfions, it will run without any other hole, becaufe
air will get in at the upper fide of the hole while the
liemor runs out by the lower part of it.
"On the fame principle depends the performance of an
inftrument ufed by the {pint dealers for taking out a
fample of their fpirits. It conlifts of a long tinplate
tube AB (fig. 57*)> °Pen atoP at a.n^ a
fmall hole at B. The end B is dipped into the fpmts,
which rifes into the tube ; then the thumb is clapt on
the mouth A, and the whole is lifted out of the calk.
The fpirit remains in it till the thumb be taken off; it
is then allowed to run into a glafs for examination.
It feems principally owing to the prelTure of the air
that frofts immediately occafion a fcantinefs of water in
“ ;■ “ our fountains and wells. T his is erroneously accounted
it; ity of £orj by fuppofing that the water freezes in the bowels
r :r* of the earth. But this is a great niiltake: the moil
intenfe froft of a Siberian wunter woutd not freeze the
ground two feet deep ; but a very moderate fro it will con¬
solidate the whole furface of a country, and make it
impervious to the air; efpecially if the Srolt has been
preceded by rain, which has foaked the furface. When
this happens, the water which was filtering through the
ground is all arretted and kept fuSpended in its capil¬
lary tubes by the preffure of the air, in the very fame
manner as the fpirits are kept fufpended in the inftru-
ment juft now defenbed by the thumb s (hutting tne
hole A. A thaw melts the fuperficial ice, and. allows
the water to run in the fame manner as the fpirits run
. when the thumb is removed.
fi of com- Common air is neeeffary for Supporting the lives of
ir . air to moft animals. If a fmall animal, inch as a moufe or
as ial life, bird, be put under the receiver of an air-pump, and the
air be exhaufted, the animal will quickly be thrown into
convuliions and fall, down dead if the air be. immedi¬
ately readmitted, the animal will fometimes revive, efpe¬
cially if the rarefaction has been brilkly made, and has
not been very great. We do not know that any breath¬
ing animal can bear the air ta be reduced to ? of its
ordinary denfity, nor even -f; nor have we good evi¬
dence that an animal will ever recover if the rarefaftion
is pulhed very far, although continued for a very fliort
time.
But the mere prefence of the air is by no means fuf-
ficient for preferving the life of the animal; for it is
found, that an animal (hut up in a veflel of air cannot
live in it for any length of time. If a man be (hut up
in a box, containing a wine hogfhead of air, he cannot
live in it much above an hour, and long before this he
will find his breathing very unfatisfaCtory and uneafy.
A gallon of air will fupport him about a minute. A
box EF (fig. 58.) may be made, having a pipe ABin-
ferted into its top, and fitted with a very light valve at
B, opening upwards. This pipe fends off a lateral
branch c/j3c/C, which enters the box at the bottom.
End is alfo fitted with a light valve at C opening up¬
wards. If a perfon breathe through the pipe, keeping
bis noftrils (hut, it is evident that the air which he ex-
|Aes will not enter the box by the hole B, nor return
IJI
through the pipe CD J; and by this contrivance he EffeAsof
will gradually employ the whole air of the box. W ith
this apparatus experiments can be made, without any
rilk or inconveniency, and the quantity of air neceffary
for a given time of eafy breathing may be accurate/y
afeertained.
How the air of our atmofphere produces this effect,
is a queftion which does not belong to mechanical phi-
lofophy to investigate or determine. We can, how¬
ever, affirm, that it is neither the preffure nor the elafti¬
city of the air which is immediately concerned in main¬
taining the animal functions. We know that we can
live and breathe with perfeffi freedom on the tops of the
higheft mountains. The valley of Quito in Peru, and
the country round Gondur in Abyfiinia, are fo far eleva¬
ted above the furface of the ocean, that the preffure and
the elafticity of the air are one-third lefs than in the low-
countries ; yet thefe are populous and healthy places.
And, on the other hand, we know, that when an ani¬
mal has breathed in any quantity of air for a cei tain
time without renewal, it will not only be fuffocated, but
another animal put into this air will die immediately ;
and we do not find either the preffure or elafticity of
the air remarkably dinimiihed ; it is indeed dimimfhed,
but by a very fmall quiyitity. Reftoring the former
preffure and elafticity has not the fmalleft.tendency to
prevent the death of the animal: fur an animal will live
no longer under a receiver that has its mouth inverted
on water, than in one fet upon the pump-plate covered
with leather. Now when .the receiver is fet on water,
the preffure of the atmofphere affis completely on the
included air, and preferves jt in the fame ftate of elafti-
efty. . , , 346
In fhort, it is known that the air which has already ™^,!ature
ferved to maintain the animal fumStions has its chemical w^en
and alimentary properties completely changed, and is noniaitlfaincti
longer fit for this purpwfe. So much of any mafs of air animal
as has really been thus employed is changed into what^1;^*®^'3
is called fixed air by Dr Black, or carbonic ari,, by the^ltca U‘ '
chemifts of the Lavoifierian fchoel. Any perfon may
be convinced of this by breathing or blowing through a
pipe immerfed in lime water. Every expiration will
produce white clouds on the water, till all the lime
which it contains is precipitated in the form of pure
chalk. In this cafe we know that the lime has combi¬
ned with the fixed air. 347
The celebrated Dr Stephen Hales made many expe- H le-’s ei>
riments, with a view to clear the air from the noxious periment.
vapour which he fuppofed to be emitted from the lungs. ^
He made ufe of the apparatus which we have been quajlties,
juft now mentioning; and he put feveral diaphragms&c.
fff. &c. of thin woollen ftuff into the box, and moif-
tened them with various liquids. He found nothing fo
efficacious as a folution oi potafh. A’v e now under-
ftand this perfeftly. If the folution is not already fa-
turated with fixed air, it will take it tip as faft as it is
produced, and thus will purify the air : a folution of
cauftic alkali therefore will have this effed till it is ren¬
dered quite mild. . # How ft
Thefe experiments have been repeated, and varied in^esl
many circumftances, in order to afeertain whether thist0|,e chan-’
fixed air was really emitted by the lungs, or whetherged by
the infpired air was in part changed into fixed
its combination with feme other fubftanee. rIhis is anature 0£
queftion which comes properly in our way, and which^fpiratiun,
the &c.
i
tSi P N E U M
EffeAs of tke doilrines of pneumatics enable us to anfwer. If
A’t’s pref- t|xe gxe4 a;r be emitted in fubilance from the lungs, it
fu, e- does not appear how a renewal of the air into which it
is emitted is neceffary: for this does not hinder the
fubfequent emiffion ; and the bulk of the air would be
increafed by breathing in it, viz. by the bulk of all the
•fixed air emitted ; but, on the contrary, it is a little di-
minifhed. We ihuft therefore adopt the other opinion ;
and the difcoveries in modern chemiftry enable us to
give a pretty accurate account of the whole procefs.
Fixed air is acknowledged to be a compound, of which
one ingredient is found to conftitute about of the
whole atmofpheric fluid; we mean vital air or the oxy-
gene of Lavoifier. When this is combined with phlo-
giflon, according to the doftrine of Stahl, or with char¬
coal, according to Lavoifier, the refult is fixed air or
carbonic acid.° The change therefore which breathing
makes on the air is the folution of this matter by vital
air ; and the ufe of air in breathing is the carrying off
this noxious principle in the way of folution. W hen
therefore the air is already fo far faturated as not to dif-
folve this fubflance as fail as it is fecreted, or muft be
fecreted in the lungs, the animal fuffers the pain of fuf-
focation, or is other wife mortally affefted. Suffocation
is not the only confequence ; for wfc can remain for a
number of feconds without breathing, and then we be¬
gin to feel the true pain of fuftbcation ; but thofe who
have been inffantaneoufly ftruck down by an infpiration
of fixed air, and afterwards recovered to life, complain¬
ed of no fuch pain, and feemed to have fuffered chiefly
by a nervous affe&ion. It is faid (but we will not
vouch for the truth of it), that a perfon may fafely take
a full infpiration of fixed air, if the paffages of the nofe be
fhut; and that unlefs thefe nerves are ilimulated by the
fixed air, it is not inftantaneoufly mortal. But thefe are
queftions out of our prefent line of inquiry. They
are queftions of phyfiology, and are treated of in
other places of this work. See Anatomy and Physio¬
logy ; fee alfo Lungs and Respiration. Our bufi-
nefs is to explain in what manner the preffure and ela-
fticity of the air, combined with the ftruclure and me-
chanifm of the body, operate in producing this necef¬
fary fecretion and removal of the matter difcharged from
the lungs in the aft of breathing.
It is well afcertained, that the fecretion is made from
the mafs of blood during its paffage through the lungs.
The blood delivered into the lungs is of a dark blackifh
colour, and it is there changed into a florid red. In
the lungs it is expofed to the aftion of the air in a pro-
digioufly extended furface : for the lungs confift of an
inconceivable number of fmall veffels or bladders, com¬
municating with each other and with the windpipe.
Thefe are filled with air in every infpiration. Thefe
veffels are everywhere in contaft with minute blood-vef-
fels. The blood does not in toto come into immediale
contaft with the air; and it would feetn that it is only
the thin ferous part of it which is afted on by the air
at the mouths of the veffels or pores, where it Hands by
capillary attraftion. Dr Prieftley found, that venoiis
blood inclofed in thin bladders and other membranes
was rendered florid by keeping the bladders in contaft
with abundance of pure vital air. We know alfo, that
breath is moift or damp, and mvji have acquired this
moifture in the lungs. It is immaterial whether this
'feeretion of water or lymph (as the anatomifts call k)
a T 1 C s.
be furnifhed by mere exudation through fimpie potei, kihfl.
or by a vafcular and organic fecretion ; in either cafe, Air’sp
fome ingredient of the blood comes in contaft with air fure
in the lungs, and there unites with it. This is farther r
confirmed^ by obferving, that all breathing animals are
warmer than the furrouitding medium, and that by every
procefs in which fixed air is formed from vital air heat
is produced. Hence this folution in air of fomething
from the blood has been afligned by many as the fource
of animal heat. We touch on thefe things in a very
tranfitory way in this place, only in order to prove that,
for the fupport of animal life, there muft be a very ex-
tenfive application of air to the blood, and that this is
made in the lungs.
The queftion before us in this place is, How is this
brought about by the weight and elafticity of the air ?
This is done in two ways; by the aftion of the mufcles
of the ribs, and by the aftion of the diaphragm and other
mufcles of the abdomen. The thorax or eheft is a great
cavity, completely filled by the lungs. The fides of
this cavity are formed by the ribs. Thefe are crooked
or arched, and each is moveable round its two ends, one
of them being inferted into the vertebrae of the back,
and the other into the fternum or breaft-bone. The rib
turns in a manner refemblirig the handle of a drawer.
The infpeftion of fig. 59. will illuftrate this matter a pia
little. Suppofe the curves ace, bkf, c I g, &c. to re- CCC1
prefent the ribs moveable round the extremities. Each
fueceeding rib is more bent than the one above it, and
this curvature is both in the vertical and horizontal di-
reftion. Suppofe each fo broad as to projeft a little
over its inferior like the tiles of a roofi It is evident,
that if we take the lower one by its middle, and draw
it out a little, moving it round the line np, it will
bring out the next dmh along with it. Alfo, becaufe
the diftance of the middle point o from the axis of
motion n p greater than the diftance of m from the
axis d h, and becaufe 0 will therefore deferibe a portion
of a larger circle than m does, the rib nop wall Aide up
a little under the rib d m b, or the rib dm h will overlap
nop a little more than before; the diftance 0 m will
therefore be diminifhe-d. The fame muft happen to all
the fuperior ribs ; but the change of diftance will be lefs
and lefs as we go upwards. Now, inftead of this great
breadth of the ribs overlapping each other, fuppofe
each inferior rib connefted with the one above it by
threads or fibres fufceptible of contraftion at the will of
man. The articulations t « of the firft or upper rib
with the fpine and fternum are fo broad and firm, that
this rib can haVe little or no motion round the line a e ;
this rib therefore is as a fixture for the ends of all the con-
trafting fibres : therefore, whenever the fibres which
conneft the fecond rib with the firft rib contraft, the
fecond muft rife a little, and alfo go outward, and will
carry the lower ribs along with it; the third rib will
rife ftill farther by the contraftion of the mufcles which
conneft it with the fecond, and fo on : and thus the
whole ribs are railed and thrown outward (and a little
forward, becaufe the articulation of each with the fpine
is confiderably higher than that with the fternum), and
the capacity of the thorax is enlarged by the contrac¬
tion of its mufcular coveiing. The direftion of the
mufcular fibres is very oblique to the direftion of the
circular motion which it produces; from which circum-
ftance it follows, that a very minute contraftion of the
ft.ufcks
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S of rnufcles produces all the motkm which is necefTary.
f,ref- This indeed is not great; the whole motion of the low-
e- , eft ribs is lefs than an inch in the moft violent infpira-
tion, and the whole contraction of the mufcles of the 12
ribs does not exceed the eighth part of an inch, even
fuppofing the intercoftal mufcles at right angles to the
ribs ; and being oblique, the contraction is itill lefs (fee
Borelli, Sabatier, Monro, &c.) It would feem*
that the intenfity of the contradtive power of a mufeu-
lar fibre is eafily obtained, but that the fpace through
which it can be exerted is very limited ; for in moft
cafes nature places the mufcles in lituations of great me¬
chanical difadvantage in this refpect, in order to procure
other conveniences.
But this is not the whole effeft of the contraction of
the intercoftal mufcles : fince the compound aCtion of the
two fets of mufcles, which crofs each other from rib to
rib like the letter X, is nearly at right angles to the
rib> but is oblique to its plane, it tends to pufh the ribs
clofer on their articulations, and thus to prefs out the
two pillars on which they are articulated. Thus, fup-
ate pofmg a f (fig. 60.) to reprefent the left ion of one of
:CV. the vertebrae of the fpine, and c d a. feClion of the fter-
num, and a b c, f e d, two oppofite ribs, with a lax thread
1 e conne&ing them. If this thread be palled upwards
by the middle g till it is tight, it will tend to pull the
points b and e nearer to each other, and to prefs the
vertebra a f and the ftemum c d outwards. The fpine
being the chief pillar of the body, may be confidered as
immoveable in the prefent inftance. The fternum is
fufficiently fufceptible of motion for the prefent purpofe.
It remains almoft fixed atop at its articulation with the
firft rib, but it gradually yields below ; and thus the
capacity of the thorax is enlarged in this direction alfo.
The whole enlargement of the diameters of the thorax
during infpiration is very fmall, not exceeding the fif-
.. tieth part of an inch in ordinary cafes. This is eafily
calculated. Its quiefeent capacity is about two cubic
feet, and we never draw in more than 15 inches. Two
fpheres, one of which holds 2 cubic feet and the other
2 feet and 15 inches, will not differ in diameter above
the fiftieth part of an inch.
The other method of enlarging the capacity of the
thorax is very different. It is feparated from the ab¬
domen by a ftrong mufcular partition called the dia¬
phragm, which is attached to firm parts all around.
In its quiefeent or relaxed ftate it is confiderably con¬
vex upwards, that is, towards the thorax, riling up in¬
to its cavity like the bottom of an ordinary quart bottle,
only not fo regular in its lhape. Many of its fibres
tend from its middle to the circumference, where they
are inferted into firm parts of the body. Now fuppofe
thefe fibres to contract. This muft draw down its
middle, or make it flatter than before, and thus enlarge
the capacity of the thorax.
Phyfiologifts are not well agreed as to the (hare which
each of thefe actions has in the operation of enlarging
the thorax. Many refufe all flare of it to the intercoftal
mufcles, and fay that it is performed by the diaphragm
alone. But the fact is, that the ribs are really obferved
to rife even while the perfon is afleep ; and this cannpt
pofiibly be produced by the diaphragm, as thefe anato-
mifts affert. Such an opinion flows either ignorance
or negletf of the laws of pneumatics. If the capacity
of the thorax were enlarged only bv drawmer down the
Voe. XV. Part I. *
A T I C S. 1*3
diaphragm, the preflure of the air would comprefs the of
ribs, and make them defeend. And the fimple laws ^1^s£re *
of mechanics make it as evident as any propofition in i«
geometry, that the contrail ion of the intercoftal mufeies
mvjl produce an elevation of the ribs and enlargement
of the thorax ; and it is one of the moft beautiful con¬
trivances of nature. It depends much on the will of
the animal what flare each of thefe aftions flail have.
In general, the greateft part is done by the diaphragm {
and any perfon can breathe in fuch a manner that his
ribs flail remain motionlefs ; and, on the contrary, he
can breathe almoft entirely by raifing his cheft. In the
firft method of breathing, the belly rifes during infpira*
tion, becaufe the contraction of the diaphragm com-
preffes the upper part of the bowels, and therefore
iqueezes them outwards ; fo that an ignorant perfort
would be apt to think that the breathing was performed
by the belly, and that the belly is inflated with the
air. The ftrait lacing of the women impedes the mo¬
tion of the ribs, and changes the natural habit of
breathing, or brings on an unnatural habit. When
the mind is depreffed, it is obferved that the breathing
is more performed by the mufcles of the thorax ; and a
deep figli is always made in this way.
Thefe obfervations on the manner in which the capa¬
city of the cheft can be enlarged were neceffary, before
we can acquire a juft notion of the way in which the
mechanical properties of air operate in applying it to
the mafs of blood during its paffage through the lungs.
Suppofe the thorax quite empty, and communicating
with the external air by means of the trachea or wina-
pipe, it would then refemble a pair of bellows. Raifing
the boards correfponds to the raifing of the ribs ; and
we might imitate the aftion of the diaphragm by for¬
cibly pulling outwards the folded leather which unites
them. Thus their capacity is enlarged, and the air
ruihes in at the nozzle by its weight in the fame manner
as water would do. The thorax differs from bellows
only in this refpedt, that it is filled by the lungs, which
is a vail collection of little bladders, like the holes in a
piece of fermented bread, all communicating with the
trachea, and many of them with each other. When
the cheft is enlarged, the air rufles into them all in the
fame manner as into the fingle cavity of an empty tho¬
rax. It cannot be faid with propriety that thtfy are in¬
flated : all that is done is the alloaving the air to come
in. At the fame time, as their membranous covering
muft have fome thicknefs, however fmall, and fome
elafticity, it is not unlikely that, when compreffed by
expiration, they tend a little to recover their former
ftape, and thus aid the voluntary adtion of the mufcles.
It is in this manner that a fmall bladder of caoutchouc
fwells again after comprefiion, and fills itfelf with air
or water. But this cannot happen except in the moft
minute vefieles : thofe of fenlible bulk have not ela¬
fticity enough for this purpofe. The lungs of birds,
however, have fome very large bladders, which have 3
very coniiderable elafticity, and recover their flape and
fize with great force after comprelfion, and thus fill
themfelves with air. The refpiration of thefe animals
is confiderably different from that of land animals, and
their mufcles aft chiefly in expiration. This will be
explained by and by as a curious variety in the pneu¬
matic inftrument.
This account of the manner in which the lungs arc
U filled
*54
PNEUMATICS.
Effe&s of filled with air does not feem agreeable to the notions
Air’* pref- we entertain of it. We feem to fuck in the air ; but al-
furc- though it be true that we aft, and exert force, in order
V 3’9 to get air into our lungs, it is not by our a&ion, but by
We take in external preffure, that it does come in. If we apply
air not by our m0uth to the top of a bottle filled with water, we
a6T °iT b find that no draught, as we caH it, of our cheft will
by externalftick in any of the water; but if we fuck in the very
jpreflure. fame manner at the end of a pipe immerfed in water, it
follows immediately. Our intereft in the thing makes
us conned in imagination our own a&ion with the
elfed, without thinking on the many Heps which may
intervene in the train of natural operations; and we
confider the adion as the immediate caufe of the air’s
reception into the lungs. It is as if we opened the
door, and took in by the hand a perfon who was
really pulhed in by the crowd without. If an incifion
be made into the fide of the thorax, fo that the air can
get in by that way, when the animal ads in the ufual
manner, the air wall really come in by this hole, and
fill the fpace between the lungs and thorax ; but no air
is fucked into the lungs by this procefs, and the animal
is as completely fuffocated as if the windpipe were fhut
up. And, on the other hand, if a hole be made into
the lungs without communicating with the thorax, the
animal will breathe through this hole, though the wind¬
pipe be ftopped. This is fuccefsfully performed in cafes
of patients whofe trachea is fhut up by accident or by
inflammatiom; only it is neceffary that this perforation
be made into a part of the lungs where it may meet
with fome of the great pulmonary paffages ; for if made
into fome remote part of a lobe, the air cannot find its
way into the reft of the lungs through fuch narrow paf-
350 fages, obftruded too by blood, &c,
Kature of We have now explained, on pneumatical principles,
expiration ^ procefs of infpiration. The expiration is chiefly
performed by the natural tone of the parts. In the ad
of infpiration the ribs, were railed and drawn outwards
in oppofition to the elafticity of the folids themfelves ; for
although the ribs are articulated at their extremities, the
articulations are by no means fuch as to give a free and
eafy motion like the joints of the limbs. This is par¬
ticularly the cafe in the articulations with the flernuin,
which are by no means fitted for motion. It would
feem that the motion really produced here is chiefly
by the yielding of the cartilaginous parts and the bend¬
ing of the rib ; when therefore the mufeles which pro¬
duced this effed are allowed to relax, the ribs again
collapfe. Perhaps this is affifted a little by the adion
of the long mufcles which come down acrofs the ribs
without being inferted into them. Thefe may draw
them together a little,, as. we comprefs a loofe bundle
by a firing.
In like manner, when the diaphragm was drawn
down, it compreffed the abdomen in oppofition to the
elafticity of all the vifeera contained in it, and to the
elafticity and tone of the teguments and mufcles which
furround it. When therefore the diaphragm is relaxed,
thefe parts pufli it up . again into its natural litnation, and
in doing this expel the air from the,lungs.
If this be a juft account of the matter,, expiration
fhould be performed without any effort. This accord-,
ingly is the cafe. We feel that, after having made an '
ordinary eafy infpiration, it requires the continuance of
the effort to keep the thorax ia tliis- enlarged itate, and
35*
Ut requires
»o effort.
that all that is neceffary f©r expiration is to ceafe to Effedb 0{
ad. No perfon feels any difficulty in emptying the Air’‘ pref
lungs; but weak people often feel a difficulty of in- furei
fpiration, and compare it to the feeling of a weight on
their breaft; and expiration is the laft motion of the
thorax in a dying perfon.
But nature has alfo given us a mechanifm by which -
we can expire, namely, the abdominal mufcles; and
when we have finifhed an ordinary and eafy expira¬
tion, we can ftill expel a confiderable bulk of air (nearly
half of the contents of the lungs) by contrading the
abdominal mufcles. Thefe, by compreffing the body,
force up its moveable contents againft the diaphragm,
and caufe it to rife further into the thorax, ading in
the fame manner as when we expel the faeces- per anum.
When a perfon breathes out as much air as he can in this
manner, he may obferve that his ribs do not collapfe
during the whole operation.
There feems then to be a certain natural unconftrained A certain
ftate of the vehicles of the lungs, and a certain quantity <luailt‘ty °f
of air neceffary for keeping them of this fize. It isj^n“^'
probable that this ftate of the lungs gives the freeft mo-the lungs^
tion to the blood. Were they more compreffed, the of a natuaf
blood veffels would be compreffed by the adjoiningflze’
vehicles ; were they more lax, the veffels would be more
crooked, and by this means obftruded. The frequent
infpirations gradually change this air by mixing frefh
air with it, and at every expiration canying off fome
of it. In catarrhs and inflammations, efpecially when
attended with fuppuration, the fmall paffages into the
remote veffels are obftruded, and thus the renewal of
air in them will be prevented. The painful feeling
which this occafions caufes us to expel the air with
violence, ftiutting the windpipe, till we have exerted
ftrongly with the abdominal mufcles, and made a ftrong
compreflion on the lower part of the thorax. We
then open the paffage fuddenly, and expel the air and
obftruding matter by violent coughing. ^
We have faid, that birds exhibit a curious variety Procdsof:
in the procefs of breathing. The mufcles of their !ire,a;11^
wings being fo very great, required a very extenfivein 11 S’
infertion, and this is one ufe of the great breaft-bone.
Another ufe of it is, to form a firm partition to hinder
the adion of thefe mufcles from compreffing the thorax
in the ad of flying: therefore the form of their cheil
does not admit of alternate enlargement and contradion
to that degree as in land animals. Moreover, the
mufcles of their abdomen are alfo very fmall; and it
would feem that they are not fufficient for producing
the compreffion on the bowels which is neceffary for
carrying on the procefs of concodion and digeftion* .
Inftead of aiding the lungs, they receive help- from ,
them.
In an oftrich, the lungs confift of a fleftiy part A, A
(fig. 61.), compofed of vehicles like thofe of land ani- Plate
mak, and, like theirs, ferving to expofe the blood to CCCCV.
the adion of the air. Befides thefe, they have on each
fide four large bags B, C, I>, E, each of which has
an orifice G communicating with the trachea ; but the
fecond, C, has alfo an orifice H, by which it commu¬
nicates with another bag F fituated below the reft in
the abdomen. Now, when the lungs are compreffed
by the adion of. the diaphragm, the air in C is partly
expelled by the trachea through the orifice G, and
partly driven through the orifice H into the bag F,
which
if •
A* \rti’
L ^
T, opera
ti' of
fli ing,
P N E U M
which is then allowed to receive it; bedaufe the fame
a£tkm which comprefles the lungs enlarges the ab-
domen. When the thorax is enlarged, the bag L,
is partly fupplied with freih air through the trachea,
and partly from the bag F. As the lungs of other
animals refemble a common bellows* the lungs ol birds
refemble the fmitb’s bellows with a partition ; and
anatomifts have difeovertd paffages from this part
the lungs into their hollow bones and quills. We
do not know all the ufes of this contrivance ; and only
can obferve, that this alternate aAion mud affift the
mufcles of the abdomen in promoting the motion of the
food along the alimentary canal, See. We can diftinctly
obferve in birds that their belly dilates when the cheit
collapfes, and vice verfay contrary to what we fee in
the land animals. Another ufe of this double paliage
may be to produce a circulation of air in the lungs,
bv which a compenfation is made for the fmaller furface
of aAion on the blood : for the number of fmall veficles,
of equal capacity with thefe large bags, gives a much
more extendvC furface. _
If we try to raife mercury in a pipe by the aAion of
the cheft alone, we cannot raife it above two or three
inches ; and the attempt is both painful and hazardous.
It is painful chiefly in the bread, and it provokes cough¬
ing. Probably the fluids ooze through the pores of
the veficles by the preffure of the furrounding parts.
On the other hand, we can by expiration fupport
mercury about five or fix inches high: but this alfo
is very painful, and apt to produce extravafation of
blood. This feems to be done entirely by the abdomi¬
nal mufcles.
The operation properly termed sucking is totally
different from breathing, and refembles exceedingly the
aAion of a common pump. Suppofe a pipe held in the
mouth, and its lower end immerfed in water. We fill
the mouth with the tongue, bringing it forward, and
applying it clofely to the teeth and to the palate ; we
then draw it back, or bend it downwards (behind)
from the palate, thus leaving a void. The preffure of
the air on the cheeks immediately deprefies them, and
applies them clofe to the gums and teeth; and its pref¬
fure on the water in the veffel caufes it to rife through
the pipe into the empty part of the mouth, which it
quickly fills. We then pufli forward the tip of the
tongue, below the water, to the teeth, and apply it to
them all round, the water being above the tongue,
which is kept much depreffed. We then apply the
tongue to the palate, beginning at the tip, and gradu¬
ally going backward in this application. By this means
the water is gradually forced backward by an operation
fimilar to that of the gullet in fwallowing. This is
done by contraAing the gullet above and relaxing it
below, juft as we would empty a gut of its contents by
drawing our clofed hand along it. By this ' m
the mouth is again completely occupied by t! ?,
and we are ready for repeating the operat s
the mouth and tongue refemble the barrel . f
a pump ; and the application of the tip of tne tongue
to the teeth performs the office of the valve at the bot¬
tom of the barrel, preventing the return of the water
into the pipe. Although ufual, it is not abfolutely
neceffary, to withdraw the tip of the tongue, making
a void before the tongue. Sucking may be performed
by merely feparatiiig the tongue gradually from the
A T I C S. .
palate, beginning at the root. If we withdraw the tip
of the tongue a very minute quantity, the water gets furc
in and flows back above the tongue. _ —
The aAion of the tongue in this operation is very
powerful; fome perfons can raife mercury 25 inches: but
this ftrong exertion is very fatiguing', and the loft parts
are prodigioufly fwelled by it. It caufes the blood to
ooze plentifully through the pores of the tongue, fauces,
and palate, in the fame manner as if. a cupping-glafs and
fyringe were applied to them ; and, when the infide of
the mouth is excoriated or tender, as is frequent with in¬
fants, even a very moderate exertion of this kind is ac¬
companied with extravafation of blood. When children
fuck the nurfes brealt, the milk follows their exertion by
the preffure of the air on the breaft ; and a weak child,
or one that withholds its exertions on account of pain
from the above-mentioned caufe, may be afiifted by a
gentle preffure of the hand on the breaft : the infant pu¬
pil of nature, without any knowledge of pneumatics,
frequently helps itfelf by prefling its face to the yield¬
ing breaft.
In the whole of this operation the breathing is per¬
formed through the noftrils; and it is a prodigious dif-
trefs to an infant when this paffage is obftruAed by mu¬
cus. We beg to be forgiven for obterving by the way,
that this obftruAion may be almoft certainly removed
for a little while, by rubbing the child’s nofe with any
liquid of quick evaporation, dr even with water.
The operation in drinking is not very different from And of
that in fucking: we have indeed little occafion herednnking,
to fuck, but we muft do it a little. Dogs and very fitni-
other animals cannot drink, but only lap the water intoiar<
their mouths with their tongue, and then fwallow it.
The gallinaceous birds feem to drink very imperfeAly ;
they feem merely to dip their head into the water up to
the eyes till their mouth is filled with water, and then
holding up the head, it gets into the gullet by its weight,
and is then fwallowed. The elephant drinks in a very
complicated manner; he dips his trunk into the water,and
fills it by making a void in his mouth : this he does in the
contrary way to man. After having depreffed his tongue,
he begins the application of it to the palate at the root,
and by extending the application forward, he expels the
air by the mouth which came into it from the trunk.
The procefs here is not very unlike that of the conden-
fing fyringe without a pifton valve, defcribed in nu 5 8,
in which the external air (correfponding here to the air
in the trunk) enters by the hole F in the fide, and is ex¬
pelled through the hole in the end of the barrel; by
this operation the trunk is filled with water: then he
lifts his trunk out of the water, and bringing it to hi*
mouth, pours the contents into it, and fwallows it. On
confidering this operation, it appears that, by the fame
procefs by which the air of the trunk is taken into the
mouth, the water could alfo be taken in, to be afterwards
fwallowed: hut we do not find, upon inquiry, that thi®
is dope by the elephant; we have always obferved him
to drink in the manner now defcribed. In either way it
is a double operation, and cannot be carried on any way
but by alternately fucking and fwallowing, and while
one operation is going on the other is interrupted;
whereas man can do both at the fame time. Nature
feems to delight in exhibiting to rational obfervers her
inexhauftible ve iety of refource; formally infeAs, which
drink with a trunk, drink without interruption: yet we
U.2 do
356
Mode of
*56 P N E U M
of (J0 not call U1 qv.cfllon the truth of the aphorifm, Natura
^'fure^^' maxime JtmP^x et f<:mperJiht conform, nor doubt but that,
t,, ^ . if the whole of her purpofe were feen, we fhould find that
her procefs is the fimpleft pofiible: for Nature, or Nature’s
God, is wife above our wife ft thoughts, and fimplicity
is cekainly the choice of wifdom : but alas ! it is gene-
. rally but a fmall and the moil obvious part of her pur¬
pofe that wre can obferve or appreciate. We feldom fee
this fimplicity of nature Hated to us, except by fome
fyftem-maker, who has found a principle which fomehow
tallies with a confiderable variety of phenomena, and
then cries out, Frujlra Jit per plura quod jieri fottjl per
paudora.
  There is an operation fimilar to that of the elephant,
keeping up which many find a great difficulty in acquiring, viz.
blaftwkh akcepin£ LlP a continued blaft with a blow-pipe. We
blow-pipe. would defire our chemical reader to attend minutely to
* the gradual aftion of his tongue in fucking, and he will
find it fuch as we have defcribed. Let him attend par¬
ticularly to the way in which the tip of the tongue per¬
forms the office of a valve, preventing the return of the
water into the pipe : the fame pofition of the tongue
would hinder air from coming into the mouth. Next
let him obferve, that in fwallowing what water he has
now got lodged above his tongue, he continues the" tip
of the tongue applied to the teeth; now let him Unit his
mouth, keeping his lips firm together, the tip of the
tongue at the teeth, and the whole tongue forcibly kept
at a diftance from the palate ; bring up the tongue
to the palate, and allow the tip to feparate a little
from the teeth; this will expel the air into the fpace
between the fauces and cheeks, and will blow up the
cheeks a little : then, adding with the tip of the tongue
as a valve, hinder this air from getting back, and depref-
fing the tongue again, more air (from the noftrils) will
get into the mouth, which may be expelled into the
fpace without the teeth as before, and the cheeks will
be more inflated: continue this operation, and the lips
will no longer be able to retain it, and it will ooze
through as long as the operation is continued. When
this has become familiar and eafy, take the blow-pipe,
and there will be no difficulty in maintaining a blaft as
uniform as a fmith’s bellows, breathing all the while
through the noftrils. The only difficulty is the holding
the pipe : this fatigues the lips; but it may be removed
by giving the pipe a convenient ffiape, a pretty flat oval,
and wrapping it round with leather or thread.
Another phenomenon depending on the principles
already eftablifhed, is the land and fea-breeze in the
warm countries.
We have feen that air expands exceedingly by heat;
therefore heated air, being lighter than an "equal bulk
of cold air, muft rife in it. If we lay a hot ftone in the
funflune in a room, we lhall obferve the ffiadow of the
ftone furrounded with a fluttering fliadow of different
degrees of brightnefs, and that this flutter rifes rapidly
in a column above the ftone. Jf we hold an extmguiih-
ed candle near the ftone, we fliall fee the fmoke move
towards the ftone, and then afeend up from it. Now,
fuppofe an iftand receiving the firft rays of the fun in a
perfectly calm morning ; the ground will foon be warm¬
ed, and will warm the contiguous air. If the ifland be
mountainous, this effe<ft will be more remarkable ; be-
eaufe the inclined ftdes of the hills will 1 *eeive the light
more directly: the midland air will therefore be mofj
357
^Nature of
the land
and fea
breeze in
warm
countries.
A T I C S.
™e^.„th' ]>'««* ah' will rift, and that in tht-Eflifcd
middle will nfefafteft; and thus a current of air upwards
will begin, which mull be fupplied by air coming in from ^u,e'
ail lides, to be heated and to rife in its turn ; and thus ^
the morning fea-breexe is produced, and continues all
day. . This current will frequently be reverfed during
the night, by the air cooling and gliding down the fides
of the hills, and we lhall have the lund^breexe. ,
It is owing to the fame caufe that we have a circula- Circuiatioi
tion of air in mines which have the mouths of their0* a*r in
lhafts of unequal heights. The temperature underground m‘ne*,
is pretty conftant through the whole year, while that of
the atmofphere is extremely variable. Now, fuppofe a
mine having a long horizontal drift, communicating be-
tvveen two pits or Ihafts, and that one of thefe fliafts ter¬
minates in a valley, while the other opens on the brow
of a hill perhaps 100 feet higher. Let us further flip,
pofe it fummer, and the air heated to 65°, while the
temperature of the earth is but 450; this lall will be
alfo the temperature of the air in the lhafts and the
drift. Now, fince air expands nearly 24 parts in 10000
by one degree of heat, we lhall hav« an odds of prelfurc
at. the bottom of the two lhafts equal to nearly the 20th
part of the weight of a column of air loofeet high
( r 00 feet being fuppofed the difference of the heights of
the lhafts). T. his will be about fix ounces on every Iquare
foot of the fe&ion of the lhaft. If this preffure could
be continued, it would produce a, prodigious current of
air down the long lhaft, along the drift, and up the
Ihort lhaft. The weight of the air a&ing through 100
feet would communicate to it the velocity of 80 feet
per fecond: divide this by 20, that is, by 4,5, and
we lhall have 18 feet per fecond for the velocity: this is
the velocity of what is called a brilk gale. This preffure
would be continued, if the warm air which enters the
long fliaft were cooled and condenfed as fall as it comes
in ; but this is not the cafe. It is however cooled and
condenfed, and a current is produced fufficient to make
an abundant circulation of air along the whole paffage
and care is taken to difpofe the lhafts and condudft the
paflages in fuch a manner that no part of the mine is
out of the circle. When any new lateral drift is made,
the renewal of air at its extremity becomes more imper-
fetft as it advances; and when it is carried a certain lengthy
the air ftagnates and becomes fuffocating, till either a
communication can be made with the reft of the mine,
or a lhaft be made at the end of this drift.
As this current depends entirely on the difference of
temperature between the air below and that above, it
muft ceafe when this difference ceafes. Accordingly,
in the fpring and autdmn, the miners complain much of
ftagnation; but in fummer they never want a current
from the deep pits to the Ihallow, nor in the winter
a current from the Ihallow pits to the deep ones. It
frequently happens alfo, that in mineral countries the
chemical changes which are going on in different parts
of the earth make differences of temperature fufficient
to produce a fenfible current.
It is eafy to fee that the fame caufes mull produce
a current down our chimneys in fummer. The chim¬
ney is colder than the fummer air, and muft therefore
condenfe it, and it will come down and run out at the 5'9
doors and windows. ^fwhat
And this naturally leads us to confider a very impor* C2ued cfce
tant effedl of the expanfion and confequent afeent of air draught ii
by chimneys'
P N E U M
I of by heat, namely the drawing (as it is called) of chim-
i * pref- ney8. The air which has contributed to the burning
"■e- 0f fuel muft be intenfely heated, and will rife in the
W atmofphere. This will alfo be the cafe with much of
the furrounding air which has come very near the fire,
although not in contaft with it. If this heated air be
made to rife in a pipe, it will be kept together, and
therefore will not loon cool and collapfe : thus we lhall
obtain a long column of light air, which will rife with
a force fo much the greater as the column is longer or
more heated. Therefore the taller we make the chimney,
or the hotter we make the fire, the more rapid will be
the current, or the draught or fu&ion, as it is injudi-
cioufiy called, will be fo much the greater. The afcen-
fional force is the difference between the weight of the
column of heated air in the funnel and a column of
the furrounding atmofphere of equal height. We in-
creafe the draught, therefore, by increafing the perpen¬
dicular height of the chimney. Its length in a hori¬
zontal diredfion gives no increafe, but, on the contrary,
diminifhes the draught by cooling the air before it
gets into the effeftive part of the funnel. We increafe
the draught alfo by obliging all tbe air which enters the
chimney to come very near the fuel ‘r therefore a low
mantle-piece will produce this effeft; alfo filling up
all the fpaces on each fide of the grate. When much
air gets in above the fire, by having a lofty mantle-
piece, the general mafsof air in the chimney cannot be
much heated. - Hence it muft happen that the greateft
draught will be produced by bringing down the mantle-
piece to the very fuel; but this converts a fire-place
into a furnace, and by thus fending the whole air through
the fuel, caufee it to burn with great rapidity, pro¬
ducing a prodigious heat; and this producing an in¬
creafe of afcenfxonal force, the current becomes furiouf-
iy rapid, and the heat and confumption of fuel ii-n-
menfe. If the fire-place be a cube of a foot and a
half, and the front clofed by a door, fo that all the air
muft enter through the bottom of the grate, a chim¬
ney of 15 or 20 feet high, and fufficiently wide to
give paffage to all the expanded air which can pafs
through the fire, will produce a current which will
roar like thunder, and a heat fufficient to run the whole
infide into a lump of glafs.
All that is neceffary, however, in a chamber fire¬
place, is a current fufficiently great for carrying up the
fmoke and vitiated air of the fuel. And as we want
alfo the enlivening flutter and light of the fire, we
give the chimney-piece both a much greater height
and width than what is merely neceflary for carrying up
the fmoke, only wiftiing to have the current fufficiently
determinate and fteady for counteracting any occafional
tendency which it may fometimes have to come into the
room. By allowing a greater quantity of air to get into
the chimney, heated only to a moderate degree, we pro¬
duce a more rapid renewal of the air of the room:
did we oblige it to come fo much nearer the fire as to
produce the fame renewal of the air in confequence of
a more rapid current, we fliould produce an inconve¬
nient heat. But in this country, where pit-coal is in
general fo very cheap, we carry this indulgence to an
extreme ; or rather we have not ftudied how to get
all the defired advantages with economy. A much
fmaller renewal of air than we commonly produce is
abundantly whokfome and pkafant, and we may have
A T I C S. *57
all the pleafure of the light and flame of the fuel at Kffe£b of
much lefs expence, by contracting greatly the paflage “u*rPre
into the vent. The beft way of doing this is by con- j
trading the brick-work on each fide behind the mantle-
piece, and reducing it to a narrow parallelogram, ha¬
ving the back of the vent for one of its long fides.
Make an iron plate to fit this hole, of the fame length,
but broader, fo that it may lie Hoping, its lower edge
being in contact with the forefide of the hole, and its
upper edge leaning on the back of the vent. In this
pofition it fhuts the hole entirely. Now let the plate
have a hinge along the front or lower edge, and fold up
like the lid of a cheft. We fhall thus be able to en¬
large the paflage at pleafure. In a fire-place fit for a
room of 24 feet by 18, if this plate may be about 18
inches long from fide to fide, and folded back within
an inch or an inch and a half of the wall, this will
allow paflage for as much air as will keep up a very
cheerful fire; and by raffing or lowering this Regi¬
ster, the fire may be made to burn more or lefs ra¬
pidly. A free paflage of half an inch will be fufficient
in weather that is not immoderately cold. The prin¬
ciple on which this conftru&km produces its effeCt is,
that the air which is in the front of the fire, and much
warmed by it, is not allowed to get into the chimney,
where it would be immediately hurried up the vent,
but rifes up to the ceiling and is diffufed over the whole
room. This double motion of the air may be diftinft-
ly obferved by opening a little of the door and holding
a candle in the way. If the candle be held near the
floor, the flame will be blown into the room ; but if
held near the top of the door, the flame will be blown
outward. _ w
But the moft perfect method of warming an apart-Defcn'ption
ment in thefe temperate climates, where we can indulge cf^^c*
in the cheerfulnefs and fweet air produced by an open^^jj^
fire, is what we call a ftove-grate, and our neighbours
on the continent call a chapelle, from its refemblance
to the chapels or oratories in the great churches.
la the great chimney-piece, which, in this cafe, may
be made even larger than ordinary, is fet a fmaller one
fitted up in the fame ftile of ornament, but of a fize
no greater than is fufficient for holding the fuel. The
lides and back of it are made of iron (caft iron is
preferable to hammered iron, becaufe it does not fo rea¬
dily calcine), and are kept at a fmall diftance from the
Tides and back of the main chimney-piece, and are con¬
tinued down to the hearth, fo that the afli-pit is alfo fe-
parated. The pipe or chimney of the ftove grate is
carried up behind the ornaments of the mantle-piece
till it rifes above the mantle-piece of the main chim¬
ney-piece, and is fitted with a regifter or damper-plate
turning round a tranfverfe axis. The beft form of this
regifter is that which we have recommended for an or¬
dinary fire-place, having its axis or joint clofe at the
front; fo that when it is open or turned up, the burnt
air and fmoke linking it obliquely, are directed with
certainty into the vent, without any rilk of reverbera¬
ting and coming out into the room. All the reft of
the vent is fhut up by iron plates or brick-work out of
%ht* . . . 36*
The effect of this conftru&ion is very obvious. The Effe& of
fuel, being in immediate contact with the back and its con¬
fides of the grate, heat them to a great degree, and
they heat the air contiguous to them. Tliis heated
*53 P N E U M
of air cannot get up the vent, becaufe the paffages above
Alfurc'.U * ^Pace8 are ^hut up* It therefore comes out into
u—y—— the room ; fome of it goes into the real fire-place and
is carried up the vent, and the reft rifes to the ceiling
and is diffufed over the room.
It is furprifing to a perfon who does not confider
it with ikill how powerfully this grate warms a room,
I,efs than one-fourth of the fuel confumed in an ordi¬
nary fire-place is fufficient; and this with the fame
. cheerful blazing hearth and falutary renewal of air. It
even requires attention to keep the room cool enough.
The heat communicated to thofe parts in contact with
the fuel is needlefsly great; and it will be a confiderable
improvement to line this part with very thick plates
of call iron, or with tiles made of fire-clay which will
not crack with the heat. Thefe, being very bad con¬
ductors, _ will make the heat, ultimately communicated
to the air, very moderate. If, with all thefe precau¬
tions, the heat fliould be found too great, ft may be
brought under perfect management by opening palfages
into the vent from the lateral fpaces, Thefe may be
valves or trap-doors moved by rods concealed behind
the ornaments.
Thus we have a fire-place under the moft complete
regulation, where we can always have a cheerful fire
without being for a quarter of an hour incommoded by
the heat ; and we can as quickly raife our fire^ when
too low, by hanging on a plate of iron on the front,
which fiinll reach as low' as the grate. This in five mi¬
nutes will blow up the fire into a glow; and the plate
may be fent out of the room, or fet behind the ftove-
grate out of fight.
_ The propriety of inclofing the alh-pit is not fo ob¬
vious ; but if this be not done, the light afhes, not
finding a ready paflage up the chimney, will come out
into the room along with the heated air.
We do not confider in this place the various extra¬
neous circumftances which impede the current of air
in our chimneys and produce fmoky houfes: thefe
will be treated of, and the methods of removing or
remedying them, under the article Smoke. Wc con-
-fider at prefent only the theory of this motion in ge¬
neral, and the modifications of its operation arifingfrom
364 the various purpofes to which it may be applied.
Mode of Under this head we fhall next give a general ac-
warnnng count and defeription of the method of warming apart-
byaoves.*8 ments hy ftoves. A Stove in general is a fire-place
Ihut up on all fides, having only a paflage for admitting
the air to fupport the fire, and a tube for carrying off
the vitiated air and fmoke ; and the air of the room
is warmed by coming into contaft with the outlide of
the ftove and flue. The general principle of conftruc-
tion, therefore, is very Ample. The air muft be made
to come into as clofe contatt as pofiible with the fire, or
even to pafs through it, and this in fuch quantities as
juft to confume a quantity of fuel fufficient for produ¬
cing the heat required; and the ftove muft be fo con-
,ftru<fted, that both the burning fuel and the air which
has been heated by it fhall be applied to as extenfive
s furface as poflible of furnace, all i» contact with the
air of the room ; and the heated air within the ftove
muft not be allowed to get into the funnel which is to
carry it off till it is too much cooled to produce any
jooofiderable heat on the outfide of the ftove. ’
Jn this temperate ciimAte no great ingenuity is ne-
A T I C S.
ceffary for warming an ordinary apartment 5 and ftovei Sfrc4M
are made rather to pleafe the eye as furniture than a* Air’*
economical fubftitutes for an open fire of equal calori- fl're-
fic power. But our neighbours on the continent, and ' ^
especially towards the north, where the cold of winter
is intenfe and fuel veiy dear, have beftowed much at¬
tention on their conftruftion, and have combined inge¬
nious economy with every elegance of form. Nothing can
be handfomer than the ftoves of Fayencerie that are ta
be feen in French Flanders, or the Ruffian ftoves at St
Peterfburgh, finifhed in ftucco. Our readers will not,
therefore, be difpleafed with a defeription of them.
In this place, however, we fhall only confider a ftove in
general as a fubjerit of pneumatical difeuflion, and wc
refer our readers to the article Stove for an account
of them as articles of domeftic accommodation. fa
The general form, therefore, of a ftove, and of which Gcneral
all others are only modifications adapted to circum-j^111 a
fiances of utility or tafte, is as follows : ftove’
. MIKL (fig. 62.) is a quadrangular box of any fize Plate
in the direftions MI IK. The infide width from front CCCCf,
to back is pretty conftant, never lefs than ten inches,
and rarely extending to 20 ; the included fpace is di¬
vided by a great many partitions. The Weft chamber
AB is the receptacle for the fuel, which lies on the
bottom of the ftove without any grate : this fire-place
has a door AO turning on hinges, and in this door is
a very fmall wicket P: the roof of the fire-place ex¬
tends to within a very few inches of the farther end,
leaving a narrow paffage B for the flame. The next
partition c C is about eight inches higher, and reaches
almoft to the other end, leaving a narrow paffage for
the flame at C. The partitions are repeated above, at
the diftance of eight inches, leaving paffages at the
ends, alternately difpofed as in the figure; the laft of
them H communicates with the room vent. This com¬
munication may be regulated by a plate of iron, which
can be did acrofs it by means of a rod or handle which
comes through the fide. The more ufual way of {hut¬
ting up this paffage is by a fort of pan or bowl of earthen
ware, which is whelmed over it with its brim refting in
fand contained in a groove formed all round the hole.
This damper is introduced by a door in the front, which
is then fhut. The whole is fet on low pillars, fo
that its bottom, may be a few inches from the floor of
the room: it is ufually placed in a corner, and the
apartments are fo difpofed that their chimneys can be
joined in Hacks as with us.
Some ft raw or wood-fhavings are firft burnt on the
hearth at its farther end. This warms the air in the
ftove, and creates a determined current. The fuel is
then laiu on the hearth clofe by the door, and pretty
much piled up. It is now kindled ; and the current be¬
ing already cilreded to the vent, there is no danger of
any fmoke coming out into the room. Effeftuaily to
prevent this, the door is fhut, and the wicket P open¬
ed. The air fupplied by this, being dire&ed to the
middle or bottom of the fuel, quickly kindles it, and
the operation goes on. ^
The aim of this conftruAion is very obvious. The Aim and
flame and heated air are retained as long as poffibleeffe^*0^
within the body of the ftove by means of the long paf-'hisf°^(
fages ; and the narrownefs of thefe paffages obliges theltrU''10 *
flame to come.in contact with every particle of foot, fo
as to confume it completely, and thus convert the whole
combuftibte
P N E U M
{ as of combuftible matter of the fuel into heat. For want of
l » pref- ^js a very confiderable portion of our fuel is wafted by
our open fires, even under the very beft management:
the loot which flicks to our vents is very inflammable,
and a pound weight of it will give as much if not more
heat than a pound of coal. And what flicks to
our vents is very inconfiderable in comparifon with
what efcapes unconfumed at the chimney top. In
fires of green wood, peat, and fome kinds of pit-coal,
nearly f of the fuel; is loft in this way; but in thefe
ftoves there is hardly ever any mark of foot to be feen ;
and even this fmall quantity is produced only after
lighting the fires. The volatile inflammable matters
are expelled from parts much heated indeed, but not fo
hot as to burnand fome of it charred or half-burnt
cannot be any further confumed,being enveloped in flame
and air already vitiated and unfit for combuftion. Jiut
when the ftove is well heated, and the current brifk, no
part of the foot efcapes the action of the air.
The hot air retained in this manner in the body of
the ftove is applied to its fides in a very extended furface.
To increafe this ftill more, the ftove is made narrower
from front to back in its upper part ;• a certain breadth
is neceflary below, that there may be room for fuel. If
this breadth were preferved all the way up, much heat
would be loft, becaufe the heat communicated to the
partitions of the ftove does no good. By diminiihing
their breadth, the proportion of ufeful furface is increafed.
The whole body of the ftove may be confidered as a
long pipe folded up, and its effeft would be the greateft
poffible if it really were fo; that is, if each partition cC,
dD, See. were fplit into two, and a free palfage allowed
between them for the air of the room. Something like
this will be obferved afterwards in fome German ftoves.
It is with the fame view of making an extenfive ap¬
plication of a hot furface to the air, that the ftove is not
built in the wall, nor even in contadl with it, nor with
the floor : for by its detached fituation, the air ii> con-
tad with the back, and with the bottom (where it is
hotteft), is warmed, and contributes at leaft one half of
the whole effed ; for the great heat of the bottom
makes its effed on the air of the room at leaft equal
to that of the two ends. Sometimes a ftove makes
part of the wall between two fmall rooms, and is found
fufficient.
It muft be remarked, on the whole, that the effed of
a ftove depends much on keeping in the room the air
already heated by it. This is fo remarkably the cafe,‘
that a fmall open fire in the fame room will be fo far
from increaling its heat, that it will greatly diminilh it:
it will even draw the warm air from a fuite of ad¬
joining apartments. This is diftindly obferved in the
houfes of the En^lifh merchants in St Peterfburgh:
.their habits of life in Britain make them uneafy without
an open fire in their fitting rooms; and this obliges them
to heat all their ftoves twice a day, and their houfes are
cooler than thofe of the Ruffians who' heat them only
01n<'.e‘ I*1 roany German houfes, efpecially of the lower
ckls, the fire-place of the ftove does not open into the
room, but into the yard or a lobby, where all the fires
arc ghted and tended; by this means is avoided the
expence of warm air which muft have been carried off
Cr °Ve^ evident, that this muft be very
npleaiant, and cannot be wholefome. We muft breathe
c lame quantity of ftagnant air loaded with all the va-
A T I C S. i59
pours and exhalations which muft be produced in every Effe&s «f
inhabited place. Going into one of thefe houfes from AllT Prc^”
the open air, is like putting one’s head into a ftew-pan l‘‘L’ .
or under a pie-cruft, and quickly naufeates us who are
accuftomed to frefh air and cleanlinefs. In thefe coun¬
tries it is a matter almoft of neceffity, to fumigate the
rooms with frankincenfe and other gums burnt. The
cenfer in ancient worfhip was in all probability an utenfil
introduced by neceffity for fweetening or rendering t«-
lerable the air of a crouded place : and it is a conftant
pradlice in the Ruffian houfes for a fervant to go round
the room after dinner, waving a cenfer with fome gums
burning on bits of charcoal. 6 ^
The account now given of ftoves for heating rooms, Of hot*
and of the eircumftances which muft be attended to in waik in
their conllrudlion, will equally apply to hot walls in |^r<^enin?r
gardening, whether within or without doors. The on- C‘
ly new circumftance which this employment of a flue in¬
troduces, is the attention which muft be paid to the equa¬
bility of the heat, and the gradation which muft be ob¬
ferved in different parts of the building. The heat in the
flue gradually diminifhes as it recedes from the fire-place,
becaufe it is continually giving out heat to the flue. It
mujl therefore be fo conducted through the building by
frequent returns, that in every part there may be a
mixture of warmer and cooler branches of the flue, and-
the final chimney fhould be clofe by the fire-place. It
would, however, be improper to run the flue from the-
end of the floor up to the ceiling, where the fecond ho¬
rizontal pipe would be placed, and then return it down¬
ward again and make the third horizoutal flue adjoining'.
to the firft, &c. This would make the middle of the '
wall the coldeft. If it is the flue of a greenhoufe, this :
would be highly improper, becaufe the upper part of
the wall can be very little employed ; and in this cafe it
is better to allow the flue to pioceed gradually up the
wall in its different returns, by which the lowelt part
would be the warmeft, and the heated air will afeend
among the pots and plants; but in a hot wall, where
the trees are to receive heat by contact, fome approxi¬
mation to the above method may be ufeful.s
In the hypocaufta and fudaria of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, the flue was conducted chiefly under the floors.
Malt-kilns are a fpecies of ftove which merit our at-Malt-kilns
tention. Many attempts have been made to improve a 0,ecies cf
them on the principal of flue ftoves; but they have^*2,
been unfuccefsful, becaufe heat is not what is chiefly
wanted in malting •: it is a copious Current of very dry
air to carry off the moifture. We muft refer the exa¬
mination of this fubjedl alfo to the article Stove, and
proceed to confider the current of heated air in the chief
varieties of furnaces.
All that is to be attended to in the different kinds of Of th/cur-
melting furnaces is, that the current of air be fufficiently tent of air
rapid, and that it be applied in as extenfive a furface as melting -
poffible to the fubftance to be melted. The more rapid ^urnace8»
the current-it is the hotter, becaufe it is confumW-
more fuel; and therefore its effeft- increafes in a higher
proportion than its rapidity. It is doubly effeaual if
twice as hot; and if it then be twice as rapid, there is
twice the quantity of doubly hot air applied to the fub-
je&rt it would therefore be four times more powerful.
This ’is procured by raifing the chimney of the furnace
to a greater height. The clofe application of it to the •
fubjeft can hardly be laid down in general terms, be~
3 - eaufs -
i6o
P N E U M
EffeA* of eaufe it depends on the pfecife circumilances of each
Air’s pref- cafe>
. fure- . In reverberatory furnaces, fuch as refining furnaces
?68 for gold, filver, and copper, the flame is made to play
In reverbe-over the furface of the melted metal. Tins is produced
ratory fur- entjreiy by the form of the furnace, by making the arch
tuccs, the furnace as low as the circumftances of the mani¬
pulation will allow (See Furnace, p. 5°9')‘.
perience has pointed out in general the chief circum-
ftances of their conftru6\ion, viz. that the fuel mould be
at one end on a grate, through which the air enters to
maintain the fire ; and that the metal fhould be placed
on a level floor between the fuel and the tall chimney
which produces the current. But there is no kind of
furnace more variable in its effect, and almoft every place
.has a fmall peculiarity of conflruCtion, on which its pre¬
eminence is refted. This has occafioned many whimfi-
cal varieties in their form. This uncertainty feems to
depend much on a circumitance rather foreign to our
prefent purpofe ; but as we do not obferve it taken no¬
tice of by mineralogical writers, we beg leave U> men¬
tion it here. It is not heat alone that is wanted in the
refining of filver by lead, for inftanee. We mutt
make a continual application to its furface of air, which
has not contributed to the combuftion of the fuel. Any
quantity of the hotteft air, already faturated with the
fuel, may play on the furface of the metal for ever, and
keep it in the ftate of moft perfeft fufion, but without
refining it in the leafl. Now, in the ordinary conftruc-
tion of a furnace, this is much the cafe. If the whole
air has come in by the grate, and palled through the
middle of the fuel, it can hardly be otherwife than near¬
ly faturated with it; and if air be alfo admitted by the
door (which is generally done pr fomething equivalent),
the pure air lies above the vitiated air, and during the
pafiage along the horizontal part of the furnace, and
along the furface of the metal, it ftill keeps above it, at
leaft there is nothing to promote their mixture. Thus
the metal does not come into contact with an fit to a<ft
,on the bafe metal and calcine it, and the operation of
refining goes on flowly. Trifling qircumftances in the
form of the arch or canal may tend to promote the
jumbling of the airs together, and thus render the ope¬
ration more expeditious 5 and as thefe are but ill un-
derftood, or perhaps this circumfianee not attended to,
no wonder that we fee thefe confidered as fo many nof-
trums of great importance. It were therefore worth
while to try the effetf of changes in the form of the
roof dire&ed to this very circumftance. Perhaps fome
little prominence down from the arch of the reveibera-
tory would have this effea, by fuddenly throwing the
current into confufion. If the additional length of paf-
fage do not cool the air too much, we fliould think that
If there were interpofed between the fuel and the re¬
fining floor a paffage twifted like a cork-ferew, making
juft half a turn, it would be moft effeaual: for we ima¬
gine, that the tw'O airs, keeping each to their refpeaive
fides of the paffage, would by this means be turned up-
fide down, and that the pure ftratum would now be in
contaa with the metal, and the vitiated air would be
300 above it- .
And in the The glafshoufe furnace exhibits the chief variety m
plaf'-houfe management of the current of heated air. In this
furnaces. neceflfary that the hole at which the workman dips
his pipe into the pot jhall be as hot as any part of the
3^9
370
> the ore.
A T I C S.
furnace. This could never be the cafe, if the furnace Wefo
had a chimney fituated in a part above the dipping- ^‘*’s rut
hole; for in this cafe cold air would immediately ru(h me'
in at the hole, play over the iurface of the pot, and go
up the chimney. To prevent this the holeitfelfis made
the chimney; but as this would be too fliort, and w'ould
produce very little current and very little heat, the whole
furnace is fet under a tall dome. Thus the heated air
from the real furnace is confined in this dome, and con.
ftitutes a high column of very light air, which wall there,
fore rife with great force up the dome, and efcape at
the top. The dome is therefore the chimney, and will
produce a draught or current proportioned to its height.
Some are raifed above an hundred feet. When all the
doors ef this houfe are ftmt, and thus no fupply given
except through the fire, the current and heat become
prodigious. This, however, cannot be done, becauie
the workmen are in this chimney, and muft have re-
fpirable air. But notwithftanding this fupply by the
hpufe-doors, the draught of the real furnace is vaitly
increafed by the dome, and a heat produced fufficient
for the work, and which could not have been produced
without the dome.
This has be^n applied w-ith great ingenuity and effedl ■mi rove.
to a furnace for melting iron from the ore, and an iron
finery, both without a blaft. The common blaft iron rel ffT
furnace k well known. It is a tall cone with the apex me.ting
undermoft. The ore and fluxes are thrown into thisi,811 frca
cone mixed intimately with the fuel till it is full, and
the blaft of moft powerful bellows is direfted into the
bottom of this cone through a hole in the fide. The
air is thrown in with fuch force, that it makes its way
through the mafs of matter, kindles the fuel in its paf.
fage, and fluxes the materials, which then drop down
into a receptacle below the blaft-hole, and thus the paf¬
fage for the air is kept unobftnnfted. It w as thought
impoflible to produce or maintain this current without
bellows; but Mr Cotterel, an ingenious founder, tried
the effedt of a tall dome placed over the mouth of the
furnace, and though it was not half the height of many
glafshoufe domes it had the defired efleet. Confider-
able difficulties, however, occurred; and he had not fur-
mounted them all wffien he left the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, nor have we heard that he has yet brought
the invention to perfedtion. It is extremely difficult to
place the holes below, at which the air is to enter, at
fuch a precife height as neither to be choked by the
melted matter, nor to leave ore and ftones below' them
unmelted ; but the invention is very ingenious, and will
be of immenfe fervice if it can be perfected ; for in ma¬
ny places iron ore is to be found w here water cannot be
had for working a blaft furnace.
The laft application which we ffiall make of the cur-Current*"
rents produced by heating the air is to the freeing mines,air^lc
{hips, prifons, &c. from the damp and noxious vapours m;ne8)
which frequently inftft them. (hips, Pri*
As a drift or work is carried on in the mine, let aftns, ^c'
trunk of dale boards, about 6 or 8 inches fquare, be laid ^noXI°
along the bottom of the drift, communicating with a
trunk carried up in the corner of one of the {hafts.
Let the top of this laft trunk open into the alh-pit of a
fmall furnace, having a tall chimney. Let fire be kin¬
dled in the furnace; and wdien it is well heated, Ihut
the fire-place and ath-pit doors. There being no other
fupply for the current produced in the chimney of this
j furnace#
37*
P N E U M
i
A
U
A
fai
ca
of
f
a
*
a* of furn3ce» the air will flow into it from the trunk, and
*>r£f- will bring along with it all the offeniive vapours. This
re- is the mod effeftual method yet found out. In the
v fame-manner may trunks be conduced into the afh-pit
of a furnace from the cells of a prifon or the wards of an
.j hofpital.
,ecef- In the account which we have been giving of the
I "or the management of air in furnaces and common fires, we
have frequently mentioned the immediate application of
air to the burning fuel as necefiary for its combullion.
This is a general fad. In order that any inflammable
body may be really inflamed, and its combuftible matter
confumed and allies produced, it is not enough that the
body be made hot. A piece of charcoal inclofed in a
box of iron may be kept red-hot for ever, without waft¬
ing its fubftance in the fmalleft degree. It is farther
neceffary that it be in contact with a particular fpecies
of air, which conftitutes about -gths of the air of the at-
mofphere, viz. the vital air of Lavoifier. It was called
empyreal air by Scheele, who firft obferved its indilpen-
fable ufe in maintaining fire : and it appears, that, in
contributing to the combuftion of an inflammable body,
this air combines with fome of its ingredients, and be¬
comes fixed air, fuffering the fame change as by the
breathing of animals. Combuftion may therefore be
confidered as a folution of the inflammable body in air.
This doctrine was firft promulgated by the celebrated
Dr Hooke in his Micrographia, publiftied in 1660, and
afterwards improved in his treatife on Lamps. It is
now completely eftablifhed, and confidered as a new dif-
covery. It is for this reafon that in fire-places of all
kinds we have diredfted the conftrucftion, fo as to pro¬
duce a clofe application of the air to the fuel. It is
quite needlefs at this day to enter into the difcuflions
which formerly occupied philofophers about the manner
in which the prefiure and elafticity of the air promoted
combuftion. Many experiments were made in the laft
century by the firft. members of the Royal Society, to
difcover the office of air in combuftion. It was thought
that the flame was extinguifhed in rare air for want of
a prefiiire to keep it together; but this did not
explain its extindtion when the air was not renewed.
Thefe experiments are ftill retained in courfes of expe¬
rimental philofophy, as they are injudicioufly ftyled;
but they give little or no information, nor tend to the
illuftration of any pneumatical doftrine; they are there¬
fore omitted in this place. In fhort, it is now fully efta-
bliihed, that it is not a mechanical but a chemical phe¬
nomenon. We can only inform the chemift, that a
candle will confume fafter^in the low countries than in
the elevated regions of Quito and Gondar, becaufe the
air is nearly one half denfer below, and will a£t pro-
373 portionally fafter in decompofing the candle.
'of the" conclude this part of our fubjeft with the
spref2 cxP^anatlon °f ^ curious phenomenon obferved in many
places. Certain fprings or fountains are obferved to
have periods of repletion and fcantinefs, or feem to ebb
and flow at regular intervals ; and fome of thefe periods
are of a complicated nature. Thus a well will have fer
'eral returns of high and low water, the difterence of
which gradually increafes to a maximum, and then di-
mimffies, juft as we obferve in the ocean. A very inge-
mous and probable explanation of this has been given in
,^*4* of the Philofophical- Tranfadions, by Mr At¬
well, as follows. '
Vot. XV. Part I.
A T I C S, 161
LetABCD (fig. 63.) reprefent a cavern, into which Pneuma-
water is brought by the fubterraneous paflage OT. Let T E l"
it have an outlet MNP, of a crooked form, with itsy ^
higheft part N confiderably railed above the bottom of Plate
the cavern, and thence Hoping downwards into lower CCCCV'.
ground, and terminating in an open well at P. Let
the dimenfions of this canal be fuch that it will difeharge
much more water than is fupplied by TO. All thii is
very natural, and may be very common. The effeft of
this arrangement will be a remitting fpring at P: for
when the cavern is filled higher than the point N, the
canal MNP will aft as a fyphon; and, by the conditions
afliimed, it will difeharge the water fafter than TO Rip-
plies it; it will therefore run it diy, and then the fpring
at P will ceafe to furnilh water. After fome time the
cavern will again be filled up to the height N, and the
flow at- P will recommence.
If, betides this fupply, the well P alfo receive water
from a conftant fource, we ffiall have a reciprocating
fpring.
The fituation and dimenfions of this fyphon canal,
and the fupply of the feeder, may be fuch, that the
efflux at P will be conftant. If the fupply increafe in
a certain degree, a reciprocation will be produced at P
with very ffrort intervals ; if the fupply diminifhes con¬
fiderably, we fliall have another kind of reciprocation
with great intervals and great differences of water.
If the cavern has another limple outlet R, hew va¬
rieties will bd produced in the fpring P, and R will
afford a curious fpring. Let the mouth of R, by
which the water enters it from the cavern, be lower
than N, and let the fupply of the feeding fpring be no
greater than R can difeharge, we lhall have a conftant
fpring from R, and P will give no water. But fuppofe
that the main feeder increafes in winter or in rainy fea-
fons, but not fo much as will fupply both P and R,
the cavern will fill till the water gets over N, and R
will be running all the while ; but foon after P has be-*
gun to flow, and the water in the cavern finks below R,
the ftream from R will flop. The cavern will be emp¬
tied by the fyphon canal MNP, and then P will flop.
The cavern will then begin to fill, and when near full
R will give a little wrater, and foon after P will run and
R flop as before, &c.
Defaguliers {hows, Vol. II. p. 177, &c. in what man¬
ner a prodigious variety of periodical ebbs and flows
may be produced by underground canals,, which are ex¬
tremely fimple and probable.
374
We (hall conclude this article with the deferiptions Account of
of fome pneumatical machines or engines which have not Pneu i
been particularly noticed under their names in the for- ”latlC eI>
mer volumes of this work. gmes.
Bellows are of moft extenfive and important ufe; and
it will be of fervice to deferibe fuch as are of unoommon
conftruftion and great powder, fit for the great opera¬
tions in metallurgy^.
It is not the impulfive force of the biaft that is want¬
ed in moft cafes, but merely the copious fupply of air,
to produce the rapid combuftion of inflammable mat¬
ter ; and the fervice would be better performed in ge¬
neral if this could be done with moderate velocities, and
an extended furface. AVhat are called air-furnaces,
where a confiderable furface of inflammable matter is
afted on at once by the current which the mere heat of
X. the
ifc P N E U M
Pneumatic t^e expended air has produced, are found more opera-
t E,-gii1c»- tive in proportion to the air expended than blalt fur-,
* naces animated by bellows j and we doubt not but that
the method propofed by MrCotterel (which we liave al¬
ready mentioned) of increafing this current in a melting
furnace hy means of a dome, will in time fuperfede the
Waft furnaces. There is indeed a great impulfive force
required in fome cafes; as for blowing off the fcoriae
from the furfaee of filver or copper in refining furnaces,
or for keeping a clear paffage for the air in the great
iron furnace.
In general, however, we cannot procure this abun¬
dant fupply of air any other way than by giving it a
great velocity by pieans of a great preffure, lo that the
general conftrudtion of bellows is pretty much tire fame
iu all kinds. The air is admitted into a very large ca¬
vity, and then expelled from it through a fmall hole.
The furnaces at the mines having been greatly en¬
larged; it was necefiary to enlarge the bellows alio: and
the leathern bellows becoming exceedingly expenfive,
wooden ones were fubftituted in Germany about the be¬
ginning of iaft century, and from them became general
through Europe. They confift of a wooden box
Plate ABCPFE (fig. 74. A), which has its top and two
CCCCva fjdea flat or ftraight, and the eud BAEe formed into an
arched or cylindrical furface, of which the line FP at the
ether end is the axis. This box is open below, apd
receives v/ithin it the (hallow box KHGNML (fig. B),
which exa&ly fills it. The line FP of the one coin¬
cides with FP of the other, and along this line is a fet
of hinges on which the upper box turns as it rifes and
finks. The lower box is made fall tq a frame fixed in
the ground. A pipe OQ^ proceeds from the end of it,
and terminates at the furnace, where it ends in a fmall
pipe called the tewer or tuyere. This lower box is open
above, and has in its bottom two large valves \, \ ,
opening inwards. The conducing pipe is fometimes
furnifhed with a valve opening outwards, to prevent
burning coals from being fucked into the bellows when
the upper box is drawn up. The joint along PF is
made tight by thin leather nailed along it. The fides
and ends of the fixed box are made to fit the fides and
curved end of the upper box, fo that this laft can be
raifed and lowered round the joint FP without fenfible
friction, and yet w ithout fuffering much air to efcape :
but as this would not be fufficiently air-tight by reafon
of the (hrinking and warping of the wood, a farther
contrivance is adopted. A (lender lath of wood, di¬
vided into feveral joints, and covered on the outer edge
with very foft leather, is laid along the upper edges of
the fides and ends of the lower box. This lath is. fo
broad, that when its inner edge is even with the infide
of the box, its outer edge prqje&s about an inch. It
is kept in this pofition by a number of fteel wires, which
are driven into the bottom of the box, and hand up
touching the fides, as reprefented in figure D, where
abc are the wares, and e the lath, projecting over the
eutficle of the box. By this contrivance the laths are
preilcd clofe to the fides and curved end of the moveable
box, and the fpring wires yield to all their inequalities.
A bar of wood RS is fixed to the upper board, by
which it is either raifed by machinery, to fink again by
its own weight, having an additional load laid on it, or
it is forced downward by a crank or wiper of the ma¬
chinery, and afterwards raifed.
A T I C S.
The operation here is precifely fimilar to that of Pnentnxr^
blowing with a chamber-bellows. When the board is Engi-tv
lifted up, the air enters by the valves V, V, and is ex-
pelled at the pipe OQ^by depreffing the boards. There
is therefore no occaiion to infill on this point.
Thefe bellows are made of a very great five, AD
being 16 feet, AB five feet, and the circular end All
alio five feet. The rife, however, is but about 3 or 3!
feet. They expel at each, ftroke about 90 cubic feet of
air, and they make about 8 ftrokes per minute.
Such are the bellows in general ufe on the continent.
We have adopted a different form in this kingdom, which
feems much preferable. We ufe an iron or w ooden cy¬
linder, with a pillon Hiding along it. This may be
made with much greater accuracy than the wooden
boxes, at lefs expence, if of wood, bee a ufe it may be of
coopers work, held together by hoops but the great
advantage of this form is its being more eafily made air¬
tight. The pifton is furrounded with a broad ftrap of
thick and foft leather, and it has around its edge a deep
groove, in which is lodged a quantity of wool. This is
called the packing or Huffing, and keeps the leather very
clofely applied to the inner furface of the cylinder. Iron
cylinders may be very neatly bored and fmoothed, fo
that the pifton, even when very tight, will Hide along
it very- fmoathly. To promote this, a quantity of black
lead is ground very fine with w'ater, and a little of this
is fraeared on the infide of the cylinder from time ta
time. *
The cy linder has a large valve, or fometimes two, in-
the bottom, by which the atmotpheri’c air enters when
the pifton is drawn up. When the pifton is thruft down,
this air is expelled along a pipe of great diameter, which
terminates in the furnace with a finall orifice.
This is the fimpieft form of bellows which can be
conceived. It differs in nothing but fize from the beU
lows ufed by the rude ft nations. The Chinefe finiths
have a bellows very fimiiar, being a fquare pipe of wood
ABODE (fig. 75.), with a fquare board G which ex¬
actly fits it, moved by the handle FG. At the farther
end is the blaft pipe HK, and on each fide of it a valve
in the end of the fquare pipe, opening inwards. The
pifton is fufficiently tight for their purposes without any
leathering.
The pifton of tins cylinder bellows is moved by ma¬
chinery. In fome blaft engines the pifton is (imply
raifed by the machine, and then let go, and it delcends
by its own weight, and compveffes the air below it to.
fuch a degree, that the velocity of efflux becomes con-
itant, and the pifton defeends uniformly : for this pur-
pofe it muft be loaded with a proper weight. This
produces a very uniform blaft, except at the very begin¬
ning, while the pifton falls fuddenly and compreffes the
air r but in moft engines the pifton rod is forced down-
the cylinder with a determined motion, by means of a
beam, crank, or other contrivance. This gives a more
unequal blaft, becaufe the motion of the pifton is necef-
farily flow in the beginning and end of the ftroke, and
quicker in the middle.
But in all it is plain that the blaft muft be defultory.
It ceafes while the pifton is rifing ; for this reafon it is
tifual to have two cylinders, as it was formerly ufual to
have two bellows which worked alternately. Sometimes
three or four are ufed, as at the Canon iron works*.
This makes a blaft abundantly uniform.
1' N E U M
p, matie J^ut an uniform blafl may be mado with a fingle cy-
i sines. un(jer> making it deliver its air into another cylin-
u ^ ' der, which has a"piilon exactly fitted to its bore, and
loaded with a fufficient weight. The blowing cylinder
hjf ABCD (fig. 76.) has its pifton P worked by a rod
< -uVl. confle^ed by double chains with the arched head
of the working beam NO, moving round a gudgeon at
R. The other end O of this beam is connected by the
rod OP, with the Crank PQjaf a wheel machine ; or it
may be conne&ed with the piflon of a fteam engine,
&c. &c. The blowing cylinder has a valve or valves E
in its bottom, opening inwards. There proceeds from
it a large pipe CF, which enters the regulating cylin¬
der GHKI, and has a valve at top to prevent the air
from getting back into the blowing cylinder. It is evi¬
dent that die air forced into this cylinder muft raife its
pifton L, and that it mull afterwards defeend, while the
other pi it on is riling. It mult defeend uniformly, and
make a perfectly equable blalt.
Obferve, that if the pifton L be at the bottom wdien
the machine begins to work, it will be at the bottom
at the end of every ftroke, if the tuyere T emits as
much air as the cylinder ABCD furnilhes ; nay, it will
lie a while at the bottom, for, while it was riling, air was
ilining through T. This would make an interrupted
blaft. To prevent this, the orifice T muft be leffened;
but then there will .be a furplus of air at the end of
each Itroke, and the pifton L wall rife Continually, and
lit laft get to the top, and allow air to efcape. It is
juft pofiible to adjuft circumftances, fc that neither lhall
happen. This is done eafier by putting a ftop in the
way of the pifton, And putting a valve on the pifton, or
on the conducting pipe KST, loaded with a weight a
little fuperior to the intended elafticity 'of the air in the
cylinder. Therefore, when the pifton is prevented by
the Hop from riling, the fnifting valve, as it is called, is
forced open, the fuperfluous air efcapcs, And the blaft
preferves its uniformity.
It may be of ufe to give the dimenfions of a machine
of this kind, which has worked for feme years at a
very great furnace, and given fatisfaftion.
The diameter of the blowing cylinder is 5 feet, and
the length of the llroke is 6. Its pifton is loaded with
3^- tons. It is worked by a fteam-engine whofe cylin¬
der is 3 feet 4 inches wide, w’ith a fix feet ftroke. The
regulating cylinder k 8 feet wide, and its pifton is
loaded with 8x tons, making about 2,63 pounds on the
fquare inch ; and it is very nearly in equilibvio with
the load on the pifton of the blowing cylinder. The
conduCling pipe K-ST is 12 inches in diameter, and
the orifice of the tuyere was i-| inches when the engine
was erected, but it lias gradually enlarged by reafon of
the intenfe heat to which it is expofed. The fnifting
valve is loaded with 3 pounds on the Square inchi
When the engine worked brilldy, it made 18 ftrokes
per minute, and there was always much air dilcharged
by the fnifting valve. When the engine made 15 Itrokes
per minute, the fnifting valve opened but feldom, fo that
things were^nearly adjulted to this fupplv. Each ftroke
ol the blowing cylinder Sent in 118 cubic feet of com¬
mon air. 1 he ordinary prefiure of the air being fup-
poled 14^ pounds on an inch, the denlity of the air in
the regulating cylinder muft be l4>75~h } — 7}
SI ^ natural denfity being I.
A T I C S. 163
This machine gives an opportunity of comparing the Pneumanc
expence of air with the theory. It muft (at the rate ^ C, *■
of ty flrokes) expel 30 cubic feet of air in a fecond
through a hole of i| inches in diameter. This gives
a velocity of near 2000 feet per fecond, and of more
than 1600 feet for the condenfed air. This is vaftly
greater than the theory can give, or is indeed poffible ;
for air does not rufh into a void with fo great velocity.
It fiiows with great evidence, that a vail quantity of
air muft efcape round the two piftons. Their united
circumferences amount to above 40 feet, and they mcv“
in a dry cylinder. It is impoffible to prevent a very
great lofs. Accordingly, a candle held near the edge
of the pifton L has its flame very much dilturbed. This
cafe, therefore, gives no hold tor a calculation ; and it
fuggefts the propriety of attempting to diminiih this
great wafte.
This has been veiy ingenioufly done (in part at leaf )
at Tome other furnaces. At Omeah foundery, near
Glafgow, the blowing cylinder (alfo worked by a fteam.
engine) delivers its air into a cheft without a bottom,
which is immerfed in a large ciftem ot water, and (up-
ported at a final! height from the bottom of the cittern,
and has a pipe from its top leading to the tuyere. The
water ttands about five feet above the low’er brim of the
regulating air-cheft, and by its prefiure gives the moft
perfect uniformity of blaft, without allowing a particle
of air to get off by any other pafiage befides the tuyere.
This is a very effectual regulator, and muft produce a
great faving of power, becaufe a fmaller blowing cylin¬
der will thus fupply the blaft. We have not learned
the dimenfions and performance of this engine. We
muft obferve, that the lofs round the pifton of the
blowing cylinder remains undiminifiied.
A blowing machine was erected many years ago at
Chaftillon in France on a principle confiderably differ¬
ent, and which muft be perfectly air-tight throughout.
Two cylinders A, B (fig. 77.), loaded with great Plate
weights, were fufpended at the ends of the lever CD, c~'LLVlLl
moving round the gudgeon E. From the top F, G
of each there was a large flexible pipe which united
in H, from whence a pipe K.T led to the tuyere T.
There were valves at F and G opening outwards, or
into the flexible pipes ; and other valves L, M, adjoin¬
ing to them in the top of each cylinder, opening in¬
wards, but kept ihut by a flight ipring. Motion was
given to the lever by a machine. The operation of this
blow'ing machine is evident. When the cylinder A
was pulled down, or allowed to dtfeend, the water,
entering at its bottom, comprefled the air, and forced
it along the paffage FHKT. In the meantime, the
cylinder B was riling, and the air entered by the valve
M. We fee that the blait will be very unequal, in-
creafing as the cylinder is immerfed deeper. It is need-
lefs to deferibe this machine more particularly, becaufe
wre fliall give an account of one which we think perfeft
in its kind, and which leaves hardly any thing to be
defired in a machine of this tint. It was invented by
Mr John Laurie, land-lurveyor m Edinburgh, about 15
years ago, and improved in iome reipects lince his death
by an ingenious perfon of that city.
ABCD (fig. 78.) is an iron cylinder, truly bored
within, and evafuted a-top like a cup* EFGH is ano¬
ther, truly turned both without and w ithin, and a final!
matter lefs than the inner diameter of the firil cylinder.
X 2 This
j64 P N E U ‘M
Pneumatic Tins cylinder is clofe above, and hangs froni the end
of lever moved by a machine. It is alio loaned
wjth weigjlts at N. ' KILM is a third cylinder, whofe
> outiide diameter is fomewhat lefs than the iniide dia¬
meter of the fecond. 1 his inner cylinder is iixed to
the fame bottom with the outer cylinder. The middle
cylinder is loofe, and can move up and down between
the outer and inner cylinders without rubbing on either
of them. The inner cylinder is perforated from top to
“ bottom by three pipes OQ_2 SV, PR.. 1 he pipes
OQ^» PR have valves at their upper ends O, P, and
communicate with the external air below. I he pipe
■ SV has a horizontal part VW, which again turns up-
• wards, and has a valve at top X. This upright part
WX is in the middle of a cillern of water j h kg. Into
this cillern is fixed an air-cheft a YZ b, open below,
and having at top a pipe ede terminating in the tuyere
‘at the furnace.
- When the machine is at reft, the valves X, O, P,
are fhut by their own weights, and the air-cheft is full of
water. When things are in this ftate, the middle cy¬
linder EFGH is drawn up by the machinery till its
lower brims F and G are equal with the top RM of
Jhe inner cylinder. Now pour in water or oil between
the outer and middle cylinders: it will run down and
fill the fpace between the outer and inner cylinders.
Let it come to the top of the inner cylinder.
Now let the loaded middle cylinder defeend. It
cannot do this without comprefiing the air which is
between its top and the top of the inner cylinder. This
air being comprcffed will caufe the water to defeend
between the inner and middle cylinders, and rife between
the middle aod outer cylinders, fpreading into the cup ;
and as the middle cylinder advances downwards, the
water will defeend farther within it and rife farther
without it. When it has got fo far down, and the air
has been fo much comprefied, that the deference between
the furface of the water on the infide and outlide of
tin's cylinder is greater than the depth of water between
X and the furface of the water />, air will go out by
the pipe SVW, and will lodge in the air-cheft, and
will remain there if c be Unit, which we fhall fuppofe
for the prefent. Puftung down the middle cylinder
till the partition touch the top of the inner cylinder,
all the air which was formerly between them will be
forced into the air-cheft, and will drive out water from
it. Draw up the middle cylinder,, and the external
air will open the valves O,. P, and again fill the fpace
between the middle and inner cylinders; for the valve
X will (hut, and prevent the regrefs of the condenfed
air. By pufliing down the middle cylinder a fecond
time, more air will be forced into the air-cheft, and it
will at laft efcape by getting out between its brims Y,
Z and the bottom of the ciftern ; or if we open the
paffage it will pafs along the conduit ede to the
tuyere, and form a blaft.
The operation of this machine is fimilar to Mr Haf-
kins’s quickfilver pump deferibed by Defaguliers at
the end of the fecond volume of his Experimental Phi-
Jofophy. The force which condenfes the air is the load
on the middle cylinder. The ufe of the water between
the inner and outer cylinders is to prevent this air from
efcaping ; and the inner cylinder thus performs the office
of a pifton, having no fridtion. It is neceffiuy that
'^e length of the outer and middle cylinders be greater
ATI C S.
than the depth of the regulator-ciftern, that there Pnemati
may be a fufficient height for the water to rife between Engine8.
the middle and outer cylinders, to balance the com.
prefled air, and oblige it to go into the air-cheft.
large blaft-furnace will require the regulator-ciftern
five feet deep, and the cylinders about fix or feven
feet long.
It is in fadl a pump without fxidtion, and is perfedlly
air-tight. The quicknefs of its operation depends on
the fmall fpace between the middle cylinder and the two
others; and this is the only ufe of thefe twp. With-*
out thefe it would be fimilar to the engine at Chaftillon}
and operate more unequally and llowly. Its only im-
perfection is, that if the cylinder begin its motion of
afeent or defeent rapidly, as it will do when worked
by a fteam-engine, there will be fome danger of water
dafhing over the top of the inner cylinder and getting
into the pipe SV; but ffiould this happen, an iffue
can eafily be contrived for it at V,. covered with a loaded
valve v. This will never happen if the cylinder is moved
by a crank.
One blowing cylinder only is reprefented here, but
two may be ufed.
We do not hefitate in recommending this form of
bellows as the moft perfect of any, and fit for all ufes
where Handing bellows are required. They will be
cheaper than any other fort for common purpofes. For
a common fmith’s forge they may be made with fquare
wooden boxes inftead of cylinders. They are alio eafily
repaired. They are perfectly tight ; and they may be.
made with a blaft almoft perfectly uniform, by milking
the ciftern in which the air-cheft Hands of confiderable
dimenfions. Wlien this is the cafe, the height of water,
which regulates the blaft, will vary very little.
This may fuffice for an account of blaft machines^
The leading parts of their conftvuCtion have been de¬
feribed as far only as was neceffary for underltanding
their operation, and enabling an engineer to ereCt them
in the moft commodious manner. Views of complete
machines might have amufed, but they would not have
added to our reader’s information. ./
But the account is imperfeCt unlefs we ffiow how
their parts may be fo proportioned that they ffiall pen-
form what is expeCted from them. The engineer ffiould
know what fize of bellows, and what load on the board
or pifton, and what fize of tuyere, will give the blaft
which the fervice requires, and what force mult be em¬
ployed to give them the neceffary degree of motion.
We fiiall accomplifh thefe purpofes by confidering the
efflux of the compreffed air through the tuyere. The
propofitions formerly delivered will enable us to afeer-
tain this.
That we may proportion every thing to the power
employed, we mult recolleCt, that if the pifton of a cy¬
linder employed for expelling air be preffed down with
any force/, it mult be coniidered as fuperadded to the.
atmofpheric preffure P on the fame pifton, in order that
we may compare the velocity v of efflux with the known
velocity V with which air ruffles into a void. By what
^as been formerly dtdivered, it appears that this velocity
^vxy
p_\
Px/1’
where P is the preffure of the atmo-
fphei-e on the pifton, andp the additional load laid on it.
This velocity is expreffed in feet /rr feco.nd; and, whe?
4. multiplied;
PNEUMATICS
m«|c multmlkd by the area of. the orifice (alfo exprelTed m
I lines, fnuare feet), it will give us the. cubical feet ol conden-
v— fed air expelled in a fecond: but the bellows are always
to be filled again with common air, and therefore
we want to know the quantity of common air which
will be expelled; for it is this which determines the
number of ftrokes which mult be made in a minute, in
order that the proper fupply may be obtained. There¬
fore recoiled that the quantity expelled from a given
orifice with a given velocity, is in the proportion of the
denfit'y; and that when D is the denfity of common air
produced by the preffure P, the deniity d produced by
the preffure P+/, Is Dxhjt/’; or if D be made I, we
have J=^-
Therefore, calling the area of the orifice exprefled in
fquare feet G, and the quantity of common air, or the
cubic feet exddied in a fecond Q,we have Q—-VxOX
cubic feet expelled
P+/>
/JL
v p+/r p ,
It will be fufficiently exaft for all practical purpofes
to fuppofe P to be 15 pounds on every fquare inch of
the pilton ; and f, is then conveniently exprefled by the
pounds of additional load on every fquare inch: we may
alfo take V= 1332 feet.
As the orifice through which the air is_ expelled is
generally very fmall, neyer exceeding three inches in di¬
ameter, it wall be more convenient to exprefs it in fquare
inches; which being the T-‘ 4- of a fquare foot, we fhall
have the cubic feet of common air expelled in a fecond.
n lM2 c\ -F+fi
144 °v PXi
I'+p
X-^-, = OX9,25X
/-P-
v/ P+/
p I p
and this feems to be as fimple an expreflion as
we can obtain.
This will perhaps be illuftrated by taking an example
in numbers. Let the area of the pifton be four fquare
feet, and the area of the round hole through which the
air is expelled be two inches, its diameter being 1,6,
and let the load on the pillon be 172S pounds: this
is three pounds on every iquare inch. We have P rz 15^,
/ = 3, P-f/=i8> and 0=2; therefore we will have
Q=2/9,25XV/---|. =9,053 cubic feet of com¬
mon air expelled in a fecond. This will however be
"diminilhed at leaft one third by the contraction of the
jet; and therefore the fupply will not exceed fix cubic
feet *;tr fecond. Suppofing therefore that this blow¬
ing machine is a cylinder or prifm of this dimenfion in
its feftion, the piflon fo loaded would (-after having
oomprefled the air) defeend about 15 inches in a fecond:
It would firilfmk of the whole length ot the cylinder
pretty fuddenly, till it had reduced the air to the denfity
tj, and would then defeend uniformly at the above rate,
expelling fix cubic feet of common air in a fecond.
The computation is made much in the fame way for
bellows of the common form, with this additional cir-
cumftance, that as the loaded board moves round a
hinge at one end, the preffure of the load mult be calcu¬
lated accordingly. The computation, however, becomes
a little intricate, when the form of the loaded board is
sot rectangular; it is almolt uftkfs when the bellows
have flexible fides, either like ftmth’s bellows 'or like
organ bellows, became the change of figure during then-
motion makes continual variation on the comprelling
powers. It is therefore chiefly with reipebt to the
great wooden bellows, of which the upper board Aides
down between the fides, that the above calculation is of
fervice. _ , , .
The propriety however of this piece of imormation is
evident: we do not-know precifely the quantity of air ne-
ceflary for animating a furnace; but this calculation .ells
us what force muff be employed for expelling the an that
maybe thought neceflary. If we liave hxedonthe ftiength
of the bialC and the diameter of the cylinder, we learn
the weight with which the piflon mull be loaded; the
length of the cylinder determines its capacity', the above
calculation tells the expence per fecond ; hence we have
the time of the pilton’s coming to the bottom. This
gives us the number of ftrokesyrr minute: the load mult
be lifted up by the machine this number of times, ma¬
king the time of afeent prtcifely equal to that of deicent*
othei wife the machine wi 1 either c tch and flop the de-
feent of the piflon, or allow it to lie inactive for a while
of each itroke. Thefe circumftances determine the la¬
bour to be performed by the machine, and it muit be
conltruCtcd accordingly. Thus the engineer will not be
affronted by its failure, nor will he expend necdlcis-
power and coft.
In machines which force the piilon or bellows-board
with a certain determined motion, different from what
ariies from their own weight, the computation is extreme¬
ly intricate. When a pillon moves by a crank, its mo¬
tion at the beginning and end of each ftroke is flow,
and the compreffion and efflux is continually changing:
we can however approximate to a flatement of the force,
required.
Every time the pifton is drawn up, a certain fpaee
of the cylinder is filled again with air of the common
denfity ; and this is expelled during the deicent of' the
piflon. A certain number of cubic feet ot common air
is therefore expelled with a velocity which perhaps
continually varies; but there is a medium velocity with
which it might have been uniformly expelled, and a
preffure correfpondmg to this velocity. I o find this,
divide the area of the pifton by the area of the blaft-hole
(or rather by this lU’ea multiplied by 0,61.3, in order to
take in the effed of the contracted jet), and multiply the
length of the Itroke performed in.a iecond by the quotient
ariling from this divilion; the produd is the medium ve¬
locity of the air (of the natural denfity). Then find by
calculation the height through which a heavy body mult
fall in order to acquire this velocity ; this is the height
of a column of homogeneous air which would expel it
with this velocity. The weight of this column is the
leaft force that can be exerted by the engine: but this
force is too fmall to overcome the refiftance in the mid¬
dle of the itroke, and it is too great even for the end of
the ftroke, and much too great for the beginning of it.
]Jut if the machine is turned by a very heavy water¬
wheel, this will ad as a regulator, accumulating in it-
fclf the fuperfluous force during the too favourable pofi-
tions of the crank, and exerting it by its vis injita during
the time of greateit effort. A force not greatly exceeding
the weight of this column of air will therefore fuffice.
On the other hand, if the flrength of the blaft be deter¬
mined, which is the general ftate of the problem, this
determine ft
*66 P N E U M
1 neumatic determines the degree of condenfatkm of the air, and the
. J ^i1e • load on the fquare inch of the piilon, or the mean force
which the machine muft exert on it. A table, which
will be given prefently, determines the cubic feet of
common air expelled in a fecond, correfponding to this
load. This combined with the propofed dimenlions of
the cylinder-, will give the defeent of the pifton or the
length of the ftroke.
Thefe general obfervations apply to all forms of bel¬
lows ; and without a knowledge of them no perfon can
erect a machine for working them without total uncer¬
tainty or fervile imitation. In order, therefore, that
they maybe ufeful tofuch as are not accuftomed to the
management of even thefe frmple formulae, we infert
the following fnort table of the velocity and quantity of
air difeharged from a cylinder whole pifton is loaded
with the pounds contained in the firft column on every
fquare inch. The fecond column contains tire velocity
w-ith which the condenfed air ruftres out through any
Jtncl! hole ; and the third column is the cubic feet dif-
charged from a hole who!* area is a fquare inch ; co¬
lumn fourth contains the mean velocity of air of the
common denfity ; and column fifth is the cubic feet of
common air difeharged ; the fixth column is the height
in inches at which the force -of the hlaft would fupport
a column of water if a pipe were Lnferted into the
fide of the cylinder. This is an extremely proper ad¬
dition to fuch machines, {bowing at all times the power
of the machines, and teaching us what intenfity of
blaft is enqftoyed for different purpofes. The table is
computed from tire fuppofition that the ordinary pref-
fure of the air is 15 pounds on a fquare inch. This
is fomewhat too great, and therefore the velocities are
a little too finally but the quantities difeharged will be
found about | too great (without affetting the veloci¬
ties) on account of the convergency of the ftream.
This table extends far beyond the lunits of ordinary
ufe, very few blalt-furnaces having a force exceeding
60 inches of water.
We fhall conclude this account of blowing machines
Mate a defeription of a fin all one for a blow-pipe. Fig. 79.
CCccVlI. A BCD, is a veffcl containing water, about two feet
deep. EFGH is the air-box of the blower open be¬
low, and having a pipe ILK riling up from it to a con¬
venient height; an arm ON which grafpsthis pipe car¬
ries the lamp N: the blow-pipe LM comes from the
top of the upright pipe. PKQJs the feeding pipe
reaching near to the bottom of the veffcl.
Water being poured into the veffcl below, and its 'wr
A T I C S.
being put on, which fits the upright pipe, and touches
two ftuds a, at projecting from it, blow in a quantity
of air by the feeding pipe PQ_; this expels the water ” ’
from the air-box, and occafions a preffure which pro¬
duces the blaft through the blow-pipe M.
In n° 54. of this article, we mentioned an appli¬
cation which has been made of Hero’s fountain, at
Chemnitz in Hungary-, for raffing water from the bot¬
tom of a mine. We (hall now give an account of this
very ingenious Contrivance.
In fig. 80. B reprefents the fmirce of water elevated
above the mouth of the pit 136 feet. From this there
is led a pipe BiCD four inches diameter. This pipe
enters the top of a copper cylinder bede, 81 feet high,
five feet diameter, and two inches thick, and it reaches
to within four inches of the bottom ; it has a cock at
C. This cylinder has a cock at F, and a very large
one at E. From the top be proceeds a pipe GHH'
two inches in diameter, which goes down the pit 96
feet, and is inferted into the top of another brafs cy¬
linder fg h which is 6r feet high, four feet diameter,
and two inches thick, containing 83 cubic feet, which
is very nearly one half of the capacity of the other, viz.
of 170 cubic feet. There is another pipe NI of four
inches diameter, which rifes from within four inches of
the bottom of this lower cylinder, is foldered into its
top, and rifes to the trough NO, which carries off the
water from the mouth of the pit. This lower cylinder
communicates at the bottom with the water L which
collets in the drains of the mine. A large cock K
ferves to admit or exclude this water ; another cock M,
at the top of this cylinder, communicates with the ex¬
ternal air.
Now fuppofe the cock C lliut, and all the reft open }
the upper cylinder will contain air, and the lower cy¬
linder will be filled with water, becaufe it is funk lb
deep that its top is below the ufual furface of the mine-
waters. Now Ihut the cocks F, E, M, K, and open
the cock C. The water of the fource B muft run in
by the orifice D, and rife in the Upper cylinder, com*
preffing the air above it and along the pipe GHH',
and thus ailing on the furface of the water in the lower
Cylinder. It will therefore caufe it to rife gradtiaily
in the pipe IN, where it will always be of fuch a height
that its weight balances the elafticity of the compreffed
air. Suppofe no iffue given to the air from the upper
cylinder, it would be compreffed into ~ th of its bulk by
the column of 136 feet high ; for a column of 34 feet
nearly balances the ordinary elafticity of the air. There¬
fore, when there is an iffue given to it through the
pipe GHH , it will drive the comprefled air along this
pipe, and it will expel water from the lower cylinder.
When the upper cylinder is full of water, there\vill be
34 cubic feet of water expelled from the lower cylinder.
If the pipe IN had been more than 136 feet long,
the water would have rifen 136 feet, being then in
equilibrio with the water in the feeding pipe B/'CD
(as was fhown in n° 52*)* ^7 intervention of the
daftie air; but no more water would have been ex¬
pelled from the lower cylinder than what fills this pipe.
But the pipe being only 96 feet high, the water will
he thrown out at N with a very great velocity. If it were
not for the great obftrudlions which water and air muft
meet with in their paffage along pipes, it would iffue at N
'with a velocity of more than 50 feet per fecond. It
iffurs
P N E U M
pi made iffues much more fiowly, and at lail the upper cylin-
] fine*. £er 0f water, and the water would enter the
w ■* pipe GH and enter the lower cylinder, and without
displacing the air in it, -would rife through the dif-
charging pipe IN, and run off to wafte. To pre¬
vent tliis there hangs in the pipe HG a cork ball or
double cone, by a brafs wire which is guided by holes in
two crofs pieces in the pipe HG. When the upper
cylinder is filled with water, this cork plugs up the
orifice G, and no water is wafted ; the influx at D
now flops. But the lower Cylinder contains compref-
fed air, which would balance water in a difeharging
pipe 136 feet high, whereas IN is only 96. There¬
fore the water will continue to flow at N till the air
has fo far expanded as to balance only 96 feet of wa¬
ter, that is, till it occupies \ of its ordinary bulk, that
is, ^ of the capacity of the upper cylinder, or 424- cu¬
bic feet. Therefore 42 'v cubic feet will be expelled,
and the eftlix at N will ceafe ; and the lower cylinder
is about lT full of water. When the attending work¬
man obferves this, lie ihuts the cock C. He might have
done this before, bad he known when the orifice G was
flopped; but no lofs enfues from the delay. At the
fame time the attendant opens the cock E, the water
iffues with great violence, being prefl'cd by the con-
denfed air from the lower cylinder. It therefore iffues
with the fum of its own weight and of this compref-
fion. Thefe gradually decreafe together, by the efflux
of the water and the expanfion of the air; but this
efflux flops before all the water has flowed out; for
there is 42-i feet of the lower cylinder occupied by
a;r. This quantity of water remains, therefore, in the
wpper cylinder nearly ; the workman knows this, be-
caufe the difeharged water is received firft of all into
a vclfei containing £ of the capacity of the upper cylin¬
der. Whenever this is filled, the attendant opens the
cock K by a long rod which goes down the fhaft; this
allows the water of the mine to fill the lower cylinder,
allows the air to get into the upper cylinder, and this
allows the remaining water to run out of it.
And thus every thing is brought into its firft condi¬
tion ; and when the attendant fees no more water come
out at he Ihuts the cocks E and M,and opens the cock
C, and the operation is repeated.
There is a very furprifing appearance in the working
of this engine. When the efflux at N has flopped, if
the cock F be opened, the water and air rufh out toge¬
ther with prodigious violence, and the drops of water
are changed into hail or lumps of ice. it is a fight
ufaally ihown to ftrangers, who are defined to hold their
hats to receive the blaft of air: the ice comes out with
fuch violence as frequently to pierce the hat like a piftol
fcullet. This rapid congelation is a remarkable inftance
of the general fail, that air by fuddenly expanding, ge¬
nerates cold, its capacity for heat being increafed. Thus
the peafant cook his broth by blowing over the fpoon,
even from warm lungs; a ilream of air from a pipe is al¬
ways cooling.
The above account of the procedure in working this
•Engine (hows that the efflux both at N and E becomes
V€ry flow near the end. It is found convenient therefore
not to wait for the complete difcharges, but to turn tlie
coc s when about 30 cubic feet of water have been dif-
c arged at N : more work is done in this way. A gen-
emaa of great accuracy and knowledge of thefe fubjedts
Engines.
A T I C S. 167
took the trouble, at our defire, of noticing particularly Pneumatic
the performance of the machine. He obferved that
each ftroke, as it may be called, took up about three mi¬
nutes and -J-; and that 3 2 cubic feet of water were dif¬
eharged at N, and 66 were expended at E. The expence
therefore is 66 feet of water hilling 136 feet, and the
performance is 32 raifed 96, and they are in the propor¬
tion of 66X136 to 32X96, or of 1 to o, ^42 2, or nearly
as 3 to 1. This is fuperior to the performance of the
moil perfedl underftiot mill, even when all fridtion and
irregular obftrudtions are negledted ; and is not much in¬
ferior to any overfhot pump-mill that has yet been ere di¬
ed. When we refledt on the great obftrudlions which
water meets with in its paffage through loug pipes, we
may be affured that, by doubling the fi/.e of the feeder
and difeharger, the performance of the machine will be
greatly improved; we do not hefitate to fay, that it would
be increafed ^ : it is true that it will expend more water;
but this will not be nearly in the fame proportion; for
moft of the deficiency of the machine ariies from the
needlefs velocity of the firft efflux at N. The difehar-
ging pipe ought to be 1 xo feet high, and not give fenfi-
bly lefs water.
Then it muft be confidered how inferior in original
expence this fimple machine muft be to a mill of any
kind which w'ould raife 10 cubic feet 96 feet high in 2l
minute, and how fmall the repairs on it need be, when
compared with a mill.
And, laftly, let it be noticed, that fuch a machine can
be ufed where no mill whatever can be put in motion.
A fmall Ilream of water, which would not move any kind
of wheel, will here raife 4 tff its own quantity to the
fame height; working as fall as it is fupplied.
For all thefe reafons, we think that the Hungarian
machine eminently deferves the attention of mathemati¬
cians and engineers, to bring it to its utmoil perfetlion,
and into general ufe. There are fituations where this
kind of machine may be very ufeful. Thus, where the
tide riles 17 feet, it may be ufed for comprefling air to
^ of its bulk; and a pipe ler/iing from a very large veffel
inverted in it, may be ufed for railing the water from
a veffel of -j of its capacity 17 feet high; or if this
veffel has only A' °f tbe capacity of the large one fet
in the tide-way, two pipes may be led fiom it; one
into the Jinall veffel, and the other into an equal velfe!
36 feet higher, which receives the water from the
firft. Thus TV of the water may be raifed 34 feet, and
afmaller quantity to a flill greater height; and this with,
a kind of power that can hardly be applied in any other
way. Maclunes of this kind are deferibed by Schottus,
Sturmius, Leupold, and other old writers; and they
fhould not be forgotten, becaufe opportunities may offer
of making them highly ufeful. A gentleman^ houfe in
the country may thus be fupplied with water by a ma¬
chine that will coil little, and hardly go out of repair.
The laft pneumatieal engine which we fhall fpeak of
at prefcnt is tlie common fanners, ufed for winnowing
grain, and for drawing air out of a room : and we have
but few obfervations to make on them.
The wings of the fanners are- inclofed in a cylinder
or drum, whofe circular fides have a large opening BDE
(fig. 81.) round the centre, to admit the air. By turning
the wings rapidly round, the air is hurried round along
with them, and thus acquires a centrifugal tendency, by
which it preffes itrongly on the outer rim of the drum
tills
Plats
ccccva
f> N E U M
SPheirm^tlc tKIa Js gradually dctagliett from the circle as at KI, and
( £'ig>ne°' terminated in a trunk IHGF, which goes off in a tan-
^ gential direftion ; the air therefore, is driven along this
paffage. v
If the y.dngs were difpofed in planes paffing through
the axis C, the comprefiion of the air by their anterior
furface would give it fome tendency to efcape in every
direction, and would obftrudt in fome degree the arrival
■of more air through the fide-holes. They are therefore
reclined a little backward, as reprefented m the figure.
It maybe fhown that their bell form would be that of a
hyperbolic fpiral a h c; but the llraight form approaches
diffidently near to the moll perfcft ffiape.
Much labour is loll, however, in carrying the air
Pneiima-
tofis
. II
Pococke.
A T I C S.
round thofe parts of the drum where it cannot efcape. Pneimntli
The fanners would either draw or difcharge almoft Erg‘ne&.
twice as much air if an opening were made all round ■
one fide. This could be gradually contradled (where
required for winnowing) by a furrounding cone, and
thus diredled againll the falling grain : this has been
verified by a final trial. When ufed for drawing air out
of a room for ventilation, it would be much better to
remove the outer fide of the drum entirely, and let th<^
air fly freely off7 on all fide^; but the flat fides are ne-
celfary, in order to prevent the air from arriving at the
fanners any other way but through the central holes,
to which trunks fnould be fitted leading to the apart¬
ment which is to be ventilated.
P o c
PNEUMATOSIS. See Medicine, n° 336.
PNEUMONIA. See Medicine, n° 183.
PNEUMONICS, in pharmacy, medicines proper in
difeafes of the lungs, in which refpiration is affefled.
PO, a large and celebrated river of Italy, which has
its fource at mount Vrfs in Piedmont, and on the con¬
fines of Dauphiny. It runs through Piedmont, Mont-
ferrat, the Milanefe, and duchy of Mantua ; from thence
k runs to the borders of the Parmezan, and a part of
the Modenefe ; and having entered the Ferarefe, it be¬
gins to divide at Ficheruolo, and proceeds to difcharge
itfelf into the Oulf of Venice by four principal mouths.
As it pafles along, it receives feveral rivers, and often
©verflows its banks, doing a great deal of mifchief: the
reafon of which is, that moil of thofe rivers defcend
from the Alps, and are increafed by the melting of
the fnow.
PQA, meadow-grass ; A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and
In the natural method ranking under the fourth order,
Gramma. The calyx is biyalved and multiflorous ; the
fpicula or partial fpike is ovate, with the valvules fca-
rious and a little fharp, or thin on the margin. There
are 20 fpecies ; moll of them grafles, and very agreeable
food for cattle ; for one fpecies, which grows in marfhes,
the cattle will frequently go fo deep as to endanger their
lives. This is called the aquatica, or water reed-grafs.
It is the largeft of the Britifh grafles, growing to the
height of five or fix feet. The leaves are fmooth, and
half an inch wide or more. The panicle is eight or
ten inches long, greatly branched, and decked with nu¬
merous fpicula : thefe are of a reddifh brown colour in¬
termixed with green, of a comprefled lanceolate form,
imbricated with about fix flowers for the moll part, but
vaiying from five to ten.
POCHETTE See Barbatelli.
POCOCKE (Dr Edward), one of the moll learned
men in the oriental tongues in Europe, was the eldefl.
fon of the Rev. Edward Pococke ; and was bom at
Oxford in 1604, where he was alfo bred. In 1628
he was admitted probationer-fellow of his college^
about the fame time had prepared an edition of the
Second Epiille of St Peter, the Sectfnd and Third of
St John, and that of St Jude, in Syriac and Oreek,
with a Latin Tranllation and Notes. In 1629 he was
ordained priell, and appointed chaplain to the Englilh.
merchants at Aleppo, where he continued five or fix
POD
years ; in which time he dillinguifhed himfelf by his Pocockt,
fortitude and zeal while the plague raged there. At Podagra,
length returning to England, he was in 1636 appointed -“'■Y"""
reader of the Arabic lettures founded by archbilhop
Laud. Three years after he went to Conllantinople,
where he profeeuted his lludits of the eallem tongues,
and procured many valuable manufcripts. After near
four years Hay in that city, be embarked in 1640 ; and
taking Paris in his way, vifited Gabriel Sionita the fa¬
mous Maronite, and Hugo Grotius. In 1643 he was
prefented to the reftory of Childrey in Berks ; and
about three years after married the daughter of Thomas
Burdett, Efq. About the middle of 1647 he obtained
the rellitution cf the falary of his Arabic lefture, which
had been detained from him about three years. In
1648 king Charles I. who Was then prifoner in the
ille of Wight, nominated Mr Pococke to the profeflbr-
ffiip of Hebrew^ and the canonry of Chrill-chur.ch an¬
nexed to it; but in 1650 he was ejefted from his ca¬
nonry for refilling to take the engagement, and foori
after a vote paired for depriving him of his Hebrew and
Arabic le6lures; but feveral govern^ < of houfeS, &c«
prefenting a petition in his favour, was fuffered to
enjoy both thefe places. He had lome years before
publiffied his Specimen Hijlorice Arabum; and now ap¬
peared his Porta Mq/isi and foon after'the Englilh Po¬
lyglot edition of the Bible, to which he had largely
contributed, and alfo Eutychius’s Annals, with a Latin
verfion. ■ At the Relloration, he.was rellored to the
canonry of Chrilt-church, and alfo received the degree
of doftor of divinity. EIc then publilhed his Arabic
verfion of Grotius’s Treatife of the Truth of the Chrif-
tian Religion ; and an Arabic poem intitled Lamiato'l
Ajam, with a Latin tranllation and notes. Soon after
he publilhed Gregory Abul Pharajius’s Hijloria Dynaf-
tiarum. In 1674 publilhed an Arabic verfion of the
chief parts of the Liturgy of the Church of England;
and a few years after his Commentary on the Prophecies
of Micah, Malachi, Hofea, and Joel. This great man
died in 1691, after having been for many years con-
feffedly the firll perfon in Europe for eallem learning )
and was no lefs worthy of admiration for his uncommon
modelly and humility, and all the virtues that can adorn
a Chriltian. His theological worker were republilhed at
London in 1740, in two volumes in folio.
PODAGRA, or the Gout. See Medicine,
n° 211.
PODALIRIUS,
PNEUMATIC S.
c^7Cu/A/'e zkH?n<j
TMnte CCCCJX
tyfer// • Sr/rt "%/• < /cufo/'
>e-bird.
POE [i
dalirlu* PODALIRIUS, ion of ^Efculapius and Epione,
v/as one of the pupils of the Centaur Chiron, under whom
he made himfelf fuch a mafter of medicine, that during
the Trojan war the Greeks invited him to their camp to
flop a pcflilence which had baffled the fkill of all their
phyncians. Some fuppofe, however, that he went to
the Trojan war, not in the capacity of a phyfician in the
Grecian army, but as a warrior, attended by his brother
Machaon, in 30 Ihips, with foldiers from GSchalia,
Ithbme, and Trica. At his return Podalirius was fhip-
wrecked on the coaft of Caria, where he cured of the
falling flcknefs a daughter of the king of the place. He
fixed his habitation there ; and built two towns, one of
which he called Syrna, after his wife. The Carians,
on his death, built him a temple, and paid him divine
honours.
PODEX, in anatomy, the fame with Anus.
PODGRAJE. See Asisia.
PODOLIA, a province of Poland, bounded on the
eaft by Volhinia and the river Ukrain ; on the north and
’north-eaft, by Budfiac Tartary; on the fouth-cafl, by
the river Niefter, which feparates it from Beffarabia and
Moldavia in European Turkey on the fouth-weft ; and
by the province ox Red Rufiia on the north-weft. It
is ufually divided into the Upper and Lower. In the
Upper, which is the weftern part, the chief town is
Kamieck, the capital of Podolia, and of a palatinate.
In the Lower, or eaftern part of Podolia, the chief town
is Bracklaw, the capital of a palatinate.
PODOPHYLLUM, in botany : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
27th order, Rhaada. The corolla has nine petals ; the
calyx triphyllous; the berry unilocular, crowned with
the ftigma.
PODURA, or spring tail, in zoology, a genus
of infefts of the order of aptera. Syft. Nat.
p. 1013. They have fix feet formed for running ; two
eyes compofed of eight facets ; a tail forked, bent under
the body, elaftic, and aiding like a fpring ; the antennas
are long and fetaceous. “ This genus is diftinguiftied
(.ays Barbut) into feveral fpecies. Some inhabit ftill wa¬
ters, leaping and walking with eafe on the furface of that
element. They afiemble in troops in the morning, on the
banks ofpools, fifh-ponds, and refervoirs; others are found
in damp places, under leaves, bark, and Hones ; others
among heaps of rotten wood, mufhrooms, and in melon-
beds. In Lapland, they are feen running upon the fnow,
but when it begins-to melt they periffl. The podura, by
its elafticity, eludes the eager grafp of the naturalift. Its
hard forky tail is a kind of fpring, by means of which
the body of the animal is thrown up into the air.” The
podura villofa is one of the largeft fpecies found in Bri¬
tain, and appears to be of a brown footy colour, though
•it is really of a yellow brown, interfperfed throughout
with black-coloured fpots and ftreaks. The head and
thorax are hairy, and Hick to the Angers when touched :
the abdomen is -fmooth : the antennse,confifting of four
articulations, are as long as two-thirds of the body. It
is commonly found under ftones.
POE-bird, in ornithology, is an inhabitant of fome
of the South Sea iflands, where it is held in great efteem
and veneration by the natives. It goes by the name of
ogc m New Zealand ; but it is better known by that of
pcdArd. It is fomewhat lefs than our blackbird. The
Vol. XV. Part h
69 ] P O E
feathers are of a fine mazarine blue, except thole of its
neck, which are of a moft beautiful lilver grey, and two
or three fliort white ones which are on the pinion-joint
of the wing. Under its throat hang two little tufts of
curled fnow-white feathers, called its poks (the Otaheitian
word for ear-rings); which occaiioned the name of poc-
blrd being given to it. It is remarkable for the fweet-
nefs of its note, as well as the beauty of its plumage.
Its flefii is alfo delicate food.
PCECILE was a famous portico at Athens, which,
received its name from the variety (Tamili') of paintings
which it contained. Zeno kept his fchool there ; and
there alfo the ftoics received their leflbns, whence their
name, d roa, a porch. The Peecile was adorned, among
many others, with a picture of the fiege and facking of
Troy, the battle of Thefeus againft the Amazons, and
the fight between the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at
CEnoe in Argolis. The only reward which Miltiades
obtained after the battle of Marathon was to have his
picture drawn more confpicuous than that of the reft of
the officers that fought with him, in the reprefentation
which was made of the engagement, and which was hung
up in the Pcecile in commemoration of that celebrated
vidfory.
POEM, a poetical compofttion. See Poetry.
POESTUM, or Posidonia, an ancient city of
Grecia Magna, now part of the kingdom of Naples.
It was founded by one of thofe colonies from Greece
which in the early ages eftabliftied themfelves in Italy;
and it flouriihed before the foundation ef Rome itfelf.
It was deftroyed by the Goths cn the decline of the
Roman empire, who in their barbarous zeal for the
Chriftian religion overturned every place of Pagan wor-
ffiip which was expofed to their ravages. Since that
time it has been in ruins ; and thefe ruins were unknown
till they were difeovered in the following manner : “ In
the year 1755 (fays the author of the Antiquities^ HJ-
tory, and Views of Poejium J, an apprentice to a painter
at Naples, who was on a viiit to his friends at Capaccio,
by accident took a walk to the mountains which fur-
round the territory of Poeftum. The only habitation
he perceived was the cottage of a farmer, who cultivated
the bell part of the ground, and referved the reft for
pafture. The ruins of the ancient city made a part of
this view, and particularly ftruck the eyes of the young
painter; who, approaching nearer, faw with aftonifli-
ment walls, towers, gates, and temples. Upon his re^
turn to Capaccio, he confulted the neighbouring people
about the origin of tbefe monuments of antiquity. He
could only learn, that this part of the country had been
uncultivated and abandoned during their memory ; that
about ten years before, the farmer, whofe habitation he
had noticed, eftabliftied hhnfelf there ; and that having
dug in many places and fearched among the ruins that
lay round him, he had found treafures fufficient to enable
him to purchafe the whole. At the painter’s return
to Naples, he informed his mafter of tiiefe particulars,
•tthofe curiofity was fo greatly excited by the defeription,
that he took a journey to the place, and made drawings
of the principal views. Thefe were ffiown to the king
of Naples, who ordered the ruins to be cleared, and
Poeftum arofe from the obfeurity in which it had re¬
mained for upwards of 700 years, as little known to the
neighbouring inhabitants as to travellers.”
Qur author gives the following defeription of it in '
’ ' " Y its
roccfte
II
Podium.
Porftum.
1
Origin
pr poetry.
POE [tto] POE
its prefent ftate. It is, fays he, of an oblong figure,
about two miles and a half in circumference. It has
four gates, which are oppofite to each other. On the
key-ftone of the arch of the north gate, on the outfide,
is the figure of Neptune in bafl'o relievo, and within a
hippocampus. The walls which ftill remain are com-
pofed of very large cubical Hones,' and are extremely
thick, in fame parts x 8 feet. That the walls have re¬
mained unto this time is owing to the very exaft manner
in which the Hones are fitted to one another (a circum-
Hance obfei-ved univerfally in the mafonry of the an¬
cients), and perhaps in fome meafure to a fialaftical
concretion which has grown over them. On the walls
here and there are placed towers of different heights;
thofe near the gates being much higher and larger than
the others, and evidently of modern workmanfiiip. He
obferves, that, from its fituation among marfiies, bitu¬
minous and fulphureous fprings, PoeHum mufi have been
unwholefome ; a cireumHance mentioned by Strabo,
Morhofam cam facit Jluvius in palucles diff 'ufus. In fuch
a fituation the water muH have been bad. Hence the
inhabitants were obliged to convey that neceflary of life
from purer fprings by means of aqueducts, of which
many vefiiges Hill remain.
The principal monuments of antiquity are a theatre,
*m amphitheatre, and three temples. The theatre and
amphitheatre are much ruined. The firH temple is
hexaHylos, and amphiproHylos. At one end, the pi-
laHers and two columns which divided the cella from the
pronaos are Hill remaining. Within the cella are two rows
of fmaller columns, with an architrave, which fupport
the fecond order. This temple our author takes to be
of that kind called by Vitruvius hyphathros, and fupports PoeHum,
his Opinion by a quotation from that author. The fe- Poet,
cond temple is alfo amphiproHylos : it has nine columns
in front and 18 in flank, and feems to be of that kind
called by Vitruvius pfeudodipteres. The third is likewife
amphiproHylos.. It has fix columns-in front and 13 in
flank. Vitruvius calls this kind of temple peripteros.
“ The columns of thefe temples (fays our author) are
of that kind of Doric order which we find employed in
works of the greatell antiquity. They are hardly five
diameters in height. They are without bafes, which
alfo has been urged as a proof of their antiquity ; but
we do not find that the ancients ever ufed bafes to this
order, at leafi till very late. Vitruvius makes no men¬
tion of bafes for this order: and the only infiance we
have of it is in the firH order of the colifseum at Rome,
which- was built by Vefpafian. The pillars of thefe
temples are fluted with very fliallow flutings in the man¬
ner defcribed by Vitruvius. The columns diminifh from
the bottom, which was the moH ancient method almoft
univerfally in all the orders. The columns have aflragals
of a very Angular form ; which (hows the error of thofe,
who imagine that this member was firH invented with
the Ionic order, to which the Greeks gave an ailragal,
and that the Romans were the firH who applied it to
the Doric. The echinus of the capitol is of the fame
form with that of the temple of Corinth deicribed by
Le Roy.” See Swinburnes Travels in ike Two Siciliest
vol. ii. p. 131—140.
POET, the author of a poem. See the article-
Poetry.
Provencal Poets. See Troubadours.
POE
AMIDST thofe thick clouds which envelope the
firH ages of the world, reafon and hifiory throw
fome lights on the origin and primitive employment of
tills divine art. Reafon fuggefls, that before the inven¬
tion of letters, all the people of the earth had no other
method of tranlmitting to their defendants the prin¬
ciples of their worftiip, their religious ceremonies, their
.laws, and the renowned actions of their fages and heroes,
than by poetry ; which included all thefe objcdts in a
kind of hymns that fathers fung to their children, in
order to engrave them with indelible firokes in their
hearts. Hifiory not only informs us, that Mofes and
Miriam, the firH authors that are known to mankind,
fung, on the borders of the Red Sea, a fong of divine
praife, to celebrate thedeliverance which the Almighty had
vouchfafed to the people of Ifrael, by opening a paflage
to them through the waters ; but it has alfo tranfmitted
to us the fong itfelf, which is at once the mofi ancient
monument and a mafier-piece of poetic compolition.
The Greeks, a people the mofi ingenious, the moH
animated, and in every fenfe the mofl accompliflied, that
the world ever produced—firove to ravifh from the He¬
brews the precious gift of poetry, which was vouchfafed
them by the Supreme Author of all nature, that they
might afcribe it to their falfe deities. According to
their ingenious fiftions, Apollo became the god of poe¬
try, and dwelt on the hills of Phocis, Parnaflus, -and
Helicon, whole feet were wafhed by the waters of Hyp-
pocrene, of which each mortal that ever drank was
T R Y.
feized with a facred delirium. Tlie immortal fwana
floated on its waves. Apollo was accompanied by the
Mufes—thofe nine learned fifiers—the daughters of
Memory: and he was confiantly attended by the Graces.
Pegafus, his winged courfer, tranfported him with a ra¬
pid flight into all the regions of tlie univerfe. Happy
emblems ! by which we at this day embellifh our poe¬
try, as no one has ever yet been able to invent more
brilliant images..
The literary annals of alb nations afford vefiiges of
poetry from the remotefl ages. They are found among
the mofl favage of the ancient barbarians, and the molt
defolate of all the Americans. Nature afferts her rights,
in every country and every age. Tacitus mentions
the verfes and the hymns of the Germans, at the time
when that rough people yet inhabited the woods, and.,
while their manners were Hill favage.. The firH inha¬
bitants of Runnia, and the other northern countries,
thofe of Gaul, Albion, Iberia, Aufonia, and other na¬
tions of Europe, had their poetry, as well as the an¬
cient people of Afia, and of the known borders of A-
frica. But the Ample productions of nature have cot>
Handy fomething unformed, rough, and favage. The
Divine Wifdom appears to have placed the ingenious and
polilhed part of mankind on the earth, in order to refine
that which comes from her bofom rude and imperfect:
and thus art has polilhed poetry, which iffued quite naked
and favage from the brains of the firH of mankind.
But what is Poetry ? It would be to abridge the
' 6 limits
; trod. ^
1 limits of the poetic empire, to contraft the iphere ot
’ finition th;s divine art, fiiould we fay, in imitation of all the
' p^try. dictionaries and other treatifes on verification, That
poetry is the art of making verfes, of lines or periods that
are in rhyme or metre. This is rather a grammatical
explanation of the word, than a real definition of the
thing, and it would be to degrade poetry thus to de¬
fine it. The father of criticifm has denominated poe¬
try /u.i/u.rihx.yty an imitative art : but this, though
jult in itfelf, is too general for a definition, as it does
not difcriminate poetry from other arts which depend
equally on imitation. The juitefl definition feems to
be that given by Baron Bielfield That poetry is the
viem.tf art 0j exprejfmg our thoughts by fiSion. In faft, it is af-
,v,£mter this manner (if we reflect with attention) that all
the metaphors and allegories, all the various kinds of
fiftion, form the firft materials of a poetic edifice : it
is thus that all images, all comparifons, allufions, and
figures, efpecially thofe which perfonify moral fubje&s,
as virtues and vices, concur to the decorating of fuch a
ftrufture. A work, therefore, that is filled with in¬
vention, that inceflantly prefents images which render
the reader attentive and affected, where the author
gives interefting fentiments to every thing that he makes
fpeak, and where he makes fpeak by fenfible figures
all thofe obje&s which would affeCt the mind but weak¬
ly when clothed in a fimple profaic ftyle, fuch a work
-is a poem. While that, though it be in verfe, which
Is of a dida&ic, dogmatic, or moral nature, and where
the objefts are prefented in a manner quite fimple, with¬
out fidtion, without images or ornaments, cannot be
called poetry, but merely a work in verfe; for the art
of reducing thoughts, maxims, and periods, into rhyme
or metre, is very different from the art of poetry.
An ingenious fable, a lively and interefting romance,
a comedy, the fublime narrative of the actions of a hero,
fuch as the Telemachus of M. Fenelon, though written
in profe, but'in meafured profe, is therefore a work of
poetry: bccaufe the foundation and the fuperftrudture
are the produftions of genius, as the whole proceeds
from fidtion; and truth itfelf appears to have employed
an innocent and agreeable deception to inflrudbwith ef¬
ficacy. This is fo true,"that the pencil alfo, in order to
pleafe and affedt, has recourfe to fidtion ; and this part
of painting is called the poetic compoftion of a pitlure. It
is therefore by the aid of fiction that poetry, fo to
TRY. 171
fpeak, paints its expreflions, that it gives a body and a
mind to its thoughts, that it animates and exalts that
which would otherwife have remained arid and infenfi-
ble. It is the peculiar privilege of poetry to exalt ina¬
nimate things into animals, and ab fir act ideas into per-
fons. The former licence is fo common, that it is now
confidered as nothing more than a charadterillical dialedt
appropriated by the poets to diftinguifh themfelves from
the writers of profe ; and it is at the fame time fo effen-
tial, that we queftion much if this fpecies of compofi-
tion could fubfill without it: for it will perhaps, upon
examination, be found, that in every poetical defeription
fome of the qualities of Animal Nature are aferibed to
things net having life. Every work, therefore, where
the thoughts are expreffed by fidlions or images, is po¬
etic ; and every work where they are expreffed natu¬
rally, fimply, and without ornament, although it be in
verfe, is profaic.
Verfe, however, is not to be regarded as foreign or
fuperfluous to‘poetry. To reduce thofe images, thofe
fi&ions, into verfe, is one of the greateft difficulties in
poetry, and one of the greateff merits in a poem : and
for thefe reafons, the cadence, the harmony of founds,
particularly that of rhyme, delight the ear to a high
degree, and the mind infenfibly repeats them while the
eye reads them. There refults therefore a pleafure to
the mind, and a ftrong attachment to thefe ornaments:
but this pleafure would be frivolous, and even childiffi, 3
if it were not attended by a real utility. Verfes were ^erfe,
invented in the firft ages of the world, merely to^™^11”*
aid and to ftrengthen the memory: for cadence, har-poetryjone
mony, and efpecially rhyme, afford the greateft affiftance0f its ex-
to the memory that art can invent; and the images,cellenaes.
or poetic fiftions, that ftrike our fenfes, affift in graving
them with fuch deep traces in our minds, as even time
itfelf frequently-cannot efface. How many excellent
, fentences, maxims, and precepts, would
ried in the abyfs of oblivion, if poetry had
not preferved them by its harmony? To give more
efficacy to this lively impreffion, the firft poets fung
their verfes, and the words and phrafes muff: neceffarily
have been reduced, at leaft to cadence, or they could
not have been fufceptible of mufical expreffion. One
of the great excellencies, therefore, though not a ne-
ceffary conftituent, of poetry, coniifts in its being ex¬
preffed in verfe. See Part IIL
apophthegms
have been bu
PartI. GENERAL PRINCIPLES of the AR1.
Sect. I. Of the Effence and End of Poetry.
npHE (fence of Polite Arts in general, and confe-
quently of poetry in particular, confifts in exprefion;
and we think that, to be poetic, the expreffion muft
4 neceffarily arife from fiction, or invention. ,(See the ar-
iflence of tide Art,, particularly from n° 12. to the end.) This in-
x>etry. vention, which is the fruit of happy genius alone, all¬
ies, 1. From the fubjeft itfelf of which we undertake
to treat: 2. From the manner in which we treat that
fubjeft, or the fpecies of writing of which we make
uie: 3. From the plan that we propofe to follow in
conformity to this manner; and, 4. From the method
o executing this plan in its full detail. Our firll guides,
t^e ancients, afford us no lights that can elucidate all
tude objects in general. The precepts which A-riftotle
lays down, relate to epic and dramatic poetry only i
and which, by the wray, confirms our idea, that anti¬
quity itfelf made the effence of poetry to confift in fic¬
tion, and not ffi that fpecies of verle which is deftitute
of it, or in that which is not capable of it. But fince
this art has arrived to a great degree of perfeftion ; and
as poetry, like eledlricity, communicates its fire to eve¬
ry thing it touches, and animates and embeUiffies what¬
ever it treats; there feems to be no fubjedf in the uni-
veife to which poetiy cannot be applied, and which it
cannot render equally brilliant and pleafing. From this
univerfality of poetry, from its peculiar property of ex¬
preffion by fidlion, which is applicable to all fubjedls,
have arifen its different fpecies, of which a particular
defeription will be given in \.\vc fecond part.
Horace, in a well-known verfe, has been fuppofed to
Y 2 declare
172 POE
declare the end of poetry to be twofold, to pleafe, or to
Invention inilrua;
5
End of
poetry.
+ F.JJ'ayi tn
Pee try and
JVTuf.c,
Pai 11,
Ctap. i.
f Her Ar.
Poet. 2,33-
347*
Alut prodrjfe volunt, out dele cl are poetce.
But Dr Beattie * maintains, that the ultimate end of
this art is to pleafe; milriiction being only one of the
means (and not always a neceflary one) by which that
ultimate end is to be accomplilhed. The paffage rightly
underflood, he obferves, will not appear to contain any
thing inconfiflent with this dodtrine. The author is
there dating a comparifon between the Greek and Ro¬
man writers, with a view to the poetry of the flage ; and,
after commending the former for their cor reft nefs, and
for the liberal fpirit wherewith they conducted their
literary labours, and blaming his countrymen for their
inaccuracy and avarice, he proceeds thus “ The ends
propofed by our dramatic poets (or by poets in ge¬
neral) are, to pleafe, to inflruft, or to do both. When
inflruftion is your aim, let your moral fentences be
exprefled with brevity, that they may be readily un¬
derflood, and long remembered: where you mean to
pleafe, let your fiftions be conformable to truth, or
probability. The elder part of your audience (or
readers) have no reKfh for poems that give pleafure only
without inflruftion ; nor the younger for fuch waitings
as give inflruftion without pleafure. He only can fe-
cure the univerfal fuffrage in his favour, who blends
the ufeful with, the agreeable, and delights at the fame
time that he inflrufts the reader. Such are the works
that bring money to the bookfeller, that pafs into fo¬
reign countries, and perpetuate the author’s name
through a long fueceflion of ages f.”—Now, what is
the meaning of all this? What, but that to the perfoBion
of dramatic poetry (or, if you pleafe, of poetiy in ge¬
neral) both found morals and beautiful fiftion are re-
quifite ? But Horace never meant to fay, that inflruc-
tion, as wrell. as pleafure, is neceffary to give to any
compofition the poetkal char after ; or he would not in
another place have celebrated with fo much affeftion
and rapture the melting drains of Sappho, and the
playful genius of Anacreon J,—two authors tranfeen-
dently fweet, but not remarkably inflruftive. We are
fure, that pathos, and harmony, and elevated language,.
w7ere, in Horace’s opinion, effential to poetry § ; and
of thefe decorations nobody will affirm that inflruftion
is the end, who confiders that the moil inflruftive books
in the w^orld are wrritten in plain profe.
In fhort, our author has endeavoured by many inge¬
nious arguments and' illuflrations to eflablifh it as a
truth in criticifm, that the end of poetry is to pleafe.,
Verfes, if pleafmg, may be poetical, though they cou-
\ey little or no inflruftion ; but verfes, whofe foie me¬
rit it is that they convey inflruftion, are not poeti¬
cal. Inftruftion, however, he admits, efpecially in
poems of length, is neceffary to their perfeftiov, be-
caufe they would not be perfeftly agreeable without it.
Sect. II. Of the Standard of Poetical Inven¬
tion.
Homer’s beautiful defeription of the heavens and
earth, as they appear in a calm evening by the light of
I®,^ regu* the moon and liars, concludes with this circumftance,
V /W,b. 8. “ And the heart of the fhepherd is glad Madame
Dacier, from the turn fhe gives to the paffage in her
verfion, feems to think, and Pope, in order perhaps to
^ ITor. ('.arm
lib 4. ode 9.
§ Hor. Fat,
lib. 1. fat. 4
vcr. 40.
€
Poetical
invention
T R Y- ^ Part I,
make out his couplet, infinuates, that the gTadnefs of Of
the fhepherd is owing to his fenfe of the utility of thofe Inveiltion.
luminaries. And this may in part be the cafe : but ’““‘v—
tliis is not in Homer; nor is it a neceffary consideration.
It is true, that, m contemplating the material univerfe,
they who difeern the caufes and effefts of things mud
be more rapt-uroufly entertained than thofe who perceive Seattle's
nothing but ffiape and lize, colour and motion. Yet,
in the mere outfide of Nature’s wrork, there is a fplendor^art I#.
and a magnificence to which even untutored minds can-C ^ ^
not attend without great delight.
Not that all peafants or all philofophers are equally
fufceptible of thefe charming impreffions. It is flrange
to obferve the calloufnefs of fome men, before whom all
the glories of heaven and earth pafs in daily fucceffion,
without touching their hearts, elevating their fancy, or
leaving any durable remembrance. Even of thofe who
pretend to fenfibility, how many are there to whom the
luflre of the rifing or fetting fun; the fparkling concave
of the midnight-fky; the mountain-fore ft toffing and
roaring to the florin, or warbling with all the melodies
of a fummer-evening ; the fweet interchange of hill and
dak, {hade and funfhine, grove, lawn, and water, which
an extenfive landfcape offers to the view ; the feenery
of the ocean, fo lovely, fo majeflic, and fa tremendous;
and the many pleafmg varieties of the animal and vege¬
table kingdoms, could never afford fo much real fatisfac-
tion, as the fleams and noife of a ball-room, the infipid
fiddling and fqueaking of an opera, or the vexations and
wranglings of a card-table !
But fome minds there are of a different make ; who,
even in the early part of life, receive from the contem¬
plation of Nature a fpecies of delight wdiich they would
hardly exchange for any other, and wffio, as avarice and
ambition are not the infirmities of that period, would,,
with equal fincerity and rapture, exclaim,
I care not. Fortune, what you me deny ;
You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace ;
You cannot fhut the window's of the Iky,
Through which Aurora ffiow's her bright’ning face;
You cannot bar my conflant feet to trace
The w’oods and lawns by living flream at eve.
Cajlle of Indolence.
Such minds have always in them the feeds of true tafle,.
and frequently of imitative genius. At leafl, though
their enthufiaflic or vifionary turn of mind (as the man
of the world would call it) fhould not always incline
them to praftife poetry or painting, we need not feruple
to affirm, that wdthout fome portion of this enthufiafin
no perfon ever became a true poet or painter. For he
who wrould imitate the works of nature, muff firli ac¬
curately obferve them ; and accurate obfervation is to
be expefted from thofe only who take great pleafure
in it.
To a mind thus difpofed no part of creation is indif¬
ferent. In the ctow'ded city and howling wildernefs;
in the cultivated province and folitary ifle; in the .
flowery lawn and craggy mountain ; in* the murmur of
the rivulet and in the uproar of the ocean ; in the ra¬
diance of fummer and gloom of w;inter ; in the thunder
of heaven and in the whifper of the breeze ; he flill
finds fomething to rouze or to foothe his imagination,,
to draw forth his affeftions, or to employ his under-
flanding. And from every mental energy that is not
■ * attended.
*4
Fail. POE
: attended with pain, and even from Tome of thofe that
lav are, as moderate terror and pity, a found mind derives
u- — fatisfa&ien; exercife being equally neceffary to the body
and the foul, and to both equally produ&ive of health
and pleafure. - . ,,
This happy fenfibility to the beauties of nature ihould
be cherilhed in young perfons. It eagages them to
contemplate the Creator in his wonderful works; it pu¬
rifies and liarmonizes the foul, and prepares it for moral
and intellectual difcipline; it fupplies an endlefs fource
of amufement; it contributes even to bodily health :
and, as a ftria analogy fubfifts between material and mo¬
ral beauty, it leads the heart by an eafy tranfition from
the one to the other ; and thus recommends virtue for
its tranfcendant lovelinefs, and makes vice appear the
objeft of contempt and abomination. An intimate ac¬
quaintance with the beft defcriptive poets, Spenfer, Mil-
ton, and Thomfon, but above all with the divine Geor-
gic, joined to fome praftice in the art of drawing, will
promote this amiable fenfibility in early years : for then
the face of nature has novelty fuperadded to its other
charms, the paffions are not pre-engaged, the heart
is free from care, and the imagination warm and ro¬
mantic.
But not to infill longer on thofe ardent emotions that
ftan rd of are peculiar to the enthufiaftic difciple of nature, may it
Bat • not be affirmed of all men, without exception, or at
leaft of all the enlightened part of mankind, that they
are gratified by the contemplation of things natural,, as
oppofed to unnatural ? Monftrous fights pleafe but for
a moment, if they pleafe at all; for they derive their
charm from the beholder’s amazement, which is quickly
over. We read indeed of a man of rank in Sicily*,
♦ 2 tone's wh0 choofes to adorn his villa with pictures and ftatues
l of moll unnatural deformity: but it is a lingular in-
' fiance ; and one would not be much more furprifed to
hear of a perfon living without food, or growing fat by
the ufe of poifon. To fay of any thing, that it is
contrary to nature, denotes cenfure and difgull on the
part of the fpeaker ; as the epithet natural intimates an
agreeable quality, and feems for the moll part to imply,
that a thing is as it ought to be, fuitable to our own
talle, and congenial with our own conflitution. Think
with what fentiments we Ihould perufe a poem, in which-
nature was totally mifreprefented, and principles of
thought, and of operation fuppofed to take place, re¬
pugnant to every thing we had feen or heard of:—in
which, for example, avarice and eoldnefs were aferibed
to youth, and prodigality and palfionate attachment to
the old; in which men were made to a6t at random,
lometimes according to eharaCler, and fometimes con¬
trary to it; in which cruelty and envy were productive
of love, and beneficence and kind affeClion of hatred ;
in which beauty was invariably the objeft of diflike, and
nglinefs of defire ; in which fociety was rendered happy
by atheiim and the promifeuous perpetration of crimes,
and julHce and fortitude were held in univerfal contempt.
Or think, how we Ihould relilh a painting, where no
regard was had to the proportions, colours, or any ol
she phyfical laws, of Nature:—where the ears and eyes
of animals were placed in their fhoulders ; where the
iky was green and the grafs crimfon ; where trees grew
with their branches in the earth and their roots in the
an , whete men were feen fighting after their heads we re
cut off. Ihips Utiling on the land, lions entangled in cob-
T R Y. 173
webs, ffieep preying*on dead cas'cafes, fillies fporting in >
the woods, and elephants walking on the fea. Could
fuch figures and combinations give pleafure, or merit the
appellation of fublime or beautiful ? Should we hefitate
to pronounce their author mad? And are the' abfurdities
of madmen proper fubje&s either of amufement or of imi¬
tation to reafonable beings ?
Let it be remarked, too, that though we diftinguilh
our internal powers by different names, becaufe other-
wife we could not fpeak of them fo as to be unclerltood,
they are all but fo many energies of the fame individual
mind ; and therefore it is not to be fuppofed, that what
contradifls any one leading faculty Ihould yield perma¬
nent delight to the reft. That cannot be agreeable to
reafon, which confcience difapproves; nor can that gra¬
tify imagination, which is repugnant to reafon. Be-
fides, belief and acquiefcence of mind are pleafant, as
diftruft and dilbelief are painful :■ and therefore, that
only can give folid and general fatisfaftion, which has
fomething of plaufibility in it; fomething which we
conceive it poffible for a rational being to believe. But -
no rational being can acquiefce in what is obvioufty con¬
trary to nature, or implies palpable abfurdity.
Poetry, therefore, and indeed every ait whofe end is
to pleafe, mull be natural; and if fo, mull exhibit real
matter of fad, or fomething like it; that is, in other
words, mull be either according to truth or according ’
to verilimilitude. -
And tho’ every part of the material univerfe abounds
in objecls of pleafurable contemplation, yet nothing in
nature fo powerfully touches our hearts, or gives fo great
variety of exercife to our moral and intellectual facul¬
ties, as man. Human affairs and human feelings are
univerfaliy interefting. There are many who have no
great relilh for the poetry that-delineates only irrational
or inanimate beings; but to that ■which exhibits the
fortunes, the characters, and the conduct of men, there
is hardly any perfon who does not lilten with fympathy
and delight. And hence, to imitate human action, is
eonfidered by Ariftotle as effential to this art; and mult
be allowed to be effential to the moil pleafing and moil
inftruCtive part of it, Epic and Dramatic compofition.
Mere deferiptions, however beautiful, and moral reflec¬
tions, however juft, become tirefome, where our paffions.
are net occafionally awakened by fome event that con¬
cerns our fellow-men. Do net all readers ofrtalie re¬
ceive peculiar pleafure. from thofe little tales or epifodes-
with which Thomfon’s defcriptive poem on the Seafons
is here and there enlivened ? and are they not fenfible,
that the thunder-ftorm would, not have been half fo in¬
terefting without tlie tale of the two lovers [Summ. v.
1171) ; nor the harveft-feene, without that of Palemon
and Lavinia (Jut. v. 177.); nor the driving fnows,
without that exquifite piClure of a man perifhing among
them (IVinter, v. 276.) ? It is much to be regretted,
that Young did not employ the fame artifice to animate
his Night-Thoughts. Sentiments and deferiptions may
be regarded as the pilafters, carvings, gildings, and
other decorations of the poetical fabric: but human ac¬
tions are the columns and the rafters that give it lia¬
bility and elevation. Or, changing the metaphor, we
may confider theie as the foul which informs the lovely
frame ; while tliafe are little more than the ornaments
of the body.
Whether the plcufurc we take in things natural, and*
i uur
*74
Of
Invention
3
Habit has
great in-
iluence
over fenti •
ment and
feeling, and
ofeourfe
upon
poetry. ,
No necef-
fity that
the poet
fliould ex-
a<5Uy copy
nature.
POE
our dill Ike to what is the reverfe, be the effe& of habit
or of conftitution, is not a material inquiry. There is
nothing abfurd in fuppofing, that between the foul, in
its firlt formation, and the reft of nature, a mutual har¬
mony and fympathy may have been eftabliihed, which
experience may indeed confirm, but no perverfe habits
could entirely fubdue. As no fort of education could
make man believe the contrary of a felf-evident axiom,
or reconcile him to a life of perfect folitude ; fo we
{hould imagine, that our love of nature and regularity
might ftill remain with us in fome degree, though we
had been born and bred in the Sicilian villa above-
mentioned, and never heard any thing applauded but
what deferved .cenfure, nor cenfured but what merited
applaufe. Yet habit xnuft be allowed to have a power¬
ful influence over the fentiments and feelings of man¬
kind : for objects to which we have been long accuf-
tomed, we are apt to contradt a fondnefs : we conceive
them readily, and contemplate them with pleafure ; nor
do we quit our old trafts of /peculation or pradlice with¬
out reluctance and pain,. Hence in part arifes our at¬
tachment to our own profeffions, our old acquaintance,
our native foil, our homes, and to the very hills, ftreams,
and rocks in our neighbourhood. It would therefore
be ftrange, if man, accuftomed as he is from his earlieft
days to the regularity of nature, did not contraCt a liking
to her productions and principles of operation.
Yet we neither expeCt nor defire, that every human
invention, where the end is only to pleafe, fhould be an
exaCt tranfcript of real eyiftence. It is enough, that the
mind acquiefce in it as probable or plaufible, or fuch as
we think might happen without any direCt oppofition to
the laws of nature :—Or, to fpeak more accurately, it is
enough that it be confiftent, either, firft, with general
experience; or, fecondly, with popular opinion; or,
thirdly, that it be confiftent with itfelf, and connected
with probable circumftances.
Firft: If a human invention be confiftent With.general
experience, we acquiefce in it as fufficiently probable.
Particular experiences, however, there may be, fo un¬
common, and fo little expected, that we fhould not ad¬
mit their probability, if we did not know them to be
true. No man ,of fenfe believes, that he has any likeli¬
hood of being enriched by the difcovcry of hidden trea-
fure; or thinks it probable, on purchafing a lottery-
ticket, that he (hall gain the firft prize : and yet great
wealth has aCtually been acquired by fuch good fortune.
But we fhould look upon thefe as poor expedients in a
play or romance for bringing about a happy cataftrophe.
We expeCt that fi&ion fhould be more confonant to the
general tenor of human affairs ; in a word, that not pof-
iibility, but probability, fhould be the ftandard of poeti-
io
Ji&ion fuf¬
ficiently
Conform¬
able to
nature
when it ac¬
cords with
received
opinion?,
qal invention.
Secondly : FiCtion is admitted as conformable to this
ftandard, when it accords with received opinions. Thefe
may be erroneous, but are not often apparently repug¬
nant to nature. On this account, and becaufe they are
familiar to us from our infancy, the mind readily ac-
TRY. . PMt
quiefees in them, or at leaft yields them that degree of of
credit which is neceffary to render them pleafing : hence fnvcmic
the fairies, ghofts, and watches of Shakefpeare, are ad- ““V-
mitted as probable beings; and angels obtain a place in
religious pictures though we know that they do not
now appear in the feenery of real life. A poet who
fhould at this day make the whole action of his tragedy
depend upon enchantment, and produce the chief events
by the affiltance of fupernatural agents, would indeed be
cenfured as tranfgreffmg the bounds of probability, be
banifhed from the theatre to the nurfery, and eon.
demned to write fairy tales inftead of tragedies. But
Shakefpeare wras in no danger of fuch cenfures : In his
days the doftrine of witchcraft was eftablifhed both by
law and by the fafhion ; and it was not only unpolite,
but criminal, to doubt it. Now indeed it is admitted
only by the vulgar; but it does not therefore follow
that an old poem built upon it fhould not be acceptable
to the learned themfelves. When a popular opinion has
long been exploded, and has become repugnant to phi-
lofophical belief, the fictions built upon it are ftill ad¬
mitted as natural, both becaufe we all remember to have
liftened to them in childhood with fome degree of cre¬
dit, and becaufe wre know that they were accounted na¬
tural by the people to whom they were firft addreffed ;
■yvhofe fentiments and yiewrs of things we are walling to
adopt, when, by the power of pleafing defeription, wre
are introduced into their feenes, and made acquainted
with their manners. Hence we admit the theology of
the ancient poets, their Elyfium and Tartarus, Scylla
and Charybdis, Cyclops and Circe, and the reft of thofe
“ beautiful winders” (as Horace calls them) which
were believed in the heroic ages ; as well as the demons
and enchantments of Taffq, wrhich may be fuppofed to
have'obtained no fmall degree of credit among the Ita¬
lians of the 16th century, and are fuitable enough to
the notions that prevailed univerfally in Europe not long
before (a). In fadft, wdien poetry is ip other refpeCts
true, when it gives an accurate dil'play of thofe parts of
nature about which wre know that men in all ages muft
have entertained the fame opinion, namely, thofe appear¬
ances in the vifible creation, and thofe feelings and work¬
ings of the human mind, which are obvious to all man¬
kind ;—when poetry is thus far according to nature, we
are very walling to be indulgent to what is fictitious in
it, and to grant a temporary allowance to any fyftem of
fable wdiich the author pleafes to adopt; provided that
he lay the feene in a diftant country, or fix the date to
a remote period. This is no unreafonable piece of com-
plaifance ; wre owe it both to the poet and to ourfelves;
for without it we fiiould neither form a right eftimate of
his genius, nor receive from his works that pleafure
which they were intended to impart. Let him, how¬
ever, take care, that his fyftem of fable be fuch as his
countrymen and cotemporaries (to wrhom Ifis work is
immediately addreffed) might be fuppofed capable of
yielding their affent to ; for otherwife we Ihould not
believe him to be in earneft : and let him conned it as
much
(a) In the 14th century, the common people of Italy believed, that the poet Dante went dowm to hell; that
the Inferno was a true account of what he law there ; and that his lallow complexion, and ftunted beard (which
feemed by its growth and colour to have been too near the fire), were the coniequence of ms paiiing fo much of
his time in that hot and fmoky region. See Vtcende della Literatura del digs C. jUtntna, cap. 4.
t I. , .
J ■ much as he can with probable circumflances, and make
|nv tion. jj- appear in a feries of events confjftent with itfelf. .
^ For (thirdly) if this be the cafe, we lhall admit his
ftory as probable, or at leaft as natural, and confequently
be interefted in it, even though it be not warranted by
general experience, and derive but (lender authority from
popular opinion. Calyban, in the Temped, would have
(hocked the mind as an improbability, if we had not been
made acquainted with his origin* and feen his character
difplayed in a feries of confident behaviour. But when
we are told that he fprung from a witch and a demon, a
conne&ion not contrary to the laws of nature, as they
were underdood in Shakefpeare’s time, and find his
manners conformable to his defcent, we are eafily recon-
i ciled to the fiaion. In the fame fenfe, the Lilliputians
IS of Swift may pafs for probable beings ; not fo much be-
wi! itfelf. caufe we know that a belief in pigmies was once current
1 ‘ ' in the world (for the true ancient pigmy was at lead
thrice as tall as thofe whom Gulliver vifiteu), but be-
caufe we find that every circumdance relating to them
accords with itfelf, and with their fuppofed charaaer.
It is not the fize of the people only that is diminutive.;
their country, feas, (hips, and towns, are all in exaa
proportion ; their theological and political principles,
their pafiions, manners, cudoms, and all the parts of
their eondua, betray a levity and littlenefs perfeaiy
fuitable ; and fo fimple is the whole narration, and ap¬
parently fo artlefs and fincere, that we (hould not much
"Bci cs vvonder if it had impofed (as we have been told it has)
£jj r, upon fome perfons oi no contemptible underdanding.
fit >ra, The fame degree of credit may perhaps for the fame rea-
fons be due to his giants. But when he grounds his
narrative upon a contradiftion to nature ; when he pre-
fents us with rational brutes, and irrational men ; when
he tells us of horfes building houfes for habitation, milk¬
ing cows for food, riding in carriages, and holding con-
verfations on the laws and politics of Europe not all
his genius (and he there exerts it to the utmod) is able
to reconcile us to fo mondrous a fiftion :. we may fmile
at fome of his abfurd exaggerations ; we may be pleafed
with the energy of dyle, and accuracy of defcription,
in particular places; and a malevolent heart may triumph
in the fatire; but we can never relifh it as a fable, be-
eaufe it is at once unnatural and felf-contradiftory.
Swift’s judgment feems to have forfaken him on this oc-
cafion : he wallows in nadinefs and brutality : and the
general run of his fatire is downright defamation. Lu¬
cian’s True Hiftory is a heap of extravagancies put to¬
gether without order or unity, or any other apparent
defign than to ridicule the language and manner of grave
authors. His ravings, which have no better right to
the name of fable, than a hill of rubbifh has to that of
palace, are deditute of every colour of plaufibility. Ani¬
mal trees, (hips failing in the Iky, armies of mondrous
things travelling between the fun and moon on a pave¬
ment of cobwebs, rival nations of men inhabiting woods
and mountains in a whale’s belly,'—are liker the dreams
^ it of a bedlamite than the inventions of a rational being,
p. ability ^ we were t0 profecute this fubjedt any farther, it
re ifue in would be proper to remark, that is fome kinds of poe-
fo : kinds
of
tk
ietry
in
Ot rs.
O E T R Y. 175
tical invention a drifter probability is required than in
others that, for indance, Comedy, whether dramatic m
or narrative (b), mud feldom deviate from the ordinary
courfe of human affairs, becaufe it exhibits the manners
of real and even of familiar life :— that the tragic poet,
becaufe he imitates chatafters more exalted, and gene¬
rally refers to events little known, or long fince pad,
may be allowed a wider range; but mud never attempt
the marvellous fictions of the epic mufe, becaufe he ad-
dredes his work, not only to the paffions and imagina¬
tion of mankind, but alfo to their eyes and ears, which
are not eafily impofed on, and refufe to be gratified with
any reprefentation that does not come very near the
truth : that the epic poem may claim dill ampler pri¬
vileges, becaufe its- fiftions are not fubjeft to the fcru-
tiny of any outward fenfe, and becaufe it conveys in¬
formation in regard both to the highed human charac¬
ters, and the mod important and wonderful events, and
alfo to the affairs of unfeen worlds and fuperior beings.
Nor would it be improper to obferve* that the feveral
fpecies of comic, of tragic, of epic compofition, are not
confined to the fame degree of probability : for that
farce may be allowed to be lefs probable than the regu¬
lar comedy; the mafque than the. regular tragedy; and
the mixed epic, fuch as the Fairy Queen, and Orlando
Furiofo* than the pure epopee of Homer, Virgil, and
Milton.. But this part of the fubjeft feems not to re¬
quire further xlludration. Enough has been faid to-
(how, that nothing unnatural can pleafe; and that there¬
fore poetry, whofe end is to pleafe, mud be according to
nature..
And if fo, it mud be either according to real na¬
ture, or according to nature fomewhat diderent from the
reality.
Sect. III. Of the Syftem of Nature exhibited by
Poetry.
To exhibit real nature is the budnefs of the hidorian
who, if he were driftly to confine himfelf to his own
fphere, would never record even the minuted circum¬
dance of any fpeech, event, or defcription,.which was 13
not warranted by fufficient authority. It has been the Hi (Friars'
language of critics in every age, that the hidorian ought
to relate nothing as true which is falfe or dubious, and^
to. conceal nothing material which he knows to be true. *n.t make
But it is to be doubted whether any writer of profane hem
hidory has ever been fo fcrupulous. Thucydides him¬
felf, who began his hidory when that war began which
he records, and who fet down every event foon after it
happened, according to the mod authentic information,
feems, however,, to have indulged his fancy not a little
in his harangues and deferiptions, particularly that of
the plague of Athens: and the fame thing has been
praftifed, with greater latitude, by Livy and Tacitus,
and more or lefs by all the bed hidorians both ancient
and modern. Nor are they to be blamed for it. By
thefe improved or invented fpeeches, and by the height-
enings thus given to their deferiptions, their work be¬
comes more intereding, and more ufeful; nobody is de¬
ceived.
(b) Fielding’s Tom Jones, Amelia, and Jofeph Andrews, are examples of what may be called the Epic or Nar-
rath's Comedy^ or more properly perhaps the Comic Epopee.
1^6 I O E
Of ceived, and hiftorical tmtli io not materially affefted. A
Nature in metjjum Js> however, to be obferved in this, as in other
^ roetfy. t^jngg> ^hen the hiftorian lengthens a delcription in¬
to a detail of fictitious events, as Voltaire has done in
his account of the battle of Fontenoy, he loies his cre¬
dit with us, by railing a fufpicion that he is more in¬
tent upon a pretty llory than upon the truth. And
■ we are difgufted with his infincerity, when, in defiance
even of verifimilitude, he puts long elaborate orations in
the mouth of thofe, of whom we know, either from the
circumilances that they could not, or from more authen¬
tic records that they did not, make any fuch orations ;
as Dionyfms of. Halicarnaffus has' done in the cafe oi
Volumnia haranguing her fon Coriolanus, and Flavius
Jofephus in that of Judah addrefiing his brother as
viceroy of Egypt. From what thefe biftorians relate,
one would conjecture that the Roman matron had ftu-
died at Athens under fome long-winded rhetorician, and
that the Jewifh patriarch mull have been one of the
moll flowery orators of antiquity. But the fictitious
part of hillory, or of ftory-telling, Ought never to take
up much room ; and mu ft be highly blameable when it
leads into any miftake either of faCls er of charaClers.
Now, why do hiftorians take the liberty to embellilh
their works in this manner ? One reafon, no doubt, is,
that they may difplay their talents in oratory and narra-
14 tion : but the chief reafon, as hinted already, is, to ren-
fn fome de-der ,their compofition more agreeable. It would ieem,
deal ^°e” t^ien’ *hat fomething more plealing than real nature, or
; fomething which lhall add to the pleafmg qualities of
real nature, may be devifed by human fancy. And this
may certainly be done. And this it is the poet’s biifi-
nefs to do. And when this is in any degree done by
the hiftorian, his narrative becomes in that degree poe¬
tical.
The pofiibility of thus improving upon nature mull
he obvious to every one. When we look at a land-
fcape, we can fancy a thoufand additional embellilh-
■ ments. Mountains loftier and more pifturelque; rivers
more copious, more limpid, and more beautifully wind¬
ing ; fmoother and wider lawns; valleys more richly
diverlified; caverns and rocks more gloomy and more
llupendous ; ruins more majeftic ; buildings more mag¬
nificent; oceans more varied with iflands, morefplendid
with Ihipping, or more agitated by llorm, than any we
have ever feen—it is eafy for human imagination to con¬
ceive. Many things in' art and nature exceed expe&a-
. tion ; but nothing fenfible tranfeends or equals the ca¬
pacity of thought:—a linking evidence of the dignity
of the human foul ! The find! woman in the world ap¬
pears to every eye fufceptible of improvement, except
perhaps to that of her lover. No wonder, then, if in
poetry events .can be exhibited more compad, and of
more pleafmg variety, than thofe delineated by the hi-
llorian, and feenes of inanimate nature more dreadful or
more lovely, and human characters more fublime and
more exquifite, both in good and evil. Yet Hill let
nature fupply the ground-work and materials, as well as
the Ilandard, of poetical fiCtion. The moft expert paint¬
ers ufe a layman, or other vilible figure, .to direCl their
hand and regulate their fancy. Homer himfelf founds
In’s two poems on authentic tradition; and tr d as
well as epic poets have followed the exai The
.writers of romance, too, are ambitious, to intei .cave true
adventures with their fables ; and when it can be conve-
Ptatlle's
EJays,
chap, ji.
„ 15
Poets em-
bellifh na¬
ture itfelf.
T It Y. Part
niently done, to take the outlines of theiY plan from Of
real life. Thus the tale of Robinfon Crufoe is founded Natur*
on an incident that actually befel one Alexander Seb ,
kirk, a fea-farmg man, who lived feveral years alone in ^
the ifland of Juan Fernandes : SmoUet is thought to
have given us feveral of his own adventures in the hif-
tory of Roderic Random : and the chief charadlers in
Tom Jones, Jofeph Andrews, and Pamela, are faid to
have been copied from real originals. Dramatic co¬
medy, indeed, is for the moft part purely fiftitious: for
if it were to exhibit real events as well as prefent man¬
ners, it would become too perfonal to be endured by a
well-bred audience, and degenerate into downright
abufe ; which appears to have been the cafe with the
old comedy of the Greeks *. But in general, hints ta- * Comp;
ken from real exiftence will be found to give no little ^ Kb
grace and liability to fiction, even in the moft fanciful^1'4 vei
poems. Thofe hints, however, may be improved by the
poet’s imagination,- ami fet off with every probable verf. 181,
ornament that can be devifed, confidently with the de-185,
lign and genius of the work ; or, in other words, with
the fympathies tliat the poet means to awaken in the
mind of his reader. For mere poetical ornament, when
it fails to intereil the affections, is not only ufelefs,
but improper; all true poetry being addreffed to the
heart, and intended, to give pleafure by railing or footh-
ing the palfions ;—the -only effectual way of pleafing a
rational and moral creature. And therefore we would
take Horace’s maxim to be univerfal in poetry : “ Non
/alts' e(f, pu/chra rjje poemata ; dulcia Junto “ It is not
enough that poems be beautiful; let them alfo be a/B-
ing r”—For that this is the meaning of the word dulcia
in this place, is admitted by the hell interpreters, and
is indeed evident from the context f. \HorJ
That the fentiments and feelings of percipient beings, Poet ™
when expreffed in poetry, Ihould call forth our affec-^
tions, is natural enough ; but can deferiptions of inani-And de¬
mate things alfo be made affeCting ? certainly they can: feribe
and the more they affect, the more they pleafe us, and ev“^
the more poetical we allow them to be. Virgil’s Geor-J.Q ^,0
gic is a noble Specimen (and indeed the noblell in the nnake th
world) of this fort of poetry. His admiration of ex-afftC‘1
ternal nature gains-upon a reader of taile, till it rife to
perfect enthufiafm. The following obfervations will per¬
haps explain this matter.
Every thing in nature is complex in itfelf, and bears
innumerable relations to other things ; and may there¬
fore be viewed in an endlefs variety of lights, and con-
fequently deferibed in an endlefs variety of ways. Some
deferiptions are good, and others bad. An hillerical
defeription, that enumerates all the qualities of any ob-
je£t, is certainly good, becaufe it is true 4 but may be
as unaffeCting as a logical definition. In poetry, no un-
affeCting defeription is good, however conformable to
truth : for here we expeCl not a complete enumeration
of qualities (the chief end of the art being to pleafe),
but only fuch an enumeration as may give a lively and
interdling idea. It is not memory, or the knowledge
of rules, that can qualify a poet for this fort of deferip-
tion ; but a peculiar livelinefs of fancy and fenfibility
of heart, the nature whereof we may explain by its
effeCls, but we cannot lay down rules for the attain¬
ment of it.
When our mind is occupied by any emotion, we na¬
turally ufe words and meditate on things that are flik¬
able
Ini. P O E
Of able to it and tend to encourage it. If a man were to
] :ure in wrjte a letter when he is very angry, there would pro-
,£tr5' bably be fomething of vehemence or bitternefs in the
^ ftyle, even though the perfon to whom he wrote were
not the object of his anger. The fame thing holds true
of every other ftrong palTion or emotion:—while it pre¬
dominates in the mind, it gives a peculiarity to our
thoughts, as well as to our voice, gefture, and counte¬
nance : And hence we expert, that every perfonage in¬
troduced in poetry fliould fee things through the me¬
dium of his ruling paffion, and that his thoughts and
£ *1 cr language fliould be tinctured accordingly. A melati-
intro- choly man walking in a grove, attends to thofe things
d;;d in that fuit and encourage his melancholy ; the fighing of
P. :!7 the wind in the trees, the murmuring of waters, the
)! ild fee (iariine£s ancl foHtude of the (hades : A cheerful man in
t! ugh the the fame place, finds many fubjeCts of cheerful medita-
n Sum cf tion, in the finging of birds, the bride motions of the
h uling babbling ftream, and the livelinefs and variety of the ver-
^ °n' dure. Perfons of different characters, contemplating
the fame thing, a Roman triumph, for inftance, feel dif¬
ferent emotions, and turn their view to different objeCts.
One is filled with wonder at fuch a difplay of wealth and
power; another exults in the idea of conqueft, tmd pants
for military renown; a third, (tunned with clamour, and
haraffed with confufion, wiflies for (Hence, fecurity, and
j ities folitude; one melts with pity to the vanquiflied, and
1 T’ makes many a fad reflection upon the infignificance of
1 ‘ worldly grandeur, and the uncertainty of human things;
while the buffoon, and perhaps the philofopher, con-
fiders the whole as a vain piece of pageantry, which, by
its folemn procedure, and by the admiration of fo many
people, is only rendered the more ridiculous : — and each
of thefe perfons would deferibe it in a way fuitable to
his own feelings, and tending to raife the fame in others.
We fee in Milton’s Allegro and Penforofo, how a dif¬
ferent caff of mind produces a variety in the manner of
conceiving and contemplating the fame rural feenery.
In the former of thefe excellent poems, the author per-
fonates a cheerful man, and takes notice of thofe things
in external nature that are fuitable to cheerful thoughts,
and tend to encourage them: in the latter, every objeCt
deferibed is ferious and folemn, and produftive of calm
reflection and tender melancholy : and we (hould not
be eafily perfuaded, that Milton wrote the firft under
the influence of forrow, or the fecond under that of
gladnefs. We often fee an author’s character in his
works; and if every author were in earned when he
writes, we (hould oftener fee it. Thomfon was a man
of piety and benevolence, and a warm admirer of the
beauties of nature; and every defeription in his delight¬
ful poem on the Seafons tends to raife the fame laudable
affections in his reader. The parts of nature that at-
traft his notice are thofe which an impious or hard¬
hearted man would neither attend to, nor be affeCted
with, at lead in the fame manner. In Swift we fee a
turn of mind very different from that of the amiable
Thomfon ; little relifli for the fublime or beautiful, and
a perpetual fuccelfion of violent emotions. All his pic-
Vot. XV. Part I.
T II Y. _ 177
tures of human life feem to (how, that deformity and
meannefs were the favourite objeCts of his attention, and
that his foul was a condant prey to indignation (c), —-j
difgud, and other gloomy pafiions, arifing from fuch a
view of things. And it is the tendency of almod all
his writings (though it was not always the author’s de-
fign), to communicate the fame paffions to his reader :
infomuch, that notwithdanding his erudition and know¬
ledge of the world, his abilities as a. popular orator and
man of bufmefs, the energy of his dyle, the elegance of
feme of his verfes, and his extraordinary talents in wit
and humour, there is reafon to doubt, whether by dti¬
dying his works any perfon was ever much improved in
piety or benevolence. 13
And thus we fee, how the compofitions of an inge- ^ is thus
nious author may operate upon the heart, whatever be affe<5ts°the^
the fubjedt. The affsCfions that prevail in the author heart;w^at>
himfelf, direft his attention to objeCfs congenial, andeverbeita
give a peculiar bias to his inventive powers, and a pe-febjeci.
culiar colour to his language. Hence his work, as well
as face, if nature is permitted to exert li mfelf freely in
it, will exhibit a picture of his mind, and awaken cor-
refpondent fympathies in the reader. When thefe are
favourable to virtue, which they always ought to be,
the work will have that fweet pathos to which Horace
alludes in the paffage above mentioned; and which we
fo highly admire, and fo warmly approve, even in thofe
parts of the Georgic that deferibe inanimate nature.
Horace’s account of the matter in quedion differs not
from what is here given* “ It is not enough (fays he*) * ^r- ^ot*\
that poems be beautiful; let them be affeCb’ng, andv W UI*
agitate the mind with whatever pafiions the poet wiihes
to impart. The human countenance, as it fmiles on
thofe who fmile, accompanies alfo with fympathetic
tears thofe who mourn. If you would have me weep,
you mud fird weep yourfelf; then, and not before, (hall
I be touched with, your misfortunes.—For nature fird
makes the emotions of our mind correfpond with our
circumdances, infufing real joy, forrow, or refentment,
according to the occafion ; and afterwards gives the
true pathetic utterance to the voice and language.”
This doCtrine, which concerns the orator and the player
no lefs than the poet, is driClly philofophical, and equal¬
ly applicable to dramatic, to deferiptive, and indeed to
every fpecies of intereding poetry. The poet’s fenfibi-
lity mud fird of all engage him warmly in his fubjeft,
and in every part of it ; otherv/ile he will labour in vain
to intered the reader. If he would paint external na¬
ture, as Virgil and Thomfon have done, fo as to make
her amiable to others, he mud fird be enamoured of her
himfelf; if he would have his heroes and heroines fpeak
the language of love or forrow, devotion or courage, am¬
bition or anger, benevolence or pity, his heart mud be
fufeeptible of thofe emotions, and in feme degree feel
them, as long at lead as he employs himfelf in framing
words for them ; being affured, that
He bed (hall paint them who can feel them mod.
Pope’s Eloifa, v. 36(5.
Z The
r •^>art reniar^ we have his own authority, often in his letters, and very explicitly in the Latin
COmP°k^ ^or "•—“ ubi faeva indignatio ulterius cor lacerare nequit.” bee his lajl will
19
The true
poet mufk
pofTefs fan¬
cy to in]
■cent deco-
x at ions to
nature.
* Poet it.
fed. 9.
ao
©bferva-
tion f
many
things of
the fame
kind a
great help
to poetical
fancy, be-
caufe
POE
The true pott, therefore, mud not only ftudy nature,
and know the reality of things, but muft alfo poffefs
fancy, to invent additional decorations; judgment, to
direft him in the choice of fuch as accord with verifi-
militude ; and fallibility, to enter with ardent emotions
into every part of his fubjeft, fo as to transfnie into
everv part of his work a pathos and eneigy fui lie lent
to raife correfponding emotions in the reader.
“ The hiftoriau and the poet (fays Ariftotle * ) dif¬
fer in this, that the former exhibits things as they are,
the latter as they might be —i. e. in that date of per-
feftion which is confident with probability, and in which,
for the fake of our own gratification, we wiili to find
them. If the poet, after all the liberties he is allowed
to take with the truth, can produce nothing more ex-
quifite than is commonly to be met with in hidory, his
reader will be difappointed and diffatisfied. Poetical re-
prefentations mud therefore be framed after a pattern of
the highed probable perfeftion that the genius of the
work will admitexternal nature mud in them be
more picturefquethan in reality; action moie animated;
fentiments more expreflive of the feelings and character,
and more fuitable to the circumdanccs of the fpeaker;
perfonages better 'accomplifhed in thofe qualities that
raife admiration, pity, terror, and other ardent emo¬
tions ; and events more compad, more clearly connecl-
ed with caufes and confequences, and unfolded in an
order more flattering to the fancy, and more mtereding
to the paflions. But where, it may be laid, is this pat¬
tern of perfe&ion to be found ? Not m real nature ;
otherwife hidory, which delineates real nature,, would
alfo delineate this pattern of perfe&ion. It is to be
found only in the mind of the poet; and it is ima¬
gination, regulated by knowledge, that enables him to
form it.
In the beginning of life, and while experience is con¬
fined to a fmall circle, we admire every thing, and are
pleafed with very moderate excellence. A peafant thinks
the hall of his landlord the fined apartment in the uni-
verfe, lidens with rapture to the drolling ballad-finger,
and wonders at the rude wooden cuts that adorn his
ruder compofitions. A child looks upon his native vil¬
lage as a town ; upon the brook that runs by as a ri¬
ver ; and upon the meadows and hills in the neighbour¬
hood as the mod fpacious and beautiful that can be.
But when, after long abfence, he returns in his de¬
clining years, to vifit, once before he die, the dear fpot
that gave him birth, and thofe feenes whereof he re¬
members rather the original charms than the exaft pro¬
portions ; how is he difappointed to find every thing fo
debafed and fo diminiflied! The hills feem to have funk
into the ground, the brook to be dried up, and the vil¬
lage to be forfaken of its people ; the parifli-church,
dripped of all its fancied magnificence, is become low,
gloomy, and narrow; and the fields are now only the
miniature of what they were. Had he never left this
fpot, his notions might have remained the fame as at
fird ; and had he travelled but a little way from it, they
would not perhaps have received any material enlarge¬
ment. It feems then to be from obfervation of many
things of the fame or fimilar kinds, that we acquire the
talent of forming ideas more perfect than the real ob-
jefts that lie immediately around us : and thefe ideas we
may improve gradually more and more, according to the
vivacity of our mind, and extent of Q.ur experience, till at
TRY. partl
lad wc come to raife them to a degree of perfc&ion fu- Of
perior to any thing to be found in real life. There can- Nature i
not fure be any mydery in this dobtrine ; for we think
and fpeak to the fame purpofe every day. Thus nothing
is more common than to fay, that fuch an artid excels
all we have ever known in his profeffion, and yet that
we can dill conceive a fuperior performance. A mo-
ralid, by bringing together into one view the feparate
virtues of many perfons, is enabled to lay down a fyf.
tern of duty more perfect than any he has ever feen ex¬
emplified in human conduct. Whatever be the emo¬
tion the poet intends to raife in hk reader, whether ad¬
miration or terror, joy or fovrow ; and whatever be the
objebt he would exhibit, whether Venus or Tifiphone,
Achilles or Therfites, a palace or a pile of ruins, a
dance or a battle ; he generally copies an idea of his
own imagination ; conlidering each quality as it is
found to exid in feveral individuals ©f a fpecies, and
thence forming an afiemblage more or lefs perfect in its
kind, according to the purpofe to which he means to
apply it.
Hence it would appear, that the ideas of poetry are poetjca|
rather general than fingular ; rather collected from the conceptioi
examination of a fpecies or clafs of things, than copiedmuft beg
from an individual. And this, according to Ariftotle,nfral
is in fabt the cafe, at leaft for the moft part; whence
that critic determines, that poetry is fomething more
exquifite and more philofophical than hiftory *. The hi- * Poetiu
ftorian may deferibe Bucephalus, but the poet delineates § 9-
a war-horfe ; the former muft have feen the animal he
fpeaks of, or received authentic information concern¬
ing it, if he mean to deferibe it hiftorically; for the
latter, it is enough that he has feen feveral animals
of that fort. The former tells us, what Achilles ac¬
tually did and faid; the latter, what fuch a fpecies of
human character as that which bears tlie name of Achil¬
les would probably do or fay in certain given circum-
ftances.
It is inded true, that the poet may, and often does,
copy after individual objetts. Homer, no doubt, took
his characters from the life; or at leaft, in forming
them, was careful to follow tradition as far as the na¬
ture of his plan would allow. But he probably took
the freedom to add or heighten fome qualities, and:
take away others; to make Achilles, for example,
ftronger, perhaps, and more impetuous, and more emi¬
nent for filial affeCtion, and HeCtor more patriotic and'
more amiable than he really was. If he had not done
this, or fomething like it, his work would have been
rather a hiftory than a poem; would have exhibited
men and things as they were, and not as they might
have been ; and Achilles zn&HeSor would have been the*
names of individual and real heroes ; whereas, according',
to Ariftotle, they are rather to be confidered as two
diftinCt modifications or fpecies of the heroic character.
Shakefpeare’s account of the cliffs of Dover comes fo
near the truth, that we cannot doubt of its having been
written by one who had feen them : but he who takes
it for an exaCt hiftorical defeription, will be furpriied
when he comes to the place, and finds thofe cliffs not
half fo lofty as the poet had made him believe. An
hiftorian would be to blame for fuch amplification;
becaufe-, being to deferibe an individual precipice, he
ought to tell us juft what it is ; which if he did, the
defeription would fuit that place, and perhaps no other
■MMMi
Ft I. ^ E
if In the whole world. But the poet means only to give
j4 ue in an idea of what fuch a precipice may be ; and therefore
j :try his defcription may perhaps be equally applicable to
^ < ' many fuch chalky precipices on the fea-fhore.
This method of copying after general ideas formed
by the artift from obfervation of many individuals, di-
ftinguiihes the Italian and all the fublime painters,
from the Dutch and their imitators. Thefe give m
bare nature, with the imperfe&ions and peculiarities
of individual things or perfens; but thofe give nature
improved as 'far as probability and the defign of the
piece will admit. Teniers and Hogarth draw faces,
and figures, and dreffes, from real life, and preient man
ners; and therefore their pieces mu ft in fome degree
lofe the effeft, and become aukward, when the prefect
u fafhions become obfolete. Raphael and Reynolds
fn der to ^alce their models from general nature ; avoiding, as
l’1 c aU far as poflible, (at leaft in all their great performances),
CU tries thofe peculiarities that derive their beauty from mere
fafhion ; and therefore their works muft give pleafure,
and appear elegant, as long as men are capable of form¬
ing general ideas, and of judging from them. The
laft-mentioned incomparable artift is particularly ob-
fervant of children, whofe looks and attitudes, being
lefs under the controul of art and local mannei s, are
more characleriftical of the fpecies than thofe of men
and women. This field of obfervation has fupplied
him with many fine figures, particularly that moft ex-
quifite one of Comedy, ftrugglingfor and winning (for
who could refift her! )*tbe affections of Garrick: a
figure which could never have occurred to the imagi¬
nation of a painter who had confined his views to
grown perfons looking and moving in all the forma¬
lity of polite life ; — a figure which in all ages and coun¬
tries would be pronounced natural and engaging; —
whereas thofe human forms that we fee every day bow¬
ing and courtefying, and ftrutting, and turning out
their toes fecundum artem, and drefled m ruffles, and
wigs, and flounces, and hoop-petticoats, and full-trim¬
med fuits, would appear elegant no further than the
prefent fafhions are propagated, and no longer than
they remain unaltered.
« .period There is, in the progrefs of human fociety, as well
i he pro. as of human life, a period to which it is of great im-
j- ct hu- portance for the higher order of poets to attend, and
i fociety j- which they will do well to take their charaClers,
* c and and manners, and the era of their events; namely,
i ?tc poets that wherein men are raifed above favage life, and con-
4 old at* fiderably improved by arts, government, and conver-
fation ; but n°t advanced fo high in the afcent towards
politenefs, as to have acquired a habit of difguifing
their thoughts and paflions, and of reducing their be¬
haviour to the uniformity of the mode. Such was the
period which Homer had the good fortune (as a poet)
to live in, and to celebrate. This is the period at which
the manners of men are moft picturefque, and their
adventures moft romantic. This is the period when
the appetites unperverted by luxury, the powers un¬
enervated by effeminacy, and the thoughts diftngaged
from artificial reftraint, will, in perfons of fimilar dif-
pofitions and circumftances, operate in nearly the fame
way ; and when, confequently, the characters of par¬
ticular men will approach to the nature of poetical or
general ideas, and, if well imitated, give pleaiure to the
wnole, or at leaft to a great majority of mankind.
TRY. _ £79
But a chara&er tinCtured with the fafhions of polite life Of Poetical
would not be fo generally interefting. Like a human Char^<;rif
figure adjufted by a modern dancing-mafter, and dref-
fed by a modern tailor, it may have a good effect: in
fatire, comedy, or farce: but if introduced into the
higher poetry, it would be admired by thofe only who
had learned to admire nothing but prefent fafhions,
and by them no longer than the prefent fafhions laft-
ed ; and to all the reft of the world would appear auk¬
ward, unaffeCting, and perhaps ridiculous. But A-
chilles and Sarpedon, Diomede and HeCtor, Neftor
and Ulyffes, as drawn by Homer, muft in all ages, in¬
dependently on fafhion, command the attention and ad¬
miration of mankind. Thefe have the qualities that
are univerfally known to belong to human nature}
whereas the modern line gentleman is diftinguifhed by
qualities that belong only to a particular age, fociety,
and corner of the world. We fpeak not of moral or
intellectual virtues, which are objeCts of admiration to
every age ; but of thofe outward accomplifhments, and
that particular temperature of the paflions, which form
the moft perceptible part of a human character. 
As, therefore, the politician, in difeuffing the rights of
mankind, muft often allude to an imaginary ftate of na¬
ture ; fo the poet who intends to raife admiration, pity,
terror, and other important emotions, in the general ty
of mankind, efpecially in thofe readers whofe minds are
moft improved, muft take his pictures of life and man¬
ners, rather from the heroic period we now fpeak of,
than from the ages of refinement; and muft therefore
(to repeat the maxim of Ariftotle) “ exhibit things, not
as they are, but as they might be.”
Sect. IV. Of Poetical Characters.
24
Horace feems to think, that a competent know-Rc-quifncs
ledge of moral philofophy will fit an author for
ing the fuitable qualities and duties to each poetical })0etitaj
perfonage : (Art. Poet. v. 309.—316.) The maxim chara&ers j
may be true, as far as mere morality is the aim of
the poet ; but cannot be underftood to refer to the de¬
lineation of poetical characters in general: for a thorough
acquaintance with all the moral philofophy in the world
would not have enabled Blackmore to paint fuch a per¬
fonage as Homer’s Achilles, Shakefpeare’s Othello, or
the Satan of Paradife Loft. To a competency of mo¬
ral fcience, there muft be added an extenfive knowledge
of mankind, a warm and elevated imagination, and the
greateft fenfibility of heart, before a genius can be
formed equal to fo difficult a talk. Horace is in¬
deed fo fenfible of the danger of introducing a new
character in poetry, that he even difeourages the at¬
tempt, and advifes the poet rather to take his perfons
from the ancient authors, or from tradition : Jbid. v.
119.—130.
To conceive the idea of a good man, and to invent
and fupport a great poetical character, are two very
different things, however they may feem to have been
confounded by lome late critics. The firft is eafy to
any perfon fufficiently inftruCted in the duties of life : ,
the laft is perhaps of all the efforts of human genius
the moft difficult ; fo very difficult, that, though at¬
tempted by many, Homer, Shakefpeare, and Milton,
are almoft tin* only authors who have fueceeded in it.
But characters of perfeCt virtue are not the moft pro-
Z 2 > ' per
25
Which,
i So POE
Of Poet'calper for poetry. It feems to be agx-eed, that the Dei-
L-haradcrs. ty. {jjould not be introduced in the machinery of a poe-
w—tical fable. To afcribe to him words and adtions of
our own invention, feems very unbecoming ; nor can
a poetical defcription, that is known to. be, and mull
of necelSty be, infinitely inadequate, ever fatisfy the
human mind. Poetry, according to the beft critics,
though ele-an imitation of human adlion ; and therefore poeti-
cal characters, though elevated, fhould Hill partake of
t ake of^the palhons and frailties of humanity. If it were not
frailties of for the vices of fome principal perfonages, the Iliad
humanity; would not be either- fo interefting or fo moral: the
moll moving and mod eventful parts of the iEneid are
thofe that defcribe the effefts of unlawful paffion :—
the moll inftractive tragedy in the world, we mean
Macbeth, is founded in crimes of dreadful enormity :
— and if Milton had not taken into his plan the fall of
our fir ft parents, as well as their Hate of innocence,
his divine poem mull have wanted much of its pathos,
and could not have been (what it now is) fuch a trea-
fure of important knowledge, as no other uninfpired
writer ever comprehended in fo fmall a compals. 
Virtue, like truth, is uniform and unchangeable. We
may anticipate the part a good man will aCt in any gi¬
ven circumftances : and therefore the events that de¬
pend on fuch a man mull be lefs furprifing than thofe
which proceed from paffion ; the viciffitudes whereof
it is frequently impoffible to forefee. From the vio¬
lent temper of Achilles, in the Iliad, fpring many great
incidents; which could not have taken place, if he had
been calm and prudent like Ulylfes, or pious and pa¬
triotic like Eneas; — his rejeftion of Agamemnon’s of¬
fers, in the ninth book, arifes from the violence of his
refentment; — his yielding to the requeft of Patroclus,
in the 16th, from the violence of his friendfhip (if we
may fo fpeak) counteradling his refentment ; and his
lettoring to Priam the dead body of Heftor, in the
24th, from the violence of his affeClion to his own aged
father, and his regard to the command of Jupiter, eoun-
terafting, in fome meafure, both his furrow for his
friend, and his thiril for vengeance. Belides, ex¬
cept where there is fome degree of vice, it pains us too
exquifitely to fee misfortune; and therefore poetry
would ceafe to have a pleafurable influence over our ten¬
der paffions, if it were to exhibit virtuous chara£lers only.
And as in life, evil is neceffary to our moral probation,
and the poffibility of error to our intelleftual improve¬
ment ; fo bad or mixed characters are ufeful in poetry,
to give to the good fuch oppofition, as puts them upon
difplaying and exerciling their virtue.
Whilft the All thofe perfonages, however, in whofe fortune
perfonages the p()et means that we Ihould be interefted, mull have
agreeable and admirable qualities to recommend them
poet means t0 our regard. And perhaps the greatell difficulty in
that we the art lies in fuitably blending thofe faults which the
fhould be
interefted
ought to —       
have good
and great
qualities.
R Y.
Pan I.
poet finds it expedient to give to any particular hero, Of Poetical
with fuch moral, intellectual, or coporeal accomplifti- Characters,
v—j
ments, as may engage our eiteem, pity, or admira¬
tion, without weakening our hatred of vice, or love
of virtue. In molt of our novels, and in many of our
plays, it happens unluckily, that the hero of the piece
is fo captivating, as to incline us to be indulgent to
every part of his character, the bad as well as the
good. But a great mailer knows how to give the pro¬
per direction to human fenlibility; and, without any
perverlion of our faculties, or any confufion of right
and wrong, to make the fame perfon the object of
very different emotions, of pity and hatred, of admi¬
ration and horror. Who does not elleem and admire
Macbeth for his courage and generofity i who does
not pity him when befet with all the terrors of a preg¬
nant imagination, fuperllitious temper, and awakened
confcience ? who does not abhor him as a monller of
cruelty, treachery, and ingratitude ? His good quali¬
ties, by drawing us near to him, make us, as it were,
eye-witneffes of his crime, and give us a fellow-feel¬
ing of his remorfe ; and therefore, his example cannot
fail to have a powerful effect in cherilhing our love of
virtue, and fortifying our minds againft criminal im-
preffions : whereas, had he wanted thofe good quali¬
ties, we Ihould have kept aloof from his concerns, or
viewed them with a fuperficial attention ; in which cafe
his example would have had little more weight than
that of the robber, of whom we know nothing, but
that he was tried, condemned, and executed.—Satan,
in Paradife Loll, is a charafter drawn and fupported
with the moll confummate judgment. The old furies
and demons, Hecate, Tifiphone, Ale£lo, Megara, are
objects of unmixed and unmitigated abhorrence ; Ti-
tyus, Enceladus, and their brethren, are remarkable
for nothing but impiety, deformity, and valtnefs of lize;
Pluto is, at bell, an infipid perfonage; Mars, a hair¬
brained ruffian ; Taffo’s infernal tyrant, an ugly and
overgrown monller:—but in the Miltonic Satan, we
are forced to admire the majelly of the ruined arch¬
angel, at the fame time that we deleft the unconquer¬
able depravity of the fiend. “ But, of all poetical cha-
rafters, (fays the elegant critic from whom we are E/«y*
extrafting), the Achilles of Homer (d) feems to me
the moft exquifite of invention, and the moll highly
finilhed. The utility of this charafter in a moral view
is obvious ; for it may be confidered as the fource of
all the morality of the Iliad. Had not the generous
and violent temper of Achilles determined him to pa-
tronife the augur Calchas in defiance of Agamemnon,
and afterwards, on being affronted by that vindiftive
commander, to abandon for a time the common caufe
of Greece ; — the fatal effefts of diffenfion among confe¬
derates, and of capricious and tyrannical behaviour in a
fovereign, would not have been the leading moral of
Homer’s
(d) “ I fay the Achilles of Homer. Latter authors have degraded the charafter of this hero, by fuppofing
every part of his body invulnerable except the heel. I know not how often I have heard tins urged as one of
Homer’s abfurdities; and indeed the whole Iliad is one continued abfurdky, on this fuppolition. But Ho¬
mer all along makes his hero equally liable to wounds and death with other men. Nay, to prevent all mi-
ftakes in regard to this matter, (if thofe who cavil at the poet would but read his work), he aftually wounds
him in the right arm by the lance of Afteropaeus, in the battle near the river Seamander.” SucJ/iaf xxh
ver. 161.—168.
P,nl. ' POE
J CticalHomer’s poetry; nor coaM HeSor, Sarpedon, Eneas,
Ch; ‘ft61-1” Ulyffes, and the other amiable heroes, have been bi ought
u-  forward to fignalize their virtues, and to recommend
themfelves to the elleem and imitation of mankind.
I J' u They who form their judgment of Achilles from
alnhcthe imperfect (Iretch given of him by Horace in the
E,.1,i Ar; of Poetry, (v. 121, 122.) ; and confide.- him only
cba[itfcr as a hateful compofition of anger, revenge, fieiceneis,
,,f, hilleC’obftinacy, and pride, can never enter into the views of.
^ Homer, nor be fuitably affeded with his narration.
AH thefe vices are no doubt, in fome degree, combin¬
ed in Achilles; but they are tempered with qualities
of a different fort, which render him a moil mterell-
ing character, and of courfe make the Iliad a moil in-
tereiling poem. Every reader abhors the faults of this
hero : and yet,, to an attentive reader of Homer, this
hero muff be the objed of efteem, admiration, and
pity ; for he has many good as well as bad affections,
and is equally violent in all: —Nor is he poffeffed of a
fmgle vice or virtue, which the wonderful art-of the
poet has not made fubfervient to the deiign of the
poem, and to the progrefs and cataffrophe of the ac¬
tion; fo that the hero.of the Iliad, coniidered as a
poetical perfonage, is juft what he ihould be, neither
greater nor lefs, neither worfe nor better. He is every
where diftinguiihed by an abhorrem . of oppieffion,
by a liberal and elevated mind, by a paffion for glory,
and by a love of truth, freedom, and iincerity. He is
for the moil part attentive to the duties of religion ;
and, except to thofe who have injured him, couiteous
and kind : he is affedionate to his tutor Phenix ; and
not only pities the misfortunes of his enemy Priam,
but in the moft foothing manner adminifters to him
the bell confolation that Homer’s poor theology could
furnifh. Though no admirer of the caufe in which his
evil deftiny compels him to engage, he is warmly at¬
tached to his native land ; and, ardent as he is in ven¬
geance, he is equally fo in love to his aged father Pe-
leus, and to his friend Patroclus. He is not luxuri¬
ous like Paris, nor clownifh like Ajax ; his accom-
plilhments are princely, and his amufements worthy
of a hero. Add to tliis, as an apology for the vehe¬
mence of his anger, that the affront- he had received
was (according to the manners of that age) of the moft
atrocious nature ; and not only unprovoked, but fuch
as, on the part of Agamemnon, betrayed a brutal m-
fenfibility to merit, as well as a proud, felaih, ungrate¬
ful, and tyrannical difpofttion. And though he is of¬
ten inexcufably furious; yet it is but juftice to re¬
mark, that he was not naturaUy cruel (e) ; and. that
his wildeft outrages were fuch as in thole rude times
might be expected from a violent man of invincible
ftrength and valour, when exafperated by injury, and
frantic with forrow. Our hero’s claim to the ad¬
miration of mankind is indifputable. Every part of
his charadter is fublime and aftonilhing. In his per-
fon, he is the ftrongeft, the fwifteft, the moft beauti¬
ful of men :—this laft circumftance, however,. occurs
not to his own obfervation, being too trivial to attract
U Y.
18 r
the notice of fo great a mind. The Fates had put it Of Poetical
in his power, either to return home before the end of khar^&ers.
the war, or to remain at Troy : —if he chofe the for¬
mer, he would enjoy tranquillity and happinefs in his
own country to a good old age ; if the latter, he mail
perilh in the bloom of his youth :—his affedlion to his
father and native country, and his hatred to Agamem¬
non, ftrongly urged him to the firft; but a defire to
avenge the death of his friend determines him to ac¬
cept the laft, with all its confequences. This at once
difplays the greatnefs of his fortitude, the warmth of
his friendlhip, and the violence of his fanguinary paf-
lions: and it is this that fo often and fo powerfully'
recommends him to the pity, as well as admiration, of
the attentive reader.” aS
It is equally a proof of rich invention and exadl Of iiH ffo-
judgment in Homer, that he mixes fome good ftua^"^A{(.3rbcha'*
ties in all his bad characters, and fome degree of im-
perfection in almoft all his good ones. Agamem¬
non, nothwithftanding his pride, is an able general, and
a valiant man, and highly eftecmed as Inch by the
greater part of the army. Paris, though effemi¬
nate, and vain of his drefs and per fan, is, however,
good-natured, patient of reproof, not deftitute of
coinage, and eminently {killed in muftc and other fine
arts. Ajax is a huge giant; fearlefs rather from
infallibility to danger, and confidence in his maffy
arms, than from any nobler principle; boaftful and
rough ; regardlefs of the gods, though not downright
impious : yet there is in his manner fomething of Beattir,
fraiiknefs and blunt fmcerity, which entitle him to autfupra-
{hare in our efteem; and he is ever ready to afftil his
countrymen, to whom/ he renders good fervice on
many a perilous emergency. The characler of He¬
len, in fpite of her faults, and of the many calamities
whereof {he is the guilty caufe, Homer has found means
to recommend to our pity, and almoft to our love; and
this he does, without feeking to extenuate the crime
of Paris, of which the moft refpeftable perfonages in
the poem are made to fpeak with becoming abhorrence.
She is fo full of remorfe, fo ready on every occafioti
to condemn her paft conduft, fo affeftionate to her
friends, fo willing to do juftice to every body’s merit,
and withal fo finely accompliihed, that {he extorts our
admiration, as well as that of the Trojan fenators. 
Menelaus, though fufficiently fenfible of the injury
he had received, is yet a man of moderation, clemency,
and good- nature, a valiant foldier, and a moft affec¬
tionate brother: but there isadafiiof vanity in his com¬
pofition, and he entertains rather too high an opinion
of his own abilities, yet never overlooks nor underva¬
lues the merit of others. Priam would claim un-
referved efteem, as well as pity, if it were not for his
inexcufeable weaknefs, in gratifying the humour, and
by indulgence abetting the crimes, of the moft worth-
lefs of all his children, to the utter ruin of his people, .
family, and kingdom. Madame Dacier fuppofes, that he
had loft his authority, and was obliged to fall in with.
the politics of the times : but of this there appears no
evidence j.
(E) See Iliadxxi. too. and xxiv. 485.—673. In the firft of thefe paffages, Achilles himftlf declares*-
that before Patroclus was {lain, he often fpared the lives of his enemies, and took pleafure in doing it. It is
ftrange, as p)r Beattie obferves, that this Ihould. be left out in Pope’s Tranflation.
it§ s POE
of Poetica’ evidence 5 on the cotttrsrvv he and his unworthy favou-
Charadlerf. r;te parj3 fcem to have been the only perform of di-
ftindfion in Troy who were averfe to the reftoring of He¬
len, Priam’s foible (if it can be called by fo foft a
name), however faulty, is not uncommon, and has of¬
ten produced calamity both in private and public life.
The Scripture gives a memorable inilance in the hiftory
of the good old Eli. Sarpedon comes nearer a per¬
fect char after than any other of Homer’s heroes ; but
the part he has to aft i"s (hort. It is a chara&er which
one could hardly have expefted in thofe rude times : a
fovereign prince, who confiders himfelf as a magiltrate
fet up "by the people for the public good, and therefore
bound in honour and gratitude to be himfelf their ex¬
ample, and ftudy to excel as much in virtue as in rank
and authority.—— Heftor is the favourite of every rea¬
der, and with good reafon. To the trueft valour he
joins the molt generous patriotifm. He abominates the
crime of Paris: but not being able to prevent the war,
he thinks it his duty to defend his country, and his fa¬
ther and fovereign, to the laft. He too, as well as A-
chiiles, forefees his own death ; which heightens our
compaffion, and raifes our idea of his magnanimity. In
all the relations of private life, as a fon, a father, a huf-
band, a brother, he is amiable in the higheft degree ;
and he is diftinguifhed among all the heroes for tender-
nefs of affeftion, gentlenefs of manners, and a pious re¬
gard to the duties of religion. One circumftanee of his
character, ftrongly cxpreflive# of a great and delicate
mind, we learn from Helen’s lamentation over his dead
body, that he was aimoft the only perfon in Troy who
had always treated her with kindnefs, and never uttered
*)ce reproachful word to give her pain, nor heard others
reproach her without blaming them for it. Some ten¬
dency to oilentation (which, however, may be pardon¬
able in a commander in chief), and temporary fits of
timidity, are the only blemifhes difcoverable .in this he¬
ro ; whofe portrait Homer appears to have drawn with
an affettionate and peculiar attention.
By aferibing fo many amiable qualities to Hedlor and
fome others of the Trojans, the poet interefts us in the
fate of that people, notwithllanding our being conti¬
nually kept in mind that they are the injurious party.
And by thus blending good and evil, virtue and frailty,
in the compofition of his chara&ers, he makes them
the more conformable to the real appearances of human
nature, and more ufeful as examples for our improve¬
ment ; and at the fame time, without hurting verifimi-
litude, gives every neceflary embellilhment to particular
parts of his poem, and variety, coherence, and anima¬
tion, to the whole fable. And it may alio be obferved,
that though feveral of his characters are complex, not
one of them is made up of incompatible parts: all are
natural and probable, and fuch as we think we have
met with, or might have met with, in our intercourfe
with mankind.
From the fame extenfive views of good and evil, in all
their forms and combinations, Homer has been enabled
to make each of his characters perfectly diltir.Ct in it-
felf, and different from all the relt; infomuch, that be¬
fore we come to the end of the Iliad, we are as well ac-
19 quainted with his heroes, as with the faces and tempers
'Wrgjl of our molt familiar friends. Virgil, by confining him-
-d raw hie t0 a. feW &cnera* ideas f,delity and fortitude, has
characters. nyide fubordinate heroes a very good fort of people;
TRY. partI
but they are all the fame, and we have no' clear know- Of p0c,ic
ledge of any one of them. Achates is faithful, and ^ara<5br
Gyas is brave, and Cloanthus is brave; and this is all —'
we can fay of the matter. We fee thefe heroes at a
dillance, and have fome notion of their lhape and fize ;
but are not near enough to diflinguifh their features; -
and every face feems to exhibit the fame faint and am¬
biguous appearance. But of Homer’s heroes we know
every particular that can be known. We eat, and drink,
and talk, and fight, with them: we fee them in aCtion
and out of it; in the field and in their tents and houfes:
the very face of the country about Troy we feem to be
as well acquainted with as if we had been there. Si¬
milar characters there are among thefe heroes, as there
are fimilar faces in every fociety ; but we never miftake
one for another. Neflor and Ulyffes are both wife and
both eloquent: but the wifdom of the former feems to
be the effeCt of experience; that of the latter of genius:
the eloquence of the one is fweet and copious, but not
always to the purpofe, and apt to degenerate into ftory-
telling ; that of the other is clofe, emphatical, and per-
fuafive, and accompanied with a peculiar modefty and
fimplicity of manner. Homer’s heroes are all valiant;
yet each difplays a modification of valour peculiar to
himfelf; one is valiant from principle, another from con-
«ftitutibn ; one is rafh, another cautious ; one is impe¬
tuous and headltrong, another impetuous, but tradable;
one is cruel, another merciful; one is infolent and often-
tatious, another gentle and unafiuming; one is vain of
his perfon, another of his ftrength, and a third of his
family. It would be tedious to give a complete enu¬
meration. Aimoft every fpecies of the heroic charac¬
ter is to be found in Homer.
Of the agents in Paradife Loft, it has been obferved*, * Jduftn:
that “ the weakeft are the highell and nobleft of human
beings, the original parents of mankind; with whole
aClions the elements confented; on whofe reCtitude or
deviation of will depended the ftate of terrellrial nature,
and the condition of all the future inhabitants of the
globe. Of the other agents in the poem, the chief are
fuch as it is irreverence to name on flight occafions : the
reft are lower powers ;
•P
 Of which the leaf! could wield The diffi-
Thefe elements, and arm him with the force tulry of
Of all their regions : S®.
Powers, which only the controul of Omnipotence re-
ft rains from laying creation wafte, and filling the vail ra^as in
expanfe of fpace with ruin and confufion. To difplay Paradife
the motives and actions of beings thus fuperior, fo far as Loft,
human reafon can examine, or human imagination re-
prefent them, is the talk which Milton undertook and
performed. The charadfers in tire Paradife Loft, which
admit of examination, are thofe of angels and of men :
of angels good and evil; of man in his innocent and
fulfill ftate. 31
“ Among the angels, the virtue of Raphael is mild and Mift i>’*
placid, of eafy condefcenfion, and free communication:^^1,:
that of Michael is regal and lofty, attentive to the dig-funder
nity of his own nature. Abdiel and Gabriel appear oc-taking.
Cafiottally, and adl as every incident requires : the loli-
tary fidelity of Abdiel is very amiably painted.
“ Of the evil angels, the charadfers are more diver-
fitied. To Satan, fuch fentirnents are given as fuit the
moil
•*4 0 ?> CVS
ptl. POE
of iftica'tnoft exalted and mod depraved being. Milton has
Ct Jiter‘ been cenfured for the impiety which fometimes breaks
*~~~ from Satan’s month; for there are thoughts, it is juftly
remarked, which no obfervation of character can juftify;
becaufe no good man would willingly permit them to
pafs, however tranfiently, through his mind. This cen-
fure has been Ihown to be groundlefs by the great critic
from whom we quote. To make Satan fpeak as a rebel,
favs he, without any fuch expreffions as might taint the
readers imagination, was indeed one of the great diffi¬
culties in Milton’s undertaking; and I cannot but think
that he has extricated himfelf with great happinefs.
There is in Satan’s fpeeches little that can give pain to
a pious ear. The language of rebellion cannot be the
fame with that of obedience : the malignity of Satan
foams in haughtinefs and obftinacy ; but his expreffions
are commonly general, and no otherwife offenfive than
as they are wicked.—The other chiefs of the celeltial
rebellion are very judicioufly diferiminated ; and the fe¬
rocious character of Moloch appears, both in the battle
and in the council, with exaft confiftency.
“ To Adam and to Eve are given, during their in¬
nocence, fuch fentiments as innocence can generate and
utter. Their love is pure benevolence and mutual vene¬
ration ; their repafts are without luxury, and their di¬
ligence without toil. Their addreffes to their Maker
have little more than the voice of admiration and grati¬
tude : fruition left them nothing to afk, and innocence
left them nothing to fear. But with guilt enter dif-
truft and difeord, mutual accufation and ftubborn felf-
defence : they regard each other with alienated minds,
and dread their Creator as the avenger of their tranf-
greffion ; at laft, they feek fhelter in his mercy, foften
to repentance, and melt in Application. Both before
and after the fall, the different fentiments arifmg from
difference of fex are traced out with inimitable delica¬
cy and philofophical propriety. Adam has always that
pre-eminence in dignity, and Eve in lovehnefs, which
we fhould naturally look for in the father and mother
of mankind.”
«
n;
From what has been faid, it feems abundantly evident,
— That the end of poetry is to pleafe; and therefore
that the moll perfeft poetry muft be the moll plealing;
—that what is unnatural cannot give pleafure; and
therefore that poetry mufl be according to nature : —
that it muft be either according to real nature, or ac¬
cording to nature fomewhat different from the reality;
n —that, if according to real nature, it would give no
:ry ac- greater pleafure than hiftory, which is a tranfeript of
ing to real nature ;—that greater pleafure is, however, to be
ed to" exPefte.<i from lt-> becaufe we grant it fuperior indul-
degrte 6ence> 'n regard to fidtion, and the choice of words ;—
ch is and> confequently, that poetry muft be, not according
iftent to real nature, but according to nature improved to that
lity°" ^effree wbich is confiftent with probability and fuitable
to the poet s purpofe. — And hence it is that we call
poetry, imitation of nature.—For that which is pro¬
perly termed imitation has always in it fomething which
is not in the original. If the prototype and tranfeript
.e exaftlY ^ike; if there be nothing in the one which
is not in the other; we may call the latter a reprefenta-
tton, a copy, * draught, or a pitlure, of the former ; but
■'fce never call it an imitation^
TRY.
13.1
Sect. V. Of Arrangement, Vniiy, DigreJJlons.
—Further remarks on Nature in Poetry.
Of Poetical
Arr?nge-
ment, &c.
I. The origin of nations, and the beginnings of great
events, are little known, and feldom interefting; whence
the firft part of every hiftory, compared with thefequel, ^
is fomewnat dry and tedious. But a poet muft, even in how a
the beginning of his work, intereft the readers, and raife poem
high expeftation; not by any affedled pomp of ftyle,<>u2ht to
far lefs by ample promifes or bold profeffions ; but by
fetting immediately before them fome -incident, ftriking
enough to raife curiofity, in regard both to its caufes
and to its confequences. He muft therefore take up
his ftory, not at the beginning, but in the middle; or
rather, to prevent the work from being too long, as
near the end as poffihle ; and afterwards take fome pro¬
per opportunity to inform us of the preceding events,
in the way of narrative, or by converfation of the perfons
introduced, or by fhort and natural digreffions.
The adtion of both the Iliad and Odyjfey begins about
fix weeks before its. conclufion ; although the principal
events of the war of Troy are to be found in the former;
and the adventures of a ten years voyage, followed by
the fuppreffion of a dangerous domeftic enemy, in the
latter. One of the firft things mentioned by Homer in
the Iliad, is a plague, which Apollo in anger fent into
the Grecian army commanded by Agamemnon and
now encamped before Troy. V/ho this Agamemnon
was, and who the Grecians were; for what reafon they
had come hither ; how long the ftege had lafted ; what
memorable adtions had been already performed ; and in
what condition both parties now were ; — all this, and
much more, we foou learn from occafional hints and
converfations interfperfed through the poem.
In the /Eneid, which, though it comprehends the
tranfadlions of feven years, opens within a few months
of the concluding event, we are firft prefented with a
view of the Trojan fleet at fea, and no lefs a perfon than
Juno interefting herfelf to raife a ftorm for their deftruc-
tion. This excites a curiofity to know lomething fur¬
ther : who thefe Trojans were, whence they had come,
and whither they were bound; why they had left their
own country, and what had befallen them lince they
left it. On all thefe points, the poet, without quitting
the track of his narrative, foon gives the fulleft informa¬
tion: The ftorm rifes; the Trojans are driven to Africa,
and hofpitably received by the queen of the country; at
whofe defire their commander relates his adventures.
The action of Paradife Lojl commences not many
days before Adam and Eve are expelled from the garden
of Eden, which is the concluding event. This poem,
as its plan is incomparably more fublime and more im¬
portant than that of either the Iliad or iEneid, open»;
with a far more interefting feene : a multitude of angels
and archangels ftmt up in a region of torment and dark-
nefs, and rolling on a lake of unquenchable fire. Who-
thefe angels are, and what brought them into this mi-
ferable condition, we naturally wifh to know; and the
poet in due time informs us ; partly from the converfa¬
tion of the fiends themfelves; and more particularly by
the mouth of a happy fpirit, fent from heaven to caution
the father and mother of mankind againft temptation,^
and confirm their good refolutions by unfolding the
dreadful effedis of impiety and difobedience,
7, Thu’
r
*'84
Of Poetica!
Arrange^
merit, (See.
V " 0 E
This poetical arrangement of events, fo different from
the hiftorical, has other advantages beiides thole an¬
ting from brevity and compact nets of detail: it is ob-
vioufly more affecting to the fancy, and more alarming
to the paffions ; and, being more fuitable to the order
and the manner in which the aftions of other men itrifces
Beattie,
Ut fupra
34    
^es^theour ffnfes, is a more exact imitation of human affairs,
poetical ar! I hear a hidden noife in the ftteet, and run to fee what
rsngement. is the matteri An iniurrebtion has happened, a great
multitude is brought together, and fomething very im¬
portant is going forward. The feene before me is the
firlt thing that engages my attention ; and is in itfelf la
interefting, that for a moment or two I look at it in
iilence and wonder. By and by, when I get time for
refle&ion, I begin to inquire into the eaufe of all this
tumult, and what it is the people would be at; and
one who is better informed than I, explains the affair
from the beginning ; or perhaps I make this out for
myfelf, from the words and actions of the perfons prin¬
cipally concerned.—This is a fort of piblure of poetical
arrangement, both in epic and dramatic compofition ;
and this plan has been followed in narrative odes and
ballads both ancient and moderm—The hiltorian puriues
a different method. He begins perhaps with an account
of the manners of a certain age, and of the political con-
ftitution of a certain country ; then introduces a parti¬
cular perfon, gives -the ftory of his birth, conne&ions,
private character, purfuits, difappointments, and of the
events that promoted his views, and brought him ac¬
quainted with other turbulent fpirits like himfelf; and
fo proceeds, unfolding, according to the order of time,
the caufes, principles, and progrefs of the confpiracy,
if that be the fubjett which he undertakes to illuftrate.
It cannot be denied, that this latter method is more
favourable to calm information : but the former, com¬
pared with it, will be found to have all the advantages
already fpecified, and to be more effeftually produ&ive
of that mental pleafure which depends on the paffions
and imagination.
II. If a work have no determinate end, it has no
meaning ; and if it have many ends, it will diftraft by
its multiplicity. Unity of defign, therefore, belongs
* 35 r
IJnlty of
iefiim ne-
ceffary to
its tuiuupin.ii-y. vm.  
the higher jn fome meafure to all compofitions, whether in verfe or
poetry
^ Arift.
artel. § 8.
profe. But to fome it is more effential than to others ;
and to none fo much as in the higher poetry. In cer¬
tain kinds of hiftory, there is unity fufficient if all the
events recorded be referred to one perfon ; in others,
if to one period of time, or to one people, or even to
the inhabitants of one and the fame planet. But it is
not enough that the fubjett of a poetical fable be the
exploits of one perfon ; for thefe may be of various and
even of oppolite forts and tendencies, and take up longer
time than the nature of poetry can admit :—far lefs can
a regular poem comprehend the affairs of one period or
of one people :—it muff be limited to one great aftion
or event, to the illuftration of which all the fubordinate
events mull contribute ; and thefe mull be fo connefted
with one another, as well as with the poet’s general
purpofe, that one cannot be changed, tranfpofed, or
taken away, without affedting the confillence and liabi¬
lity of the whole *. In itfelf an incident may be in-
terelling, a character well drawn, a defeription beautiful;
and yet, if it disfigure the general plan, or if it obftrudl
or incumber the main adtion, inllead of helping it for¬
ward, a corredt artift. would confider it btit as a gaudy
TRY. Part,
fuperfluity or fplendid defonhity ; like a piece of fcariet Of Pbetc
cloth fewed upon a garment of a different colour f. Not Ariaiige
that all the parts of the fable either are, or can be, equally
effential. Many deferiptions and thoughts, of little con- f Hcr j
fequence to the plan, maybe admitted for the fake of fW. v. i
variety ; and the poet may, as well as the hiftorian and b>';-
philofopher, drop his fubjedt for a time, in Order to take
up an affedling or inilrudlive dsgreffion. 36
III. The doctrine of poetical digreffions and epi-’rhe P>o*
fades has been largely treated by the critics. We fhalljA^b
here only remark, that, in eftimating their propriety, anVepi.1
three thing's are to be attended to :—their connection fo<3e« de.
with the fable or fubjedl; their own peculiar excellence; len(is upo
and their fubferviency to the poet’s defign. ,,
(1.) Thofe digrdfions that both arife from and ter-Their con
minate in the fubjedl, like the epifode of the angel Ra-neftion
phael in Paradife Loft, and the tranfition to the death
Csefar and the civil wars in the firft book of the Ceorgic,
are the moll artful, and if fuitably executed claim the
higheil praife :—thofe that arife from, but do not ter¬
minate in, the fubjedl, are perhaps fecond in the order
of merit ; like the ftory of Dido in the kEneid, and the
encomium on a country life in the fecond book of the
Georgic: —thofe come next that terminate in, but do
not rife from, the fable ; of which there are feveral in
the third book of theTEneid, and in the Odyfley -
and thofe that neither terminate in the fable nor rife
from it are the leaft artful; and if they be long, cannot
efcape cenfure, unlefs their beauty be very great. ^
But (2.) we are willing to excufe a beautiful epifodeThero#i
nt whatever expence to the fubjedl it may be introduced, peculiars
They who can blame Virgil for obtruding upon them the c^eDCC>
charming tale of Orpheus and Euridice in the fourthan
Georgic, or Milton for the apoftrophe to light in the
beginning of his third book, ought to forfeit all title to
the perufal of good poetry ; for of fuch divine ftrains
one would rather be the author than of all the books of
critieifm in the world. Yet Hill it is better that an
epifode poffefs the beauty of connedlion, together with
its own intrinfic elegance, than this without the other. ^
Moreover,, in judging of the propriety of epifodes rheirfd
and other fimilar contrivances, it maybe expedient to ferviency
attend (3.) to the defign of the poet, as diftinguilhed
from the fable or fubjedl of the poem. The great de-0 ‘
fign, for example, of Virgil, was to intereft his coun¬
trymen in a poem written with a view to reconcile them
to the perfon and government of Aliguftus* Whatever,
therefore, in the poem tends to promote this defign,
even though it ftiould in fome degree hurt the contexture
of the fable* is really a proof of the poet’s judgment;
and may be not only allowed, but applauded.—The
progrefs of the adlion of the iEneid may feem to be too
long obftrudled in one place by the ftory of Dido, which,
though it rifes from the preceding part of the poem,
has no influence upon the fequel; and, in another, by
the epifode of Caeus, which, without injury to the fable,
might have been omitted altogether. Yet thefe epifodes,
interefting as they are to us and all mankind becaufe of
the tranfeendant merit of the poetry, mull have been
ftill more interefting to the Romans becaufe of their
connedlion with the Roman affairs ; for the one accounts
poetically for their wars with Carthage ; and the other
not only explains fome of their religious ceremonies, but
alfo gives a moll charming rural pidlure of thofe hills
and valleys in the neighbourhood of the Tiber, on which,
s' -
fill. . . p 0 E
<^1 eetifatlfl after times, tltelr majeftic city was fated to {land.—-
A mp.e- And ^ we confukr, that the defign of Homer’s Iliad
^ &c was not only to (how the fatal effe&s-ef diffenfion among
■ “ confederates, but alfo to immortalize his country, and
celebrate the moft diftinguiihed families in it,_ we (hall
be inclined to think more favourably than critics gene¬
rally do of fome of his long fpeeches and digrefiions ;
which, though to us they may feem trivial, mull have
been very interefting to his countrymen on account of
the genealogies and private hiitory recorded in them.—
Shakefpeare’s hiilorical plays, conlidered as dramatic
fables, and tried by the laws of tragedy and comedy,
appear very rude compofitions ; but if we attend to
# fays on the poet’s defign (as the elegant critic * has with equal
tb iritings truth and beauty explained it), we (hall be forced to
ar, enius oj a(]m,‘re pis judgment in the general conduct of thofe
Sv pieceS5 as well as unequalled fuccefs in the execution
of particular parts.
There is yet another point of view in which thefe
digrefiions may be confidered. If they tend to eluci¬
date any important character, or to introduce any in¬
terefting event not otherwife within the compafs of the
poem, or to give an amiable difplay of any particular
virtue, they may be intitled, not to our pardon only,
but even to our admiration, however loofely they may
hang upon the fable. All thefe three ends are effected
by that moft beautiful epifode of He&or and Andro¬
mache in the fixth book of the Iliad ; and the two laft,
by the no lefs beautiful one of Euryalus and Nifus in
the ninth of the iEnekh
IV. And now, from the pofition formerly eftablilhed,
that the end of this divine art is to give pleafure, it has
been endeavoured to prove, that, whether in difplaying
the appearances of the material univerfe, or in imitating
the workings of the human mind, and the varieties of
human character, or in arranging and combining into
one whole the feveral incidents and parts whereof his
fable confifts,—the aim of the poet muft be to copy
nature, not as it is, but in that (late of perfection in
which, confidently with the particular genius of the
work, and the laws of verifimilitude, it may be fuppo-
led to be.
Such, in general, is the nature of that poetry which
is intended to raife admiration, pity, and other ferious
emotions. But in this art, as in all others, there are
■different degrees of excellence; and we have hitherto
direfted our view chiefly to the higheft. All ferious
poets are not equally felicitous to improve nature. Eu¬
ripides is faid to have reprefented men as they were ;
■b;/. Sophocles, more poetically, as they (hould or might be f.
Theocritus in his Idyls, and Spencer in his Shepherd’s
Calendar, give us language and fentiments more nearly
Martial, approaching thofe of the Kus verum et bnrbarum j;, than
what we meet with in the Paftorals of Virgil and Pope.
In the hiftorical drama, human characters and events
muft be according to hiftorical truth, or at lead not fo
remote from it as to lead into any important mifappre-
henfion of fadt. And in the hiftorical epic poem, fuch
as the Pharfalia of Lucan, and the Campaign of Addi-
40 bin, the hiftorical arrangement is preferred to the poeti-
fature al- cal, as being nearer the truth. Yet nature is a little
nprovecT j.mProved evei? 'm thtde poems. The perfons in Shake-
y the poet/Pf.31.6 s hiftorical plays, and the heroes of the Pharfalia,
uiugh ta "•ln verfe, and fuitably to their characters, and with
Vou XV. Part I,
TRY. i8y
a readmefs, beauty, and harmony of expreffion, not to 0(1 PoetIcal
be met with in real life, nor even in hiftory: fpeeches
are invented, and, to heighten the defeription, circum-
fiances added, with great latitude: real events are ren¬
dered more compact and more ftriftly dependent upon
One another ; and fidlitious ones brought in, to elucidate
human charafters and diverfify the narration.
The more poetry improves nature, by copying after
general ideas collected from extenfive obfervation, the
more it partakes (according to Ariftotle) of the nature
of philofophy ; the greater ftretch of fancy and of ob¬
fervation it requires in’the artift, the better chance it
has to be univerfally agreeable. 4l
Yet poetry, when it falls fhort of this perfeftion, When poe-
may have great merit as an inftrument of both inftruc-^’
tion and pleafure. To moft men, fimple unadorned | ^^
nature is, at certain times, and in certain compofitions, fe&ton it
more agreeable than the moft elaborate improvements may have
of art; as a plain fhort period, without modulation, Srcat
gives a pleafing variety to a difeourfe. Many fuch ^V rTthe,f
portraits of fimple nature there are in the fubordinate
parts both of Homer’s and of Virgil’s poetry : and an
excellent effefl they have in giving probability to the
fidlion, as well as in gratifying the reader’s fascy with
images diftincl and lively, and eafily comprehended. The
hiftorical plays of Shakefpeare raife not our pity and
terror to fuch a height as Lear, Macbeth, or Othello ;
but they interefl and inftmdl us greatly notwithflanding.
The rudeft of the eclogues of Theocritus, or even of
Spenfer, have by fome authors been extolled above thofe
of Virgil, becaufe more like real life. ■ Nay, Corneille
is known to have preferred the Pharfalia to the iLneid,
perhaps from its being nearer the truth, or perhaps from,
the fublime fentiments of floical morality fo forcibly and
fo oftentatioufly difplayed in it.
Poets may refine upon nature too much as well as
too little ; for affedlation and rufticity are equally re¬
mote from true elegance. The ftyle and fentiments of
comedy (hould no doubt be more corredl and more
pointed than thofe of the moil polite converfation : but
to make every footman a wit, and every gentleman and
lady an epigrammatift, as Congreve has done, is an ex-
cefiive and faulty refinement. The proper medium has
been hit by Menander and Terence, by Shakefpeare in
his happier feenes, and by Garrick, Cumberland, and
fome others of late renown. To deferibe the pafiion of
love with as little delicacy as fome men fpeak of it
would be unpardonable ; but to transform it into mere
■Platonic adoration is to run into another extreme, lefs
criminal indeed, but too remote from univerfal truth to
be univerfally interefting. To the former extreme Ovid
inclines, and Petrarch and his imitators to the latter.
Virgil has happily avoided both : but Milton has painted
this pafiion as diftinft from all others, with fuch peculiar
truth and beauty, that we cannot think Voltaire’s en¬
comium too high, when he fays, that love in all other
poetry feems a weaknefs, but in Paradife Loft a virtue.
There are many good ftrokes of nature in Ramfay'*
Gentle Shepherd ; but the author’s paffion for the ms
verum betrays him into fome indelicacies : a cenfure that
falls with greater weight upon Theocritus, who is often
abfolutely indecent. The Italian paftoral of Taflb and
Guarini, and the French of Fontenelle, run into the
oppofite extreme (though in fame parts beautifully
fimple), and difplay a fyllem of rural manners-fo quaint
A a and
43
The Ian*
186 POE
Of Poetical and affe&ed as to outrage all probability. In fine,
language, mediocrity of execution in poetry be allowed to
deferve the doom pronounced upon it by Horace; yet
it is true, notwithftanding, that in this art, as in many
other good things, the point of excellence lies in a
middle between two extremes ; and has been reached
by thofe only who fought to improve nature as far a#
the genius of their work would permit, keeping at an
equal diltance from rufticity on the one hand, and affe&ed
elegance on the other.
Sect. VI. Of Poetical Language.
Words in Words in poetry are chofen, firft, for their fenfe;
poetry to be and, fecondly, for their fund. That the firit of thefe
chofen for gr0unds of choice is the more excellent nobody can
and* for" e deny. He who in literary matters prefers found to
their found, fenfe is a fool. Yet found is to be attended to even in
profe, and in verfe demands particular attention. We
fhall conftder poetical language, firlt, as significant;
’ and, fecondly, as susceptible of harmony.
$ I. Of Poetical Language confclered as significant.
If, as it has been endeavoured to prove, poetry
guage of be imitative of nature, poetical fi&ions of real events,
Imitafion Poet^ca^ images of real appearances in the vifible crea-
©f the lan- ti°n, and poetical perfonages of real human charafters ;
guage of it would feem to follow, that the language of poetry mull
nature, be an imitation of the language of nature.
* Ejfays, According to Dr Beattie *, that language is natural
Panii. which is fuited to the fpeaker’s condition, charadter,
«liap. t. anj circumftances. And as, for the moft part, the
images and fentiments of ferious poetry are copied from
the images and fentiments, not of real, but of improved,
nature ; fo the language of ferious poetry mult (as hinted
already) be a tranfeript, not of the real language of na-
^ ture, which is often dilfonant and rude, but of natural
Improved language improved as far as may be conliftent with pro¬
as far as bability, and with the fuppofed character of the fpeaker.
McnTwhh ^ not ^ie ca^e> 1 t^e language of poetry be fuch
probability, oniy as we ^ear 'n converfation or read in hiftory, it will,
fe. inftead of delight, bring difappointment: becaule it
^ will fall Hiort of what we expect from an art which is
recommended rather by its pleafurable qualities than by
its intrinfic utility ; and to which, in order to render it
pleafing, we grant higher privileges than to any other
kind of literary compofition, or any other mode of
human language.
The next inquiry muft therefore be, “ What are thofe
improvements that peculiarly belong to the language of
poetry i” And thefe may be comprehended under two
heads ; poetical ’words, and tropes and fgures.
Art. L Of Poetical Words.
One mode of improvement peculiar to poetical di&ion
refults from, the ufe of thofe words and phrafes which,
becaufe they rarely occur in profe, and frequently in
^ verfe, are by the grammarian and lexicographer termed
All lan- poetical. In thefe fome languages abound more than
guages others ; but no language perhaps is altogether without
have words tbem, and perhaps no language can be fo in which any
° number of good poems have been written: for poetry
is better remembered than profe, efpecially by poetical
authors, who will always be apt to imitate the phrafe-
ology of thofe they have been accultomed to read and
R Y.
Part L
admire ; and thus, in the works of poets down through Of Poetical
fucceffive generations, certain phrafes may have been Words
conveyed, which, though originally perhaps in common ""'y
ufe, are now confined to poetical compofition. Profe
writers are not fo apt to imitate one another, at leaft in
words and phrafes, both becaufe they do not fo well
remember one another’s phrafeology, and alfo btcaufe
their language is lefs artificial, and muft not, if they
would make it eafy and flowing (without which it cannot
be elegant), depart eflentially from the ftyle of correct
converfation. Poets, too, on account of the greater
difficulty of their numbers, have, both in the choice and
in the arrangement of words, a better claim to indul¬
gence, and ftand more in need of a diferetionary power.
The language of Homer differs materially from what
was written and fpoken in Greece in the days of So¬
crates. It differs in the mode of infiedtion, it differs in
the fyntax, it differs even in the words: fo that one
might read Homer with eafe who could not read Xeno¬
phon; or Xenophon, without being able to read Homer.
Yet we cannot believe that Homer, or the firft Greek
poet who wrote in his ftyle, would make choice of a
dialed quite different from what was. intelligible in his
own time : for poets have in all ages written with a
view to he read, and to be read with pleafure; which
they could not be if their diction were hard to be un-
derftood. It is more reafonable to fuppofe that the
language of Homer is according to fome ancient dialeft,
which, though not perhaps in familiar ufe among the
Greeks at the time he wrote, was however intelligible^
P'rom the Homeric to the Socratic age, a period had
elapfed of no lefs than 400 years; during which the
ftyle both of difeourfe and of writing muft have under¬
gone great alterations. Yet the Iliad continued the
llandard of heroic poetry, and was confidered as the
very perfection of poetical language; notwithftanding
that fome words in it were become fo antiquated, or fo
ambiguous, that Ariftotle himfelf feems to have been
fomewhat doubtful in regard to their meaning *. And# jv,V„
if Chaucer’s merit as a poet had been as great as Ho-eap.
mer’s, and the Englifli tongue under Edward III. as
perfeft as the Greek was in the fecond century after
the Trojan war, the ftyle of Chaucer would probably
have been our model for poetical didftion at this day ;.
even as Petrarch, his contemporary, is ftill imitated by
the heft poets of Italy.
The rudenefs of the ftyle of Ennius has been impu¬
ted by the old critics to his having copied too clolely
the dialeft of common life. But this appears to be 4
miftake. For if we compare the fragments of that au¬
thor with the comedies of Plautus, who flourifhed in
the fame age, and whofe language was certainly co¬
pied from that of common life, we lhall be ftruck witk
an air of antiquity in the former that is not in the lat¬
ter. Ennius, no doubt, like moft other fublime poets,
affected fomething of the antique in his expreffion : and.
many of liis words and phrafes,' not adopted by any
profe-writer now extant, are to he found in Lucretius
and Virgil, and were by them tranfmitted to fucceed- 4*
ing poets. Thefe form part of the Roman poetical dia-'f^ P^'
ledl; which appears from the writings of Virgil, where^
we have it in perfection, to have been very copious. rgnt fi-oi*
The ftyle of this charming poet is indeed fo different that of
from profe, and is altogether fo peculiar, that it is per-
haps impoflible to analyfe it on the common principles
p 11.
of letieai
\ rds.
* lit.
vii i- § 3-
| 1 ’nJe
iel it era-
tut 'el iJe¬
nin -'ll-', v
in
Er ifli
po y not
ufi in
pr
POE
of Latin grammar. And yet no author can he more
perfplcuous or more exprefiive ; notwithftanding the
frequency of Grecifm in his fyntax, and his love of
old words, which he, in the judgment of Quintilian,
knew better than any other man how to improve into
decoration *.
The poetical dialeft of modern Italy is fo different
from the profaic, that perfons who can read the hifto-
rians, and even fpeak with tolerable fluency the lan¬
guage of that country, may yet find it difficult to con-
ftrue a page of Petrarch or Taffo. Yet it is not pro¬
bable, that Petrarch, whofe works are a llandard of
the Italian poetical di&ion f, made any material inno¬
vations in his native tongue. It is rather probable that
he wrote it nearly as it was fpoken in Ins time, that is,
in the 14th century; omitting only harfh combinations,
and taking that liberty which Horner probably, and
Virgil certainly, took before him, of reviving fuch old,
but not obfolete expreffions, as feemed peculiarly ligni-
ficant and melodious; and polifliing his llyle to that de¬
gree of elegance which human fpeech, without beco¬
ming unnatural, may admit of, and which the genius of
poetry, as an art fubfervient to pleafure, may be thought
to require.
z The French poetry in general is diftinguifhed from
profe rather by the fhime and the meafure, than by
any old or uncommon phrafeology. Yet the French,
on certain fubje&s, imitate the ityle of their old poets,
of Marot in particular; and may therefore be faid to
have fomething of a poetical dialed!, though far lefs
extenfive than the Italian, or even than the Englifh.
And it may be prefumed, that iff future ages they
will have more of this dialed! than they have at pre-
fent. This may be inferred from the very uncommon
merit of fome of their late poets, particularly Boileau
and La Fontaine, who, in their refped!ive departments,
.will continue to be imitated, when the prefent modes of
French profe are greatly changed : an event that, for
all the pains they take to prefierve their language, mul!
inevitably happen, and whereof there are not wanting
fome prefages already.
The Englifh poetical dialed! is not charad!erifed by
any peculiarities of infledfion, nor by any great lati¬
tude in the ufe of foreign idioms. More copious it is,
however, than one would at firft imagine ; as may ap¬
pear from the following fpecimen and obfervations.
(1.) A few Greek and Latin idioms are common
in Englifli poetry, which are feldom or never to be met
with in profe. Quenched of hope. Shakefpeare.—
Shorn of his beams. Milton. — Created thing nor
valued HE nor shun'd. Milton.—’77r thus *ve riot,
ivbi/e who sow it starvj£. Pope.—This day be
BREAD AND PEACE MY LOT. Pope. — INTO WHAT PIT
thou see’st From what height fallen. Milton.
He deceived The mother of mankind, what time his
pride FIad cast him out of heaven, Milton.——
Some of thefe, with others to be found in Milton,
feem to have been adopted for the fake of brevity,
■which in the poetical tongue is indifpenfable. For
the fame reafon, perhaps the articles a and the are fome-
tunes omitted by our poets, though lefs frequently in
krmus than burlefque compofition In Englifh, the
adjedfive generally goes before the fubftantive, the no¬
minative before the verb, and the adlive verb before
(wiat we call) the acculative. Exceptions, however,
T R Y.
to this rule, are not uncommon even in profe.
187
But Of Poetical
in poetry they are more frequent. Theit homely jays, ^ ^ ^ ^
and destiny obscure. Now fades the glimmering
landfcape on the fight; and all the air a folemn Jlillvefs
holds. In general, that veriification may be lefs diffi¬
cult, and the cadence more uniformly pleafing; and
fometimes, too, in order to give energy to expreffion,
or vivacity to an image ;—the Englifli poet is permit¬
ted to take much greater liberties than the profe-wri¬
ter, in arranging his words, and modulating his lines
and periods. Examples may be feen in every page of
Paradife Loft.
( 2.) Some of our poetical words take an additional
fyllable, that they may fuit the verfe the better; as,
dr fart, dijlain, difport, affright, enchain, for part, ftain,
fport, fright, chain. Others feem to be nothing elfe
than common words made fborter, for the convenience
of the verfifier. Such are, auxi/iar, fublunar, trump,
vale, part, clime, fubmifs, frolic, plain, drear, dread,
helm, morn, mead, eve and even, gan, illume and illumine,
ope, hoar, id'te, /wage, fcape; for auxiliary, fublunary,
trumpet, valley, depart, climate, fubmiffive, froliefome,
complain, dreary, dreadful, helmet, morning, meadow,
evening, began or began to, illuminate, open, hoary,
abide, affuage, efcape. Of fome of thefe the fhort
form is the more ancient. In Scotland, even, morn,
bide. Jwage, are ftill in vulgar ufe ; but morn, except
when contradiftinguifhed to even,is fynonymous,not with
morning (as in the Englifh poetical dialed!), but with.
morrow.—The Latin poets, in a way fomewhat fimilar,
and perhaps for a fimilar reafon, fhortened fundamentum,
tutamentum, munimentum, See. into fundamen, tutamen*
mummen.
(^.) Of the following words, which are now almoft:
peculiar to poetry, the greater part are ancient, and
were once no doubt in common ufe in England, as
many of them ftill are in Scotland. Afield, amain, an¬
noy (a noun), anon, aye (ever), behefl, blithe, brand
(fword), bridal, carol, dame (lady), featly, fell (an ad-
'^t!l\\>i),gaude, gore, hojl (army), lambkin, late (of late),
lay (poem), lea, glade, gleam, hur’, lore, meed, orifdns,
plod (to travel laborioufly), ringlet, rue (a verb), ruth,
ruth/ef, fojourn (a noun), fmite, fpe d (an active verb),
fave (except), fpray (twig), fle:d, /lrain (fong), Jlrand,
fivain, thrall, thrill, trait (a verb), troll, wail, welter,
warble, wayward, woo, the while (in the mean time),
yon, of yore.
(4.) Thefe that follow are alfo poetical; but, fo
far as appears, were never in common ufe. Appal,
arrowy, attune, battailous, breezy, car (chariot), clarion,
cates, courfer, darkling, Jl cker, floweret, embla%e, gairtfh,
circlet, impearl, nightly, noifelef, pinion (wing), fhadowy,
flumberous,flreamy, troublous, wilder (a verb), Jhnll (a
verb), fhook (fliaken), madding, viewkfs.—The follow¬
ing, too, derived from the Greek and Latin, feem pe¬
culiar to poetry. Clang, clangor, choral, bland, boreal,
dire, enfanguined, ire, ireful, lave (fo wafh), nymph (lady,
girl), orient, panoply, philomet, infuriate, jocund, radiant,
rapt, redolent, refulgent, verdant, vernal, zephyr, zone
(girdle), fuff ufe.
(5.) In moft languages, the rapidity of pronuncia¬
tion abbreviates fome of the commoneft words, or even
joins two, or perhaps more, of them, into one ; and
fome of thofe abbreviated forms find admiflion into wri¬
ting. The Englifh language was quite disfigured by
A a 2 - them
188 P O E
t>f Poetica’them in the end of the laft century; bitt Swift, by his
^ Word5. {•a^jre an(j example, brought them, into difrepute and,
though fome of them be retained in converfation, as
don't) Jhan't, can't, they are now avoided in folemn
ftyle ; and by elegant writers in general, except where
the colloquial dialed is imitated, as in comedy. ’Tis
and 'twas, fince the time of Shaftelbury, feem to have
been daily lofing credit, at leaf! in profe ; but ftill have
a place in poetry, perhaps becaufe they contribute to
concifenefs. ’ 7^iuas on a lofty vafe's fide. Gray.—'Tis
true, 'tie certain, man, though dead, retains part of himfelf ,
Pope. In verfe too, over may be ihortened into o'er,
(which is the Scotch, and probably was the old Eng-
lifh, pronunciation) ; never into ne'er ; and from the and
to, when they go before a word beginning with a vowel,
the final letter is fometimes cut oft. O'er hills, o'er
dales, o'er crags, o'er rocks they go. Pope.—Where’er
Jhe turns, the Graces homage pay. And all that beau¬
ty, all that wealth e'er gave. Rich with the fpoils of
time did ne'er unroll. Gray. — T'alarm th' eternal mid¬
night of the grave Thefe abbreviations are now pe¬
culiar to the poetical tongue, but not necefiary to it.
. They fometimes promote brevity, and render verfifica-
' tion lefs difficulty
f (6.) Thofe words which are commonly called com¬
pound epithets, as rofy-finger’d, rofy-bofom'd, many-twink¬
ling, many-found'ng,, m>fs-grown, bright-eyed, flrawbuilt,
fpinl-f irring, incenfe-breathing, heaven-taught, love-whif-
pering, lute-refounding, are alfo to be coniidered as part
of our poetical dialed. It is true, we have compound¬
ed adjedives in familiar ufe, as high-feafoned, well-natu¬
red, ill-bred, and innumerable others. But we fpeak of
thofe that are lefs common, that feldom occur except
4S in poetry, and of which in profe the .ufe would appear
To be ufed affeded. And that they fometimes promote brevity
Jparingly. an(j vivacity of expreffion, cannot be denied. But as
they give, when too frequent, a ftiff and finical air to
a performance ; as they are not always explicit in the
fenfe, nor agreeable in the found; as they are apt to
produce a confufion, or too-great a multiplicity, of
images^ as they tend to disfigure the language, and
furniffi a pretext for endlefs innovation ; they ought to
be ufed fparingly ; and thofe only ufed which the prac¬
tice of popular authors has rendered familiar to the ear,
and which are iu themfelves peculiarly emphatical and'
harmonious. ^
(7.) In the transformation of nouns into verbs and
participles, our poetical dialed admits of greater lati¬
tude than profe.- Hymn, pillow, curtain, ftory, pil¬
lar, pidure, peal, furge, cavern, honey, career, cinc¬
ture, bofom, fphere, are common nouns;. but/o hymn,
to pillow, curtained^ pillared, pictured, pealing, forging,
cavern'd, honied, careering, cinBured, bofomed, fphered,
would appear affeded in profe, and yet in verfe they
are warranted by great authorities, though it muft be
'9’Jthnfon. confeffed that they are cenfured by au able critic *, who
had ftudied the Englifh language, both poetical and
prolaic, with wonderful diligence.
Some late poets, particularly the imitators of Spen¬
cer, have introduced a great variety of uncommon words.
TRY. Parti.
as certes, eftfoons, ne, whilom, tranfmew, moil, font, Of Poetical
lofel, albe, hight, dight, pight, thews, couthful, affot, Worcis>
muchel, wend, arrear, &c. Thefe were once poetical ’ 1
words, no doubt; but they are now obfolete, and to
many readers unintelligible. No man of the prefent age,
however converfant in this dialed, would naturally ex-
prefs himfelf in it on any interefting emergence ; or,
fuppofing this natural to the antiquarian, it would ne¬
ver appear fo to the common hearer or reader. A mix¬
ture of thefe words, therefore, mult ruin the pathos of
modern language ; and as they are not familiar to our
ear, and plainly appear- to be fought after and affeded,
will generally give a ftiffnefs to modern verfification.
Yet in fobjects approaching to the ludicrous they may
have a good effed; as in the Schoolmiftrefs of Shenftone,
Parnel’s Fairy-tale, Thomfon’s Caftle of Indolence, and
Pope’s lines in the Dunciad upon Wormius. But this
effed will be moll pleafing to thofe who have halt occa-
fion to recur to the gloffary.
Indeed, it is not always eafy to fix the boundary
between poetical and obfolete expreffions. To many
readers, lore, meed, behejl, blithe, gaude, [pray, thrall,,
may already appear antiquated ; and to fome the ftyle
of Spencer, or even of Chaucer, may be as intelligible
as that of Dryden. This however we may venture to
affirm, that a word, which the majority of readers can¬
not underhand without a gloffary, may with reafon be
confidered as obfolete ; and ought not to be ufed in
modern compofition, unlefs revived, and recommended
to the public ear, by fome very eminent writer. There
are but few words in Milton, as nathlefs, tine, frore,
bofhy, &c. ; there are but one or two in Dryden, as/a/-
fify ( f) ; and in Pope, there are none at all, which
every reader of our poetry may not be fuppofed to un¬
derhand: whereas in Shakefpeare there are many, and
in Spencer many more, for which one who knows En¬
glifh very well may be obliged to confult the dictionary*
The practice of Milton, Dryden, or Pope, may there¬
fore, in almoft all cafes, be admitted as good autho¬
rity for the ufe of a poetical word. And in them, all
tire words above enumerated, as poetical, and in pre¬
fent ufe, may actually be found. And of fuch poets
as may choofe to obferve this rule, it will not be faid,
either that they rejeft the judgment of Quintilian, who -
recommends tire neweft of the old words, and the oldr
elt of the new, or that they are inattentive to Pope’s -
precept;
Be not the firft by whom the new are tried,'
Nor yet the laft; to lay the old afide.
EJf. on Grit. v. SSS1- -
We muft not fuppofe that thefe poetical words ne¬
ver occur at all except in poetry. Even from conver-
fation they are not excluded: and the ancient critics
allow, that they imty be admitted into profe, where
they occafiqnally confer dignity upon a fublime fubjeCt,
or heighten the ludicrous qualities of a mean one. But
it is in poetry only where the frequent ufe of them
does not favour of affe&ation.
Nor mull we fuppofe them effential. to this art.
Many
(f) Dryden in one place (fEneid ix. verf. 1095.) ufes Faljified to denote Pierced through and through. He ao
knowledges, that this ufe of the word is an innovation ; and has nothing to plead for it but.his.own authority^
■and ’CixdXrFafare in Italian loan.times means tfte fame thing,.
i
Part I. POE
of Poetical Many paflages there are of exquifite poetry, wherein
Words not a {ingle phrafe occurs that might not be ufed in
profe. In fa£l, the influence of thefe words in adorn¬
ing Englifli veiie is not very extenfive. Some in¬
fluence however they have They ferve to render the
poetical ftyle, firft, more melodious j and, feccindly,
more folemn. «
!n which Firft, They render the poetical ftyle more melodious,
cafe they and more eafily reducible into meafure. Words of
may ren- unwieldy fize, or difficult pronunciation, are never ufed
der thei by correCl poets, where they can be avoided: unlefs
jSe more in their found they have fomething imitative of the
melodious fenfe. Homer’s poetical infleftions contribute wonder¬
fully to the fweetnefs of his numbers : and if the read¬
er is pleafed to look back to the fpecimen above given
of the Engliffi poetical dialed, he will find that the
words are in general well-founding, and fuch as may
coalefce with other words, without producing harffi
combinations. Quintilian obferves, that poets, for the
fake of their verfe, are indulged in many liberties, not
granted to the orator, of lengthening, ffiortening, and
* r»/Ut. dividing their words * :—and if the Greek and Roman
Crat. lib poets claimed this indulgence from neceffity, and ob-
10. cap. i ta;ne(j jt> t{ie Engliffi, thofe of them efpecially who
write in rhyme, may claim it with better reafon; as
the words of their language are lefs mufical and far lefs
fufceptible of variety in arrangement and fyntax.
And fo- Secondly, Such poetical words as are known to be
lemn. ancient have lomething venerable in their appearance,
and impart a folemnity to all around them. This re¬
mark is from Quintilian ; who adds, that they give to
a compofition that caft and colour of antiquity which
in painting is fo highly valued, but which art can never
t Lib. 8. effe&ually imitate f. Poetical words that are either not
3* § 3- ancient, or not known to be fucb, have, however, a
pleafing effett from aflbeiation. We are accuftomed to
meet with them in fublime and elegant writing; and
hence they come to acquire fublimity and elegance :
Even as the words we hear on familiar occafions come
to be accounted familiar ; and as thofe that take their
rife among pick-pockets, gamblers, and gypfies, are
thought too indelicate to be ufed by any perfon of tafte
or good manners. When one hears the following lines,
which abound in poetical words.
The breezy call of incenfe-breathing morn,
The fwallow twittering from the ftraw-built ffied.
The cock’s ftnill clarion, or the echoing horn.
No more ffiall roufe them from their lowly bed:
— one is as fenfible of the dignity of the language, as
one would be of the vilenefs or vulgarity of that man’s
fpeech, who ffiould prove his acquaintance with Bride¬
well, by interlarding his difeourfe with fuch terms as w //-
^ See the dolly queer cully or nubbing cheat \ J or who, in imitation
Scoundrel's Gf f0pS and gamblers, fhould on the common occafions
Si^e0flife, talk of being beat hollow y or favlng his dt/lance§.
«£ New-agC What gives dignity to perfons gives dignity to language.
Market. A man of this charafter is one who has borne important
employments, been connefted with honourable affbeiates,
and never degraded himfelf by levity or immorality of
■conduft. Dignified phrafes are thofe which have been
'ufed to exprefs elevated fentiments, have always made
their appearance in elegant compofition, and have never
been profaaed by giving permanency or utterance to the
paffions of the vile,, the giddy, or the worthlefs* And
TRY.
189
as by an aftive old age, the dignity of fuch men is con- 0* r/£?e»
firmed and heightened; fo the dignity of fuch words, if (
they be not fuffered to fall into difufe, feldom fails to im-. ^ 1
pr©ve by length of time.
Art. II. Of Tropes and Figures.
St
If it appear that, by means of figures, language may Tropes and
be made more pleafing and more natural than it would befi^9
without them ; it will follow, that to poetic language, poet;caj
whofe end is to plea/e by imitating nature, figures muft language,.
be not only ornamental, but necelfary. It will here be
proper, therefore, firft to point out the importance and
utility of figurative language ; fecondly, to ffiow, that
figures are more neceffiuy to poetry in general than to
any other mode of writing. .
I. Sis to the importance and utility of figurative exprejfion,
in making language more pleafing and more natural; it
may be remarked,
(1.) That tropes and figures are often neceffiiry to
fupply the unavoidable defeats of language. V* hen
proper words are wanting, or not recollected, or when
ive do not choofe to be always repeating them, \\ e muifc
have recourfe to tropes and figures. When philofophevs
began to explain the operations of the mind, they found
that moil of the words in common ufe, being framed to
anfwer the more obvious exigencies of life, were in their To fupply
proper fignification applicable to matter only and its^e.dcftft#
qualities. What was to be done in this cafe ? Would “ Jgej
they think of making a new language to exprefs the aH{^
qualities of mind ? No : that would have been difficult
or impracticable ; and granting, it both practicable and
eafy, they mull have forefeen, that nobody would read
or liften to what was thus fpoken or written in a new
and confequently in an unknown tongue. They there¬
fore took the language as they found it; and where-
ever they thought there.was a fimilaiity or analogy be¬
tween the qualities of the mind and the qualities of mat¬
ter, fcrupled not to ufe the names of the material quali¬
ties tropically, by applying them to the mental qualities.^
Hence came the phrafes folidity of judgment, warmth of
imagination, enlargement of underftanding, and many
otherswhich, though figurative, exprefs the meaning
juft, as well as proper words would have done. In faCfc, •.
numerous as the words in every language are, they muft:
always fall ftiort of the unbounded variety of human
thoughts and perceptions. Taftes and fmells are almoft
as numerous as the fpecies of bodies. Sounds admit of
perceptible varieties that furpafs all computation, and
the feven primary colours may be diverfified without end.
If each variety of external perception were to have a
name, language would be infurmountably difficult ; nay,
if men were to appropriate a clafs.of names to each par¬
ticular fenfe, they would multiply words exceedingly,
without adding any thing to the clearnefs of fpeech.
Thofe words, therefore, that in their proper fignifi¬
cation denote the objeCts of one fenfe, we often apply
tropically to the objeCts of another, and fay, Sweet
tafte, fweetfineU, fweet found; fharp point, ftiarp tafte, .
ffiarp found ; harmony of founds, harmony of colours,
harmony^ of parts ; foft filk, foft colour, loft found, loft
temper ; and fo in a thoufand inftances: and yet thele
words, in their tropical fignification, are not lels intelli¬
gible than in their proper one; for ffiarp tafte and lharp
found, are as expreffive as ffiarp fword; and harmony ot
tones is not better underftood by the xnufitianj than har¬
mony «•-
o
glKCI,
~ 53 .
To avoid
harfhnefs
ef diCiion.
190 P
Of Tropes mony of parts by the architect, and harmony of colours
an * Fv by the painter.
Savages, illiterate perfons, and children, have compa¬
ratively but few words in proportion to the things they
may have occafion to fpeak of; and muft therefore re¬
cur to tropes and figures more frequently than perfons
of copious elocution. A feaman, or mechanic, even
when he talks of that which does not belong to his art,
borrows his language from that which does; and this
makes his diftion figurative to a degree that is fome-
times entertaining enough, “Death (fays a feaman in
one of Smollet’s novels) has not yet boarded my com¬
rade ; but they have been yard arm and yard-arm thefe
three glajea. His Jiarboard eye is open, but fail jammed
in his head; and the haulyards of his under jaw have
given way.” Thefe phrafes are exaggerated; but we
allow them to be natural, becaufe we know that illiterate
people are apt to make ufe of tropes and figures taken
from their own trade, even when they fpeak of things
that are very remote and incongruous. In thofe poems,
therefore, that imitate the converfation of illiterate per¬
fons, as in comedy, farce, and paftoral, fuch figures ju-
dicioufly applied may render the imitation more pleafing,
becaufe more ex aft and natural.
Words that are untuneable and harfh, the poet is of¬
ten obliged to avoid, when perhaps he has no other way
to exprefs their meaning than by tropes and figures ;
and fometimes the meafure of his verfe may oblige him
to rejeft a proper word that is not harfh, merely on
account of its being too long, or too fhort, or in any
■other way unfuitable to the rhythm, or to the rhyme.
And hence another ufe of figurative language, that it
-contributes to poetical harmony. Thus, to prefs the
plain, is frequently ufed to fignify to beJlain in battle',
liquid plain is put for ocean, blue ferene for Jhy, and fylvan
<4 reign for country life.
Tropes and (2.) Tropes and figures are favourable to delicacy,
figure fa- When the proper name of a thing is in any refpeft un-
wmrable pleaf^^ a well-chofen trope will convey the idea in fuch
},a way as to give no offence. This is agreeable, and
even neceffary, in polite converfation, and cannot be dif-
penfed with in elegant writing of any kind. Many
words, from their being often applied to vulgar ufe, ac¬
quire a meannefs that difqualifies them for a place in fe-
rious poetry ; while perhaps, under the influence of a
different fyflem of manners, the correfponding words in
another language may be elegant, or at leafl not vulgar.
When one reads Homer in the Greek, one takes no
offence at his calling Eumeus by a name which, literally
rendered, fignifies favine-herd; firfl, becaufe the Greek
word is well-founding in itfelf; fecondly, becaufe we
have never heard it pronounced in converfation, nor con-
fequently debafed by vulgar ufe ; and, thirdly, becaufe
we know, that the office denoted by it was, in the age
of Eumeus, both important and honourable. But Pope
would have been blamed, if a name fo indelicate as lavme-
herd had in his tranflation been applied to fo eminent a
perfonage; and therefore he judicioufly makes ufe of
the trope fynecd^hc, and calls him fnvain *; a word
both elegant and poetical, and not likely to lead the
reader into any miftake about the perfon fpokeu of, as
his employment had been defcribed in a preceding paf-
Yage. The fame Eumeus is faid, in the dimple but me¬
lodious language of the original, to have been making
.his own Aioes when Ulyffes came to his door; a work
T R ^ ♦ part ]
which in thofe days the greatefl heroes would often find Of Trope
neceffary. This, too, the tranflator foftens by a tropi- and
cal expreffion : <—
gures.
* 0j>f-
b. 14.
v. 41.
Here fat Eumeus, and his cares applied.
To form flrong bufkins of well feafon’d hide.
A hundred other examples might be quoted from this
tranflation ; but thefe will explain our meaning.
There are other occafions on which the delicacy of
figurative language is Hill more needful ; as in Virgil’s
account of the effefts of animal love, and of the plague
among the beafts, in the third Georgic; where Dryden’s
flyle, by being lefs figurative than the original, is in one
place exceedingly filthy, and in another fhockingly ob-
feene.
Hobbes could conftrue a Greek author ; but his flcill
in words muft have been all derived from the diftionary;
for he feems not to have known that any one articulate
found could be more agreeable, or any one phrafe more
dignified, than another. In his Iliad and Odyffey,
even when he hits the author’s fenfe (which is not al¬
ways the cafe), he proves, by his choice of words, that
of harmony, elegance, or energy of ftyle, he had no
manner of conception. And hence that work, though
called a Trunjlation of Homer, does not even deferve the
name of poem ; becaufe it is in every refpeft unpleafing,
being nothing more than a fiftitious narrative delivered
in a mean profe, with the additional meannefs of harfh
rhyme, and untuneable meafure. Trapp underftood
Virgil well enough as a grammarian, and had a tafte for
his beauties : yet his tranflation bears no refemblance to
Virgil; which is owing to the fame caufe, an imprudent
choice of words and figures, and a total want of har¬
mony.
The delicacy we here contend for, may indeed, both Which,
ip converfation and in writing, be carried too far. T0 however,
call killing an innocent man in a duel an affair of honour, ^ i
and a violation of the rights of ’wedlock an affair of gal¬
lantry, is a proftitution of figurative language. Nor is
it any credit to us, that we are faid to have upwards of
40 figurative phrafes to denote exceffive drinking. Lan¬
guage of this fort generally implies, that the public ab¬
horrence of fuch crimes is not fo ftrong as it ought to
be ; and it is a queftion, whether even our morals might
not be improved, if we were to call thefe and fuch like
crimes by their proper names, murder, adultery, drunken-
nefs, gluttony; names, that not only exprefs our mean¬
ing, but alfo betoken our difapprobation. As to
writing, it cannot be denied, that even Pope himfelf.
in the excellent verfion juft now quoted,^has fometimes,
for the fake of his numbers, or for fear of giving of¬
fence by too clofe an imitation of Homer’s fimplicity,
employed tropes and figures too quaint or too folemn
for the occafion. And the finical ftyle is in part cha-
rafterifed by the writer’s diflike to literal expreffions,
and affeftedly fubftituting in their Head unneceffary
tropes and figures. With thefe authors, a man’s only
child muft always be his only hope; a country maid be¬
comes a rural beauty, or perhaps a nymph of the groves}
if flattery fing at all, it muft be a fyren fong ; the
ftiepherd’s flute dwindles into an oaten reed, and his crook
-is exalted into a feeptre ; the ftlver lilies rife from their
golden beds, and languifh to the complaining gale. A
young woman, though a good Chriftian, cannot make
herfelf agreeable without Jacrjicifig to the Graces ; ‘nor
1 hope
’art I.
O E
){ Tropes
ard Fi¬
gures.
St
ropes and
gure- pfo-
iote bre-
ity,and
57
intnbute
ftrength
d energy
arjguage,
hope to do any execution among theg/ntte/wains, till a
whole legion of Cupids, armed ytiHh flames and darts, and
other weapons, begin to difeharge from her eyes their
formidable artillery. For the fake of variety, or of the
verfe, fome of thefe figures may now and then find a
place in a poem; but in profe, unlefs very fparingly ufed,
they favour of affe&ation.
(3-) Tropes and figures promote brevity; and brevity,
united with perfpicuity, is always agreeable. An ex¬
ample or two will be given in the next paragraph. Sen¬
timents thus delivered, and imagery thus painted, are
readily apprehended by the mind, make a ftrong im-
preffion upon the fancy, and remain long in the memo¬
ry ; whereas too many words, -even when the meaning
is good, never fail to bring difguft and W'earinefs. They
argue a debility of mind which hinders the author from
feeing his thoughts in one diftinft point of view ; and
they alfo encourage a fufpicion, that there is fomething
faulty or defeftive in the matter. In the poetic ftyle,
therefore, which is addrefied to the fancy and paffions,
and intended to make a vivid, a pleafrng, and a perma¬
nent impreffion, brevity, and confequently tropes and
figures, are indifpenfable. And a language will always
be the better fuited^ to poetical purpofes, the more it
admits of this brevity;—a chara&er which is more
confpicuous in the Greek and Latin than in any modern
tongue, and much lefs in the French than in the Italian
or Engliih.
(4. ) Tropes and figures contribute to ftrength or ener¬
gy of language, not only by their concifenefs, but alfo
by conveying to the fancy ideas that are ea% compre¬
hended, and make a ftrong impreffion. We are power¬
fully affe&ed with what we fee, or feel, or hear. When
a fentiment comes enforced or illuftrated by figures taken
from obje£fs of fight, or touch, or hearing, one thinks,
as it were, that one fees, or feels, or hears, the thing
fpoken of; and thus, what in itfelf would perhaps be
obfeure, or is merely intelleaual, may be made to feize
our attention and interefl our paffions almoft as effeaual-
v as * were an objea of outward fenfe. When Vir¬
gil calls the Scipios thunderbolts of war, he very ftrongly
exprefies in one word, and by one image, the rapidity
of their viaories, the noife their atchievements made
in the world, and the ruin and confternation that at-
tended their irrefiftible career. When Homer calls
Ajax the bulwark of the Greeks, he paints with equal
brevity his vaft fiie and ftrength, the difficulty of pre¬
vailing againft him, and the confidence wherewith his
countrymen repofed on his valour When Solomon
lays of the ftrange woman, or harlot, that “ her feet tro
a™ tab,” he let. us know, not only that her
path ends m deftru&ion, but alfo, that they who accom-
any er will find it eafy to go forwards to ruin, and
dut7- Satan’s enormous
aWt tfd ’ aiJd refl%ent appearance, his perpendicular
able raS^ °f darknef8’ and ^ iuconceiv-
Ln lP S°f h.18 m°tl0n’ are a11 Parted out to our
fancy by Milton, in one very ffiort fimilitude*
Sprung upward, like-a pyramid of fire.
rp . -^2/A b. 4. V. lOI^.
%ure, we mull
fifing upward ^ m 1 a°S,’ and a Vald Iumin°us body
ax ufapnear I’ ^ P ^ where we are» fo Swiftly
PP a continued track of-light, and leffening
T R Y. i9i
to the view according to the increafe of diftance, till Of Trope#
it end in a point, and then difappear; and all this mull
be fuppofed to ftrike our eye at one inftant. Equal ^ y ]
to this in propriety, though not in magnificence, is that
allegory of Gray,
The paths of glory lead but to the grave;
Which prefents to the imagination a wide plain, where
feveral roads appear, crowded with glittering multitudes^
and ifiuing from different quarters, but drawing nearer
and nearer as they advance, till they terminate in the
dark and narrow houfe, where all their glories enter in
fucceffion, and cUfappear for ever. W hen it is fakl
in Scripture, of a good man who died, that he fell
ofleep', what a number of ideas are at once conveyed to-
our imagination, by this beautiful and expreffive figure r
As a labourer, at the clofe of day, goes to fieep, with
the fatisfafifion of having performed his work, and with
the agreeable hope of awaking in the morning of a new
day, refrelhed and cheerful; io a good man, at the end
of life, refigns himfelf calm and contented to the will of
his Maker, with the fweet reflection of having endea¬
voured to do his duty, and with the tranfporting hope
of foon awaking in the regions of light, to life and hap-
pinefs eternal. The figure alfo fuggefts, that to a good
man the tranfition from life to death is, even in the fenfa-
tion, no more painful, than when our faculties melt away
into the pleafing infenfibility of fleep. Satan, flying
among the ftars, is faid by Milton to 11 fail between
worlds and worlds;” which has an elegance and force far
fuperior to the proper word Jly. For by this allufion
to a ffiip, we are made to form a lively idea of his great
fize, and to conceive of his matron, that it was equable
and majeftic. — Virgil ufes a happy figure to exprefs
the fize of the great wooden horfe, by means of which
the Greeks were conveyed into Troy : “ Equum divina
Palladis arte (tdjicciritl1 hlilton is ft.ill bolder when
he fays,
Who would not fing for Lycidas ? he knew
Himfelf to fing, and build the lofty rhyme.
The phrafe, however, though bold, is emphatical; and
gives a noble idea of the durability of poetry, as well
as of the art. and attention requiiite to form a good
poem. There are hundreds of tropical expreffions in
common ufe, incomparably more energetic, than any pro¬
per words of equal brevity that could be put in their
place. A cheek burning with blufhes, is- a trope which
at once deferibes the colour as it appears to the beholder,
and the glowing heat as it is felt by the perfon bluffiing.
Chilled with defpondence, petrified with aftonifhment,
thunderflruck with difagreeable and unexpe&ed intelli¬
gence, melted with love or pity, dijohed in luxury, har¬
dened in wickednefs, foftening into remorie, inflamed with
defire, tojfed with uncertainty, &c.—every one is fenfible
of the force of thefe and the like phrafes, and that they
muft contribute to the energy of compofition..
( 5 ) Tropes and figures promote ftrength of expreffion; The^ara *
and are in poetry peculiarly requifite, becaufe they arelikewifc
often more natural, and more imitative, than proper :^e *an'
words. In fa&, this is fo much the cafe, that it would Suage
be impoffible te imitate the language of paffion without
them. It is true,, that when the mind is agitated, one
does not run out into allegories, or long-winded fimi-
ktudes, or any of the figures that require much attention
10*
POE
gures.
Of Tropes rn?vny word#, ov that tend to withdraw the fancy
and IV from thc 0bjea of the pafllon. Yet the language of
many paffions mull be figurative notwithftanding ; be-
caufe they roufe the fancy, and direct it to objects
congenial to their own nature, which diveriify the lan¬
guage of the fpeaker with a multitude of allufions.
'Hie fancy of a very angry man, For example, prefent8
to his view a train of difagreeable ideas connected with
Xhe paffion of anger, and tending to encourage it; and-
if he fpeak without reftraint during the paroxyfm of
his rage, thofe ideas will force themfelves upon him,
and compel him to give them utterance. “ Infernal
monfter ! (he will fay),—my blood boils at him ; he
has ufed me like a dog; never was man fo injured as
I have been by this barbarian. He has no more fenfe
of propriety than a Hone. His countenance is diabolical,
and his foul as ugly as his countenance. His heart is
cold and hard, and his refolutions dark and bloody,” &c.
This fpeech is wholly figurative. It is made up of meta¬
phors and hyperboles, which, with the profopopeia and
apnjlrophe, are the moil pailionate of all the figures.
.Lear, driven out of doors by his unnatural daughters,
in the midil of darknefs, thunder, and tempeft, natu¬
rally breaks forth (for his indignation is pull now railed
to the very higheft pitch) into the following violent ex¬
clamation againil the crimes of mankind, in which almoll
every word is figurative.
Tremble, thou wretch,
That hall within thee undivulged crimes
Unwhipt of juftice. Hide thee, thou bloody hand,
Thou perjur’d, and thou limular of virtue.
That art inceftuous. Caitiff, to pieces fhake,
That under covert, and convenient feeming,
.Haft pra6lis’d on man’s life. Clofe pent-up guilts.
Rive your concealing continents, and cry
Thefe dreadful fummoners grace. Lear.
  The vehemence of maternal love, and forrow from
the appreheniion of lofing her child, make the Lady
Conftance utter a language that is ftrongly figurative,
though quite fuitable to the condition and charadler of
the fpeaker. The paffage is too long for a quotation,
but concludes thus:
O Lord! my boy, my Arthur, my fair fon,
My life, my joy, my food, my all the world,
My widow-comfort, and my forrow’s cure. King John.
-Similar to this, and equally expreflive of conjugal
^ 59
The fim-
love, is that beautiful hyperbole in Homer; where
Andromache, to diffuade her hufband from going out
to the battle, tells him that (he had now no mother,
father, or brethren, all her kindred being dead, and her
native country defolate; and then tenderly adds,
Brit while my He£lor yet furvives, I fee
My father, mother, brethren, all in thee. Iliad, b. 6.
As the paflions that agitate the foul, and roufe the
fancy> are to vent themfelves in tropes and figures,
fuitable to thofe that deprefs the mind adopt for the molt part
dep effing a plain didtion without any ornament i for to a dejeCled
jpaffiom, mind, wherein the imagination is generally inactive, it
is not probable that any great variety of ideas will pre-
fent themfelves; and when thefe are few and familiar,
the words that exprefs them mull be fimple. As no
author equals Shakefpeare in boldnefs or variety of
a
T RY, Part!
figures when he copies the ftyle of thofe violent paflions Of Trope
that ftimulate the fancy; fo, when he would exhibit and Ti¬
the human mind in a dejedled ftate, no uninfpired writer gures‘
excels him in limplicity. The fame Lear whofe refent- v~’"
ment had impaired his underftanding, while it broke
out in the moft boifterous language, when, after fome
medical applications, he recovers his reafon, his rage
being now exhaufted, his pride humbled, and his fpirits
totally' depreffed, fpeaks in a ftyle than which nothing
can be imagined more fimple or more affedting.
Pray, do not mock me : .
I am a very foolifh, fond old man,
Fourfcore and upward ; and, to deal plainly with you,
I fear I am not in my perfedl mind.
Methinks I ftiould know you, and know this man j
Yet I am doubtful: for I am mainly ignorant
What place this is; and all the flcill I have
Remembers not thefe garments : nor I know not
Where I did lodge laft night.——Lear, a£l 4. fc. 7.
 Defdemona, ever gentle, artlefs, and fincere, fhocked
at the unkindnefs of her hufband, and overcome with
melancholy, fpeaks in a ftyle fo beautifully iimple, and
fo perfedlly natural, that one knows not what to fay iu
commendation of it:
My mother had a maid call’d Barbara;
She was in love, and he fhe lov’d prov’d mad,
And did forfake her. She had a fong of willow ;
An old thing it was, but it exprefs’d her fortune,
And flie died finging it. That fong to-night
Will not go from my mind: I have much to do.
But to go hang my head all at one fide,
And fing it like poor Barbara. Othello, aft 4. fc. 3.
Sometimes the imagination, even when exerted to
the utmoft, takes in but few ideas. This happens when
the attention is totally engroffed by fome very great
objeft ; admiration being one of thofe emotions that
rather fufpend the exerexfe of the faculties than pufh them ^
into aftion. And here, too, the iimpleft language is 4,,^ to th
the moft natural; as when Milton fays of the Deity, fentimenc
that he fits “ high-throned above all height.” Andas°f admir*'
this fimplicity is more fuitable to that one great exertiontlon*
which occupies the fpeaker’s mind than a more elaborate
imagery or language would have been, fo has it alfo a
more powerful effeft in fixing and elevating the imagi¬
nation of the hearer; for to introduce other thoughts
for the fake of illuftrating what cannot be iiluftrated,
could anfwer no other purpofe than to draw off the at¬
tention from the principle idea. In thefe and the like
cafes, the fancy left to itfelf will have more fatisfaftion
in purfuing at leifure its own fpeculations than in at¬
tending to thofe of others ; as they who fee for the firft
time fome admirable objeft would clioofe r"+1er to feaft
upon it in filence, than to have their thoughts interrupted
by a long defeription from another perfon, informing
them of nothing but what they fee before them, are al¬
ready acquainted with, or may eafi’y conceive.
It was remarked above, that the hyperbole, profopopeui,
and apoftrophe, are among the moft paffionate figures.
This-deferves illuftration. 6r
ijl, A very angry man is apt to think the injury heHyperbol
has juft received greater than it really is; and if he t
proceed immediately to retaliate by word or deed, feldom ganger
fails to exceed the due bounds, and to become injurious love) teai
in &x.
parr T.
Of froi'S"
and Fi¬
gures.
? O E
h hi' tm, Tlit M p*«nt looks upon his child ns a
prodigy of genius and beauty; and the romantic lover
not be pcrfuaded that his miftrefs hds nothing fuper-
natural either in her mind or perfon. Fear, in hk
manner, not only magmhes its objeft when real, but
even forms an object out of nothing, and nuftakes the
fi&ions of fancy for the intimations of fenfe.—No won¬
der. then, that they who fpeak according to the impulie
of pafiion fhould fpeak hyperbolically; that the angry
nrnn fliould exaggerate the injury he has received, and
the vengeance he is going to mfli& ; that the forrowful
ihould magnify what they have loft, and the joyful what
they have obtained; that the lover fhould fpeak extra¬
vagantly of the beauty of his miftrefs, the coward of
the dangers he has encountered, and the credulous clown
of the miracles performed by the juggler. In
thefe people would not do juftice to what they feel if
they did not fay more than the truth. The valiant man,
on the other hand, as naturally adopts the dimmiftung
hyperbole when he ipeaks of danger; and the man ot
fenfe, when he is obliged to mention bis own virtue or
ability; becaufe it appears to him, or he is willing to
confider it, as kfs than the truth, or at beft as mconfi-
derable. Contempt ufes the fame figure ; and there¬
fore Petruchio, affefting that paffion, affe&s alio the
language of it:
Thou lieft, thou thread, thou thimble.
Thou yard, three-quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail.
Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket, thou !
Brav’d in mine own houie with a ficein of thread !
Away, thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant.
Taming vf the Shreivt aCc 4. fc. I.
For fome paffions confider their objefts as important,
and others as unimportant. . Of the former iort are
anger, love, fear, admiration, joy, forrow, pride ; °i the
latter are contempt and courage. 1 hofe may be find
to fubdue the mind to the objeft, and thefe to fubdue
the objedt to the mind. And the former, when violent,
always magnify their objedts; whence the hyperbole
called amplification, or auxejis : and the latter as con-
ftantly diminifh theirs ; _ and give rife to the hyperbole
called meiojis, or diminution.—Tven when the mind can¬
not be faid to be under the influence of any violent paf-
.fion, we naturally employ the fame figure when we
would imprefs another very ftroagly with any idea. “ He
is a walking fhadow ; he is worn to ikin and bone
has one foot in the grave and the other following
.thefe, and the like phrafes, are proved to be natural by
their frequency. By introducing great ideas, the hy¬
perbole is further ufeful in poetry as a fource of the
fublime ; but when employed injudicioufly is very apt
to become ridiculous. Cowley makes Goliah as big as
t Davideis, the hill down which he was marching f ; and tells us,
9.4. that when he came into the valley he feemed to fill it,
and to overtop the neighbouring mountains (which, by
the by, feems rather to leflen the mountains and valleys
than to magnify the giant) ; nay, he adds, that the fun
ftarted back when he faw {he fplendour of his arms.
This poet feems to have thought that the figure in
queftion could never be fufficiently enormous ; but Quin¬
tilian would have taught him, “ Quamvis omnis hyper¬
bole ultra fidem, non tamen efle debet ultra modum.”
The reafon is, that this figure, when exceffive, betokens
rather abfolute infatuation than intenfe emotion; and
Von, XV. Part L
thy. 193
refembies the efforts of a ranting tragedian, or the ra- 0afnJ rF°J?ci
vings of an enthufiaftic declaimer, who, by putting on the
gqftnres and looks of a lunatic, fatisfy the diicermng ——^
part of their audience, that, inftead of fedingjtrppgly,
they have no rational feelings at all. ^ In the wiideit
energies of nature there is a modefty which the imitative
artift will be careful never to overftep. 6*
2d/y, That figure, by which things are fpoken of as Profopo-
if they were perfons, is called profopopaia, ox perfonifi.^^^
cation. It is a bold figure, and yet is often natural/
Long acquaintance recommends to fome fhare in our
affedtion even things inanimate, as a houfe, a tree, a
rock, a mountain, a country; and were we to leave
fuch a thing, without hope of return, vre fhould be in¬
clined to addrefs it with a farewei, as if it were a per¬
cipient creature. Hence it was that Mary queen of
Scotland, when on her return to her own kingdom, fo
affectionately bade adieu to the country which ihe had
left. “ Farewel, France,” faid file ; “ farewel, beloved
country, which I fliall never more behold!” Nay, we
find that ignorant nations have actually worfhipped fuch
things, or confidered them as the haunt of certain
powerful beings. Dryads and hamadryads were by the
Greeks and Romans fuppofed to prefide over trees and
groves; river gods and nymphs, over ftreams and foun¬
tains ; little deities, called Lares and Penates^ were be¬
lieved to be the guardians of hearths and houfes. In
Scotland there is hardly a hill remarkable for the beauty
of its fhape, that was not in former times thought to
be the habitation of fairies. Nay, modern as well aa
ancient fuperftition has appropriated the waters to a pe¬
culiar fort of demon or goblin, and peopled the very
regions of death, the tombs and charnel-houfes, with
multitudes of ghofts and phantoms.—Befides, whea
things inanimate make a ftrong impreffion upon us,
whether argeeable or otherwife, we are apt to addrefa
them in terms of affection or diflike. The failor bleffes
the plank that brought him afliore from the fliipwreck ;
and the pafiionate man, and fometimes even the philofo-
pher, will fay bitter words to the ftumbling-block that
gave him a fall.—Moreover, a man agitated with any
interefting paffion, efpecially of long continuance, is
apt to fancy that all nature fympathifes with him.. If
he has loft a beloved friend, he thinks the fun lefs bright
than at other times; and in the fighing of the winds
and groves, in the lowings of the herd, and in the mur-
murs’of the ftream, he feems to hear the voice of lamen¬
tation. But when joy or hope predominate, the whole
world affumes a gay appearance. In the contemplation
of every part of nature, of every condition of mankind,
of every form of human fociety, the benevolent and the
pious man, tire morofe and. the cheerful, the mifer and
the mifanthrope, finds oecafion to indulge his favourite
paffion, and fees, or thinks he fees, his own temper re-
flefted back in the actions, fympathies, and tendencies
of other things and perfons. Our affeftions are indeed
the medium through which we may be faid to furvey
ourfelves, and every thing elfe; and whatever be our
inward frame, we are apt to perceive a wonderful con¬
geniality in die world without us. And hence the fancy,
when roufed by real emotions, or by the pathos of com-
pofition, is eafily reconciled to thofe figures of fpeech
that aferibe fympathy, perception, and the other attri¬
butes of animal life, to things inanimate, or even to no¬
tions merely intelk&ual.—Motion, too, bears a dole
£ b affinity
394- POE
^and'ff” a^u'^T and affefts our imagination nearly in
, jrUreg. fame manner ; and we fee a great part of nature in
t.iimi-y.M v motion, and by its fenfible effcfts are led to contem¬
plate energies innumerable. Thefe conduct the rational
mind to the Great Firft Caufe; and thefe, in times of
ignorance, difpofed the vulgar to believe in a variety of
fubordinate agents employed in producing thofe appear¬
ances that could not otherwife be accounted for. Hence
an endlefs train of fabulous deities, and of witches, de¬
mons, fairies, genii; which, if they prove our reafon
weak and our fancy ftrong, prove alfo that perfonifica-
tion is natural to the human mind 5 and that a right
ufe of this figure may have a powerful effedf, in fabulous
writing efpecially, to engage our fympathy in behalf of
things as well as perfons : for nothing can give lafting
delight to a moral being, but that which awakens fym¬
pathy, and touches the heart; and though it be true
that we fympathife in fome degree even with inanimate
things, yet what has, or is fuppofed to have, life, calls
forth a more fincere and more permanent fellow-feeling.
—Let it be obferved further, that to awaken our fym-
pathetic feelings, a lively conception of their objedl is
necefiary. This indeed is true of almoft all our emo¬
tions ; their keennefs is in proportion to the vivacity of
the perceptions that excite them. Diftrefs that we fee
* Hor. Ar. is more affe&ing than what we only hear of * ; a per-
<w#. v. 180. jjfej °f the gayefl: feenes in a comedy does not roufe
the mind fo effeftually as the prefence of a cheerful
companion ; and the death of a friend is of greater
energy in producing ferioufnefs, and the confideration
of our latter end, than all the pathos of Young. Of
deferiptions addreffed to the fancy, thofe that are moll
vivid and pi&urefque will generally be found to have
the moft powerful influence over our affeftions; and
thofe that exhibit perfons engaged in action, and adorned
with vifible infignia, give a brifleer impulfe to the facul¬
ties than fuch as convey intelledtual ideas only, or images
taken from ftill life. No abftradt notion of time, or of
love, can be fo ftriking to the fancy as the image of an
old man accoutred with a feythe, or of a beautiful boy
■with wings and a bow and arrows : and no phyiiological
account of frenzy could fuggeft fo vivid an idea as the
poet has given us in that exquifite portrait,
And moody madnefs laughing wild amid fevereft wo.
And for this reafon partly it is that the epic poet, in
order to work the more effeftually upon our paffions
and imagination, refers the fecret fprings of human
condudt, and the viciflitudes of human affairs, to the
agency of perfonified caufes ; that is, to the machinery
of gods and goddefles, angels, demorls, magicians, and
other powerful beings. And hence, in all fublime
poetry, life and motion, with their feveral modes and
• attributes, are liberally bellowed on thofe objefts where-
with the author intends that we Ihould be ftrongly im-
prefled : feenes perfectly inanimate and ftill, tendino-
rather to dififufe a languor over the mind than to com-
to our internal powers tiiofe lively* energies
without which a being enentially adtive can never^re-
ceive complete gratification.—Laftly, fome violent paf¬
fions are peculiarly inclined to change things into per-
fnns. The horrors of his mind haunted Oreftes in the
fhape of furies. Confcience, in the form of the mur¬
dered perfon, ftares the murderer in the face, and often
lerrifies him to diftradion. The fuperftitious man,
3
try. j
travelling alone in the dark, miftakes a white ftone for a Of Trop«
ghoft, a bulk for a demon, a tree waving with the wind
lor an enormous giant brandifhing a hundred arms.
The lunatic and ertthuiiaft converfe with perfons who
* exift only in their-own diftempered fancy ; and the glut¬
ton and the mifer, if they wrere to give utterance to all '
their thoughts, would often, it is prefumable, fpeak, the
one of his gold, the other of his belly, not only as a per-
fon, but as a god,—the objedt of his warmeft love and
moft devout regard.—More need not be. faid to prove
that perfonification is natural, and may frequently con¬
tribute to the pathos, energy, and beauty of poetic
language.
-Apojlrophe, or a hidden diverfion of fpeech from , a3
one perfon to another perfon or thing, is a figure how to b/
nearly related to the former. Poets fometimes makeufed.
ufe of it, in order to help out thar verfe, or merely to
give variety to their ftyle: but on thefe occafions it is
to be confidered as rather a trick of art, than an effort
of nature. It is moft natural, and moft pathetic, when
the perfon or thing to whom the apoftrophe is made,
and for whofe fake we give a new direction to our
fpeech, is in our eyes eminently diftinguiflied for good
or evil, or raifes within us fome fudden and powerful
emotion; fuch as the hearer would acquiefce in, or at
leaft acknowledge to be reafbnable. But this, like the
other pathetic figures, muft be ufed with great prudence.
For if, inftead of calling forth the hearer’s fympathy, it
Ihould only betray the levity of the fpeaker, or fuch wan¬
derings of bis mind as neither the fubjedt nor the occa-
fion would lead one to expedf, it will then create dif-
guft inftead of approbation. The orator, therefore, muft
not attempt the paffionate apoftrophe, till the minds of
the hearers be prepared to join in it. And every am
dience is not equally obfequious in this refpedt. In the
forum of ancient Rome that would have paffed for fub¬
lime and pathetic, which in the moft refpedlable Britiih
auditories would appear ridiculous. For ©ur ftyle of
public fpeaking is cool and argumentative ; and par¬
takes lefs of enthufiafm than the Roman did, and much
lefs than the modern French or Italian. Of Britifll
eloquence, particularly that of the pulpit, the chief re¬
commendations are gravity and fimplicity. And it is
vain to fay, that our oratory ought to be more vehement:
for that matter depends on caufes, which it is not only
inexpedient, butimpoffible to alter; namely, on the cha-
ra&er and fpirit of the people, and their rational notions
in regard to religion, policy, and literature. The ex¬
clamations of Cicero would weigh but little in our par¬
liament ; and many of thofe which we meet with in
French fermons would not be more effectual if attempt¬
ed in our pulpit. To fee one of our preachers, who
the moment before was a cool reafoner, a temperate
fpeaker, an humble Chriftian, and an orthodox divine,
break out into a fudden apoftrophe to the immortal
powers, or to the walls of the church, tends to force a
fmile, rather than a tear, from thofe among us who
refledt, that.there is nothing in the fubjeft, and fhould
be nothing in the orator, to warrant fuch wanderings of
fancy or vehemence of emotion. If he be careful to
cultivate a pure ftyle, and a grave and graceful utter¬
ance, a Britifll clergyman, who fpeaks from convi&iou
the plain unaffe&ed words of truth and fobernefs, of be¬
nevolence and piety, will, it is believed, convey more
pathetic, as well as more permanent, impreflions to the
heart,
part I.
P O
of Tropes heart, and be more ufeful as a Chriftian teacher, than
and Fi- jf he were to put in practice all the attitudes of Rolcius,
gures< and all the tropes and figures of Cicero.
But where the language of paflion and enthufiaim is
permitted to difplay itfelf, whatever raifes any ftrong
emotion, whether it be animated or inanimate, abfent
or prefent, fenfible or intelleaual, may give rife to the
apoftrophe. A man in a diftant country, fpeakmg of
the place of his birth, might naturally exclaim, “ O my
dear native land, fnall I never fee thee more!” Or, when
fome great misfortune befals him, “ Happy are^ ye, O
my parents, that ye are not alive to fee this.” We
have a beautiful apollrophe in the third book of the
iEneid, where JEneas, who is telling his ftory to Dido,
happening to mention the death of his father, makes a
fudden addrefs to him as follows i
  hie, pelagi tot tempeftatibus a£dusr
Heu, genitorem, omnis curs cafufque levamen,
Amitto Anchifen : —hie me, pater optime,, fellum
Deferis, heu, tantis nequienuam erepte pencils !
This apoftrophe has a pleafmg effect. It feems to inti¬
mate, that the love which the hero bore his father was
fo great, that when he mentioned him he forgot every
thing elfe ; and, without minding his company, one of
whom was a queen, fuddenly addreffed Iiimfelt to that
which, though prefent only in idea, was ftill a principal
objedl of his affedtion. An emotion fo warm and fo
reafonable cannot fail to command the fympathy of the
reader. When Michael, in the eleventh book of Pa-
radife Loft, announces to Adam and Eve the necefiity
of their immediate departure from the garden of Eden,
the poet’s art in preferving the decorum of the two cha-
radters is very remarkable. Pierced to the heait at the
thought of leaving that happy place, Eve, in all the
violence of ungovernable forrow, breaks forth into a pa-
• thetic apoftrophe to Paradife, to the flowers fhe had
reared, and to the nuptial bowTer fhe had adorned. A-
dam makes no addrefs to the walks, the trees, or the
flowers of the garden, the lofs whereof did not fo much
afflidt him ; but, in his reply to the Archangel, expref-
fes, without a figure, his regret for being’banifhed from
a place where he had been fo oft honoured with a fen¬
fible manifeftation of the divine prefence. The ufe of
the apoftrophe in the one cafe, and the omiflion of it in
the other, not only gives a beautiful variety to the ftyle,
hut alfo marks that fuperior elevation and compofure of
mind, by which the poet had all along difting.uifhed the
charadter of Adam.—One of the fineft applications of
this figure that is anywhere to be feen, is in the fourth
book of the fame poem; where the author, catching by
fympathy the devotion of our firft parents, fuddenly
drops his narrative, and joins his voice to theirs in ado¬
ring the Father of the univerfe.
Thus at their fhady lodge arriv’d, both flood.
Both turn’d, and under open fky ador’d
The God that made both fky, air, earth, and heav’n,
Which they beheld, the moon’s refplendent globe,
And ftarry pole:—Thou alfo mad’ft the night.
Maker omnipotent! and thou the day.
Which we in our appointed work employ’d
Have finifh’d. 
Milton took the hint of this fine contrivance from a
well-known paffage of Virgil i.
TRY. *95
Of Tropes!
Hie juvenum chorus, ille fenum 5 qui carmine laudes and Fi-
Herculeas et facta ferant;    gure8, .
 ut duros mille labores » 1
Rege fub Euryftheo, fatis Junonis iniquse,
Pertulerit: —Tu nubigenas, invicte, bimembres,
Hylaeum Pholoumque, manu ; tu Crelia maclas
Prodigia.  
The beauty arifing from diverfified compofition is the
fame in both, and very great in each. But every read¬
er muft fee/, that the figure is incomparably more affedt-
ing to the mind in the imitation than in the original.
So true it is, that the moft rational emotions raife the
moft intenfe fellow-feeling ; and that the apoftrophe.is
then the moft emphatical, when it difplays thofe work¬
ings of human afledtion which are at once ardent and
well-founded. . 64
To conclude this head : Tropes and figures, parti-Trope^
eularly the metaphor, Jimilkucle, and allegory, are further u^£ujj
ufeful in beautifying language, by fuggefting, together as they
with the thoughts eflential to the fubjedt, an endlefs va-fug^eft
riety of agreeable images, for which there would be noan endleft
place, if writers were always to confine themfelves to the
proper names of things. And this beauty and variety, images.
judicioufly applied, is fo far from diftradting, that it
tends rather to fix, the attention, and captivate the
heart of the readers, by giving light, and life, and pa¬
thos, to the whole compoiitiqn.
II. That tropes and figures are more neceffary to
poetry, than to any other mode of writing, was the
fecond point propofed to be illuftrated in this fec-
tion. 65
Language, as already obferved, is then natural, when Tropes and
it is fait able to the fuppofed condition of the fpeaker.
Figurative language is peculiarly fuitable to th’e fuppo- pary to
fed condition of the poet; becaufe figures are fuggefted poetry than
by the fancy; and the fancy of him who compofestoanyothes
poetry is more employed than that of any other author.
Of all hiftorical, philofophical, and theological refearch-
es, the objedl is real truth, which is fixed and perma-
The aim of rhetorical declamation (according to
nent.   , w
Cicero) is apparent truth ; which, being lefs determi¬
nate, leaves the fancy of the fpeaker more free, gives
greater fcope to the inventive powers, and fupplies the
materials of a more figurative phrafeology. But the
poet is fubjeft to no reftraints, but thofe of verifimili-
tude ; which is ftill lefs determinate than rhetorical
truth. He feeks not to convince the judgment of his-
reader by arguments of either real or apparent cogency;
he means, only to pleafe and intereft him, by an appeal
to his fenfibility and imagination. His own imagina¬
tion is therefore continually at work, ranging through
the whole of real and probable exiftemte, “ glancing
from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven,” in quell'
of images and ideas fuited to the emotions he himfelf
feels, and to the fympathies he would communicate to
others. And, confequently, figures of fpeech, the off-
fpring of excurfive fancy, muft (if he fpeak according
to what he is fuppofed to think and feel, that is, ac¬
cording to his fuppofed condition) tinfture the lan¬
guage of the poet more than that of any other compo-
fer. So that, if figurative diftion be unnatural in geo¬
metry, becaufe all wanderings of fancy are unfuitable,
and even impoffible, to the geometrician, while intent
upon his argument; it is, upon the fame principle, per-
* Bbs fcaiy„
jgS
POE
0f Tropts fe£Uy natura!, an<f even unavoidable, in poetry; becaufe
and Fi- more a p0ef. attends to his fubjeft, and the better
y | . qualified he is to do it juftice, the more aftive will his
imagination be, and the more diverfified the ideas that
prefent themfelves to his mind. Befides, the true
poet addrefles himfelf to the paffioris and fympathies of
mankind ; which, till his own be raifed, he cannot hope
to do with fuccefs. And it is the nature of many paf-
fions, though hot of all, to increafe the activity of ima¬
gination : and an aftive imagination naturally vents it-
lelf in figurative language; nay, unlefs reftrained by a
correft tafte, has a tendency to exceed in it ; of which
Bifhop Taylor and Lord Vevulam, two geniufes diffe¬
rent in kind, but of the higheft order, are memorable
examples.
We faid, that “ the poet feeks not to convince the
judgment of his reader by arguments of either real or
apparent cogency.” We do not mean, that in poe¬
try argument has no place. The moft legitimate rea-
foning, the founded: philofophy, and narratives purely
hiftorical, may appear in a poem, and contribute great¬
ly to the honour of the author, and to the importance
of his work. All this we have in Paradife Loft. — We
mean, that what diftmguifties pure poetry from other
writing, is its aptitude, not to fway the judgment by rea-
foning, but to pleafe the fancy, and move the paffions, by
a lively imitation of nature. Nor would we exclude poe¬
tical embellifhment from hiftory,or even from philofophy.
Plato’s Dialogues and the Moral Effays of Addifon
and Johnfon abound in poetic imagery ; and Livy and
Tacitus often amufe their readers with poetical deferip-
tion. In like manner, though geometry and phyfics be
different fciences ; though abffra& ideas be the fubjeft,
and pure demonftration or intuition the evidence, of the
former; and though the material univerfe, and the in¬
formations of fenfe, be the fubjeft and the evidence of
the latter; yet have thefe fciences been united by the beft
philofophers, and very happy effefb refulted from the
union. In one and the fame work, poetry, hiffory,
philofophy', and oratory, may doubtlefs be blended;
nay, thefe arts have all been actually blended ifi one and
the fame work, not by Milton only, but alfo by Ho¬
rner, Virgil, Lucan, and Shakefpeare. Yet ftill thefe
arts are different; different in their ends and principles,
and in the faculties of the mind to which they are re-
fpeftively addreffed : and it is eafy to perceive when a
writer employs one and when another.
§2. Of the Sound of Poetical Language.
the ear, like every other perceptive faculty,
65
The poet
ought to
attend to
the har¬
mony of
language,
which con-
Sfts in
is capable of gratification, regard is to be had to the
found of words, even in profe. But to the harmony of
language, it behoves the poet, more than any other
writer, to attend ; as it is more efpecially his concern to
render his work pleafurable. In fad, we find, that no
poet was ever popular who did not poffefs the art of har¬
monious compofition.
What belongs to the fubje& of Poetical Harmony
4
T. * v.
may be referred to one or other of thefe heads, Sweeh Of Foetal
nefs, Meafure. and Imitation. Harmony.
I. In order to give fweetnefs to language, either in
verfe or prpfe, all words ofharfti found, difficult pro-sweemtfs
nunciation, or unwieldy magnitude, are to be avoided asand
much as poffible, unlefs when they have in the found
fomething peculiarly emphatical; and words are to be
fo placed in refped of one another, as that difeordant
combinations may not refult from their union. But in
poetry this is more neceffary than in profe; poetical
language being underftood to be an imitation of natural
language improved to that perfection which is confiftent
with probability. To poetry, therefore, a greater lati¬
tude muft be allowed than to profe, in expreffing, by
tropes and figures of pleafing found, thofe ideas whereof
the proper names are in any refpe£I offenfive, either tee¬
the ear or to the fancy.
II. How far verfification or regular meafure may be
effential to this art, has been difputed by critical writers;
fome holding it to be indifpenfably neceffary, and fome
not neceffary at all.
The fa<51 feems to be, as already hinted, that to poc- Meafu*e
try verfe is not effential. In a profe work, we may which, ‘
have the fable, the arrangement, and a great deal of thethou^h twt,
pat hos and language, of poetry; and fuch a work is Cer-effv:mial‘
tainly a poem, though perhaps not a perfect one. For
how abfurd would it be to fay, that by changing the
pofition only of a word or two in each line, one might
diveft Homer’s Iliad of the poetical chara&er ! At this
rate, the arts of poetry and verfification would be the
fame ; and the rules in Defpauter’s Grammar, and the
moral diftichs aferibed to Cato, would be as real poetry
as any part of Virgil. In fad, fome very ancient poems,
when tranflated into a modern tongue, are far lefs poe¬
tical in verfe than in profe ; the alterations neceffary to
adapt them to our numbers being detrimental to their
fublime fimplicity; of which any perfon of tafte will be
fenfible, who compares our common profe-verfion of
Job, the Pfalms, and the Song of Solomon, with the
beft metrical paraphrafe of thofe books that has yet ap¬
peared. Nay, in many cafes, Comedy will be more
poetical, becaufe more pleafing and natural, in profe
than in verfe. By verfifying Tom Jones, and The
Merry Wives of Windfor, we fiiould fpoil the two fineft
comic poems, the one epic, the other dramatical, now
in the world. ^
But, fecondly, though verfe be not effential to poetry, Adds to
it is neceffary to the perfe&ion of all poetry that admits t.he Perfee*
of it. Verfe is to poetry, what colours are to paint-p™®*
mg(G). A painter might difplay great genius, andF 7*
draw mafterly figures with chalk or ink; but if he in¬
tend a perfect pidure, he muft employ in his work as
many colours as are feen in the objeCt he imitates. Or,
to adopt a beautiful comparifon of Demofthenes, quoted
by Ariftotle *, “ Verfification is to poetiy what bloomy
is to the human countenance.” A good face is agree- lib. 3.
able when the bloom is gone, and good poetry may cap- 4*
pleafe without verification ; harmonious numbers may
fet
(G) Horace feems to hint at the fame comparifon, when, after fpecifying the feveral forts of verfe fuitable to
£pic, Elegiac, Lyric> and Dramatic Poetry, he adds,
Defcriptas fervare vices, operumq e colores.
Cur ego, ft nequeo igaoroque, Poeta falutor? Ar.Poet. ver, 86.
. POE
* • *!r * an indi’^ercnt poem, and a fine bloom indifferent
pf poetica fet on * t crfe poetry is incomplete ; and
Hif-mony features: but, without verie, poeiry is * t .
beauty is not perfea, unlefs to fweetnefs and regularity
of feature there be fuperadded,
The bloom of young defire, and purple light of love.
If numbers are neceffary to the perfeftion of the higher
poetry they are no lefsfo to that of the lower kinds, to
Paftoral, Song, and Satire, which have little behdes the
language and^ verfification to diffinguiih them from
profe; and which fome ancient authors are unwilling
to admit to the rank of poems: though it feems too
nice a fcruple, both becaufe fuch writings are commonly
termed poftical; and alfo becaufe there is, even m them,
fomething that may not improperly beconhdered as an
imitation of nature* . **
That the rhythm and meafures of verfe are natural y
agreeable, and' therefore that by thefe poetry may be
made more pleafing than it would be without them, is
evident from this, that children and illiterate people,
vvhofe admiration we cannot fuppofe to be the effea of
habit or prejudice, are exceedingly delighted with them.
In many proverbial fayings, where there is neither rbuhe
tior alliteration, rhythm is obvioufly ftudied. Nay, the u
of rhythm in poetry is univerfal; whereas alliteration and
rhime, though relifhed by fome nations, are not much
fought after by others. And we need not be at alofs
to account for the agreeablenefs of proportion and order,
if we refled, that they fugged the agreeable ideas of
contrivance and (kill, at the fame time that they render
the connedion of things obvious to the undemanding,
and imprint it deeply on the memory. Verle, by pro-
moting diftind and eafy remembrance, conveys ideas to
the mind with energy, and enlivens every emotion the
poet intends to raife in the reader or hearer. Belides,
when we. attend toverfes, after hearing one or two, we
become acquainted with'the meafure, wh,ch therefore
we always look for in the fequel. This perpetual inter-
change of hope and gratification is a fource of delight ;
and to this in part is owing the pleafure we take in the
rhimes of modern poetry. And hence we fee, that
though an incorred rhime or untuneable verfe be in it-
felf, and compared with an important fentiment, a very
trifling matter; yet it is no trifle in regard to its efteds
on the hearer ; becaufe it brings difappomtment, and io
gives a temporary (hock to the mind, and interrupts the
current of the affedions; and becaufe it fuggefts the
difagreeable ideas of negligence or want of floll on the
part of the author. And therefore, as the public ear
becomes more delicate, the negligence will be more gla-
ring, and the difappointment more intenfely felt; and
corrednefs of rhime and of meafure will of courfe be
the more indifpenfable. In our tongue, rhime is more
neceffary to Lyric than to Heroic poetry. The reaion
feems to be, that in the latter the ear can of itfelf per-
ln what ceive the boundary of the meafure, becaufe the lines aie
tafes rhime all of equal length nearly, and every good reader makes
may be dif- a fti0rt panfe at the end of each ; whereas, in the ior-
Skhil En mer> the lines vary kngth : and therefore the rhime
glifh poe* * is requifite to make the meafure and rhythm fufficiently
perceptible. Cuftom too may have fome influence. Lng-
lifli Odes without rhime are uncommon ; and therefore
have fomething aukward about them, or fomething at
leaft to which the public ear is not yet thoroughly re¬
conciled. Indeed, when the drama is excepted, we do
T R Y. x97
nc* think that rhime can be fafely fpared ^
poetry of any kind, but when the fubjed is able to^
fupport itfelf. “ He that thinks himfelt capable of
aftonifhing (fays Johnfon) may write blank verfe ; but
thofe that hope only to pleafe, muff condeicend to
rhime.” i r i
Rhime, however, is of lefs importance by tar than
rhythm, which in poetry as well as in mufic is the
fource of much pleafing variety ; of variety tempered
with uniformity, and regulated by art; infomuch that,
notwithstanding the likenefs of one hexameter verfe to
another, it is not common, either in Virgil or in Homer,
to meet with two contiguous hexameters whofe rhythm
is exadly the fame. And though all Englifh heroic
verfes confift of five feet, among which the iambic pre¬
dominates ; yet this meafure, in refped of rhythm alone,
is fufceptible of more than 30 varieties. And let it be
remarked further, that different kinds of verfe, by be¬
ing adapted to different fubjeds and modes of writing,
give variety to the poetic language, and multiply the
charms of this pleafing art. , • . ,
What has formerly been fiiown to be true in regard
to ftyle, will alfo in many cafes hold true of verhhea- 7r
tion “ that it is then natural, when it is adapted to The ian-
At fippofid condition of the fpeaker In the epopee, w of
the poet affnmes the character of calm mfp.ratio.1; and ' ^
therefore his language muff be elevated, and his num-|,e ejevat6(j
bers maieftic and uniform. A peafant fpeaking in he-and his
roic or hexameter verfe is no improbability here ; be. n^ers
caufe his words are fuppofed to be tranfmitted by one
who will of his own accord give them every ornament
neceffary to reduce them into dignified meafure; as an
eloquent man, in a folemn affembly, recapitulating the
fpeech of a clown, would naturally exprefs it in pure
and perfpicuous language. The uniform heroic mea¬
fure will fuit any fubjed of dignity, whether narrative
or didadic, that admits or requires uniformity of ftyle.
In tragedy; where the imitation of real life is more
perfed° than in epic poetry, the uniform magnifi¬
cence of epic numbers might be improper ; becaufe the
heroes and heroines are fuppofed to fpeak in their own 1.
perfons, and according to the immediate impulfe of paf- ^
fion and fentiment. Yet, even in tragedy, the verfifica-in tragedy
tion may be both harmonious and dignified; becaufe the the fame
charaders are taken chiefly from high life, and the ^'L’j?
events from a remote period ; and becaufe the * '*ence
poetry is permitted to imitate nature, not as it is, but WOuld be
in that ftate of perfedion in which it might be. The improper,
Greeks and Romans confidered their hexameter as too^uen
try.
U-reeics ana ivonums ~ * more fo in
artificial for dramatic poetry; and therefore in tragedy,
and even in comedy, made ufe of the iambic, and iome
other meafures that came near the cadence of converfa-
tion : we ufe the iambic both in the epic and diamatic
poem; but for the moft part it is, or ought to be, much
more elaborate in the former than in the latteih In
dramatic comedy, where the manners and concerns of
familiar life are exhibited, verfe would feem to be unna¬
tural, except it be fo like the found of common difeourfe
as to’be hardly diftinguifhable from it. Cuftom, how¬
ever, may in fome countries determine otherwife ; and
againft cuftom, in thefe matters, it is vain to argue.
The profeffed enthufiafm of the dithyrambic poet ren¬
ders wildnefs, variety, and a fonorous harmony of num¬
bers, peculiarly fuitable to his odes. The love-fonnet,
and Anacreontic fong, will be lefs various, more regu-
4
198 POE
Of PretlcalJar, and of a fofter harmony; becaufe the ftate of mind
Harmony. eXpreffe(j Jn has more compofure. Philofophy can
' ~ fcarce go further in this inveftigation, without deviating
into whim and hypothefis. The particular forts of
vcirfe to be adopted in the lower fpecies of poetry, are
determined by fafliion chiefly, and the practice of ap¬
proved authors*
III. The origin and principles of imitative harmony,
or of that artifice by which the found is made, as Pope
fays, “ an echo to the fenfe,” may be explained in the
7 3 following manner.
A ftnlong It is pleafing to obferve the uniformity of nature in
analogy her operations. Betv/een moral and material beauty
tal and roa anc* harmony, between moral and material deformity
terial beau- and diflbnance, there obtains a very linking analogy,
tynndde- The vifible and audible expreffions of almoft every vir-
fornaity. tuous emotion are agreeable to the eye and the ear, and
thofe ' f almolt every criminal paffion difagreeable. The
looks, the attitudes, and the vocal founds, natural to
benevolence, to gratitude, to compaflion, to piety, are
in themfelves graceful and pleafing ; while anger, dif-
content, defpair, and cruelty, bring difcordto the voice,,
deformity to the features, and diftortion to the limbs.
That flowing curve, which painters know to be eflen-
tial to the beauty of animal Ihape, gives place to a mul¬
tiplicity of right lines and lharp angles in the counte¬
nance and gelture of him who knits his brows, ftretches
his noftrils, grinds his teeth, and clenches his fill;
whereas, devotion, magnanimity, benevolence, content¬
ment, and good-humour, foften the attitude, and give a
more graceful fwell to the outline of every feature. Cer¬
tain vocal tones accompany certain mental emotions.
The voice of fon-ow is feeble and broken, that of de¬
fpair boifterousrand incoherent j joy alfumes a fweet and
fprightly note, fear a weak and tremulous cadence ; the
tones of love and benevolence are mufical and uniform,
thofe of rage loud and dilfonant; the voice of the fedate
reafoner is equable and grave, but not unpleafant; and
he who declaims v/ith energy, employs many varieties
of modulation fuited to the various emotions that pre¬
dominate in his difcourfe.
But it is not in the language of pafixon only that the
human voice varies its tone, or the human face its fea¬
tures. Every linking fentiment, and every interelling
idea, has an effedl upon it* One would elleem that per-
fon no adept in narrative eloquence, who Ihould defcribe,
with the very fame accent, fwift and flow motion, ex¬
treme labour and eafy performance, agreeable fenfation
and excruciating pain ; who Ihould talk of the tumult
of a tempelluous ocean, the roar of thunder, the de-
vallations of an earthquake, or an Egyptian pyramid
tumbling into ruins, in the fame tone of voice where¬
with he defcribes the murmur of a rill, the warbling of
( h ) No fooner had tlx’ Almighty ceas’d, than all
The multitude of angels, with a Ihout
Loud as from numbers without number, fweet
As from blell voices uttering joy; heav’n rung
With jubilee, and loud hofannas fill’d
Th’ eternal regions.  Par. Lojl, b. 3.
Se4 alfo the night-llorm of thunder, lightning, wind, and
ram, ih Virg. Georg, lib. 1. ver. 32S -3 34.
(>) loagum, formofe, vale, vale, inquit, Tola.
Vtrg. Eel. I.
^ ^ Parti;
the harp of iEolus, the Twinging of a cradle, or the de- Of Poetical
feent of an angel. Elevation of mind gives dignity Harmony,
to the voice. From Achilles, Sarpedon, and Othello, ' v- -«
we fliould as naturally expect a manly and, fonorous ac¬
cent, as a nervous ftyle and majellic attitude. Cox¬
combs and bullies, while they affume airs of importance
and valour, a fleet alfo a dignified articulation.
Since the tones of natural language are fo various, •ru
poetry, which imitates the language of nature, mufl al-ofiLuauve
io vary its tones ; and, in refpeft of found as well as of harmony o£
meaning, be framed after that model of ideal perfec-'1"11111*^'
tion, wliich the variety and energy of the human arti-.
culate voice render probable. This is the more eafily
accomplifhed, beeaufe in every language there is be¬
tween the found and fenfe of certain words a percept
tible analogy ; which, though not fo accurate as to lead
a foreigner from the found to the fignification, is yet
accurate enough to fhow, that, in forming fuch words,
regard has been had to the imitative qualities of vocal
found. Such, in Engljfh, are ihe words yell, crq/lj,
crack, hifs, roar, murmur, and many others.
All the particular laws that regulate this fort of imi¬
tation, as far as they are founded in nature, and liable
to the cognizance of philofophy, depend on the general
law of flyle above mentioned. Together with the other
circumflances of the fuppofed fpeaker, the poet takes
into confideration the tone of voice fuitable to the ideas
that occupy his mind, and thereto adapts the found of
his language, if it can be done confillently with eafe and
elegance of exprefiion. But when this imitative har¬
mony is too much fought after, or words appear to be
choien for found rather than fenfe, the verie becomes
finical and ridiculous. Such is Ronfard’s affe&ed imi¬
tation of the fong ol the Iky-lark :
Elle quindee du zephire
Sublime en Pair vire et revire,.
Et y declique un joli cris,
Qni rit, guerit, et tire Pire
Des efprit mieux que je n’ecris.
This is as ridiculous as that line of Ennius,.
Turn tuba terribili fonitu taratantara dixit
Or as the following verfes of Swift;
The man with the kettle-drum enters the gate.
Dub dub a dub dub: the trumpeters follow,
Tantara tantara ; while all the boys hollow.
Words by their found may imitate found ; and quick m 7i . *
or flow articulation may imitate quick or flow motion, mony of *
Hence, by a proper choice and arrangement of words, numbers
the poet may imitate Sounds that are fweet with dig-can imi"
nity (h),—fweet and tender (i),-_loud (K^and^*
harfh
Formofam-refonare doces Amarillida filvas.
Virg. Eel. l.
See alfo the fimileof the nightingale, Geor. lib. 4. verf.
5 11. And fee that wonderful couplet deferibing the-
wailings of the owl, JEneid IV. 462.
( k )   vibratus ab asthere ful^or
Cum fonitu venit, et mere omnia vifa repente,
Tyrrhenufque tubse mugire per sethera clangor,
Sufpiciunt; iterumatqueiterumfragorintonatingens.
JEnad. 8.
See
. POE
(l) i-and Mofm* that are
Harmony. of dignity (M),-flow in confoquence of difficulty (*),
fwift and noify (o)—fwift and fmooth (p uneren
and abrupt (O.-qmck and joyous (r). An unex-
pefted paufe in the verfe may alfo imitate a fudden
failure of flrength (a), or Interruption of motion Vt),
or give vivacity to ah image or thought, by fixing our
attention longer than ufual upon the vyord that pre¬
cedes it (u).—Moreover, when we defcnbe great bulk,
-it is natural for us to articulate flowly, even in common
difcourfe ; and therefore a line of poetry that requires
T R Y. I9<5
a now pronunciation, or feema longer tljan it Md OT
be, may be ufed with good effeft in defcrlbing vaftnefe 
of ike (x).— Sweet and fmOoth numbers are molt pro¬
per, when the poet paints agreeable objefts, or gentle
energy (y) : and harlher founds when he fpeaks ot
what is^ ugly, violent, or difagreeable (x). rIhis too
is according to the nature of common language; lor
we generally employ harlher tones of voice to exprefs
what we diffike, and more melodious notes to delcnbe
the obieas of love, complacency, or admiration. Harfh
numbers, however, ffiould not be frequent m poetry :
tor
'See alfo the llorm in the firft book of the iEneid, and
in the fifth of the Odyffey.
(l) The hoarfe rough verfe (hall like the torrent roar.^
  On a fudden open fly,
With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th’ infernal doors, and on their hinges grate
Harlh thunder.   Par
See alfo Homer’s Iliad, lib. *. ver. 363. and Clarke’s
Annotation.
(m) See an exquifite example in Gray’s Progrefs of
Poefy ; the conclufion of the third ftanza.
(n) And when up ten fteep Hopes you’ve dragg’d
your thighs. PoPe'
Tull brought out this, when fcarce his tongue could
J ftir. P°P*'
-The huge leviathan
Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait,
Tempeft the ocean. Par- Lvfti VII* 411*
* See the famous defeription of Sifyphus rolling the ftone,
Odyffi lib. II. ver. 592. See Quintil. Inft. Orat. lib. 9.
cap. 4. $ 4. compared with Paradife Loft, book 2. ver.
1022.
(o) Quadmpedante putrem fonitu quatit ungula
campum. JEneid,
Avrup (Trara nfovSt x.vMvS'ito Xa«f avaiStf. Odyjf. 11.
See alfo Virg. iEneid. lib. I. ver. 83—87.
{P j See wild as the winds o’er the defert he files.
V ‘ Pope.
Tie volat, fimul arva fuga, fimul sequora verrens.
Virg.
TmSiu r’ ix&Ttx ttiKh, 7rng fovtroc.
Hejiod.
(g) IloXXa avavra kutchtx hx^xhtx te T nX^v.
Ham,
The lafs fiiriek’d, ftarted up, and fhriek’d again.
Anonym.
( r ) Let the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecks found,
To many a youth, and many a maid,
Dancing in the chequer’d fiiade. Milt. Allegro.
See alfo Gray’s Progrefs of Poefy, ftanza 3.
(s) Ac velut in fomnis oculos ubi languida preffit
Node quies, nequicquam avidos extendere curfus
Velle videmur : —et in mediis conatibus sgri
Suceidimus. 
See alfo Virg. Georg, lib. 3. ver. 515, 516.
(r) For this, be furC to-night thou (halt have cramps,
Side-ftitches that fhall pen thy breath up. Urchins
Shall exercife upon thee.  .
Profpero to Calyban in the TempeJL
See Pope’s Iliad, XIII. 199*
(u)   How often from the fteep
Of echoing hill or thicket have we heard
Celeftial voices, to the midnight air,
Sole,— or refponfive to each other’s note.
Singing their great Creator ? -Par. Lojl, b. 4,
And over them triumphant Death his dart
Shook, but delay’d to ftrike. Id.
See alfo Horn. Odyffi 1. 9. v. 290.
( x) Thus ftretch’d out, huge in length, the arch fiend
x lay. Par' LoJ1'
Monftrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen
ademptum. JEneid. 3.
Etmagnos membrorum artus, magnaoffa, lacertofqu£
Exuit, atque ingens media confiftit arena.
JEneid. v. 42 2 .
(y) Hie gelidi fontes, hie mollia prata, Lycori,
Hie nemus, hie ipfo tecum confumerer sevo.
Virg. Eel. 10.
The dumb fliall fing; the lame his crutcb forego.
And leap, exulting, like the bounding roe.
Pope’s MeJJiah.
See Milton’s defeription of the evening. Par. Loft,
book 4. ver. 598—609.
Ye gentle gales beneath my body blow.
And foftly lay me on the waves below.
Pope’s Sappho.
/ z 1 Stridenti ftipula miferum difperdere carmen.
V ' Virg. Eel.
Immo ego Sardois videar tibi amarior herbis*
Horridior rufeo, proje&a vilior alga.
Virg. Eel. 7.
Neu patriae validas in viifcera vertite vires.
Virg. JEneid. 6.
See alfo Milton’s defeription of the Lazar-houfe in Pa¬
radife Loft, b. 11. v. 477—492*
200 ' POE
of the for in this art, as in muflc, concord and melody ought
^Drama^‘Uways to predominate, And we find in faft, that good
» ^ ' poets can occafionally exprefs themfelves fomewhat harfit-
ly, when the fubjeft requires it, and yet preferve the
fweetnefs and majeity of poetical diftion. Further, the
voice of complaint, pity, love, and all the gentler affec¬
tions, is mild and mufical, and fhould therefore be imi¬
tated in mufical numbers; while defpair, defiance, re¬
venge, and turbulent emotions in general, affume an
abrupt and fonorous cadence. Dignity of defcrip-
tion (a), folemn vows (b), and all fentiments that pro¬
ceed from a mind elevated with great ideas (c), require
a correfpondent pomp of language and verfification.—
Laftly, an irregular or uncommon movement in the
verfe may fometimes be of ufe, to make the reader con¬
ceive an image in a particular manner. Virgil, deferi-
bing horfes running over rocky heights at full fpeed,
T R Y. Panir,
begins the line with two da&yls, to imitate yapldity, Of the '
and concludes it with eight long fyllables: Epopee and
Saxa per, et fcopulos, et depreffas convalles. Orvaa*.
. Gear III. 276. 'r^
which is a very unufual meafure, but feems well adapted
to the thing exprefied, namely, to the defeent of the
animal from the hills to the low ground. At any rate
this extraordinary change of the rhythm may be allow!
ed to bear fome refemblance to the animal’s change of
motion, as it would be felt by a rider, and as we may
fuppofe it is felt by the animal itfelf.
Other forms of imitative harmony, and many other
examples, befides thofe referred to in the margin, will
readily occur to all who are converfant in the writings
of the bell verfifiers, particularly Homer, Virgil, Mil-
ton, Lucretius, Spenfer, Dryden, Shakefpeare, Pope,
and Gray.
Part II, Of the DIFFERENT SPECIES of POETRY, with their Particular
Principles.
Sect. I. Of Epic and Dramatic Compofitions»
§ I. The Epopee and Drama compared.
Ehm »f rT,‘"'RAGEDY and the epic differ not in fubflantials : in
Cnticifm. i. both the fame en(js are pr0pofed, viz. inflrudtion
In what an<^ amufement; and in both the fame mean is em-
tragic and ployed, viz. imitation of human aftions. They differ
epic poetry only in the manner of imitating : epic poetry employs
in whatUd narrat*on ’ tragedy represents its fails as palling in our
they differ. %ht; in former, the poet introduces himfelf as an
* hiftorian ; in the latter, he prefents his ailors, and ne¬
ver himfelf.
This difference, regarding form only, may be thought
flight: but the effeils it occafions are by no means fo;
for what we fee makes a deeper impreffion than what
we learn from others. A narrative poem is a ftory told
by another : fails and incidents paffing upon the llage,
come under our own obfervation ; and are befide much
enlivened by ailion and geflure, exprellive of many fen¬
timents beyrmd the reach of language.
A dramatic compofition has another property, in¬
dependent altogether of ailion; which is, that it makes
a deeper impreffion than narration : in the former, per-
fons exprefs their own fentiments; in the latter, fenti¬
ments are related at fecond-hand. For that reafon, Ari-
*Tott. chap ftotle, the father of critics, lays it down as a rule*. That
fedt. 6. in an epic poem the author ought to take every op¬
portunity of introducing his ailors, and of confining
the narrative part within the narrowed bounds. Ho¬
mer underflood perfeilly the advantage of this method;
and his poems are both of them in a great meafure
dramatic. Lucan runs to the oppofite extreme ; and
is guilty of a ftill greater fault, in fluffing his Pharja.
lia with cold and languid refledkions, the merit of which
he affumes to himfelf, and deigns not to fhare with his
adtors. Nothing can be more injudiciouily timed, than
a chain of fuch refle£lions, which fufpend the battle of
Pharfalia after the leaders had made their fpeeches,
and the two armies are ready to engage f. f Lih. f.
Arillotle, from the nature of the fable, divides tra-fr°m lin«
gedy into fimple and complex : but it is of greater mo-3 Xs t0 linc
ment, with refpedl to dramatic as well as epic poetry,4 °‘77
to found a diflindlion upon the different ends attainedTragic and
by fuch compofitions. A poem, whether dramatic orePic P'?etr?
epic, that has nothing in view but to move the paffions^^!^,
and to exhibit pi6lures of virtue and vice, may be di-°r ^ *
flinguifhed by the name of pathetic : but where a fbory
is purpofely contrived to illuflrate fome moral truth, .
by fhowing that diforderly paffions naturally lead to
external misfortunes, fuch compofition may be deno¬
minated moral. Befide making a deeper impreffion
than can be done by cool reafoning, a moral poem does
not fall fhort of reafoning in affording conviction : the
natural connexion of vice with mifery, and of virtue
with happinefs, may be illuftrated by flaring a fact as
well as by urging an argument. Let us affume, for
example, the following moral truths: That difeord
among the chiefs renders ineffe&ual all common naea-
fures; and that the confequences of a (lightly-founded
quarrel, foftered by pride and arrogance, are not lefs
fatal than thofe of the groffeft injury: thefe truths may
be inculcated by the quarrel between Agamemnon and
Achilles at the fiege of Troy. If fa&s or circumftances
be wanting, fuch as tend to roufe the turbulent paf¬
fions, they muff be invented ; but no accidental nor
unaccountable event ought to be admitted; for the ne-
ceffary or probable conneClion between vice and mifery
is
and GrayOdes ^ an^ ^omer> Virgil, and Milton, pajfm. See alfo Dryden’s Alexander’s Feaff^
(b) See Virg. Atneid, IV. 24.
(c) Examples are frequent in the great authors. See Othello’s exclamation:
■——  O now for ever
Farewell the tranquil naiad 1 <kc.
Ml.fc. 3,
Epopee and
1) ama.
’8 ,
Tbe good
cffeft- of
Part H. P O ,
Of ti e Is not learned from any events but what are naturally
occafioned by the charaaers and paffions of the perlons
reprefented, aaing* in fueh circumftances. A real event,
of which we fee not the caufe, rftay afford a leffon, up¬
on the prefumptibU that what hath happened may again
happen : but this cannot be inferred from a {lory that
is known to be a fidtion. .
Many are the good effects of fuch coltipofitions. A
cuc«-t pathetic compofition, whether epic or dramatic, tends
fuch com- to a }iabit of virtue, by exciting us to do what is right,
yofinoiis. reftraining us from what is wrong. Its frequent
piftures of human woes produce, befide, two effects,
extremely falutary : they improve our fympathy, and
fortify us to bear our own misfortunes. A moral com¬
pofition mult obvioufly produce the fame good effedts,
becaufe by being moral it ceafeth not to be pathetic :
it enjoys befides an excellence peculiar to itfelf; for it
not only improves the heart, as above-mentioned, but
inftrudts the head by the moral it contains. It feems
impoffible to imagine any entertainment more imted
to a rational being, than a work thus happily ill nitra¬
ting fome moral truth ; where a number of perfons of
different charadters are engaged in an important adtion,
fome retarding, others promoting, the great cataftrophe;
and where there is dignity of ftyle as well as of mat¬
ter. A work of this kind has our fympathy at com¬
mand, and can put in motion the whole train of the
focial affedtions : our curiofity in fome feenes is ex¬
cited, in others gratified ; and our delight is confum-
mated at the clofe, upon finding, from the charadters
and fituations exhibited at the commencement, that
every incident down to the final cataftrophe is natural,
and that the whole in conjundtion maxe a regular chain
of caufes and effedts.
Confidering that an epic and a dramatic poem are the
fame in fubftance, and have the fame aim or end, one
will readily imagine, that fubjedts proper for the one
muft be equally proper for the other. But confidering
their difference as to form, there will be found reafon
to corredt that conjedture, at leaft in fome degree.
Many fubjedts may indeed be treated with equal ad¬
vantage in either form : but the fubjedts are ftill more
numerous for which they are not equally qualified ;
and there are fubjedts proper for the one and not at all
for the other. To give feme flight notion of the dif¬
ference, as there is no room here for enlarging upon
every article, we obferve, that dialogue is better qua¬
lified for expreffing fentiments, and narrative for dif-
playing fadts. Heroifm, magnanimity, undaunted
courage, and other elevated virtues, figure belt in ac¬
tion : tender paffions, and the whole tribe of fympa-
thetic affeftions, figure belt in fentiment. It clearly
follows, that tender paffions are more peculiarly the pro¬
vince of tragedy, grand and heroic adtions of epic poetry.
“ The epic poem is univerfally allowed to be of
all poetical works, the moll dignified, and, at the fame
time, the moft difficult in execution. To contrive a
ftory which fliall pleaffe and intereft all readers, by be¬
ing at once entertaining, important, and inftfudtive ;
to fill it with fuitable incidents ; to enliven it with a
variety of charadters and of deferiptions ; and, through¬
out a long work, to maintain that propriety of fenti¬
ment, and that elevation of ftyle, which the epic cha¬
racter requires, is unqueftionably the higheft effort of
poetical genius.
Vdi» XV. Part I.
79
The lame
fubjerts
rot aiways
fir for ti agic
and ej ic
poetry.
* Bloh's
Lttturcs.
TRY. soi
« The aaion of fubjefl of tHt epic poem muft *>'E
great and interefting. Without greatnefs it would noc
have fufficient importance either to fix our attentum or — -v J
to juftify the magnificent apparatus which the poet be- oo
flows on it. This is fo evidently requifite as not to re-The proper
quire illuftration ; and, indeed, hardly any who have^ J^
attempted epic poetry have failed in choofing fome fub-p0cm<
jedt Efficiently important, either by the nature of the ac¬
tion or by the fame of the perfonages concerned in it.
The fame of Homer’s heroes, and the confequences ofdif-
fenfion between the greateft of them, is a fubjedt im¬
portant in itfelf, and muft have appeared particular!}
fo to his countrymen, who boafted their defeent from
thofe heroes. The fubjedt of the Abneid is ftill greater
than that of the Iliad, as it is the foundation of -
the moft powerful empire that ever was eftabhftied upon
this globe ; an event of much greater importance than
the deftrudtion of a city, or the anger ot a femibarba-
rous warrior. But the poems of Homer and Vngil
fall in this refpedt infinitely fliort ot that of Milton.
‘ Before the greatnefs difplayed in Paradife Loft, it
has been well obferved § that all other greatnefs (brinks § Join/on t
away. The fubjedt of the Englifh poet is not the 'VW
deftrudtion of a city, the condudt of a colony, or the '
foundation of an empire : it is the fate of worlds,
the revolutions of heaven and-earth ; rebellion againll
the Supreme King, raifed by the high eft order of crea¬
ted beings ; the overthrow of their hoft, and the pu-
niftiment of their crime ; the creation of a new race
of reafonable creatures ; their original happinefs ana
innocence, their forfeiture of immortality, and their
reftoration to hope and peace.”
An epic poem, however, is defedlive if its adtion be
not interefting as well as great ; for a narrative of mere
valour maybe fo conttrudted as to prove cold and tire*
fome. “' Much * will depend on the happy choice of * Blair uli
fome fubjedt, which fliall by its nature intereft the pu- fuira*
blic ; as when the poet feledts for his hero one who
is the founder, or the deliverer, or the favourite of his
nation ; or when he writes atchievemenis that have
been highly celebrated, or have been connedtcd with
important confequences to any public caufe. Moft
of the great epic poems are abundantly iorturiate in
this refpedt, and muft have been very interefting to
thofe ages in which they were compofed.” The fubjedt
of the Paradife Loft, as it is infinitely greater, muft
likewife be confidered as more univerfally interefting
than that of any other poem. “ We aft feel the ef¬
fedts of Adam’s tranfgreffion ; we all fin like him, and
like him muft all bewail our offences. We have reft-
lefs and iniidious enemies in the fallen angels, and in
the bleffed fpirits we have guardians and friends ; in
the redemption of mankind we hope to be included ;
in the defeription of heaven and hell we are furely in-
terefted, as we are all to refide hereafter either in the
regions of horror or bills.” Si
C“ The chief circumftance which renders an epic poem Circum-
interefting f, and which tends to mtereft not one
or country alone, but all readers. Is the drift ul con duff |:1
of the author in the management of his fubjedt. Hi8 epic poetry,
plan muft comprehend many affedting incidents. He f
may fometimes be awful and auguft ; he muft often
be tender and pathetic ; he muft give ns gentle and
pleafing feenes of love, friendfliip, and affedb’on. The
•more that ac true poem abounds with fifuations which
* Q q awaken
202 POE
Of the awaken the feelings of humanity, it is the more inte-
Epopee an.] re{j;jng> jn refpe£t perhaps no epic poets have
. been fo happy as Virgil and TafTo. The plan of the
Pnradife Lojl comprifes neither human actions nor
human manners. The man and woman who aft and
fuffer, are in a flate which no other man or woman
can ever know. The reader finds no tranfaftion in
which he can be engaged ; beholds no condition in
which he can by any effort of imagination place him-
felf; he has therefore little natural curiofity or fym-
pathy.”
Whe her ^ queftion has been moved, Whether the nature of
the hero the epic poem does not require that the hero ffiould be
muft necef ultimately fuccelsful ? To this queftion Johnfon replies,
fuctefAl ^iat ^ t^ere no rea^on w'ay the hero ffiould not be
unfortunate, except eftablilhed praftice, fince fuccefs
and virtue do not neceflarily go together.” Moil cri¬
tics, however, are of a different opinion, and hold fuc¬
cefs to be* if not the necefiary, at leaft the moil pro¬
per iffue of an epic poem. An unhappy conclufion
depreffes the mind, and is oppoiite to the elevating
emotions which belong to this fpecies of poetry. Ter¬
ror and compaffion are the proper fubjefts of tragedy ;
but as the epic is of larger extent, it were too much,
if, after the difficulties and troubles which commonly
abound in the progrefs of the poem, the author ffiould
bring them all at lafl to an unfortunate conclulion. We
know not that any author of name has held this courfe
except Lucan ; for in the Paradife Loft, as Adam’s de¬
ceiver is at laft crufhed, and he himfelf reftored to the
favour of his maker, Milton’s hero muff be confidered
as finally fuccefsful.
We have no- occafion to fay more of the epic, con¬
fidered as peculiarly adapted to certain fubjefts, and to
be condufted according to a certain plan. But as dra¬
matic fubjefts are more complex, it is neceflary to take
a narrower view of them.. They are either the light
and the gay, or the grave and affefting, incidents of
human life. The former conftitute the fubjeft of co¬
medy, and the latter of tragedy.
As great and ferious objefts command more attention
than little and ludicrous ones ; as the fall of a hero
interefts the public more than the marriage of a pri¬
vate perfon tragedy has been always held a more dig¬
nified entertainment than comedy. The firfl thing re¬
quired of the tragic poet is, that he pitch upon fome
moving and intefeftiag fiery, and that he conduft it
in a natural and probable manner. For we muff ob-
ferve, that the natural and probable are more effential
to tragic than even to epic poetry. Admiration is ex¬
cited by the wonderful; but paffion can be raifed only
by the impreffions of nature and truth upon the mind.
The fubjeft befl fitted for tragedy is where a man
has himfelf been the caufe of his misfortune ; not fo
ao tragedy. ag to deeply guilty, nor altogether innocent: the
misfortune muff be occafioned by a fault incident to
human nature, and therefore in fome degree venial.
Such misfortunes call forth the focial affeftiqns, and
warmly interefl the fpeftator. An accidental misfor¬
tune, if not extremely Angular, doth not greatly move
our pity: the perfon who fullers,.being innocent, is freed
from the greatefl of all torments, that anguifh of mind
which is occafioned by remprfe. An atrocious crimi¬
nal, on the other hand, who brings misfortunes upon
himfelfj excites little pity, for a different reafon: his
6
Ss
^Different
Jtinds of
■ dramatic
poetry.
*4
Subjects
iseft fuited
^ Parc IF;
remorfe, it is true, aggravates his diflrefi, and fwells- of the
the firfl emotions of pity ; but then our hatred of himEP°i and.
as a criminal blending with pity, bkmts its edcre con- ry ama
fiderably. _ Misfortunes that are not innocent, nor ""’’""Y'-—1
highly criminal, partake the advantages of each ex¬
treme : they are attended with remorfe to embitter the
diflrefs, which raifes our pity to a great height ; and
the flight indignation we have at a venial, fault de-
trafts not fenfibly from our pity. The happiefl of all
fubjefts accordingly for raifing pity, is where a man
of integrity falls into a great misfortune by doing
an aft ion that is innocent, but which, by fome fin-
gular means, is conceived by him to be criminal: hij:
remorfe aggravates his diflrefs; and our compaffion,.
unreftrained by indignation, knows no bounds. Pity
comes thus to be the ruling paffion of a pathetic tra¬
gedy; and, by proper reprefentation, may be raifed
to a height fcarce exceeded by any thing felt in real,
life. A moral tragedy takes in a larger field; as it not
only exercifes our pity, but raifes another paffion,
which, though felfifh, deferves to be cheriffied equally
with the focial affeftion. The paffion we have in view
is fear or terror; for when a misfortune is the natural,
confequence of fome wrong bias in the temper, every
fpeftator who is confcious of fuch a bias in himfelf
takes the alarm, and dreads his falling into the fame
misfortune: and by the emotion of fear or terror, fre¬
quently reiterated in a variety of moral tragedies, the
fpeftators are put upon their guard againfl the diforders
of paffion..
The commentators upon Ariffotle, and otlier critics,.
have been much gravelled about the account given of
tragedy by that author: “ That by means of pity
and terror, it refines or purifies in us all forts of paffion.’*-
But no one who has a clear, conception of the end and
effefts of a good, tragedy, can have any difficulty about;
Ariflotle’s meaning : Our pity is engaged for the per-
fians reprefented; and our terror is upon our own account..
Pity indeed is here made to Hand for all the fympathe-
tic emotions, becaufe of thefe it is- the capital. There
can be no doubt, that our fympathetic emotions are re¬
fined or improved by daily exercife ; and in what manner,
our other paffions are refined by terror, has been juft now.
find. One thing is certain, that no other meaning can.
juflly be given to the foregoing doftrine than that now
mentioned; and that it was really Ariflotle’s meaning,,
appears from his i_.;th chapter, where he delivers feve-
ral propofitions conformable to the doftrine as here ex¬
plained. Thefe, at the fame time, we take liberty to.
mention; becaufe, fo far as authority can go, they
confirm the foregoing reafoning about fubjefts proper
for tragedy. The firfl propofition is. That it being
the province of tragedy to excite pity and terror, an
innocent perfon falling into adverfity ought never to be
the fubjeft,. This propofition is .a neceflary confe¬
quence of his doftrine as explained: a fubjeft of that,
nature may indeed, excite pity and terror; but the for¬
mer in an inferior degree, and the latter in no degree
for moral inflruftion. The fecond propofitioHis, That
the hiflory of a wicked perfon in a change from mi-
fery to happinefs ought not to be reprefented-j which,
excites neither terror nor compaffion, nor is agreeable
in any refpeft. The third is, That the misfor¬
tunes of a wicked perfon ought not to be reprefent¬
ed: fuch reprefentation may be agreeable in fome.
meafur?
f^rt IT, P
of the ftieafurc Upt5tt a principle of juftice ; but it will not
fcpopeemlmove our pity. nor any degree of terror, except in
Drama. c{ the f3me v;cj0U3 difpofition with the perfon
reprefented. The lift proportion is, That^ the only
character fit for reprefentation lies in the middle, nei¬
ther eminently good nor eminently bad; where the
misfortune is not the effeft of deliberate vice, but of
fome involuntary fault, as our author expreffes it. The
only obje&ion we find to Ariftotle’s account of tra¬
gedy, is, that he confines it within too narrow bounds,
by refufing admittance to the pathetic kind: for if
terror be eflential to tragedy, no reprefentation deferves
that name but the moral kind, where the misfortunes ex¬
hibited are caufed by a wrong balance of mind, or fome
diforder in the internal conftitution: fuch misfortunes al¬
ways fuggeft moral in ft ruction; and by fuch misfortunes
<mly can terror be excited for our improvement.
Thus Ariftotle’s four propolitions above-mentioned
relate folely to tragedies of the moral kind. I hofe
of the pathetic kind are Hot confined within fo narrow
limits: fubjects fitted for. the theatre are notin fuch
plenty as to make us rejedt innocent misfortunes which
roufe our fympathy, though they inculcate no moral.
With rdpect indeed to the fubjects of that kind, it
may be doubted, whether the conclufion ought not
always to be fortunate. Where a perfon of integrity
is reprefented as fuffering to the end under misfortunes
purely accidental, we depart difeontented, and with
fome obfeure fenfe of injuftice : for feldom is man lo
fubmiffive to Providence, as not to revolt againft the
tyranny and vexations of blind chance; he will be
tempted to fay, this ought not to be. We give for
an example the Romeo and Juliet of Shakefpeare, where
the fatal cataftrophe is occafioned by Friar Laurence’s
coming to the monument a minute too late ; we are
vexed at the unlucky chance, and go away diflatisfied.
Such imprefixons, which ought not to be cherilhed, are
& fufficient reafon for excluding ftories of this kind from
^ the theatre.
The impro- The misfortunes of a virtuous perfon, arifing from
per ute of ueceffary caufes, or a chain of unavoidable circumftances,
iJeftiny in aS they excite a notion of deftiny, are equally unfatisfac-
tne ancient ^ t|1£ human mind. A metaphyfician in his clo-
trage xi. ^ reafon hjmfelf into the belief of fate, or what in
modern language is called philofo^hkal necejjity; but the
feelings of the heart revolt agamft that do&rine ; and
we have the eonfeffion of the two ableft philofophers by
whom it was ever maintained, that men ConduA them-
felves through life as if their will were abfolutely free,
and their actions no part of a chain of necefiary caufes
and effe&s. As no man goes to the theatre to ftudy
metaphyfics, or to diveft himfelf of the Common feelings
cf humanity, it is impoflible, whatever be his philolo-
phieal creed, that he ihould contemplate without horrot
and difguft an innocent perfon fuffering by mere deftiny.
A tragedy of uncommon merit in every other refpeft
may indeed be endured, nay perhaps admired, though
fuch be its cataftrophe; beCaufe no work of man was
ever perfect; and becaufe, where imperfe&ions are una¬
voidable, a multitude of excellencies may be allowed to
cover one fault: but we believe the mifery of an inno¬
cent perfon refulting from a chain of unavoidable cir-
CumftanceS has nevty been confidered as a beauty by
minds unperverted by a falfe philofophy. “ It muft be
# Blair, acknowledged * that the fubjects of the ancient Greek
86
TRY.
tragedies were frequently founded or. mere deftlny
inevitable misfortunes. In the courfe of tue drama ma- pjrama.
ny moral fentiments occurred ; but the only inftruaion
which the fable conveyed was, that reverence was due
to the gods, and fubmiffion to the decrees of fate. Mo¬
dern tragedy has aimed at a higher objed, by becoming
more the theatre of paflion ; pointing out to men the
confequences of their own mifeonduft, flowing the dire¬
ful effects which ambition, jealoufy, love, refentment,
and other fuch ftrong emotions, when mifguided or left
unreftramed, produce upon human life. An Othello,
hurried by jealoufy to murder his innocent wife ; a Jai-
fier enfnared by refentment and want to engage in a
confpiracy, and then ftung with remorfe and involved
in ruin ; a Siffredi, through the deceit which he employs
for public-fpirited ends, bringing deftruaion on all
whom he loved : thefe, and fuch as thele, aie the exam¬
ples which Tragedy now difplays to public view; and by
means of which it inculcates on men the proper govern¬
ment of their paflions.” 4 4 . .
There is indeed one Angular drama, ih which deftiny it iv
is employed in a manner very different from that in tra^.e(jy 0g
which it was ufed by the poets of Greece and Rome. the
It is Schiller’s Tragedy of the Robbers, of which “ the bers.
hero, endowed by nature (as the tranflator of the piece
obftrves) with the moft generous feelings, animated by
the higheft fenfe of honour, and fufceptible of the warm-
eft affeaions of the heart, is driven by the perfidy of a
brother, aud the fuppofed inhumanity of his father, into
a Hate of confirmed mifanthropy anddefpair.” He willi¬
es that he “ could blow the trumpet of rebellion through
all nature ; that he could extinguilh with one mortal
blow the viperous race of men ; and that he could fo
{Like as to deftroy the germ of exiftence.” In this fitu-
ation he is hurried on to the perpetration of a feries oi
crimes, which find from their very magnitude and atro¬
city a recommendation to his dillempered mind. Sen-
fible all the while of his own guilt, and fuffering for that
guilt the fevereft pangs of remorfe, he yet believes him¬
felf an inftrument of vengeance in the hand of the Al¬
mighty for the punifliment of the crimes of others. la
thus accomplilhing the dreadful deftiny which is preferi-
bed for him, he feels a fpecies of gloomy fatisfa&ion, at
the fame time that he confiders himfelf as doomed to the
performance of that part in life which is to coniign his
memory to infamy and his foul to perdition. After
burning a town, he exclaims, “ O God of vengeance!
am I to blame for this r Art thou to blame, O Father
of Heaven ! when the inftruments of thy wrath, the pef-
tilence, flood, and famine overwhelm at once the righte¬
ous and the guilty ? Who can command the flames to
ft ay their courfe, to deftroy only the noxious vermin, and
fpare the fertile field ?” yet with the fame breath lie ac-
cufes himfelf of extreme criminality for “ prefmnptuouf-
ly wielding the fword of the Moft High !” He fre¬
quently laments in the moft afft&ing manner the lofs ol
his innocence, wifties that “ he could return into the
womb that bare him, that he hung an infant at the
breaft, that he were born a beggar, the meaneft hind, a
peafant of the field.” He confiders himfelf as the outcall
of Heaven, and anally rejected by the Father of mercy;
yet he tells the band of robbers whom he commanded,
that the “ Almighty honoured them as agents in his
hands to execute his wonderous purpofes; employed them
as his angels to execute his Hern decrees,and pour the vials
C c 2 of
Drama
204 POE
Of the of his wrath;” and in a very folemn prayer, he fappofes
Epopte ardtviat << t^e Q0(J WI10 ruleth over all had decreed that he
fhould become the chief of thefe foul murderers.”
“ It will be allowed, fays the tranflator, that the
imagination could not have conceived a fpedlacle more
deeply intereiling, more powei fully affefting to the mind
of man, than that of a human being thus chara&erifed
and ailing Under fuch impreflkms. The compallionate
iatereil which the mind feels in the emotions or fufferings
of the guilty perfon, is not duninidied by the obfervation,
that he acls under an impreffion of inevitable defliny ;
on the contrary, there is fomething in our nature which
leads us the more to compaffumate the inftrument of
thofe crimes, that we fee him conhder himfelf as bound
to guilt by fetters, which he has the conilant wifh, but
not the llrength, to break.”
This is indeed ttue ; we fympathife with the hero
of the Robbers, not only on account of his exalted fen-
timents and his inflexible regard to the abftrafl princi¬
ples of honour and juftice, but much more for that dif-
order of intelltdl which makes him fuppofe “ his delliny
fixed and unalterable,” at the very time that he is torn
with remcrfe for the perpetration of thofe crimes by
which he believed it to be fulfilling. Deftiny, however,
is net in this tragedy exhibited as real, but merely as
the phantom of a diltempered though noble mind. Had
the poet reprefented his hero as in fall decreed by God,
or hound by fate, to head a band of foul murderers, and
to commit a feries of the mod atrocious crimes; though
our pity for him might not have been leflened, the im-
preffions of the whole piece on the mind could have
been only thofe of horror and difgufl at what would
have appeared to us the unequal ways of providence.
The Tragedy of the Robbers is a linking inftance of
the fubjedt jufinefs of Dr Blair’s criticifm, in oppofition to that
tboMlf have°^ ^‘or^ Kames. His lordfliip holds that it is efiential
its founda- to a g00^ tragedy, that its principal fails be borrowed
from hiltory ; becaufe a mixture of known truth with
the fable tends to delude us into a conviilion of the re¬
ality of the whole. The Doclor confiders this as a
matter of no great confequence; for “ it is proved by
experience, that a fiilitious tale, if properly conduiled,
will melt the heart as much as any* real hiftory ;” this
obfervation is verified in the Robbers. It is indeed a
very irregular drama, and perhaps could not be ailed on
a Britiflr theatre. But although the whole is known to
be a fiilion, we believe there are few effufions of human
genius which more powerfully excite the emotions of
terror and pity. Truth is indeed congenial to the mind;
and when a fubjeil proper for tragedy occurs in hiltory
or tradition, it is perhaps better to adopt it than to in¬
vent one which has no fueh foundation. But in choo-
fing a fubjeil which makes a figure in hiftory, greater
precaution is neceflary than where the whole is a fiilion.
In the latter cafe, the author is under no reftraint other
than that the charailers and. incidents be juft copies of
nature. But where the ftory is founded on truth, no
circuirntances mull be added, but fuch as conneil natu-
S7
Whether
tjon in
truth.
T R Y. P;lr(. IL
rally with what are known to be true; hiftory may be of che
fupplied, but mull not be contradiiled. Further, the EPopee and
fubjcil chofen muft be diftant in time, or at leaft in place;
for the familiarity of recent perfons and events ought to ~v J
be avoided. Familiarity ought more efpecial’y^to be
avoided in an epic poem, the peculiar charailer of which
is dignity and elevation : modern manners make but a
poor figure in fuch a poem. Their familiarity unquali¬
fies them for a lofty fubjeft. The dignity of them will
be better underftood in future ages, when they are no
longer familiar.
After Voltaire, no writer, it is probable, will think
of rearing an epic poem upon a recent event in the
hiftory of his own country. But an event of that'kind
is perhaps not altogether unqualified for tragedy: it
was admitted in Greece; and Shakefpeare has employed
it fuccefsfully in feveral of his pieces. One advantage
it pofiefies above fiilion, that of more readily engaging
our belief, which tends above any other particular to
raife our fympathy. The fcene of comedy is generally
laid at home : familiarity is no objection; and we are
peculiarly fenfible of the ridicule of our own manners. g<j
After a proper fubjeil is chofen, the dividing it into How a
parts requires fome art. The conclufion of a book in trageci7
an epic poem, or of an ail in a play, cannot be altoge-<J1.0Ujd,be
ther arbitrary ; nor be intended for fo flight a purpofetoadh; S
as to make the parts of equal length. The fuppofed how many
paufe at the end of every book, and the real paufe at a<^s k
the end of every ail, ought always to coincide with fome
paufe in the ailion. In this refpeil, a dramatic or epic „/•
poem ought to referable a fentence or period in language, Critilifm,
divided into members that are diftinguiftied from eachch- an¬
other by proper paufes; or it ought to referable a piece
of mufic, having a full clofe at the end, preceded by irn-
perfeil clofes that contribute to the melody. The di-
vifion of every play into five ails has no other founda¬
tion than cimmon prailice, and the authority of Ho-
race (d). It is a divifion purely arbitrary; there is no¬
thing in the nature of the compofition which fixes this
number rather than any other; and it had been much
better if .no fuch number had been afcertained. But,,
fince it is afcertained, every ail in a dramatic poem
ought to clofe with feme incident that makes a paufe in
the ailion ; for otherwife there can be no pretext for
interrupting the reprefentation. It would be abfurd to
break off' in the very heat of ailion; againft which every
one would exclaim: the abfurdity ftili remains where trie
ailion .relents, if it be not ailually fufpended for feme
time. Fins rule is alfo applicable to an epic poem 1
though in it a deviation from the rule is lefs remarkable;
becaufe it is in the reader’s power to hide the abfurdity
by proceeding inftantly to another book. The firft book
of Paradife Loft ends without any clofe, perfeil or im-
perfeil: it breaks off abruptly, where Satan, feated on
his throne, is prepared to harangue the convocated hoft
of the fallen angels ; and the fecond book begins with
the fpeech. Milton feems to have copied the vEneid,
of which the two ftiil booKs are divided much in the
fame
(d) Neve minor, neu Jit qu'into produSior aclu
Fabula. Dk Arte Poetica.
If you would have your play deferve fuccefs,
Give it five ails complete, nor more nor lefs. Francis,
POE
,« Bmc     Neither is there any proper paufe at the
.ee and end of the feventh booic of Paradife L.olt, nor at the
In the Iliad little attention is
Vt. H.
Of the fame minner.
f Blair's
Leliares.
U iima. 0£ the eleventh.
given to this rule. ,
^heljcft Betides tragedy, dramatic poetry comprehends co-
f comedy .medy and farce. Thefe are fufficiently diilingu.ihed
from tragedy by their general fpint and Itrain. “ W hile
pity and terror, and the other Itrong paffions, form the
province of the tragic mufe, the chief or rather foie in-
ftrument of comedy and farce is ridicule.” Thefe-two
fpecies of compofition arc fo perpetually running into
each other, that we {hall not treat of them feparately ;
fmce what is now known by the name oi farce differs m
nothin'’- effential from what was called the.*/</ comedy^
among the Greeks. “ Comedy propofes for its object 4.
neither the great fufferings nor the great crimes of men;
but their follies and {lighter vices, thote parts of their
character which raife in beholders a fenfe of impropriety,
which expofe them to be cenfured and laughed at by
others, or which render them trouhlefome m civil io-
clety. .
“ The fubjects of tragedy are not limited to any age
or country ; but the fcene and fubjedt of comedy {hould
always be laid in our own country, and in our own times.
The reafon is obvious : thofe decorums of behaviour,
thole leffer diferiminations of charaCfer, which afford fub-
’edf for comedy, change with the differences of countries
and times ; and can never be fo well underltood by fo¬
reigners as by natives. The comic poet, who aims at
correcting improprieties and follies of behaviour, {hould
‘ catch the manners living as they rife.’ . It is not his
bufinefs to amuie us with a tale ot other times; but to
give us pictures taken from among ourfelves; to fatinzc
reigning and prefent vices; to exhibit to tne age a faith¬
ful cony of itfelf, with its humours, its follies, and its
00 extravagancies. ... , • 1
Corurdy of “ Comedy may be divided into two kinds : comedy
two kinds. 0{ charotter, and comedy of intrigue. The former is the-
more valuable fpecies ; becaufe it is the bufinefs of co-
medv to exhibit the prevailing manner^ wmch mark the
cliara&er of the age in which the fcene is laid: yet there
{hould be always as much intrigue as to give us fome-
thing to wiffi and fomething to fear. The incidents
Should fo fucceed one another, as to produce ftriking
iituations, and to fix our attention; while they afford a<-
the fame time a proper field for the exhibition of charac¬
ter. The a&ion in comedy, though it demands the
poet’s care in order to render it animated and natural,
is a lefs iignificant and important part of the perioimance
than the action in tragedy: as in comedy it is what men
fay, and how they behave, that draws our attention, ra¬
ther than what they perform or v/hat they iuffer.
The^m “ I'1 the management of characters, one of the moil
iron hulls common faults of comic writers is the carrying of them
of comedy, too far beyond life. Wherever ridicule is concerned, it
is indeed extremely difficult to hit the precife point
where true wit ends and buffoonery- begins. When the
mifer in Plautus; fearching the perfon whom he fufpeCts
of having ffolen his calket, after examining find Ins right
hand and then his left, cries oilt, ojtcnde etiam lertsam —
‘ {how me your third hand,’ there is no one but muff be
fenfible of the extravagance. Certain degrees of exag¬
geration are allowed to the comedian, but there are li¬
mits fet to it by nature and good taffe ; and fuppoiing
the mifer to be ever fo much engroffed by his jealouiy
TRY.
and his fufpicions, it is impoffible to conceive any man
in his wks fufpeaing another of having more than two
hands.”
It appears from the plays of Ariftophanes which re¬
main, tiiat the characters in the old comedy of Athens
were aim off always overcharged. They were likewile
direct and avowed fatires againft particular perfous, who
were brought upon the ftage by name. k‘ Phe ndicuie
employed in them is extravagant, the wit for the molt
part buffoonifti and farcical, the raillery biting and cruel,
and die obfeenity that reigns in them is grofs and intole¬
rable. They feem to have been compofed merely for the
inoli.” Yet of thefe abominable, dramas, an excellent
critic * has affirmed, with too much truth, that what is * Hurd,
now called farce is nothing more than the fhadow. The
characters in genuine comedy are not thofe of particular
and known perfons, but the general cnaraChers of the
age and nation; which it requires no fmall {kill todiftin-
guifh clearly and naturally from each other. In attempt¬
ing this, pods are too apt to contrail characters and in¬
troduce them always in pairs; which gives an affeCled air
to the whole piece. The perfection of art is to conceal
art. “ A mailer!y writer will give us his characters dif-
tinguiflied rather by fuch {hades of diverfity as are com¬
monly found in fociety, than marked with fuch ftrong
oppoiitions as are rarely brought into aCtual contrail in
any of the circumffances of real life.”
The ftyle of comedy ought to be pure, elegant, The <ly!e
and lively, very feldom riling higher than the ordinary °£ corned*,
tone of polite converfation ; and upon no occafion de- .
feending into vulgar, mean, and grois expreffions ; and
in one word, aCtion and character being the funda¬
mental parts of every epic and dramatic compofition,
the fentiments and tone of language ought to be fubfer-
vient to thefe, fo as to appear natural and proper for
the occafion.
93
$ 2. Refptttbuepeculiarities of the Epopee and Drama.
In a theatrical entertainment, which employs both Machinery
the eye and the ear, it would be a grofs abfurdity to ia
introduce upon the ftage fuperior beings in a viiible fliape.
There is no place for fuch objection in an epic poem ; nor
and Boileau, with many other critics, declares itrong-
]y for that fort of machinery in an epic poem. But wa¬
ving authority, which is apt to impofe upon the judge¬
ment, let us draw what light we can from reafon. We
may in the firff place obferve, that this matter is but
indiftinCtly handled by critics : the poetical privilege of
animating infenfible objeCts for enlivening a defeription,
is very different from what is termed machinery .ychevt dei¬
ties, angels,devils, or other fupernatural powers, are intro¬
duced as real perfonages, mixing in the aCtion, and con¬
tributing to the cataffrophe ; and yet thefe two things
are conffantly jumbled together in reafoning. The form¬
er is founded on a natural principle: but nothing is
more unnatural than the latter. Its effeCts, at the fame
time, are deplorable. Fiiff, it gives an air of fiction to
the whole; and prevents that impreffion of reality which
is requifite to intereil our affections, and to move our
paffions; which of itfelf is fufficient to explode machi¬
nery, whatever entertainment it may afford to readers ^
of a fantaftic tafte or irregular imagination. And, next. Has it 3
were ■ it poffible, by difguifing the fiCtion, to delude good cffcCt
us into a notion of reality, an infuperable objection jj! ^ £ •
would ft ill remain, which is, that the aim or end of ’sner
eyicy
an
206
Of rhe
Epopee.
POE
an epic* podm dan deve^ bd attained In any perfection
where machinery is introduced; for an evident reafon,
that virtuous emotions cannot be raifed fuccefsfully but
by the aftions of thofe who are endued with paffions
and affeCtions like our own, that is, by human aCtions}
and as for moral inftrudtion, it is clear, that none can
be drawn from beings who a£t not upon the fame
principles with us. A fable in vEfop’s manner is no ot>
jedtion to this reafoning; his lions, bulls, and goats,
are truly men under difguife; they aft and feel in every
refpeCt as human beings and the moral we draw is
founded on that fuppohtion, Homer, it is true, intro¬
duces the gods into his fable: but the religion of his
country authorifed that liberty : it being an article in
the Grecian creed, that the gods often iiiterpofe viiibly
and bodily in human affairs. It mufl however be ob-
ferved) that Homer’s de.t es do no honour to his poems $
fictions that trangrefs the bounds of nature, feldom
have a good effeCt p they may inflame the imagination
for a moment, but will not be rehfhed by any perfon of
a correct tafte. 1 hey may be of fome ufe to the lower
rank of wnteis; but an author of genius has much finer
materials, of Nature’s production, for elevating his fub-
jeCt, and making it interefting.
One would be apt to,think, that Boileau, declaring
for the Heathen deities, intended them only for embel-
1 ifhing the diCtion: but unluckily he banifhes angels and
devfls, who undoubtedly make a figure in poetic lan¬
guage, equal to .the Heathen deities. Boileau, there¬
fore, by pleading for the latter in oppofition to the form¬
er, certainly meant, if he had any diftinCt meaning, that
.the Heathen deities may be introduced as aCtors. And,
in fad, he himfelf is guilty of that glaring abfurdity,
where it is not fo pardonable as in an epic poem t
In his ode upon the taking of Namur, he demands
with a moft ferious countenance, whether the walls
were built by Apollo or Neptune : and in relating the
paffage of the Rhine, anno 1672, he^eferibes the god
of that river as fighting with all his might to oppofe
the French monarch; which is confounding fiCfion with
reality at a ftrange rate. The French writers in ge¬
neral run into this error: wonderful the effeCt of cuf-
tom, entirely to hide from them how ridiculous fuch
fictions are.
Tthis is a capital error in Gierufalemme Liberata^
Taffo’s great eft admirers muft acknowledge: a fituation
can never be intricate, nor the reader ever in pain about
the cataftiophe, fo long as there is an angel, devil, or
magician, to lend a helping hand. Voltaire, in his effay
npon epic poetry, talking of the Pharfalta, obferves
judicioufly, “ That the proximity of time, the noto¬
riety of events, the character of the age, enlightened
and political, joined with thefolidity of Lucan’s fubjeCt,
deprived him of poetical fi&ion.” Is it not amazing,
that a critic who reafons fo juftly with refpeCt to otherl,
can be fo blind with reipeCt to himfelf ? Voltaire, not
fatisfied to enrich his language with images drawn from
invilible and fuperior beings, introduces them into the
aCtion: m the fixth canto of the tienriade, St Louis
appears in perfon, and terrifies the foldiers; in the fe-
venth canto, St Louis fends the god of Sleep to Henry;
and, in the tenth, the demons of Difcord, Fanaticifm,
Y\ ar, &,c. alfift Aumale 111 a Angle combat with Turenne
and are driven away by a good angel brandifhing the
{word of God. To blend fuch fictitious perfonages
T K Y. Pal.t ij
m the fame aft ion with mortals, makes a tad figufe 4 the
at any rate ; and is intolerable in a hiftory fo recent
as that of Henry IV. But perfection is not the lot of
man.
But perhaps the moft fuCcefsful weapon that can be
employed upon this fubjeft is ridicule. Addifon has
applied this in an elegant manner: “ Whereas the
time of a general peace is, in all appearance, drawing
near; being informed that there are feveral ingenious
perfons who intend to fhow their talents on fo happy
an occafion* and being willing, as much as in me lies,
to prevent that effuiion of nonienfe which we have good
cauie to apprehend; I do hereby ftriftly require every
perfon who (hall write on this fubjeft, to remember
that he is a Chriftian, and not to facnfice his cate*
clnfm to his poetry. In order to it, I do expeft of
him, in the firit place, to make his own poem, with¬
out depending upon Phoebus for anyr part of it, or call¬
ing out for aid upon any of the Mules by name. I do
like wife poll lively forbid the fending of Mercuiy with
any particular fneffage or difpatch relating to the peace;
and fhall by no means fuffer Minerva to take upon her
the fhape of any plenipotentiary concerned in this great
work.. I do further declare, that I Ihall not allow the
Deftinies to have had a hand in the deaths of the
feveral thoufands who have been flain in the late war;
being of opinion that all fuch deaths may be well ac¬
counted for by the Chriftian fyftem of powder and ball.
I do therefore ftriftly forbid the Fates to cut the thread
of man’s life upon any pretence whatfoever, unlefs it
be for the fake of rhyme. And whereas I have good
reafon to fear, that Neptune will have a great deal of
bufinefs on his hands in feveral poems which we may
now fuppofe are upon the anvil, I do alfo prohibit his
appearance, unleis it be done in metaphor, fimile, or
any very Ihort allulion ; and that even here he may not
be permitted to enter, but with great caution and cir-
cumfpeftion. I defire that the fame rule may be ex¬
tended to his whole fraternity of Heathen gods; it be-
ing my defign to condemn every' poem to the flames
in which Jupiter thunders, or exercifes any other aft
of authority which does not belong to him. In fliort,
I expeCt that no Pagan agent fliall be introduced, or
any faft related which a man cannot give credit to with
a good confcience. Provided always, that nothing here¬
in contained fiiall extend, or be conftrued to extend,
to feveral of the female poets in this nation, who Ihall
foil be left in full poffeflion of their gods and goddefles,
in the fame manner as if this paper had never been writ¬
ten.” Sped. n° 523.
The marvellous is indeed fo much promoted by ma¬
chinery', that it is not wonderful to find it embraced by
the bulk of writers, and perhaps of readers. If in¬
dulged at all, it is generally indulged to excefs. Ho¬
mer intioduceth his deities with no greater ceremony
than his mortals; and Virgil has foil lefs moderation :
a pilot fpent with watching cannot fall afleep and drop
into the iea by »atural means : one bed cannot receive
the two lovers -dineaa and Dido, without the immediate
interpofition of fuperior powers. The ridiculous in iueh
fiftxons muft appear even through the thickeit veil of
gravity and folemnity.
Angels and devils ferve equally with Heathen deities
as materials for figurative language ; perhaps better
among Chrifoans, becaufe we believe in them, and not
in
Ep<q'te.
•a't II. 1 U ^
of (he in Heathen deities. But every one is fenfible, as well
Epopee. as Boileau, that the invifible powers m our creed make
—v— a roach worfe figure as aftors in a modern poem than the
invifible powers in the Heathen creed did in ancient
poems; the caufe of which is not far to feek. 1 he
Heathen deities, in the opinion of their votaries, were
beings elevated one Hep only above mankind, fubjedt to
the fame paffions, and direaed by the fame motives ;
therefore not altogether improper to mix with men in
an important adion. In our creed, fuperior beings
are placed at fuch a mighty difiance from us, and are of
a nature, fo different, that with no propriety can we ap¬
pear with them upon the fame ftage: man, a creature
much inferior, lofes all dignity in the comparifon.
in hiftori- There can be no doubt that an hlftorical poem admits
al poem t}ie embelliihment of allegory as well as of metaphor,
imits of fimile, or other figure. Moral truth, in particular, is
!Sder finely iUuftrated in the afiegorical manner : it amufes the
roper re- fancy to find abftradt terms, by a fort of magic, meta-
;iidiom, morphofed into aftive beings; and it is delightful to
trace a general propofition in a pictured event. But
allegorical' beings fiiould be confined within their own
fphere, and never be admitted to mix in the principal
a&ion, nor to co-operate in retarding or advancing the
cataftrophe ; which would have a ftill worfe effed than
invifible powers: for the impreffion of real exiftence,
efiential to an epic poem, is inconfifient with that figu¬
rative exifience which is eflential to an allegory ; and
therefore no method can more effedually prevent the
imprefiion of reality than the introdudion of allegorical
beings co-operating with thofe whom. we conceive to
be really exiftmg. The love-epifode in the Henriade
(canto 9.), infufferable by the difcordant mixture of al¬
legory with real life, is copied from that of Rinaldo and
Armida in the Gierufahmme Liberataj.whichfiath no merit
to intitle it to be copied. An allegorical1 objed, fuch
as Fame in the ALueid, and the T. emple of Love in the
Henriade, may find place in a defsription : but to in^
troduce Difcord as a real perfonage, imploring the af-
fiftance of Love as another real perfonage, to enervate
the courage of the hero, is making thefe figurative beings
ad beyond their fphere, and creating a firange jumble
of truth and fi6tion. The allegory of Sin and Death
in the Paradife Loft is poffibly not generally .reliflied,
though it is not entirely of the lame nature with what
we have been condemning ; in a work comprehending
the atchievements of fuperior beings there is more room
for fancy than wdiere it is confined to human adions.^
What is the true notion of an epifode ? or how is it.
to be diftinguilhed from the principal adion ? Every
incident that promotes or retards the cataftrophe muft
be part of the principal adion. This clears the nature
of an epifode ; which may be defined, “ An incident
, conneded with the principal adion, but contributing
FpiMe de-ne^er to advance nor retard it.” "The defeent of
Sned. Atneas into hell does not advance nor retard the cata¬
ftrophe, and therefore is an epifode. The ftory of Nifus
and Euryalus, producing an alteration in the affairs of
the contending parties, is a part of the principal.adiou.
T . R Y. 207
The family-feene in the lixth book of the Iliad is of the ™ tbe
fame nature ; for by Heitor’s retiring from the field of .
battle to vifit his wife, the Grecians had opportunity
to breathe, and even to turn upon the .Trojans.. The
unavoidable effed of an epifode according to this defi¬
nition muft be, to break the unity of adion ; and there¬
fore it ought never to be indulged unlefs to unbend the ^
mind after the fatigue of a long narration. An epifode, What con*
when fuch is its purpofe, requires the following condi-
tions : it ought to be well conneded with the principal
adion ; it ought to be lively and interefting ; it ought
to be Ihort; and a time ought to be chofen when the
principal adion relents (e).
In the following beautiful epifode, which clofes the
fecond book of Fingal, all thefe conditions are united.
“ Comal was a fon of Albion ; the chief of an hun¬
dred hills. His deer drunk of a thoufand ftreams ; and
a thoufand rocks replied to the voice of his dogs. His
face was the mildnefs of youth \ but his hand tne death
of heroes. One was his love, and fair was (he ! the
daughter of mighty Conloch. She appeared like a fun-
beam among women, and her hair was like the wing of
the raven. Her foul was fixed on Comal, and (he was-
his companion in the chace. Often met their eyes of
love, and happy were their words in fecret. But
Gonrial loved the maid, the chief of gloomy Ardven.
He watched her lone fteps on the heath, the foe of un¬
happy Cornali
“ One day, tired of the chace, when the mift had
concealed their friends, Comal and the daughter of
Conloch met in the cave of Ronan. It was the wonted
haunt of Comal. Its fides were hung with his arms ; a
hundred (hields of thongs were there, a hundred helms
of founding fteeh Reft here, faid he, my love Galvina,
thou light of the cave of Ronan : a deer appears on
Mora’s brow; I go, but foon will return. I fear, faid
(he, dark Gormal my foe : I will reft here ; but foon
return, my love.
“ He went to the deer of Mora. The daughter.of
Conloch, to try his love, clothed her white fide with
his armour, and'ftrode from the cave of Ronan. Think¬
ing her His foe, his heart beat high, and his colour
changed. He drew the bow : the arrow flew : Galvina
fell in blood. He ran to the cave with hafty fteps, and.
called the daughter of. Conloch. Where art thou, my
love ? but no anfwer. He marked, at length, her
heaving heart beating againll the mortal arrow. O
Conloch’s- daughter, is it thou!—he funk upon her-
brtaft.
“ The hunters found the haplefs pair. Many and
filent were his fteps round the dark dwellings of his
love. The fleet of the ocean came : he fought, and the.
ftrangers fell: he fearched for death over the field ; but
who could kill the mighty Comal ? Throwing away his.
(hield, an arrow found his manly breaft. He fleeps with,
his Galvina : their green tombs are feen by the mariner
when he bounds on the waves of the north.”
Next, upon the peculiarities of a dramatic poem. Ami’
the
(e) Homer's defeription of the {hield of Achilles is properly introduced at a time when the aftion relents, and
the reader can bear an interruption. But the author of Telemachus defetibes the ftlield of that young hero 11*
the heat of battle j a very improper time for an interruption.
%
1
208 F O. E
Of tlie die fir ft we fhall mention is a double plot: one of which
, 1 mull refemble an epifode in an epic poem ; for it would
9g di (tract the fpedtator, in (lead of entertaining him, if he
Double plot were forced to attend at the fame time to two capital
in a drama plots equally interefting. And even fuppofing it an
tu cchful under-pIot like an epifode, it feldom hath a good efl’ett
in tragedy, of which innplicity is a chief property ; for
an interelling fuhjeCt that engages our affections," occu¬
pies our whole attention, and leaves no room for any fe-
parate concern. Variety is more tolerable fn comedy;
which pretends only to amufe, without totally occupy¬
ing the mind. But even there, to make a double plot
agreeable, is no (light effort of art: the under-plot
ought not to vary greatly in its tone from the principal;
for difcordant emotions are unpleafaflt when jumbled
together; which, by the way, is an infuperable ob¬
jection to tragi-comedy. Upon that account the Pro¬
vok’d Hufband deferves cenfure; all the feenes that
bring the family of the Wrongheads into aCtion, being
ludicrous and farcical, are in a very different tone from
the principal feenes, diiplaying fevere and bitter expo-
Itillations between Lord Townley and his lady. The
fame objection touches not the double plot of the Care-
lefs Hufband ; the different fubjeCts being fweetly con¬
nected, and having only fo much variety as to referable
fhades of colours harmonioufly mixed. But this is not
all.. I he under-plot ought to be connected with that
which is principal, fo much at lealt as to employ the
fame perlons: the under-plot ought to occupy the in¬
tervals or paufes of the principal aCtion ; and both ought
to be concluded together. This is the cafe of the
99 Merry Wives of Windfor.
Violent ac- Violent aCtion ought never to be reprefented on the
not^be fta&e* WhiIe the d^logue goes on, a thoufand parti-
reprefent- Cldars concur to delude us into an impreffion of reality ;
ed. genuine fentiments, paffionate language, and perfuafive
gefture: the fpeCtator, once engaged, is willing to be
deceived, lofes fight of himfelf, and without fcruple
enjoys the fpeCtacle as a reality. Prom this abfent
(late he is roufed by violent aCtion ; he wakes as from
a pleating dream; and, gathering his fenfes about him,
hnds all to be a fiction. Horace delivers the fame rule;
and founds it Upon the fame reafon :
Ne pueros coram populo Medea trucidet;
Aut humana palam coquat exta nefanus Atreus;
^Vut m avem Progne vertatur, Cadmus in anguem:
Quodcumque oitendis mihi fie, increduhis odi.
The French critics join with Horace in excluding blood
from the (htge ; but overlooking the mod fubffantial
objection, they urge only that it is barbarous and fliock-
ing to a polite audience. The Greeks had no notion
of fuch delicacy, or rather effiminacy ; witnefs the mur¬
der of Clytemneltra by her fon Orcffes, paffrhg behind
tue feene, as leprefented by Sophocles : her voice is
heard calling out for mercy, bitter expoffulations on his
part, loud fhrieks upon her being (tabbed, and then a
deep filence. An appeal may be made to eveiy perfon
of feeling, whether this feene be not more horrible than
if the deed had been committed in fight of the fpeCta
tors upon a fodden guff of paffion. If Corneille, in re-
i prefentmg the affair between Horatms and his filler,
upon winch the murder enfues behind the feene, had no
other view but to remove from the fpeClators a (hocking
aCtion, he was guilty of a capital miilake : for murder
T It Y. Part ir.
in cold blood, which in fome meafure was the cafe as Of the
represented, is more (hocking to a polite audience, even Drania.
where the conclufive dab is not feen, than the fame aCt v J
performed in their prefence by violent and unpremedita¬
ted paffidn, as fuddenly repented of as committed. Ad-
difon’s obfertation is juft f. That no part of this inch i 9
dent ought to have been reprefented, but referved for
a narrative, with every alleviating circumftance in fa¬
vour of the hero.
A few words upon the dialogue, which ought to beThe0°
fo conducted as to be a true reprefentation of nature. condJeuT
We talk not here of the fentiments nor of the language t*le ^'a-
(which are treated elfewliere) : but of what properly
belongs to dialogue-writing ; where every fingle fpeech,
(hort or long, ought to arife from what is faid by the
former fpeaker, and furnilh matter for ivliat comes’after
till the end of the feene. In this view, all the fpeeches
from firft to laft reprefent fo many links of one regular
chain. No author, ancient or modern, poffeffes the art
of dialogue equal to Shakefpeare. Dryden, in that par¬
ticular,. may juftly be placed as his oppofite. He fre¬
quently introduces three or four perfons fpeaking upon
the fame fubject, each throwing out his own notions
feparately, without regarding what is faid by the reft :
take for an example the firft feene of Aurenzebe. Some¬
times he makes a number club in relating an event, not
to a ft ranger, fuppofed ignorant of it, but to one another,
for the fake merely of fpeaking : of which notable fort
of dialogue we have a fpecimen in the firft feene of the
firft part of the Conqueft of. Granada. In the fecond
part of the fame tragedy, feene fecond, the King, Abe-
namar, and Z ulema, make their feparate obfervations,
like fo many foliloquies, upon the fluctuating temper of
the mob : a dialogue fo uncouth puts one in mind of two
fhepheids in a pailoral excited by a prize to pronounce
verfes alternately, each in praife of his own miftrefs.
*1 his manner of dialogue-writing, befide an unnatural
air, has another bad effeCl: it (lays the courfe of the
action, becaufe it is not productive of any confequence.
In Congreve’s coinedits, the aCtien is often fufpended
to make way for a play of wit.
No fault is more common among writers than to pro*
long a fpeech after the impatience of the perfon to whom
it is addreffed ought to prompt him or her to break in.
Conflder only how the impatient aCtor is to behave in
toe mean tune. Fo exprefs his impatience in violent
a&ion without interrupting would be unnatural; and yet
to diflemble his impatience, by appearing coop where he
ought to be highly inflamed, would be no lefs fo.
Rhyme being unnatural and difguftful in dialogue, is
happily bamflied from our theatre : the only wonder is
that it ever found admittance, efpecially among a people
accuftomed to the more manly freedom' of ShaWpeare’s
dialogue. By banilhing rhyme, we have gained fo much
as never once to dream that there can be any further
improvement. And yet, however fuitable blank verfe
may be to elevated characters and warm pad ions, it muff
appear improper and affeCted in the mouths of the lower
fort. Why then (honld it be a rule, That every feene
in tragedy mud be in blank verfe ? Shakefpeare, with
great judgment, has followed a different rule ; which is,
to intermix profe with verfe, and only to employ the latter
where it is required by the importance or dignity of the
fubjeCt. Familiar thoughts and ordinary faCts oimht
to be expreffed in plain language : to hear," for-example,
5 a
Part IF. POE
Tire three a footman deliver a fimple melTage in blank verfe muft
Uni'ies. appear ridiculous to every one who is not biafTed by
cullom. In fhort, that variety of charadters and of
fituations, which is the life of a play, requires not
only a fuitable variety in the fentiments, but alfo in
the didtion.
$ 3. The Three Unities.
When we confider the chain of caufes and effe&s in
the material world, independent of purpofe, defign, or
thought, we find a number of incidents in fucceffion,
without beginning, middle, or end: every thing that
happens is both a caufe and an effeft; being the effeft
of what goes before, and the caufe of what follows : one
incident may affedt us more, another lefs; but all of
them are links in the univerfal chain : the mind, in
viewing thefe incidents, cannot reft or fettle ultimately
upon any one ; but is carried along ui the train with-
101 out any clofe.
In what the But when the intellectual world is taken under view,
unity of jn conjUndtion with the material, the feene is varied.
COn" ^an a&s with deliberation, will, and choice : he aims
at fome end ; glory, for example, or riches, or conqueft,
the procuring happinefs to individuals, or to his country
in general: he propofes means, and lays plans to attain
the end propofed. Here are a number of fadts or inci¬
dents leading to the end in view, the whole compofing
one chain by the relation of caufe and effedt. In running
over a feries of fuch fadts or incidents, we cannot reft
upon any one; becaufe they are prefented to us as
means only, leading to fome end: but we reft with fa-
tisfadtion upon the end or ultimate event; becaufe there
the puipofe or aim of the chief perfon or perfons is ao
complifhed. This indicates the beginning, the middle,
* Pest. c. 6. and the end, of what Ariftotle calls an entire action*.
The ftory naturally begins with deferibing thofe circum-
ftances which move the perfon who adts the principal
part to form a plan, in order to compafs fome detired
event; the profecution of that plan, and the obftrudtions,
carry the reader into the heat gf adtion ; the middle is
properly where the adtion is the moft involved ; and the
end is where the event is brought about, and the plan
accomplifhed.
We have given the foregoing example of a plan
•crowned with fuccefs, becaufe it affords the cleareft con¬
ception of a beginning, a middle, and an end, in which
confifts unity of adtion; and indeed ftridter unity can¬
not be imagined than in that cafe. But an adtion may
have unity, or a beginning, middle, and end, without
fo intimate a relation of parts; as where the cataftrophe
is different from what is intended or defined, which
frequently happens in our beft tragedies. In the jdtneid,
the hero, after many obftrudtions, makes his plan ef-
Elem. ef fedtual. The Iliad is formed upon a different model:
<riticijm, it begins with the quarrel between Achilles and Aga¬
memnon ; goes on to deferibe the feveral effedts produced
by that caufe ; and ends in a reconciliation. Here is
unity of adtion, no doubt, a beginning, a middle, and
an end; but inferior to that of tire jEneid, which will
thus appear. The mind hath a propenfity to go for¬
ward in the chain of hiftory ; it keeps always in view
the expedted event; and when the incidents or under-
parts are connedted by their relation to the event, the
mind runs fweetly and eafily along them. This plea-
fure we have in the JEneid. It is not altogether fo
Vo l. XV. Part I.
TRY. 209
pleafant to conned!, as in the Iliad, effedts by their The three
common caufe ; for fuch connedticn forces the mind to Umties'.
a continual retrofpedt: looking backward is like walk¬
ing backward, I02
If unity of adlion be a capital beauty in fable imita-Unity of
tive of human affairs, a plurality of unconnedted fables
muft be a capital deformity. For the fake of variety,
we indulge an under-plot that is connedled with the
principal: but two unconnedted events are extremely un-
pleafant, even where the fame adtors are engaged in
both. Ariofto is quite licentious in that particular: he
carries on at the fame time a plurality of unconnedted
ftories. His only excufe is, that his plan is perfedtly
well adjufted to his fubjedt; for every thing in the
Orlando Furiofo is wild and extravagant.
Though to ftate fadts in the order of time is natural,
yet that order may be varied for the fake of confpicuous
beauties. If, for example, a noted ftory, cold and
fimple in its firft movements, be made the fubjedt of an
epic poem, the reader may be hurried into the heat of
adtion ; referving the preliminaries for a converfation-
piece, if thought neceffary: and that method, at the
fame time, hath a peculiar beauty from being dramatic.
But a privilege that deviates from nature ought to be
fparingly indulged ; and yet romance-writers make na
difficulty of prefenting to the reader, without the leaft
preparation, unknown perfons engaged in fome arduous
adventure equally unknown. In Caffandra, two per-
fonages, who afterwards are difeovered to be the heroes
of the fable, ftart up completely armed upon the banks
of the Euphrates, and engage in a fingle combat.
A play analyfed is a chain of connedted fadts, of
which each feene makes a link. Each feene, accord¬
ingly, ought to produce fome incident relative to the
cataftrophe or ultimate event, by advancing or retard¬
ing it. A feene that produceth no incident, and for
that reafon may be termed barren, ought not to be in¬
dulged, becaufe it breaks the unity of adtion : a barren
feene can never be intitled to a place, becaufe the chain
is complete without it. In the Old Bachelor, the
3d feene of adt 2. and all that follow to the end of that
adt, are mere converfation-pieces, pi'odudtive ox no con-
fequence. The 10th iyid nth feenes, adt 3. Double
Dealer, and the 10th, x x?h, 12th, 13th, and 14th feenes,
adt I. Love for Love, are of the fame kind. Neither
is The Way of the World entirely guiltlefs of fuch feenes.
It will be no juftification that they help to difplay cha-
radters : it were better, like Dryden in his dramatis
perfontt, to deferibe charadters beforehand, which would
not break the chain of adtion. But a writer of genius
has no occafion for fuch artiiice: he can difplay the
charadters of his perfonages much more to the life in
fentiment and adtion. Flow fuccefsfully is this done by
Shakefpeare ! in whofe works there is not to be found
a fingle barren feene.
Upon the whole, it appears, that all the fadts in an
hiftorical fable ought to have a mutual connedtion, by
their common relation to the grand event or cataftrophe.
And this relation, in which the unity of adtion confifts,
is equally effential to epic and dramatic compofitions.
How far the unities of time and of place are effential, whether
is a queftion of greater intricacy. Thefe unities were unity of
ftridtly obferved in the Greek and Roman theatres; and time and
they are inculcated by the French and Englifh criticsPla.ce.
as effential to every dramatic compofitiou. In theoryL en^a ’
D d thefe
O E
210 P
The three tliefe unities are alfo acknowledged by our bed poets,
Unities. th(?Ugh t}ie,;r praaice feldom correfponds : they are often
v ' forced to take liberties, which they pretend not to jufti-
fy, againft the praftice of the Greeks and Romans, and
againll the folemn decilion of their own countrymen.
But in the courfe of this inquiry it will be made evident,
that in this article we are under no neceffity to copy
the ancients; and that our critics are guilty of a.millake,
in admitting no greater latitude of place and time than
was admitted in Greece and Rome..
Indeed the unities of pla,ce and time are not, by the
moil rigid critics, required in a narrative poem. In
. fuch compofition, if it pretend to copy nature, thefe
unities would be abfurd ; becaufe real ew Ms are feldom
confined within narrow limits either of place or of time :
and yet we can follow hiftory, or an hilloncal fable,
through all its changes, with the greateil facility : we
never once think of meafuring the real time by what is
taken in reading; nor of forming any connexion between
the place of aftion and that which we occupy.
We are aware, that the drama differs fo far from the
epic as to admit different rules. It will be obferved,
“ That an hiflorical fable, intended for reading folely,
is under no limitation of time or of place more than a
genuine hiftory ; But that a dramatic compofition cannot
be accurately reprefented unlefs it be limited, as its re-
prefentation is, to one place and to a few hours; and
therefore that no fable can be admitted but what has thefe
properties, becaufe it would be abfurd to compofe a piece
for reprefentation that cannot be juftly reprefented.’’
This argument has at leaft a plaufible appearance ; and
yet one is apt to fufpedt fome fallacy, confidering that
no critic, however ftrift, has ventured to confine the
unities of place and of time within fo narrow bounds.
A view of the Grecian drama, compared with our
own, may perhaps relieve us from this dilemma : if they
be differently conftructed, as (hall be made evident, it is
pofiible that the foregoing reafoning may not be equally
applicable to both.
They3were ^ authors agree, that tragedy in Greece was deri-
effential to ved from the hymns in praife of Bacchus, which were
the Greek fung in parts by a chorus. Thefpis, to relieve the fing-
drama, bat erSj an(j for fa]ce Gf variety, introduced one aftor,
whofe province it was to explain hiftoricaUy the fabject
of the fong, and who occafionally reprefented one or
other perfonage. Efchylus, introducing a fecond actor,
formed the dialogue ; by which the performance be¬
came dramatic ; and the adtors were multiplied when
the fubjcct reprefented made it neceffary. But ftill the
chorus, which gave a beginning to tragedy, was confi-
dered as an eflential part. The firft fcene, generally,
unfolds the preliminary circumfiances that lead to the
grand event ; and this fcene is by Ariftotle termed the
prologue. In the fecond fcene, where the action pro¬
perly begins, the chorus is introduced, which, as origi¬
nally, continues upon the fiage during the whole per¬
formance : the chorus frequently makes one in the dia¬
logue ; and when the dialogue happens to be fufpended,
the chorus, during the interval, is employed in linging.
Sophocles adheres to this plan religioufly. Euripides is
not altogether fo correct. In fome of his pieces it be¬
comes neceffary to remove the chorus for a little time :
but when that unufual ftep is rilked, matters, are fo or¬
dered. as not to interrupt the reprefentation: the chorus
never leave the ftage of their own accord, but at the
It Y.
ran ir.
command of fome principal perfonage, who conftantly The three
waits their return. Unities.
Thus the Grecian drama is a continued reprefentation
without any interruption ; a circumftance that merits
attention. A continued reprefentation without a paufe
affords not opportunity to vary the place of ahlion, nor
to prolong the time of the action beyond that of the re¬
prefentation. To a reprefentation fo confined in place
and time, the foregoing reafoning is ftriCtly applicable:
a real or feigned aftion, that is brought to a conclufion
after confiderable intervals of time and frequent changes
of place, cannot accurately be copied in a reprefenta¬
tion that admits no latitude in either. Hence it is, that
the unities of place and of time, were, or ought to have
been, ftriclly obferved in the Greek tragedies; which is
made neceffary by the very conftitution of their drama,
for it is abfurd to compofe a tragedy that cannot be
juftly reprefented.
Modern critics, who for our drama pretend to efta- Not to the
blifh rules founded on the practice of the Greeks, are French or
guilty of an egregious blunder. The unities of place
and of time were in Greece, as we fee, a matter of ne-
ceflity, not of choice ; and it is eafy to fhow, that if
we fubmit to fuch fetters, it muft be from choice, not
necefiity. This will be evident upon taking a view of
the conftitution of our drama, which differs widely from
that of Greece ; whether more or lefs perfect, is a dif¬
ferent point, to be handled afterward. By dropping
the chorus, opportunity is afforded to divide the repre¬
fentation by intervals of time, during which the ftage is
evacuated and the fpeCtacle fufpended. This qualifies
our drama for fubjects fpread through a wide fpace both
of time and of place : the time fuppofed to pafs during
the fufpenfion of the reprefentation is not meafured by
the time of the fufpenfion ; and any place may be fup-
pofed, as it is not in fight: by which means, many fub-
jefts can juftly be reprefented in our theatres, that were
excluded from thofe of ancient Greece. This doctrine
may be illuftrated, by comparing a modern play to a fet
of hiftorical pictures ; let us fuppofe them five in num¬
ber, and the refemblance will be complete : each of the
pictures refembles an adl in one of our plays: there muft
neceffarily be the ftridlcft unity of place and of time in
each picture ; and the fame neceflity requires thefe two
unities during each a£t of a play, becaufe during an a£l
there is no interruption in the fpedlacle. Now, when
we view in fucceffion a number of fuch hiftorical pic¬
tures, let it be, for example, the hiftory of Alexander by
Le Brun, we have no difficulty to conceive, that months
or years have paffed between the events exhibited in two
different pictures, though the interruption is impercep¬
tible in palling our eye from the one to the other; and
we have as little difficulty to conceive a change of place,
however great: in which view, there is truly no diffe¬
rence between five acts of a modern play and five fuch
pictures. Where the reprefentation is fufpended, we
can with the greateft facility fuppofe any length of time
or any change of place : the fpe&ator, it is true, may
be confcious, that the real time and place are not the
fame with what are employed in the reprefentation ;
but this is a work of refle&ion ; and by the fame re-
fleftion he may alfo be confcious, that Garrick is not
King Lear, that the playhoufe is not Dover cliffs, nor
the noife he hears thunder and lightning. In a word,
after an interruption of the reprefentation, it is not
more
part II* P O L
The three more difficult for a fpe&ator to imagine a new place,
Vnities. Qr a diiFerent time, than, at the commencement of the
'—   piayj t0 imagine himfelf at Rome, or in a period of
time two thoufand years back. And indeed, it is abun¬
dantly ridiculous, that a critic, who is willing to hold
candle-light for fun-ihine, and fome painted canvafles for
a palace or a prifon, fhould afreet fo much difficulty in
imagining a latitude of place or of time in the fable, be¬
yond what is neceffary in the reprefentation.
Gre^t lati- There are, it mull be acknowledged, fome effects of
rude in great latitude in time that ought never to be indulged
time, how- m a compofition for the theatre : nothing can be more
ever, not a]JfUj-(ij than at the clofe to exhibit a full-grown perfon
dulged" who appears a child at the beginning: the mind rejects,
as contrary to all probability, inch latitude, of time as
is requifite for a change fo remarkable. The greatelt
change from place,to place hath not altogether the fame
bad effect; in the bulk of human affairs place is not ma¬
terial ; and the mind, when occupied with an intereft-
ing event, is little regardful of minute circumltances:
thefe may be varied at will, becaufe they fcarce make
,07 any impreffion. .
in At the fame time, it is not here meant to juitdy. h-
place. berty without any referve. An unbounded licence with
relation to place and time, is faulty, for a reafon that
feems to have been overlooked, which is, that it feldom
fails, to break the unity of action ; in the ordinary
courfe of human affairs, Tingle events, fuch as are fit to
be reprefented on the ftage, are confined to a narrow
fpot, and generally employ no great extent of time :
we accordingly ftldom find ftxict unity of action in a
dramatic compofition, where any remarkable latitude is
F.hm. of indulged in thefe particulars. It may even be admit-
Cntiafm, a compofition which employs but one place,
and requires not a greater length of time than is necef¬
fary for the reprefentation, is fo much the more perfect;
becaufe the confining an event within fo narrow bounds,
contributes to the unity of action, and alfo prevents
that labour, however flight, which the mind muff un¬
dergo in imagining frequent changes of place, and ma¬
ny intervals of time. But ftill we muff infill, that fuch
limitation of place and time as was neceffary in the Gre¬
cian drama, is no rule to us ; and therefore, that though
fuch limitation adds one beauty more to the compofi¬
tion, it is at belt but a refinement, which may jultly
give place to a thoufand beauties more fubftantial.
And we may add, that it is extremely difficult, if not
impracticable, to contract within the Grecian limits
any fable fo fruitful of incidents in number and variety
as to give full fcope to the fluctuation of paffion.
It may now appear, that critics who put the unities
of place and of time upon the fame footing with the
unity of aCtion, making them all equally effential, have
not attended to the nature and conftitution of the mo¬
dern drama. If they admit an interrupted reprefenta¬
tion, with which no writer finds fault, it is abfurd to
rejeCt its greatell advantage, that of representing many
interefting fubjeCts excluded from the Grecian itage.
If there needs muff be a reformation, why not reftore
the ancient chorus and the ancient continuity of aCtion ?
There is certainly no medium ; for to admit an inter¬
ruption without relaxing from the ftriCt unities of place
and of time, is in effeCt to load us with all the incon¬
veniences of the ancient drama, and at the fame time to
vvith-hold from us its advantages.
TRY. 2tt
And therefore the only proper queilion is, Whether The three
our model be or be not a real improvement ? This in- U)Ilt:ts‘
deed may. fairly be called in queftion ; and in order to a io^
comparative trial, fome particulars muff be premifed. Whether
When a play begins, tve have no difficulty to adjuff ourour drama
imagination to the feene of aCtion, however d'ltant it be
in time or in place ; becaufe we know that the play is a that 0f
reprefentation only. The cafe is very different after we Greece,
are engaged : it is the perfection of reprefentation to
hide itfelf, to impofe on the fpeCtator, and to produce in
him an impreffion of reality, as if he were fpeCtator of
a real event ; but any interruption annihilates that im¬
preffion, by roufing him out of his waking dream, and
unhappily reiloring him to his fenies. So difficult it is
to .fupport the impreffion of reality, that much (lighter
interruptions than the interval between two aCts are fu(-
ficient.to diffolve the charm: in the 5th aCt of the
Mourning Ernie, the three firit feenes are in a room of
ftate. the fourth in a prifon; and the change is operated
by ihifting the feene, which is done in a trice : hut
however quick the tranfition may be, it is impracticable
to impofe upon the fpeCtators fo as to make them con¬
ceive that they are aCtually carried from the palace to
the prifon; they immediately refleCt, that the palace and
prifon are imaginary, and that the whole is a fiCtion.
From thefe premifes, one will naturally be led, at firfl
view, to pronounce the frequent interruptions in the
modern drama to be an imperfection. It will occur,
“ That every interruption muff have the effeCt to baniffi
the dream of reality, and with it to banifh our concern,
which cannot fubfiil while we are confcious that all is a
fiCtion ; and therefore, that in the modern drama, fufli-
cient time is not afforded for fluctuation and fwelling of
paffion, like what is afforded in that of Greece, where
there is no interruption.” This reafoning, it muff he
owned, has a fpecious appearance : but we muff not be¬
come faint-hearted upon the firft repulfe; let us rally our
troops for a fecond engagement.
On the Greek ffage, whatever may have been the cafe
on the Roman, the reprefentation was never interrupted,
and the divifion by aCts was totally unknown. The
word a£t never once occurs in Ariftotle’s Poetics, in
which he defines exaCtly every part of the drama, and
divides it into the beginning, the middle, and the end.
At certain intervals indeed the aCtors retired ; but the
ffage was not then left empty, nor the curtain let fall;
for the chorus continued and fung. Neither do thefe
fongs of the chorus divide the Greek tragedies into five
portions, fimilar to our aCts; though fome of the com¬
mentators have endeavoured to force them into this of¬
fice. But it is plain, that the intervals at which the
chorus fung are extremely unequal and irregular, fuited
to the occafion and the fubjeCt; and would divide the
play fometimes into three, fometimes into feven or eight
aCts.
As praCtice has notv eftabliffied a different plan on
the modern ftage, has divided every play into five aCts,
and made a total paufe in the reprefentation at the end
of each aCt, the queftion to be confidered is, Whether
the plan of the ancient or of the modern drama is bed
qualified for making a deep impreffion on the mind ?
That the preference is due to the plan of the modem
drama, will be evident from the following confiderations.
If it be indeed true, as the advocates for the three uni¬
ties allege, that the audience is deluded into the belief
D d 2 of
212
POE
The three
Unitits.
T09
An im*
provemei t
of the mo¬
dern dra¬
ma fug-
$;efted
Elem. nf
Cnticifm,
ch. 13.
of tlie reality of a well-a&ed tragedy, it is certain that
this delufion cannot be long fupported; for when the
fpirits are exhaufted by clofe attention, and by the agi¬
tation of paflion, an uneafmefs enfues, which never fails
to banifh the waking dream. Now fuppofing the time
that a man can employ with ftrift attention without
wandering to be no greater than is requifite for a fingle
aft (a fuppofition that cannot be far from truth), it
follows, that a continued reprefentation of longer en¬
durance than an aft, inltead of giving fcope to fluftua-
tion and fwelling of paffion, would overftrain the at¬
tention, and produce a total abfence of mind. In this
refpeft, the four paufes have a fine effeft : for by af¬
fording to the audience a feafonable refpite when the
impreffion of reality is gone, and while nothing material
is in agitation, they relieve the mind from its fatigue ;
and confequently prevent a wandering of thought at the
very time poffibly of the moll interefting feenes.
In one article, indeed, the Grecian model has greatly
the advantage : its chorus, during an interval, not only
preferves alive the impreffions made upon the audience,
but alfo prepares their hearts finely for new impreffions.
In our theatres, on the contrary, the audience, at the
end of every aft, being left to trifle time away, lofe
every warm impreflion ; and they begin the next aft
cool and unconcerned, as at the commencement of the
reprefentation. This is a grofs malady in our theatrical
reprefentations ; but a malady that luckily is not incu¬
rable : to revive the Grecian chorus, would be to revive
the Grecian llavery of place and time ; but we can fi¬
gure a detached chorus coinciding with a paufe in the
reprefentation, as the ancient chorus did with a paufe
in the principal aftion. What objection, for example,
can there lie againfl mufic between the afts, vocal and
inftrumental, adapted t j the fubjeft? Such detached cho¬
rus, without putting us under any limitation of time or
place, would recruit the fpirits, and would preferve en¬
tire the tone, if not the tide, of paffion : the mufic, af¬
ter an aft, fhould commence in the tone of the prece¬
ding paffion, and be gradually varied till it accord with
the tone of the paffion that is to fucceed in the next
aft. The mufic and the reprefentation would both of
them be gainers by their conjunftion ; which will thus
appear. Mufic that accords with the prefent tone of
mind, is, on that account, doubly agreeable ; and ac¬
cordingly, though mufic fingly hath not power to raife
a paffion, it tends greatly to fupport a paffion already
railed. Further, mufic prepares us for the paffion that
follows, by making cheerful, tender, melancholy, or
animated impreffions, as the fubj eft requires. Take for
an example the firft feene of the Mourning Bride, where
foft mufic, in a melancholy ftrain, prepares us for Al-
meria’s deep diftrefs. In this manner, mufic and repre¬
fentation fupport each other delightfully : the impref¬
fion made upon the audience by the reprefentation, is a
fine preparation for the mufic that fucceeds; and the
impreffion made by the mufic, is a fine preparation for
the reprefentation that fucceeds. It appears evident,
that by fome fuch contrivance, the modern drama may
be improved, fo as to enjoy the advantage of the an¬
cient chorus without its flavifh limitation of place and
time. But to return to the comparifon between the an¬
cient and the modern drama.
The numberlefs improprieties forced upon the Greek
dramatic poets by the conftftution of their drama, may
TRY. Part II.
be fufficlent, one fhould think, to make us prefer the The three
modern drama, even abltrafting from the improvement Wulcs.
propofed. To prepare the reader for this article, it *
mull be premifed, that as in the ancient drama the place rhe mo-
of aftion never varies, a place neceflarily muft be chofen ^’ern dra-
to which every perfon may have accefs without any im-™a ||re'
probability. This confines the feene to fome open place, the ancient
generally the court or area before a palace ; which ex¬
cludes from the Grecian theatre tranfaftions within
doors, though thefe commonly are the moft important.
Such cruel reflraint is of itfelf fufficient to cramp the
moft pregnant invention ; and accordingly the Greek
writers, in order to preferve unity of place, are reduced
to woful improprieties. In the Hippolytus of Euripides
(aft 1. fc. 6.), Phedra, diftreffed in mind and body, is
carried without any pretext from her palace to the
place of aftion ; is there laid upon a couch, unable to
fupport herfelf upon her limbs; and made to utter many
things improper to be heard by a number of women
who form the chorus : and what is Hill more improper,
her female attendant ufes the ftrongefl: intreaties to
make her reveal the fecret caufe of her anguifh ; which
at laft Phedra, contrary to decency and probability, is
prevailed upon to do in prefence of that very chorus
(aft 2. fc. 2.) Alceftes, in Euripides, at the point of
death, is brought from the palace to the place of aftion,
groaning and lamenting her untimely fate (aft 2. fc. I.) .
In the Bra chi nice of Sophocles (aft. 2.), a fecret is
imparted to Dejanira, the wife of Hercules, in prefence
of the chorus. In the tragedy of Iphigenia, the meflen-
ger employed to inform Clytemneftra that Iphigenia was
facrificed, flops (hort at the place of aftion, and with a
loud voice calls the queen from her palace to hear the
news. Again, in the Iphigenia in Baucis (aft 4.), the
neceffary prefence of the chorus forces Euripides into a
grofs abfurdity, which is to form a fecret in their hear¬
ing ; and, to difguife the abfurdity, much court is paid
to the chorus, not one woman but a number, to engage
them to fecrecy. In the Medea of Euripides, that prin-
cefs makes no difficulty, in prefence of the chorus, to
plot the death of her hufband, of his miflrefs, and of her
father the king of Corinth, all by poifon : it was ne-
ceflary to bring Medea upon the ftage ; and there is
but one place of aftion, which is always occupied by
the chorus. This feene clofes the fecond aft ; and in
the end of the third, fhe frankly makes the chorus
her confidents in plotting the murder of her own chil¬
dren. Terence, by identity of place, is often forced
to make a converfation within doors be heard on the
open ftreet: the cries of a woman in labour are there
heard diftinftly. in
The Greek poets are not lefs hampered by unity ofI,]conve'’
time than by that of place. In the Hippolytus of Eu-^nc^SQ0^
ripides, that prince is banilhed at the end of the 4th t^e an-
aft ; and in the firft; feene of the following aft, a mef- dent dra-
fenger relates to Thefeus the whole particulars of the ma*
death of Hippolytus by the fea-monfter : that remark¬
able event mull have occupied many hours ; and yet in
the reprefentation it is confined to the time employed
by the chorus upon the fong at the end of the 4th aft.
The inconfillency is Hill greater inMat Iphigenia in Bau-
ris (aft 5. fc- 4.) : the fong could not exhault half an
hour; and yet the incidents fuppofed to have happened
during that time could not natuially have been tranfafted
in lefs than half a day.
The
Part II. run
The three The Greek artifts are forced, not lefs frequently, to
Unities. tranfgrefs another rule, derived alfo from a continued
reprefentation. The rule Is, that as a vaciilty, however
momentary, interrupts the reprefentation, it is neceffary
that the place of adlion be conitantly occupied, So¬
phocles, with regard to that rule as well as to others, is
generally correct: but Euripides cannot bear fuch re-
ftraint; he often evacuates the ftage, and leaves it empty
for others. Iphigenia in Tauris, after pronouncing a
foliloquy in the firft fcene, leaves tiie place of adlion,
and is lucceeded by Oreftes and Pylades: they, aftei
feme converfation, walk off; and Iphigenia re-enters,
accompanied with the chorus. In the Alcehes, whicn
is of the fame author, the place of adlion is void at^ the
end of the third ad. It is true, that to cover the irre¬
gularity, and to preferve the reprefentation in motion,
Euripides is careful to fill the ftage without lofs of time:
but this ftill is an interruption, and a link .of the chain
broken : for during the change of the actors, there
muft be a fpace of time, during which the ftage is oc¬
cupied by neither fet. It manes indeed a moie ic-
markable interruption, to change the place of adlion as
well as the adlors; but that was not pradlicable upon
the Grecian ftage.
It is hard to fay upon what model Terence has
formed his plays. Having no chorus, there is a paufe
in the reprefentation at the end of every adl: but ad¬
vantage is not taken of the ceffation, even to vary the
place of adlion ; for the ftreet is always chofen, where
every thing palling may be feen by every perfon ; and
by that choice, the moft fprightly and interefting parts
of the adlion, which commonly pafs within doojs, aie
excluded ; witnefs tire laft adl of the Eunuch. He hath
fubmitted to the like flavery with refpedl to time. In
a word, a play with a regular chorus, is not more con-
Ehm. ef fined in place and time than his plays are. Thus a zea-
Criticifm, jous fe&ary follows implicitly ancient forms and cere-
Ch‘ a3‘ monies, without once confidering whether their intro-
dudlive caufe be ftill fubfifting. Plautus, of a bolder
genius than Terence, makes good ufe of the liberty af
forded by an interrupted reprefentation : he varies the
place of adlion upon all occafions, when the variation
fuits his purpofe. ... •, n i
No change Tlie intelligent reader will by tins time underhand,
of time or that we plead for no change of place in our piays but
place to after an interval, nor for any latitude in point Oi time
but what fans in with an interval. The unities _ of
tween die" Place and tIrae or'ght to be °bferved dunnS
adls. each aft; for during the reprefentation there is no
opportunity for the fmalleft deviation from either*
Hence it is an effential requifite, that during an adl
the ftage be always occupied; for even, a momentary
vacuity makes an interval or interruption. Another
rule is no lefs effential: it would be a grofs breach of
the unity of adtion to exhibit upon the ftage two fe-
parate adlions at the fame time; and therefore, to
preferve that unity, it is neceffary that each perfonage
introduced during an adl be linked to thofe in pof-
feffion of the ftage, fo as to join all in one adlion.
Thefe things follow from the very conception of an
adl, which admits, not the flighteft interruption: the
moment the reprefentation is intermitted, there is an
end of that adt; and we have no other notion of a
new adl, but where, after a paufe or interval, the re-
prefeatation is again put in motion. French writers,.
TRY. **3
generally fpeaking, are correft in this particular. The
Englifh, on the contrary, are fo irregular as fcarce ^era i
to deferve a criticifm : adlors not only fucceed each
other in the fame place without connedlion, but, what
is ftill lefs excufable, they frequently fucceed. each
other in different places. This change of place in the
fame adl ought never to be indulged; for, befide
breaking the unity of the adl, it has a difagreeable
effedl: after an interval, the imagination adapts it-
felf to any place that is neceffary, as readily as at
the commencement of the play ; but during the re¬
prefentation we rejedt change of piace. I rom the
foregoing cenfure muft be excepted the. Mourning Brule
of Congreve, where regularity concurs with the beau¬
ty of fentiment and of language, to make it one of the
moft complete pieces England has to boaft of. It is
to be acknowledged, however, that in point of regu¬
larity this elegant performance is not altogether un¬
exceptionable. In the four firft adl s, the unities of
place and time are ftridlly obferved : but in the laft adt,,
there is a capital error with refpedl to unity of place ;
for in the three firft feenes of that ad, the place of
adlion is a room of ftate, which is changed to a pri-
fon in the fourth fcene : the chain alfo of the adlors is
broken ; as th-e perfons introduced in the prifon are
different from thofe who made their appearance in the
room of ftate. This remarkable interruption of the
reprefentation makes in effedl two adls inilead of one:
and therefore, if it be a rule that a play ought not
to confift of more adls than five, this performance is
fo far defedlive in point of regularity. It may be add¬
ed, that, even admitting fix adls, the irregularity
would not be altogether removed, without a longer
paufe in the reprefentation than is allowed in the ac¬
ting ; for more than a momentary interruption is re¬
quifite for enabling the imagination readily to fall in
with a new place, or with a wide fpace of time. In
The IVay of the World, of the fame author, unity of
place is preferved during every adl, and a ftndler
unity of time during the whole play than is neceffary’.
§ 4. Of the Opera.
An opera is a drama reprefented by mufic. This T he opera,
entertainment was invented at Venice. An exhibi-a dramarc—
tion of tliis fort requires a moft brilliant magnificence, Pre^^d
and an expence truly royal. The drama muft necef- y m“ Cs
farily be compofed in verfe ; for as operas are fung
and accompanieu with fymphonies, they muft. be in
verfe to be properly applicable to mufic.. To render
this entertainment ftill more brilliant, it is ornamented
with dances and ballettes, with fuperb decorations,
and furpriixng machinery. The dreffes of the actors,
of thole who afiift in the chorus, and of the dancers,
being all in the moft fplendid and elegant tafte, contri¬
bute to render the exhibition highly fumptuous. But
notwithftandmg this union of arts and pleafures at
an immenfe expence, and notwithftanding a moft daz¬
zling pageantry, an opera appears, in the ey’es. of
many people of tafte, but as a magnificent abfurdity,
feeing that nature is never there from the beginning to.
the end. It is not our bufinefs here, however, to de¬
termine between the different taftes of mankind.
The method of exprefling our thoughts by finging_
and mufic is fo little natural, and has fomething in. it.
fo forced and affe&ed, that it is not eafy to conceive.
bevr
214
p O E
Of the Jiow it could come into (he minds of men of genius to
Opera, reprefent any human action, and, what is more, a
ferious or tragic action, any otherwife than by fpeech.
We have, it is true, operas in Englifh by Addifon, &c.
in Italian by Metaftalio, in French by M. Quinault,
Fontenelle, &c. the fubjefts of which are fo grave and
tragic, that one might call them mufical tragedies, and
real chefs-d’mivres in their kind. But though we are
highly fatisfied and greatly affected on reading them,
and are much pleafed with feeing them reprefented,
yet the fpectator is, perhaps, more charmed with the
magnificence of the light and the beauty of the mu-
fic, than moved with the action and the tragical part
of the performance. We are mot, however, of that
order of critics who drive to prove, that mankind act
wrong in finding pleafure in an objefit with which
they are really pieaied ; who blame a lover for think¬
ing his miltrefs charming, when her features are by no
means regular; and who are perpetually, applying the
rules of logic to the works of genius : we make thefe
obfervations merely in order to examine if it be not
poffible to augment the pleafures of a polite people, by
making the opera fomething more natural, more pro¬
bable, and more confonant to reafon.
Should take We think, therefore, that the poet fhould never,
its fubjedt or at lead very rarely, choofe a fubjeft from hidory,
hfifor ^but from fable or mythology, or from the regions of
from fable enchantment. Every rational mind is condantly fhock-
and en- ed to hear a mutilated hero trill out, from the {lender
chantment, pipe of a chaffinch, To arms ! To arms ! and in the
fame tone animate his foldiers, and lead them to the af-
fault; or harangue an affembly of grave fenators, and
fometimes a whole body of people. Nothing can be
more burlefque than Inch exhibitions ; and a man mud
be poffefled of a very uncommon fenfibility to be
affefted by them. But as we know not what was the
language of the gods, and their manner of expreffing
themfefves, -we are at liberty in that cafe to form what
illufions we pleafe, and to fuppofe that they ding to
didinguiffi themfelves from mortals. Befides, all the
magic of decorations and machinery become natural,
and even neceffary, in thefe kinds of fubje&s ; and
therefore readily afford opportunity for all the pomp
. of thefe performances. The chorus, the dances, the
ballettes, the fymphonies and dreffes, may likewile be
all made to correfpond with fuch fubjefts : nothing is
here affected, abfurd, or unnatural. Whoever is pof-
feffed of genius, and is well acquainted with mytho¬
logy, will there find an inexhaudible fource of fub-
jefts highly divedlfied, and quite proper for the drama
of an opera.
Bielf eld's
Elen,, of
Erudition.
We ffiall not fpeak here of that fort of mufic which
appears to us the mod proper for fuch a drama, and
of the feveral alterations of which we think it fufeep-
tible, in order to make it more complete, and to adapt
it to a more pathetic, more noble, and more natural
expreffion, as well in the recitatives as in the airs and
chorus. (See IVIusic). We have only here to confider
the bufinefs of the poet. Fie ffiould never lofe fight
of nature, even in the midd of the greated fi&ion. A
*ij g°d> a demi-god, a renowned hero, fuch for example
And ftiould as Renaild in Trmida, a fairy, a genie, a nymph, or
fis characr ^ &C* i}x0uld conllantly be reprefented according
ters as con- to the charadters we give them, and never be made to
fiftent, talk the language of a fop or a petite maitrejfe. The
T R V. Parti!.
recitative, which is the ground-work of the dialogue, Of t> q
requires veries that are free and not regular, fuch as °Ptra-
with a fimple cadence approach the neared to common ^
language. The airs ihould not be forced into the piece,
nor improperly placed for the fake of terminating a
feene, or to difplay the voice of a performer: they
ffiould exprefs fome fentiment, or fome precept, ffiort
and ilriking, or tender and affecting ; or fome iimile
lively and natural; and they ffiould arife of themfelves
from a monologue, or from a feene between two per-
fons : prolixity ffiould here he particularly avoided,
efpecially when fuch an air makes part of a dialogue ;
for nothing is more infipid or difgudful than the coun¬
tenances of the other actors who appear at the lame
time, whofe filence is quite unmeaning, and who know
not what to do with their hands and feet while the
finger is draining his throat. The verfe of all the aits
fhould be of the lyric kind, and ffiould contain fome
poetic image, or paint fome noble paffion, which may
furniffi the compofer with an opportunity of difplaying
his talents, and of giving a lively and affecting expref¬
fion to the mufic. A phrafe that is inanimated can
never have a good effeft in the performance, but mull
become inlipid and horribly tedious in the air. The
trite iimilies of the Italians, of a dream that flows, or a
bird that flies, &c. are no longer fufferable. The fame
thing may be faid with regard to the chorus, which
ffiould be equally natural and well adapted : it is here
fometimes a whole people, fometimes the inhabitants
of a peculiar country, and fometimes warriors, nymphs,
or prieds, &c. who raife their voice to demand judice,
to implore favour, or render a general homage. The
action itfelf will furniffi the poet of genius with ideas,
words, and the manner of difpofing them.
Ladly, the opera being a performance calculated lefs
to fatisfy the underdanding than to charm the ear and
affect the heart, and efpecially to drike the light, the
poet ffiould have a particular attention to that object,
ffiould be {killed in the arts of a theatre, ffiould know¬
how to introduce combats, ballettes, feads, games, pom¬
pous entries, folemn proceffions, and fuch marvellous in¬
cidents as occur in the heavens, upon earth, in the fea,
and even in the infernal regions: but all thefe matters
demand a drong charadter, and the utmod precilion in
the execution : for otherwife, the comic being a near
neighbour to the fublime, they will eafily become ridi- 116
eulous. The unity of adlion mud certainly he obferved Ay °f
in fuch a poem, and all the incidental epifodes mud con-E<^Ion ne‘
cur to the principal defign ; otherwife it would be a^^J®
mondrous chaos. It is impoffible, however, ferupu- ^
loufly to obferve the unity of time and place : though
the liberty, which reafon allows the poet in this refpedl,
is not without bounds ; and the lefs ufe he makes of it,
the more perfect his poem will be. It is not perhaps
impoffible fo to arrange tire objefts, that, in changing
the decorations, the painter may condantly make ap¬
pear fome part of the principal decoration which cha-
r'adteriles the fituation of the feene, as the corner of a
palace, at the end of a garden, or fome avenue that
leads to it, &c. But all this is liable to difficulties,
and even to exceptions; and the art of the painter mull
concur in fuch cafe with that of the poet. For the red,
all the operas of Europe are at lead one third too
long; elpecially the Italian. The unity of adlion re¬
quires brevity; and fatiety is infeparable from a di¬
ve rfi on
Part If
."7 ,
Origin ot
the ode.
ti8
Its free¬
dom.
POE
verfiyn that lafU full four hoinrs, and fomctimes long-
rp|^^y have indeed endeavoured to ohviate tint* incon¬
venience by dividing an opera into three, and even into
jive afts; but experience proves, that this divifion,
though judicious, is ftill not fufficient to relieve the
wearied attention.
Sect. II. Of Lyric Poetry.
The ode is very ancient, and was probably the firft
fpecies of poetry. It had its fource, we may fuppofe,
from the heart, and was employed to exprefs, with be¬
coming fervour and dignity, the grateful fenfe man
entertained of the blelhngs which daily flowed fiom
God the fountain of all goodnefs: hence their har-
vdl hymns, and other devotional compofitions of that
kind.
But in procefs of time it was employed, not only to
praife the Almighty for bounties received, but to fqhcit
his aid in time of trouble; as is plain from the odes
written by king David and others, and collected by the
lewifh Sanhedrim into the book of Pfalms, to be fung
at their fails, feftivaJs, and on other folemn occafions.
Nor was this practice confined to the Ifraelites only:
other ^rations had their fongs of praife and petitions of
this fort, which they preferred to their deities in time
of public profperity and public diftrefs, as well as to
thofe heroes who diftinguifhed themfelves in arms.
Even the American Indians, whofe notions of religion
are extremely confined, have their war-fongs, which they
fing to this day.
It is reafonable to fuppofe that the awful purpofe to
which the ode was applied,, gave rife among the ancients
to the cuflom of invoking the mufes; and that the poets,
in order to raife their fentiments and language, fo as to
be acceptable to their deities, thought it expedient to
folicit fome divine affiftance. Hence poets are faid to
have been infpired, and hence an unbounded liberty has
been given to the ode ; for the lyric poet, fired, as it
were, with his fubjeft, and borne away on the wings of
gratitude, difdains grammatical niceties and common
modes of fpeech, and often foars above rule, though not
above reafon. This freedom, however, confifls chiefly
in hidden tranfitions, bold digreffions, and lofty excur-
fions. For the ancient poets, and even Pindar, the molt
daring and lofty of them all, has in his fublimefl flights,
and amidft all his rapture, preferved harmony, and often
uniformity in his verfification: but fo great is the vari¬
ety of his meafurcs, that the traces of famenefs are in a
manner loft-; and this is one of the excellencies for which
that poet is admired, and which, though feemingly de¬
void of art, requires fo much that he has feldom been
imitated with fuccefs.
The ancients in their odes indulged fuch a liberty of
fancy, that fome of their beft poets not only make bold
excurfions and digrefiions, but, having in their flights
ftarted fome new and noble thought, they frequently
purfue it, and never more return to their fubjeft. But
this loofe kind of ode, which feems to rejerit all method,
and in which the poet, having juft touched upon his
fubjeft, immediately diverts to another, we fhould think
blameable, were it lawful to call in queftion the autho¬
rity of thofe great men who were our preceptors in this
TRY. 215
art. We may venture to affirm, however, that thefe
compofitions ftand in no degree of comparifon with other ,
odes of theirs ; in which, after wandering from the lub-
jeft in purfuit of new ideas arifmg from fome of its ad¬
juncts, and ranging wantonly, as it were, through a va¬
riety of matter, the poet is from fome other circumftance
led naturally to his fubjeft again ; and, like a bee, ha¬
ving collefted the e(fence of many different flowers, re¬
turns home, and unites them all in one uniform pleating
fweet. ”9
The ode among the ancients fignified no more than a The fuh-
fong : but with the moderns, the ode and the long arej^8 oi'thi5
confidered as different compofitions; the ode being ufu-
ally employed in grave and lofty fubjects, and feldom
fung but on folemn occafions.
The fubjeCts molt proper for the ode and fong, Horace
has pointed out in a few elegant lines.
Gods, heroes, conquerors, Olympic crowns,
Love’s pleafing cares, and the free joys of wine.
Are proper fubjects for the lyric fong.
To which we may add, that happinefs, the pleafures
of a rural life, and fuch parts of morality as afford leffons
for the promotion of our felicity, and refleCIions on the
condurit of life, are equally fuitable to the ode. This
both Pindar and Horace were fo fenfible of, that many of
their odes are feafoned with thefe moral fentences and
reflections.
But who can number ev’ry fandy grain
Wafh’d by Sicilia's hoarfe-refpunding main ?
Or who can Ther on's gen’rous works exprefs,
And tell how many hearts his bounteous virtues blefs?
Ode to Theron.
And in another Olympic ode, iriferibed by the fame
poet to Diagoras of Rhodes (and in fuch efteem, that
it was depofited in the temple of Minerva, written in
letters of gold), Pindar, after exalting them to the (kies,
concludes with this leffon in life :
Yet as the gales of fortune various blow,
To-day tempeftuous, and to-morrow fair,
Due bounds, ye Rhodians, let your tranfports know;
Perhaps to-morrow comes a ftorm of care.
IVeJl'h Pindar.
The man refolv’d and fteady to his truft,
Inflexible to ill, and obftinately juft.
May the rude rabble’s iniolence defpife.
Their fenfekfs clamours and tumultuous cries ;
The tyrant’s fiercenefs he beguiles,
And the ftem brow and the harfh voice defies.
And with fuperior greatnefs fmiles.
Not the rough whirlwind, that deforms
Adria’s black gulph, and vexes it with ftorms,
The ftubborn virtue of his foul can move ;
Nor the red arm of angry Jove,
That flings the thunder from the fley,
And gives it rage to roar, and ftrength to fly.
Should the whole frame of nature round him break,
In ruin and confufion hurl’d,
He unconcern’d would hear the mighty crack,
And ftand fecure amidft a falling world.
Horace.
Mb
7
216 POE
<I'oeunC ^e^Prcaux ^as given us a very beautiful and juft
oti^' defeription of the ode in thefe lines.
L’Ode avec plus d’eclat, & non moins d’energie
Elevant jufqu’au ciel fon vol ambitieux,
Entretient dans vers commerce avec les Dieux.
Aux Athletes dans Fife elle ouvre la barriere,
Chante «n vainqueur poudreux au bout de la carriere;
Mene Achilla fanglant au bords du SimoTs
Ou fait flechir 1’Efcaut fous le joug de Louis.
Tantot comme une abeille ardente a fon ouvrage
Elle s’en va de fieurs depouiller le rivage ;
Elle peint les feftins, les danfes & les ris,
Vante un baifercueilli fur les levres d’lris,
Qui mollement refifte & par un doux caprice
Quelquefois le refufe, afin qu’on le ravifle.
Son ftyle impetueux fouvent marche au hafard.
Chez elle un beau defordre eft un effet de Tart,
Loin ces rimeurs craintifs, dont Pefprit plegmatique
Garde dans fes fureurs un ordre didaftique :
Qui chantant d’un heros les progres eclatans,
Maigres hiftoriens, fuivront I’ordre des temps.
Apollon de fon feu leur fut tonjours avare, &c.
The lofty ode demands the ftrongeft fire,
For there the mufe all Phoebus muft infpire:
Mounting to heav’n in her ambitious flight,
Amongft the gods and heroes takes delight;
Of Pifa’s wreftlers tells the finewy force,
And fings the dufty conqueror’s glorious courfe ;
To Simois’ banks now fierce Achilles fends,
Beneath the Gallic yoke now Efcaut bends:
Sometimes fhe flies, like an induftrious bee.
And robs the flow’rs by nature’s chemiftry ;
Defcribes the Ihepherds dances, feafts, and blifs,
And boafts from Phillis to furprife a kifs,
When gently file refills with feign’d remorfe.
That what ftie grants may feem to be by force.
Her genei'ous ftyle will oft at random ftart,
And by a brave diforder Ihow her art;
Unlike thofe fearful poets whofe cold rhyme
In all their raptures keeps exa£left time,
Who fing the illuftrious hero’s mighty praife,
Dry journalifts, by terms of weeks and days j
To thefe, Apollo, thrifty of his fire,
Denies a place in the Pierian choir, &c.
Soames.
120
The fong.
The variety of fubjefts, which are allowed the lyric
poet, makes it neceflary to confider this fpecies of poetry
under the following heads, viz. the fubJime ode, the lejfer
ode, and the fong. We {hall begin with the loweft, and
proceed to that wdxich is more eminent.
I. Songs are little poetical compofitions, ufually fet to
a tune, and frequently fung in company by way of en¬
tertainment and diverfion. Of thefe we have in our
language a great number ; but, confidering that number,
not many which are excellent j for, as the Duke of
Buckingham obferves,
Though nothing feems more eafy, yet no part
Of poetry requires a nicer art.
The fong admits of almoft any fubjedt; but the
greateft part of them turn either upon love, contentment,
or the pleafures of a country life, and drinking. Be the
/ubjedt, however, what it will, the verfes Ihould be eafy,
TRY, part ]j
natural, and flowing, and contain a certain harmony, Of Lyric
fo that poetry and mufic may be agreeably united. In Loetry.
thefe compofitions, as in all others, obfeene and profane '-"'V——
expreflions Ihould be carefully avoided, and indeed every
thing that tends to take off that refpedt which is due to
religion and virtue, and to encourage vice and immora¬
lity. As the bell fongs in our language are already in
every hand, it would feem fuperfluous to infert examples.
For further precepts, however, as well as feledt examples,
in this fpecies of compofition, wre may refer the reader
to the elegant EJfay on Song IVriling, by Mr Aikin.
II. The lejfer ode. The diftinguilhing character ofThediftia.
this is fweetnefs ; and as the pleafure we receive from guifhing
this fort of poem arifes principally from its foothing and cllara&cr
affedting the pafiions, great regard fhould be paid to the
language as well as to the thoughts and numbers.
Th’ expreflion Ihould be eafy, fancy high ;
Yet that not feem to creep, nor this to fly:
No wrords tranfpos’d, but in fuch order all,
As, though hard wrought, may feem by chance to fall.
1). Buckingham's EJfay.
The ftyle, indeed, Ihould be eafy: but it may be alfo
florid and figurative. It folicits delicacy, but difdains
affectation. The thoughts Ihould be natural, chafte,
and elegant; and the numbers various, fmoc ch, and
harmonious. A few examples will fufficiently explain
what we mean.
Longinus has preferved a fragment of Sappho, an
ancient Greek poetefs, which is in great reputation
amongft the critics, and has been fo happily tranflated
by Mr Philips as to give the Englilh reader a juft idea
of the fpirit, eafe, and elegance of that admired author ;
and Ihow how exactly fire copied nature. To enter
into the beauties of this ode, we muft fuppofe a lover
fitting by his miftrefs, and thus exprelfing his paffion:
Bleft as th’ immortal gods is he,
The youth who fondly fits by thee,
And fees and hears thee all the while
Softly fpeak, and fweetly fmile.
’Twas this depriv’d my foul of reft,
And rais’d fuch tumults in my breaft ;
For while I gaz’d, in tranfport toft,
My breath was gone, my voice was loft.
My bofom glow’d, the fubtle flame
Ran quick through all my vital frame :
O’er my dim eyes a darknefs hung;
My ears with hollow murmurs rung.
In dewy damps my limbs were chill’d ;
My blood with gentle horrors thrill’d ;
My feeble pulfe forgot to play ;
I fainted, funk, and dy’d away.
After this inftance of the Sapphic ode, it may not
be improper to fpeak of that fort of ode which is called
Anacreontic ; being written in the manner and tafte of
Anacreon, a Greek poet, famous for the delicacy of his
wit, and the exquifite, yet eafy and natural, turn of
his poefy. We have feveral of his odes ftill extant,
and many modern ones in imitation of him, which are
moftly compofed in verfes of feven fyllables, or three
feet and a half.
We lhall give the young ftudent one or two examples The An*«
of his manner from Mr Fawkes’s excellent tranllation. creontic
8 Theodc‘
122
The Sap¬
phic ode.
Part II.
POE
Of Lyric
Poetry.
The following ode on the power of gold, which had
been often attempted but with little fuccefs, this gentle¬
man has tranflated very happily.
Love’s a pain that works our wo ;
Not to love is painful too :
But, alas ! the greateft pain
Waits the love that meets difdain.
What avails ingenuous worth.
Sprightly wit, or noble birth ?
All thefe virtues ufelefs prove ;
Gold alone engages love.
May he be completely curft,
Who the fleeping mifchief firft
Wak’d to life, and, vile before,
Stamp’d with worth the fordid ore.
Gold creates in brethren ftrife ;
Gold deftroys the parent’s life ;
Gold produces civil jars,
Murders, maffacres, and wars ;
But the worft eflfeft of gold,
Love, alas ! is bought and fold.
His ode on the vanity of riches is of a piece with the
above, and conveys a good leffon to thofe who are over
anxious for wealth.
If the treafur’d gold could give
Man a longer term to live,
I’d employ my utmoll care
Still to keep, and ftill to fpare ;
And, when death approach’d, would fay,
* Take thy fee, and walk away.’
But fmce riches cannot fave
Mortals from the gloomy grave,
Why (hould I myfelf deceive,
Vainly figh, and vainly grieve ?
Death will furely be my lot,
Whether I am rich or not.
Give me freely while I live
Generous wines, in plenty give
Soothing joys my life to cheer,
Beauty kind, and friends lincere ;
Happy ! could I ever find
Friends fincere, and beauty kind.
But two of the moft admired, and perhaps the mofl
imitated, of Anacreon’s odes, are that of Mars wounded
by one of the darts of Love, and Cupid ftung by a
Bee; both which are wrought up with fancy and
delicacy, and are tranflated with elegance and fpirit.—
Take that of Cupid Hung by a bee.
Once as Cupid, tir’d with play.
On a bed of rofes lay,
A rude bee, that flept unfeen,
The fweet breathing buds between,
Stung his finger, cruel chance !
With its little pointed lance.
Straight he fills the air with cries,
Weeps, and fobs, and runs, and flies ;
’Till the god to Venus came,
Lovely, laughter-loving dame :
Then he thus began to plain ;
“ Oh! undone 1 die with pain—
“ Dear mamma, a ferpent fmall,
<< Which a bee the ploughmen call*
Vou XV. Part I.
TRY. 217
<t Imp’d with wings, and arm’d with dart, Of Lyric
“ Oh ! — has flung me to the heart.” . Poetry. ^
Venus thus reply’d, and fmil’d :
‘ Dry thofe tears for fharne ! my child ;
* If a bee can wound fo deep,
‘ Caufing Cupid thus to weep,
‘ Think, O think ! what cruel pains
* He that’s ftung by thee fuftains.’
.,14
Among the moft fuccefsful of this poet’s Englifh imi-
tators may be reckoned Dr Johnfon and Mr Pri°r* creou
The following ode on Evening by the former of thefe
writers has, if we miftake not, the very fpirit and air of
Anacreon.
Evening now from purple wings
Sheds the grateful gifts fhe brings ;
Brilliant drops bedeck the mead ;
Cooling breezes {hake the reed ;
Shake the reed, and curl the ftream
Silver’d o’er with Cynthia’s beam ;
Near the chequer’d lonely grove
Hears, and keeps thy fccrets, Love.
Stella, thither let us ftray !
Lightly o’er the dewy way.
Phoebus drives his burning car
Hence, my lovely Stella, far <
In his Head the queen of night
Round us pours a lambent light;
Light that feems but juft to {how
Breafts that beat, and cheeks that glow:
Let us now, in whifper’d joy,
Evening’s filent hours employ ;
Silence belt, and confcious {hades,
Pleafe the hearts that love invades :
Other pleafures give them pain ;
Lovers all but love difdain.
But of all the imitations of the playful bard of Greece
that we have ever met with, the moft perfedl is the
following Anacreontic by the regent Duke of Orleans.
I.
Je fuis ne pour les plaifirs ;
Bien fou qui s’en pafl'e :
Je ne veux pas les choifir ;
Souvent le choix m’embarrafle :
Aime t’on ? J’aime foudain ;
Bois t’on ? J’ai le verre a la main ;
Je tiens par tout ma place.
II.
Dormir eft un temps perdu ;
Faut il qu’on s’y livre ?
Sommeil, prends ce qui t’eft du ;
Mais attends que je fois yvre :
Saifis moi dans cet inftant;
Fais moi dormir promptement;
Je fuis prefle de vivre.
III.
Mais fi quelque objet charmant,
Dans un fonge aimable,
Vient d’un plaifir feduifant
M’offrir Pimage agrcable ;
Sommeil, aliens doucement;
L’erreur eft en ce moment
Un bonheur veritable.
E e Tranjlatim
2l8
Of Lyric
Poetry.
POE
'Tranjlation of the Regent's Anacreontic (e).
Frolic and free, for pleafure born,
Tbe felf-denying fool I icorn :
The proffer’d joy I ne’er refufe ;
’Tis oft-times troublefome to chufe.
i.ov’ft thou, my friend ? I love at fight:
Drink’ll thou ? this bumper does thee right.
At random with the ftream I flow,
And play my part where’er I go.
Great God of Sleep, fince we mull be
Oblig’d to give fome hours to thee.
Invade me not till the full bowl
Glows in my cheek, and warms my foul.
Be that the only time to fnore.
When I can love and drink no more:
Short, very Ihort, then be thy reign ;
For I’m in halle to live again.
But, O ! if melting in my arms,
In fome foft dream, with all her charms,
The nymph belov’d Ihould then furprife.
And grant what waking Ihe denies;
Then prithee, gentle Slumber, Hay ;
Slowly, ah flowly, bring the day :
Let no rude noife my bliis dellroy ;
Such fweet deluflon’s real ioy.
jij
Sappho. We have mentioned Prior as an imitator of Anacreon;
but the reader has by this time had a fufficient fpecimen
of Anacreontics. The following Anftuer to Cloe jealous,
which was written when Prior was flck, has much of
N the elegant tendernefs of Sappho.
Yes, fairell proof'of beauty’s pow’r.
Dear idol of my panting heart,
Nature points this my fatal hour :
And I have liv’d : and we mull part.
While now I take my lall adieu,
Heave thou no figh, nor Ihed a tear;
Left yet my half-clos’d eye may view
On earth an object worth its care.
From jealoufy’s tormenting ftrife
For ever be thy bofom freed ;
That nothing may difturb thy life,
Content I haften to the dead.
Yet when fome better-fated youth
Shall with his am’rous parly move thee,
Refledl one moment on his truth
Who, dying, thus perfifts to love thee.
There is much of the foftnefs of Sappho, and the
fweetnefe of Anacreon and Prior, in the following ode,
which is afcribed to the late unfortunate Dr Dodd ; and
was written in compliment to a lady, who, being flck,
had fent the author a mofs rofe-bud, inftead of making
his family a vilit. This piece is particularly to be
efteemed for the juft and linking moral with which it
is pointed.
The flighteft of favours bellow’d by the fair,
With rapture we take, and with triumph we wear;
TRY. Part II.
But a mofs-woven rofe-bud, Eliza, from thee, Of Lyric
A well-pieafmg gift to a monarch would be. Poetry.
—Ah ! that illnefs, too cruel, forbidding Ihould Hand,
And refufe me the gift from thy own lovely hand!
With joy I receive it, with pleafure wilLview,
Reminded of thee, by its odour and hue :
“ Sweet rofe, let me tell thee, tho’ charming thy bloom,
Tho’ thy fragrance excels Seba’s richeft perfume ;
Thy breath to Eliza’s no fragrance hath in’t,
And but dull is thy bloom to her cheek’s blulhing tint.
Yet, alas ! my fair flow’r, that bloom will decay,
And all thy lov’d beauties foon wither away;
Tho’ pluck’d by her hand, to whofe touch, we mull own,
Harlh and rough is the cygnet’s moll delicate down
Thou too, fnowy hand ; nay, I mean not to preach ;
But the role, lovely moralift, fuffer to teach.
“ Extol not, fair maiden, thy beauties o’er mine ;
They too are Ihort-liv’d, and they too mull decline ;
And fmall, in concluflon, the diff’rence appears,
In the bloom of few days, or the bloom of few years !
But remember a virtue the rofe hath to boaft,
•—Its fragrance remains when its beauties are loft !”
We come now to thofe odes of the more florid and0 'esrnor«
figurative kind, of which we have many in our language ® ,ri<1 a.n<*
that deferve particular commendation. Mr Warton’s fJ^UrliUVC,
Ode to Fancy has been jullly admired by the bell judges ;
for though it has a diftant refemblance of Milton’s
L’Allegro and II Penferofo, yet the work is original;
the thoughts are moftly new and various, and the language
and numbers elegant, exprelfive, and harmonious.
O parent of each lovely mufe, k
Thy fpirit o’er my foul diffufe !
O’er all my artlefs fongs prefide.
My footfteps to thy temple guide !
To offer at thy turf-built Ihrine
In golden cups no collly wine.
No murder’d fatling of the flock.
But flow’rs and honey from the rock.
O nymph, with loofely flowing hair,
With bulkin’d leg, and bofom bare ;
Thy waill with myrtle-girdle bound,
Thy brows with Indian feathers crown’d;
Waving in thy fnowy hand
An all-commanding magic wand,
Of pow’r to bid frelh gardens blow
’Mid cheerlefs Lapland’s barren fnow :
Whofe rapid wings thy flight convey.
Through air, and over earth and fea ;
While the vail various landfcape lies
Confpicuous to thy piercing eyes.
O lover of the defert, hail!
Say, in what deep and pathlefs vale,
Or on what hoary mountain’s fide,
’Midft falls of water, you relide ;
’Midft broken rocks, a rugged feene.
With green and graffy dales between;
’Midft forelts dark of aged oak,
Ne’er echoing with the woodman’s ftroke ;
Where
(e) We give this tranflation, both becaufe of its excellence and becaufe it is faid to have been the produ&ioB
of no lefs a man than the late Lord Chatham,
Part H.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
R Y.
Where giant Terror {talks around.
With fullen joy furveys the ground,
And, pointing to th’ enfanguin’d field,
Shakes his dreadful gorgon fhield !
O guide me from this horrid fcene
To high-arch’d walks and alleys green,
Which lovely Laura feeks, to (hun
The fervors of the mid-day fun.
The pangs of abfence, O remove,
For thou can’ll place me near my love;
Can’ll fold in vifronary blifs,
And let me think I Heal a kifs;
While her ruby lips difpenfe
Lufcious ne&ar’s quinteffence !
When young-ey’d Spring profufely throws
From her green lap the pink and rofe;
When the foft turtle of the dale
To Summer tells her tender tale ;
When Autumn cooling caverns feeks.
And Itains with wine his jolly cheeks;
When Winter, like poor pilgrim old,
Shakes his filver beard with cold;
At ev’ry feafon let my ear
Thy folemn whifpers, Fancy, hear.
O warm enthufiaftic maid !
Without thy powerful, vital aid.
That breathes an energy divine,
That gives a foul to ev’ry line,
Ne’er may I ftrive with lips profane,
To utter an unhallow’d llrain ;
Nor dare to touch the facred firing.
Save when with fmiles thou bid’ll me ling.
O hear our pray’r, O hither come
From thy lamented Shakefpeare’s tomb,
On which thou lov’fi to fit at eve.
Muling o’er thy darling’s grave.
O queen of numbers, once again
Animate feme chofen fwain,
Who, fill’d with unexhaufied fire.
May boldly finite the founding lyre ;
Who with fome new, unequaU’d fong.
May rife above the rhyming throng ;
O’er all our lifi’ning paffions reign,
O’erwhelm our fouls with joy and pain ;
With terror {hake, with pity move,
Rouze with revenge, or melt with love.
O deign t;attend his evening walk,
With him in groves and grottoes talk j
Teach him to fcorn, with frigid art,
Feebly to touch th’ enraptur’d heart;
Like lightning, let his mighty verfe
The bofom’s inmoft foldings pierce ;
With native beauties win applaufe.
Beyond cold critics ftudied laws :
O let each mufe’s fame increafe !
O bid Britannia rival Greece !
219
Of Lyria
Poetry.
1-1 .4
POE
Where never human art appear’d,
Nor ev’n one ftraw-roof’d cott was rear’d ;
Where Nature feems to fit alone,
Majeftic on a craggy throne.
Tell me the path, fweet wand’rer ! tell.
To thy unknown fequefter’d cell,
Where woodbines duller round the door,
Where fhells and mofs o’erlay the floor.
And on whofe top an hawthorn blows,
Amid whofe thickly-woven boughs
Some nightingale Hill builds her neft,
Each ev’ning warbling thee to reft.
Then lay me by the haunted ftream.
Wrapt in fome wild poetic dream ;
In con verfe while methinks I rove
Witt} Spenfer through a fairy grove ;
Till fuddenly awak’d, I hear
Strange whifper’d mufic in my ear ;
And my glad foul in blifs is drown’d
By the fweetly foothing found !
Me, goddefs, by the right-hand lead.
Sometimes through the yellow mead ;
Where Joy and white-rob’d Peace refort,
And Venus keeps her feftive court;
Where Mirth and Youth each ev’ning meet,
And lightly trip with nimble feet,
Nodding their lily-crowned heads,
Where Laughter rofe-lip’d Hebe leads ;
Where Echo walks fteep hills among,
Lift’ning to the Ihepherd’s fong.
Yet not thefe flow’ry fields of joy
Can long my penfive mind employ;
Halle, Fancy, from the feenes of Folly,
To meet the matron Melancholy !
Goddefs of the tearful eye,
That loves to fold her arms and figh.
Let us with filent footfteps go
To charnels, and the houfe of wo ;
To Gothic churches, vaults, and tombs,
Where each fad night fome virgin comes,
With throbbing breaft and faded cheek,
Fler promis’d bridegroom’s urn to feek :
Or to fome abbey’s mould’ring tow’rs.
Where, to avoid cold wint’ry Ihow’rs,
The naked beggar Ihivering lies,
While whiftling tempefts round her rife,
And trembles left the tott’ring wall
Should on her fleeping infants fall.
Now let us louder ftrike the lyre,
For my heart glows with martial fire';
I feel, I feel, with fudden heat,
My big tumultuous bofom beat;
The trumpet’s clangors pierce my ear,
A thoufand widows Ihrieks I hear :
Give me another horfe, I cry ;
Lo, the bafe Gallic fquadrons fly !
Whence is this rage ?—what fpirit, fay,
To battle hurries me away ?
’Tis Fancy, in her fiery car,
Tranfports me to the thickeft war;
There whirls me o’er the hills of llain,
Where tumult 5nd deftruftion reign ;
Where, mad with pain, the wounded Heed,
Tramples the dying and the dead j
The following ode, written by Mr Smart on the 5 th
of December (being the birth-day of a beautiful young
lady), is much to be admired for the variety and harmony
of the numbers, as well as for the beauty of the thoughts,
and the elegance and delicacy of the compliment. It has
great fire, and yet great fweetnefs, and is the happy iflue
of genius and judgment united.
E e 2 Hail
E T
220
Of Lyric
Poetry,
ity
A paftoral
P o
Hail eldeft of the monthly train,
Sire of the winter drear,
December! in whofe iron reign
Expires the chequer’d year.
Hufh all the blult’ring blafts that blow,
And proudly plum’d in filver fnow.
Smile gladly on this bleft of days ;
The livery’d clouds ftiall on thee wait,
And Phoebus (hine in all his Hate
With more than fummer rays.
Though jocund June may jultly boaft
Long days and happy hours ;
Though Auguft be Pomona’s hoft;
And May be crown’d with ffow’rs ;
Tell June his. fire and crimfon dies,
By Harriot’s blufii, and Harriot’s eyes,
Eclips’d and vanquifh’d, fade away ;
Tell Auguft, thou canft let him fee
A richer, riper fruit than he,
A fweeter fiow’r than May.
The enfuing ode, written by Mr Collins on the death
and elegiac of Mr Thomfon, is of the paftoral and elegiac kind, and
ode* both pidtureique and pathetic. To perceive all the beau¬
ties of this little piece, which are indeed many, we muft
fuppofe them to have been delivered on the river Thames,
near Richmond.
In yonder grave a Druid lies.
Where fiowly winds the ftealing wave ;
The year’s, beft fweets fhall duteous rife
J o deck its poet’s filvan grave!
In.yon deep bed of whifp’ring reeds
His airy harp * fhall now be laid,
That he, whofe heart in forrow bleeds,
May iove through lue the foothing {hade,
1 hen maids and youths fhall linger here,
And, while its founds at diftance fwell,
Shall fadly feem in pity’s ear
To hear the woodland pilgrim’s knell.
Remembrance oft fhall haunt the fhore,
W hen 1 hames in fummer wreaths is dreft,
And oft fufpend the dafhing oar,
To bid his gentle fpirit reft !
And oft as eafe and health retire
To breezy lawn, or foreft deep.
The friend fhall view yon whitening fpire J",
And ’mid the varied landfcape weep.
But thou, who own’ll that earthy bed.
Ah ! what will ev’ry dirge avail ?
Or tears, which love and pity fhed,
T. hat mourn beneath the gliding fail'?
Yet lives there one, whofe heedlefs eye,
Shall feorn thy pale fhrinc glimm’ring near ?
With him, fweet bard, may fancy die,
And joy defert the blooming year.
But thou, lom ftream, whofe fullen tide
No fedge-crown’d lifters now attend.
Now waft me from the green hill’s fide,
Whofe cold turf hides the buried friend.
And fee, the fairy valleys fade,
Dim night has veil’d the folemn view l
Yet once again, dear parted fhade,
^Meek nature’s child, again adieu !
The genial meads, aflign’d to blefs
Thy life, lhall-mourn thy early doom;
* The harp
mi ^Eolus.
i Rich'
jnend-
ishurch.
^ Part if.
Their hinds, and fhepherd girls, fhall drefs. Of Lyric
With fimple hands, thy rural tomb. r*oet;y.
Long, long, thy Hone and pointed clay
Shall melt the mufing Briton’s eyes }
O vales and wild woods, lhall he fay.
In yonder grave your Druid lies !
Under this fpecies of the ode, notice ought to berj Tj28
taken of thofe written on divine fubjedts, and which are * iymn'
ufually called hymns. Of thefe we have many in our
language, but none perhaps that are fo much admired
as Mr Addifon’s. The beauties of the following hymn
are too well known, and too obvious, to need any com¬
mendation ; we lhall only obferve, therefore, that in
this hymn (intended to difplay the power of the Al-
mightv) he feems to have had a pfalm of David in his
view, which fays, that “ the heavens declare the glory
of God, and the firmament Iheweth his handywork.”
The fpacious firmament on high.
With all the blue etherial Iky,
And fpangled heav’ns, a Ihining frame,.
Their great original proclaim :
Th’ unwearied fun, from day to day.
Does his Creator’s pow’r difplay,
And publilhes to ev’ry land
The work of an Almighty hand.
Soon as the ev’ning fhades prevail.
The moon takes up the wond’rous tale.
And nightly to the lift’ning earth
Repeats the ftory of her birth :
While all the liars that round her burn.
And all the planets in their turn,
Confirm the tidings as they roll,
And fpread the truth from pole to pole.
What tho’ in folcmn lilence all
Move round the dark terreftrial ball ?
What tho’ nor real voice or found
Amid their radiant orb be found ?
In reafon’s ear they all rejoice,
And utter forth a glorious voice,
For ever finging, as they Ihine,
“ The hand that made us is divine.”
The following paftoral hymn is a verfion of the 23d
P/a/m by Mr Addifon ; the peculiar beauties of which
have occafioned many tranllations; but we have feen
none that is fo poetical and perfed as this. And in
juftice to Dr Boyce, we muft obferve, that the mufic
he has adapted to it is fo fweet and expreflive, that we
know not which is to be moll admired, the poet or the
mufician.
The Lord my pafture fhall prepare.
And feed me with a fhepherd’s care ;
His prefence fhall my wants fupply,
And guard, me with a watchful eye $
My noon-day walks he fhall attend,
And all my midnight hours defend.
When in the fultry glebe I faint.
Or on the thinly mountain pant,
To fertile vales and dewy meads
My weary wand’ring Heps he leads ;
Where peaceful rivers foft and flow
Amid the verdant landfcape flow.
Tho’ in the paths of death I tread,
With gloomy horrors overfpread.
Part IL
Of Lyr'c
Poetry.
O E
119
The fub-
lime ode.
My fteadfaft heart (hall fear no ill:
For thou, O Lord, art with me ftill j
Thy friendly crook lhall give me aid,
And guide me through the dreadful fhade.
Tho’ in a bare and rugged way,
Through devious lonely wilds I ft ray.
Thy bounty ftiall my pains beguile :
The barren wildemefs (hall i’mile.
With hidden greens and herbage crown’d}
And ftreams fhall murmur all around.
III. We are ndw to fpeak of thofe odes which are
of the fublime and noble kind, and diftinguifhed f*01^
others by their elevation of thought and didbon, as well
by the variety or irregularity of their numbers as the
frequent tranfitions and bold excuriions with which they
are enriched. ', - ,, ,
To give the young Undent an idea of the fudden and
frequent tranfitions, digreflions, and excurfions, whict
are admitted into the odes of the ancients, we cannot
do better than refer him to the celebrated fong or ode oi
Mofes ; which is the oldeft that we know of, and was
penned by that divine author immediately after the chil¬
dren of Ifrael crofted the Red-Sea. .
At the end of this fong, we are told, that Miriam
the prophetefs, the fifter of Aaron, took a timbrel m
her hand, and all the women went out after her with
timbrels and with dances. And Miriam anfwered them,
Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriouflyj
the horfe and his rider hath he thrown into the lea.
From this laft paftage it is plain, that the ancients
rery early called in mufic to the aid of poetry; and that
their odes were ufually fung, and accompanied with
their lutes, harps, lyres, timbrels, and other inftruments:.
nay, fo effential, and in fuch reputation, was mufic held
by the ancients, that we often find m their lyric poets,
addreffes or invocations to the harp, the lute, or the
lyre ; and it was probably owing to the frequent ide
made of the laft-mentioned inftrument with the ode,
that this fpecies of writing obtained the name of Ljnc
^ This ode, or hymn, which fome believe was compo-
fed by Mofes in Hebrew verfe, is incomparably better
than any thing the heathen poets have produced of the
kind, and is by all good judges confidered as a matter,
piece of ancient eloquence. The thoughts are noble
and fublime: the ftyle is magnificent and expreihve : ■
the figures are bold and animated: the tranfitions and
excurfions are fudden and frequent: but they are ftiort,
and the poet, having digreffed for a moment, returns im¬
mediately to the great objeft that excited his wonder,
and elevated his foul with joy and gratitude. ihe
images fill the mind with-their greatnefs, and itnke the
imagination in a manner not to-be expreffed.
If there be any thing that in fublimity approaches to
it, we muft look for it in the eaft, where perliaps we
fhall find nothing fuperior to the following Hindoo
hymn to Narraynay or “ the fpirit of God,” taken, as
Sir William Jones informs us, from the writings of the
. ancient Bramins.
try.
Spirit of fpirits, who, through every part
Of fpace expanded, and of endlefs time,
Beyond the reach of lab’ring thought fublime,
Badft uproar into beauteous order ftart;
Before heav’n was, thou art.
Ere fphferes beneath us roll’d, or fpheres above,.
Ere earth in firmamental sether hung,
Thou fat’ft alone, till, through thy myftic love,
Things unexifting to exiitence fprung,
And grateful defcant fung.
Omnifcient Spirit, whofe all-ruling pow’r
Bids from each fenfe bright emanations beam ;
Glows in the rainbow, fparkles in the ftream,
Smiles in the bud, and gliilen’s in the flow’r
That crowns each vernal bow’r ;
Sighs in the gale, and warbles in the throat
Of every bird that hails the bloomy fpring,
. Or tells his love in many a liquid note,
Whilft envious artifts touch the rival ftring,
Till rocks and forefts ring ;
Breathes in rich fragrance from the Sandal groves
Or where the precious mufk-deer playful rove ;
In dulcet juice, from cluft’ring fruit dillils.
And burns falubrious in the tafteful clove;
Soft banks and verd’rous hills
Thy prefent influence fills;
In air, in floods, in caverns, woods, and plains,
Thy will infpirits all, thy foverdgn Maya reigns.
Blue cryftal vault, and elemental fires,
That in th’ ethereal fluid blaze and breathe;
Thou, tolling main, whofe fnaky branches wreathe
This penfile orb with intertwifting gyres ;
Mountains, whofe lofty fpires,
Prefumptuous, rear their Summits to the Ikies,
And blend their em’rald hue with fapphire light;
Smoothmeadsand lawns, thatglow with varying dyes
Of dew-beipangled leaves and bloftoms bright,
Hence! vamfli from my light.
Lelufive pictures ! unfubftantial fliows !
My foul abforb’d one only Being knows,
Of all perceptions one abundant fource,
Whence ev’ry objeft, ev’ry moment flows :
Suns hence derive their force,
Hence planets learn their courfe ;
But funs and fading worlds I view no more;
God only I perceive ; God only I adore(f).
We come now to the P'mdarir ode, which (if we ex-The pin*
cept the hymns in the Old Tcftament, the pfalms of 1C0
king David, and fuch hymns of the Hindoos as that juft
quoted) is the moft exalted part of Lyric poetry ; and
was fo called from Pindar, an ancient Greek poet, who
is celebrated for the boldnefs of his flights, the impetu.
ofity of his ftyle, and the feeming wildnefs and irregu¬
larity that runs through his compofitions, and which
are faid to be the effeft of the greateft art. See Pin¬
dar.
The odes of Pindar were held in fuch .high eftima-
tion by the ancients, that it was fabled, in honour of
their fweetnefs, that the bees,-while he was in the cradle,
brought
130
(f).Tot the philofophy of this ode, which reprefents the Deity a. the “ “f th' v™rld’ rat’K1' ^
ouly Being (tht .i ;> of the Greelts), fee Mctai hvsics, n ’.69. and PnitosopHy, n 6,
222 POE
Of Lyric brought honey to his lips : nor did the vi&ors at the
. ' Olympic and other games think the crown a fufficient
reward for their merit, unlefs their'atchievements were
celebrated in Pindar’s fongs ; moll wifely prefaging,
that the firll would decay, but the other endure for
ever.
This poet did not always write his odes in the fame
meafure, or with the fame intention with regard to their
being fung. For the ode infcribed to Diagoras (the
concluding ftanza of which we inferted at the beginning
of this fe&ion) is in heroic meafure, and all the llanzas
are equal: there are others alfo, Us Mr Weft obferves,
made up of Jirophes and antijlrophes, without any epoch ;
and fome compofed of Jirophes only, of different lengths
and meafures: but the greateft ‘part of his odes are di¬
vided into Jlrophe, ant'Jlrophe, and epode; in order, as
Mr Congreve conje&ures, to their being fung, and ad-
dreffed by the performers to different parts of the au¬
dience. “ They were fung (fays he) by a chorus, and
adapted to the lyre, and fometimes to the lyre and pipe.
They confifted ofteneft of three ftanzas. The firft was
called the Jlrophe, from the verfion or circular motion
of the fingers in that ftanza from the right hand to the
left. The fecond ftanza was called the ant'Jlrophe, from
the contraverfion of the chorus; the lingers in performing
that, turning from the left hand to the right, contrary al¬
ways to their motion in the Jlrophe. The third ftanza was
called the epode (it may be as being the after-fong), which
they fung in the middle, neither turning to one hand
♦Vid. Prf/. nor the other. But Dr Weft’s* friend is of opinion,
tfindar. * t^iat t^ie performers alfo danced one way while they
were fmging the Jlrophe, and danced back as they fung
the ant Jlrophe, till they came to the fame place again,
and then Handing Hill they fung the epode. He has tranf-
lated a paffage from the Scholia on Hephajlion, in proof
cf his opinion; and obferves, that the dancing theJlrophe
and ant Jlrophe in the fame fpace of ground, and we may
fuppofe the fame fpace of time alfo, Ihows why thofe
two parts confifted of the fame length and meafure.
As the various meafures of Pindar’s odes have been
the means of fo far milleading fome of our modern poets,
as to induce them to call compolitions Pindaric odes,
that were not written in the method of Pindar, it is ne-
ceffary to be a little more particular on this head, and
to give an example from that poet, the more effeftually
to explain his manner; which we lhall take from the
tranllation of Dr Weft.
The eleventh Nemean Ode.
This ode is infcribed to Ariftagoras, upon occafion
of his entering on his office of prelident or governor of
.the ifland of Tenedos: fo that, although it is placed
among the Nemean odes, it has no fort of relation to
thofe games, and is indeed properly an inauguration ode,
compofed to be fung by a chorus at the facrifices and the
feafts made by Ariftagoras and his colleagues, in the
town-hall, at the time of their being invefted with the
magiftracy, as is evident from many expreflions in the
firft Jlrophe and ant Jlrophe.
Argument.
Pindar opens this ode with an invocation to Vella
(the goddefs who prefided 'over the courts of juft ice, and
\\ hofe ftatue and altar were for that reafon placed in the
town-halls, or Prytanaums, as the Greeks called them),
try* part
befeeching her to receive favourably At iftagoras and his Of Lyric
colleagues, who were then coming to offer facrifices to PoetI7*
her, upon their entering on their office of Prytans or '■"“—v—-
magiftrates of Tenedos ; which office continuing for a
year, he begs the goddefs to take Ariftagoras under
her prote&ion during that time, and to conduft him to
the end of it without trouble or difgrace. From Ari¬
ftagoras, Pindar turns himfelf in the next place to his
father Arcefilas, whom he pronounces happy, as well
upon account of his fon’s merit and honour, as upon
his own great endowments and good fortune; fuch as
beauty, llrength, courage, riches, and glory, refulting
from his many vidlories in the games. But left he
fliould be too much puffed up with thefe praifes, he re¬
minds him at the fame time of his mortality, and tells
him that his clothing of flelh is perilhable, that he
mull e’er long be clothed with earth, the end of all
things : and yet, continues he, it is but juftice to praife
and celebrate the worthy and deferving, who from good
citizens, ought to receive all kinds of honour and com¬
mendation ; as Ariftagoras, for inftance, who hath ren¬
dered both himfelf and his country illuftrious by the
many vi&ories he hath obtained, to the number of fix-
teen, over the neighbouring youth, in the games ex¬
hibited in and about his own country. From whence, fays
the poet, I conclude he would have come off victorious
even in the Pythian and Olympic games, had he not
been reftrained from engaging in thofe famous lifts by
the too timid and cautious love of his parents. Upon
which he falls into a moral reflection upon the vanity
of man’s hopes and fears ; by the former of which they
are oftentimes excited to attempts beyond their ftrength,
which accordingly iffue in their difgrace ; as, on the
other hand, they are frequently reftrained, by unreafon-
able and ill-grounded fears, from enterprifes, in which
they would in all probability have come off with ho-
nour. .This reflection he applies to Ariftagoras, by
faying it was very eafy to forefee what fuccefs he was
like to meet with, who both by father and mother was
descended from a long train of great and valiant men.
But here again, with a very artful turn of flattery to his
father Arcefilas, whom he had before reprefented as
ftrong and valiant, and famous for his victories in the
games, lie obferves that every generation, even of a
great and glorious family, is not equally illuftrious any
more than the fields and trees are every year equally
fruitful; that the gods had not given mortals any cer¬
tain tokens by which they might foreknow when the
rich years of’virtue Jlsould fucceed; whence it comes to
pafs, that men, out of felf-conceit and prefumption, are
perpetually laying fchemes, and forming enterprifes,
without previoufly confulting prudence or wifdom,
whofejlreams, fays he, lie remote and out of the com¬
mon road. From all which he infers, that it is better
to moderate our defires, and fet bounds to our avarice
and ambition ; with which moral precept he concludes
the ode.
Strophe I.
Daughter of Rhea ! thou, whofe holy fire
Before the awful feat of juftice flames !
Sifter of heav’n’s almighty fire !
Sifter of Juno, who coequal claims
With Jove to ftiare the empire of the gods!
O virgin Vefta ! to thy dread abodes,
Lo!
k
'art II.
Of Lvric
Poetry.
It was
fual in
alemn fa-
rifices and
rayer* to
e, in with
nvoking
fella.
POE
Lo ! Ariftagoras dlrcfts his pace !
Receive and near thy facred fceptte place
Him, and his colleagues, who, with honeft zeal.
O’er Tenedos prefide, and guard the public weal.
Antistrophe I.
And lo ! with frequent off’rings, they adore
Thee*, firft invok'd in ev’ry folemn pray’r l
To thee unmix’d libations pour.
And fill with od’rous fumes the fragrant air..
Around in feftive fongs the hymning choir
Mix the melodious voice and lounding ly re.
While ftill, prolong’d with holpitable love,
Are folemniz’d the rites of genial Jove :
Then guard him, Vefta, through his long career,
And let him clofe in joy his miniderial year.
E p o 0 e I.
But hail, Arcefilas ! all hail
To thee, blefs’d father of a fon fo great l
Thou whom on fortune’s highed fcale
The favourable handof heav’n hath fet,
Thy manly form with beauty hath refin’d,
And match’d that beauty with a valiant mind.
Yet let not man too much prefi.me,
Tho’ grac’d with beauty’s faired bloom;
Tho’ for fuperior diength re Down’d;
Tho’ with triumphal chaplets crown’d:
Let him remember, that, in flefh array’d,
Soon {hall he fee that mortal vedment fade ;
Tilllod, imprifon’d in the mould’ring urn,
To earth, the end of all things, he return.
Strophe II.
T R Y. 223
But, fuch is man’s prepod’rous fate ! ^ tr r*c
Now, with o’er-weening pride elate, , *' £try' .
Too far he aims his (haft to throw,
And draining burds his feeble bow :
Now pufillanimous deprefs’d with fear,
He checks his virtue in the mid career;
And of his drength didrudful, coward flies
The conted, tho’ empow’rd to gain the prize.
Strophe III.
But who could eir in prophefying good
Of him, whole undegenerating bread
Swells with a tide of Spartan blood,
From fire to fire in long luccefiion trac’d
Up to Pifander; who in days of yore
From old Amyclae to the Lefbian fliore
And Tenedos, colieagu d in high command
With great Oredes, led th’ iEolian band ?
Nor was his mother s race lefs drong and brave,
Sprung; from a Hock that grew on fair* I [menus’ wave. * Ifmtnus
Antistrophe III.
Tho’ for long intervals obfeur’d, again
Oft-times the feeds of lineal worth appear.
For neither can the furrow’d plain
Full harveds yield with each returning year ;
Nor in each period will the pregnant bloom
Inved the finding tree with rich perfume.
So, barren often, and inglorious, pafs
The generations of a noble race ;
While nature s vigour, working at the root.
In after-ages fwells, and blofibrns into fruit.
E p o d e III.
< f tloeatia,
of which
con :try was
Menalip-
pus, the
anceftor of
Ariftagoraa
by the
mother’*
fide.
Yet (hould the worthy from the public tongue
Receive their recompenle of virtuous praife ;
By ev’ry zealous patriot fung,
And deck’d with ev’ry flow’r of heav’nly lays.
Such retribution in re urn for fame,
Such, Aridagoras, thy virtues claim,
Claim from thy country ; on whofe glorious browa
The wredler’s chaplet dill unfaded blows ;
Mix’d with the great Pancratiadic crown,
Which from the neighb’ring youth thy early valour won.
Antistrophe II.
And (but his timid parents’ cautious love,
Didurbing ever his too forward hand,
Forbad their tender fon to prove
The toils of Pythia or Olympia’s fands),
Now by the Gods I fwear, his valorous might
Had ’fcap’d vidforious in each bloody fight;
♦ A river -^n<^ from Cadaliaj*, or where dark with fhade
upon whJfeThe mount of Saturn j; rears its olive head,
banks the Great and illudrious home had he return d ;
Pythian While, by his fame eclips’d, his vanquifh’d foes had
gamo were [mourn’d,
exhibited. _ TT
| A (mall Epode II.
S‘Ted Then his triumphal trefles bound
with obves . * , , r. r , ,
that over- With the dark verdure ot th Olympic grove,
looked the With joyous banquets had he crown’d
O^m ^ r^ie £r^at fedival of Jove ;
y *’ia And cheer’d the folemn pomp with choral lays,
Sweet tribute, which the mufe to virtue pays.
Nor hath Jove giv’n us to foreknow
When the rich years of virtue {hall fucceed :
Yet bold and daring on we go,
Contriving fchemes of many a mighty deed ;
While hope, fond inmate of the human mind.
And felf-opinion, a&ive, rafli, and blind,
Hold up a falfe illuftve ray.
That leads our dazzled feet aftray
Far from the fprings, where, calm and flow,
The fecret ftreams of wifdom flow.
Hence flrould we learn our ardour to reftrain.
And limit to due bounds the thirft of gain.
To rage and madnefs oft that paflion turns,
Which with forbidden flames defpairing burns.
From the above fpecimen, and from what we hare Diflin-
already faid on this fubjed, the reader will perceive, u.fhin?
that odes of this fort are diftinguiflied by the happy charaders
tranfitions and digrelfions which they admit, and the 1 lC*
furprifing yet natural returns to the fubjed. This re¬
quires great judgment and genius ; and the poet who
would excel in this kind of writing, fliould draw the
plan of his poem, in manner of the argument we have
above inferted, and mark out the places where thofe
elegant and beautiful fallies and wanderings may be made,
and where the returns will be eafy and proper.
Pindar, it is univerfally allowed, had a poetical and
fertile imagination, a warm and enthufiaftic genius, a
bold and figurative expreffion, and a concife and fen-
tentious ftyle : but it is generally fuppofed that many
of thofe pieces which procured him fuch extravagant
1 praifes
Poetry.
13*
Modern
•odes com
daric.
324 POE
Of i.yrk praifea and extraordinary teftimonies of eflecm from
the ancients are loft ; and if they were not, it would
be perhaps impoffible to convey them into our language;
for beauties of this kind, like plants of an odoriferous
and delicate nature, are not to be tranfplanted into ano¬
ther clime without Jofing much of their fragrance or
effential quality.
With regard to thofe compofitions which are ufually
called Pindaric odes, (but which ought rather to be di-
monlycal- ftinguifhed by the name of irregular odes), we have
Jed Pin- many in our language that deferve particular commen¬
dation : and the criticifm Mr Congreve has given us
on that fubjedl, has too much afperity and too great
latitude; for if other writers have, by miftaking Pin-
dar s meafures, given their odes an improper title, it
is a crime, one would think, not fo dangerous to the
commonwealth of letters as to deferve fuch fcvere re¬
proof. Befide which, we may fuppofe that fome of
thefe writers did not deviate from Pindar’s method
through ignoiance, but by choice ; ?ind that as their
odes were not to be performed with both finging and dan¬
cing, in the manner of Pindar’s, it feemed unnecefTary
to confine the hill and fecond ftanzas to the fame ex-
aft numbers as was done in his ft replies and anti-
ftrophes. The poet therefore had a right to indulge
himfelf with more liberty : and we cannot help thinking,
that the ode which Mr Dryden has given us, intitkd,
Alexander's Feajl, or the Power of Mujic, is altogether
as valuable in loofe and wild numbers, as it could have
been if the ftanzas were more regular, and written
in the manner of Pindar. In this ode there is a
wonderful fublimity of thought, a loftinefs and fweetnefs
of expreffion, and a moft pleafing variety of numbers.
’Twas at the royal feaft, for Perfta won
By Philip’s warlike fon,
Aloft, in awful ftate,
The god-like hero fate
On his imperial throne :
His valiant peers were plac’d around :
Their brows with rofes and with myrtles bound,
(So (hould defert in arms be crown’d:)
The lovely Thais by his fide
Sat like a blooming eaftern bride,
In flow’r of youth and beauty’s pride.
Happy, happy, happy pair !
None but the brave,
None but the brave,
None but the brave deferve the fair.
Chor. Happy, happy, &c.
Timotheus, plac’d on high
Amid the tuneful quire,
With il) ing fingers touch’d the lyre :
The trembling notes afeend the fky,
And heav’nly joys infpire.
The feng began from Jove,
Who left his blifsful feats above,
(Such is the pow’r of mighty love !)
A dragon’s fiery form bely’d the God :
Sublime on radiant fpires he rode,
When he to fair Olympia prefs’d ;
And while he fought her fnowy breaft :
Then round her fiender waift lie curl’d,
And ftamp’d an image of himfelf, a fov’reign of
the world.
Tile lift’ning crowd admire the lofty found.
T R Y.
. A prefent deity, they fliout around;
A prefent deity, the vaulted roofs rebound;
With ravifti’d ears
The monarch hears,
Affumes the God,
Affefts to nod,
And feems to fiiake the fpheres.
Chor. U'’itb ravjjh'd ears, &c.
The praife of Bacchus then thefweet muficianfung;
Of Bacchus ever fair and ever young :
The jolly God in triumph comes ;
Sound the trumpets, beat the drums :
Flufh’d with a purple grace,
He fhows his honelt face :
Now give the hautboys breath; he comes,he comes 1
Bacchus, ever fair and young,
Drinking joys did firft ordain :
Bacchus’ bleffings are a treafure,
Drinking is the foldier’s pleafure :
Rich the treafure,
Sweet the pleafure:
Sweet the pleafure after pain.
Chor. Bacchus' bleffings, &C.
Sooth’d with the found, the king grew vain,
Fought all his battles o’er again ;
And thrice he routed all his foes, and thrice he
flew the flain.
The mafter faw the madnefs rife ;
His glowing cheeks, his ardent eyes ;
And while he heav’n and earth defy’d,
Chang’d his hand, and check’d his pride.
He chofe a mournful mufe
Soft pity to infufe :
He fung Darius great and good,
By too fevere a fate,
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen,
Fallen from his high eftate,
And welt’ring in his blood ;
Deferted at his utmoft need,
By thofe his former bounty fed.
On the bare earth expos’d he lies,
With not a friend to dole his eyes.
With down-caft looks the joylcfs viftor fat.
Revolving in his alter’d foul
The various turns of chance below ;
And now and then’ a figh he ftole.
And tears began to flow.
Cho, Revolving, See,
The mighty mafter fmil’d to fee
That love was in the next degree:
’Twas but a kindred found to move ;
For pity melts the mind to love,
Softly fweet, in Lydian meafures :
Soon he footh’d his foul to pleafures,
War, he fung, is toil and trouble ;
Honour but an empty bubble,
Never ending, ftill, beginning,
Fighting ftill, and ftill deftroying.
If the world be worth thy winning,
Think, O think, it worth enjoying.
Lovely Thais fits befide thee.
Take the good the gods provide thee.
The many rend the Ikies with loud applaufe;
So love was crown’d, but mufic won the caulc.
The prince, unable to conceal his pain,
Part II,
Ot Lyric
i*oetry.
Gaz’4
P o
E T R Y.
Fart II.
uf Lyric Gaz’d on the fair,
poetry. Who caus’d his care,
And figh’d and look’d, figh’d and look’d,
Sigh’d and look’d, and ligh’d again :
At length with love and wine at once opprefs’d.
The vanquilh’d yi&ov funk upon her breaft.
Chor. The prince, &C.
Now ftrike the golden lyre again ;
A louder yet, and yet a louder ftrauu
Break his bands of fleep afunder,
And roufe him, like a rattling peal of thunder.
Hark I hark 1 the horrid found
Has rais’d up his head,
As awake from the dead,
And amaz’d he ftares round.
Revenge, revenge, Timotheus cries*
See the furies arife :
See the fhakes that they "rear,
How they hifs in their hair,
And the fparkles that fiafh from their eyes ;
Behold a ghaftly band,
Each a torch in his hand !
Thofe are Grecian ghofts that in battle were flain,
And unbury’d remain,
Inglorious on the plain.
Give the vengeance due
To the valiant crew.
Behold how they tofs their torches on high,
How they point to the Perfian abodes,
And glitt’ring temples of their hoftile gods.
The princes applaud with a furious joy ;
And the king feiz’d a flambeau, with zealtodeftroy;
Thais led the way
To light him to his prey,
And, like another Helen, ftie fir’d another Troy.
Chor. And the king ftiz'd, &c.
Thus long ago.
While organs yet were mute ;
Timotheus, to his breathing flute,
And founding lyre.
Could fvvell the foul to rage, or kindle foft defire.
At laft divine Cecilia came,
Inventrefs of the vocal frame ;
The fweet enthufiaft, from her facred ftore.
Enlarg’d the former narrow bounds,
And added length to folemn founds.
With nature’s mother-wit,and arts unknown before.
Ret old Timotheus yield the prize
Or both divide the croton ;
He rais’d a mortal to the Ikies }
She drew an angel down.
Grapd chor. At la ft, &c.
There is another poem bjiDryden, on the death of
Mrs Anne Killegrew, a yolmg lady eminent for her
* Br John, fkifl in poetry and painting, which a great critic * has
pronounced to be “ undoubtedly the nobleft ode that
our language has ever produced.” He owns, that as
a whole it may perhaps be inferior to Alexander's Feajl;
but he affirms that the firft ftanza of it is fuperior to
any Angle part of the other. T^his famous ftanza, he
lays, flows with a torrent of enthufiafm : Fervet immen-
Jufque ruit. How far this criticifm is juft, the public
muft determine. *
Vol. XV. Part I.
fin.
I. '
Thou youngeft virgin-daughter of the ikies, v
Made in the laft promotion of the blefs’d ;
Whofe palms, new-pluck’d from Paradifc,
In fpreading branches more fublimely rife.
Rich with immortal green above the reft ;
Whether, adopted to fome neighb’ring ftar,
Thou roll’ll: above us, in thy wand’ring race.
Or in proceflion fix’d and regular,
Mov’d with the heav’n’s majeftic pace ;
Or, call’d to more fuperior blifs,
Thou tread’ft with feraphims the vaft abyfs :
Whatever happy region is thy place,
Ceafe thy eeleftial fong a little fpace ;
Thou wilt have time enough for hymns divine,
Since heaven’s eternal year is thine.
Hear then a mortal mufe thy praife rehearfe
In no ignoble verfe ;
But fuel) as thy own voice did pra&ife here,
When thy firft fruits of poefy were giv’n
To make thyfelf a welcome inmate there ;
While yet a young probationer.
And candidate of heav’n.
II.
If by tradu&ion came thy mind.
Our wonder is the lefs to find
A foul fo charming from a ftock fo good J
Thy father was transfus’d into thy blood.
So wert thou born into a tuneful {train.
An early, rich, and inexhaufted vein.
But if thy pre-exifting foul
Was form’d at firft with myriads more,
It did through all the mighty poets roll,
Who Greek or Latin laurels wore.
And was that Sappho laft; which once it was before.
If fo, then ceafe thy flight, O heaven-born mind !
Thou haft no drofs to purge from thy rich ore,
Nor can thy foul a fairer manfion find,
Than was the beauteous frame fhe left behind : v
Return to fill or mend the choir of thy eeleftial kind. S
III.
May we prefume to fay, that, at thy birth,
New joy was fprung in heav’n, as well as here on earth?
For fure the milder planets did combine ")
On thy aufpicious horofeope to ihine, C
An e’en the moft malicious were in trine. j
Thy brother-angels at thy birth
Strung each bis lyre, and tun’d it high,
That all the people of the Iky
Might know a poetefs was born on earth.
And then, if ever, mortal ears
Had heard the mufic of the fpheres.
And if no cluft’ring fwarm of bees
On thy fweet mouth diftill’d their golden dew,
’Twas that fuch vulgar miracles
Heav’n had not leifure to renew :
For all thy blefs’d fraternity of love
Solemniz’d there thy birth, and kept thy holy day abovto
IV.
O gracious God ! how far have we
Profan’d thy lieav’nly gift of poefy ?
Made prottitute and profligate the Mufe,
Debas’d to each obfeene and impious ufe,
F f
225
Of Lyric
Poetry.
Whofe
226 , ^ ^
Of Lyric Whofe harmony was firft ordain’d above
Poetry. For tongues ot angels, and for hymns of love ?
  q wretched we ! why were we huny’d down
This lubrique and adult’rate age,
(Nay added fat pollutions of our own)
T'increafe the ftreaming ordures of the ftage !
What can we fay t’excufe our fecond fall ?
Let this thy veftal, Heav’n, atone feu all:
Her Arethufian ftream remains unfoil’d, ^
Unmix’d with foreign filth, and undefil’d; r
Her wit was more than man, her innocence a child. J
V.
Art fire had none, yet wanted none ;
For nature did that want fupply :
So rich in treafures of her own,
She might our boafted ftores defy :
Such noble vigour did her verfe adorn,
That it feem’d borrow’d where ’twas only born.
Her morals, too, were in her bofom bred, ^
By great examples daily fed, c
What in the belt of books, her father’s life (he read. )
And to be read herfelf, (he need not fear ; ^
Each teft, and every light, her Mufe will bear, V
Tho’ Epiftetus with his lamp were there. J
E’en love (for love fometimes her Mufe exprefs’d)
Was but a lambent flame which play’d about her bread,
Light as the vapours of a morning dream,
So cold herfelf, while (he fuch warmth exprefs’d,
*Twas Cupid bathing in Diana’s dream.
VI.
Born to the fpacious empire of the Nine,
One would have thought (he (hould have been content
To manage well that mighty government;
But what can young ambitious fouls confine ?
To the next realm (he dretch’d her fway, J)
For Pamiure near adjoining lay, V
A plenteous province and alluring prey. J
A Chamber of Dependencies was fram d,
(As conquerors will never want pretence,
When arm’d, to judify th’offence)
And the whole fief, in right of poetry, fire claim’d.
The country open lay without defence :
For poets frequent inroads there had made,
And perfeftly could reprefent
The (hape, the face, with ey’ry lineament,
And all the large domains which the dumbjijier fway’d,
All bow’d beneath her government,
Receiv’d in triumph wherefoe’er (he went.
Her pencil drew whate’er her foul defign d,
And oft the happy draught furpafs’d theimage inherrmnd
The fylvan feenes of herds and flocks.
And fruitful plains and barren rocks,
Of (hallow brooks that flow’d fo clear.
The bottom did the top appear 5
Of deeper too, and ampler floods,
Which, as in mirrors, (how7 d the woods:
Of lofty trees, with facred (hades,
And perfpeftives of pleafant glades,
Where nymphs of brighteft form appear,
And (haggy fatyrs (landing near, ✓
Which them at once admire and fear.
The ruins too of fome majeftic piece,
Boafting the power of ancient Rome or Greece,
Whofe ftatues, freezes, columns, broken lie,
1 And, though defac’d, the v/onder of the eye ;
E T R Y.
What nature, art, bold fiftion, e’er durft frame,
Her forming hand gave feature to the name.
So ftrange a concourie ne’er was feen before.
But when the peopl’d ark the whole creation bore.
VII.
The feene then chang’d, with bold erected look
Our martial king the fight with rev’rence (truck:
For not content t’exprefs his outward part
Her hand call’d out the image of his heart ;
His warlike mind, his foul devoid of fear,
His high-defigning thoughts were figur’d there.
As when, by magic, ghofls are made appear.
Our phoenix queen was pourtray’d too fo bright.
Beauty alone could beauty take fo right:
Her drefs, her (hape, her matchlefs grace.
Were all obferv’d, as well as heav’nly face.
With fuch a peerlefs majefty (he (lands,
As in that day (he took the crown from facred hand
Before a train of heroines was feen,
In beauty foremoft, as in rank, the queen.
Thus nothing to her genius was denied.
But like a ball of fire the further thrown.
Still with a greater blaze (he (hone,
And her bright foul broke out on ev'ry fide.
What next (Ire had defign’d, Heav’n only knows :
To fuch immod’rate growth her conqueft rofe,
That fate alone its progrefs could oppofe.
VIII.
Now all thofe charms, that blooming grace,
The well proportion’d fliape, and beauteous face,
Shall never more be feen by mortal eyes ;
In earth the much lamented virgin lies.
Nor wit nor piety could fate prevent j
Nor was the cruel De/iiny content
To ftnifli all the murder at a blow,
To fweep at once her life and beauty teo ;
But, like a harden’d felon, took a pride
To work more mifehievoufly (low,
And plunder’d firfl, and then deftroy’d,
O double facrilege on things divine.
To rob the relick, and deface tire (brine !
But thus Orinda died :
Heav’n, by the fame difeafe, did both tranflate
As equal were their fouls, fo equal was their fats.
IX.
Meantime her warlike brother on the feas
His waving dreamers to the winds difplays,
And vows for his return, with vain devotion, pays
Ah generous youth ! that wifh forbear,
The winds, too foon will waft thee here!
Slack all thy fails, and fear to come,
Alas, thou know’ll not, thou art wreck’d at hom<
No more (halt thou behold thy fifter’sr face.
Thou had already had her lad embrace.
But look aloft, and if thou kenn’d from far.
Among the Pleiads a new-kindled dar,
If any°fparkles than the red more bright,
’Tis (he that (bines in that propitious light.
1 x.
When in mid-air the golden trump (hall found,
, To raife the nations under ground;
When in the valley of Jehoftvaphat,
The judging God (hall clofe the book of fate ;
And there the lad affixes keep
For thofe who wake and thofe who deep :
Part IT.
Of l yric
Poetry,
S
When
Part It
Of Lyric
poetry.
P O
t
When rattling bones together fly
From the four corners of the iky ;
When finews o’er the ikeletons are fpread,
Thofe cloth’d with fleih, and life infpires the dead ;
The facred poets firft ihall hear the found,
And foremoft from the tomb fhall bound,
For they are cover’d with the lighteft ground ;
And ftraight with in-born vigour, on the wing,
Like mounting larks to the new morning fingw
There thou, fweet faint, before the quire ihalt go
As harbinger of heav’n, the way to ihow,
The way which thou fo well haft learnt below.
E
That this is a fine ode, and not unworthy of the ge¬
nius of Dryden, muft be acknowledged ; but that it is
the nobleft which the Engliih language has produced,
or that any part of it runs with the torrent of enthufi;
afm which chara&erizes Alexander's Feaft, are pofitions
which we feel not ourfelves inclined to admit. ^ Had
the critic by whom it is fo highly praifed, infpedted it
with the eye which fcanned the odes of Gray, we can¬
not help thinking that he would have perceived fome
parts of it to be tedioufly minute in defeription, and
others not very perfpicuous at the firft perufal. It may
perhaps, upon the whole, rank as high as the following
ode by Collins on the Popular Superftitions of the
Highlands of Scotland; but to a higher place it has
furely no claim.
I.
Home, thou return’ll from Thames, whofe Naiads long
Have feen thee ling’ring with a fond delay,
Mid thofe foft friends, whofe hearts fome future day,
Shall melt, perhaps, to hear thy tragic fong,
Go, not unmindful of that cordial youth (o)
Whom, long endear’d, thou leav’ft by Lavant’s fide;
Together let us wilh him lafting truth,
And joy untainted with his deftin’d bride.
Go ! nor regardlefs, while thefe numbers boaft
My Ihort-liv’d blifs, forget my focial name ;
But think, far off, how, on the fouthern coaft,
I met thy friendlhip with an equal flame !
* whofe Frelh to that foil thou turn’ll, where * ev’ry vale
Shall prompt the poet, and his fong demand :
To thee thy copious fubjedls ne’er Ihall fail;
. Thou need’ll but take thy pencil to thy hand,
And paint what all believe who own thy genial land.
. II.
There muft thou wake perforce thy Doric quill;
’Tis fancy’s land to which thou fett’ft thy feet;
Where Hill, ’tis faid, the Fairy people meet,
Beneath each birken Ihade, on mead or hill.
There, each trim lafs, that Ikims the milky ftore,
To the fwart tribes their creamy bowl allots ;
TRY.
By night they fip it round the cottage-door,
While airy minftrels warble jocund notes.
There, ev’ry herd, by fad experience, knows,
How, wing’d with Fate, their elf-fhot arrows fly»
When the fick ewe her fummer food foregoes,
Or, ftretch’d on earth, the heart-fmit heifers lie.
Such airy beings awe th’ untutor’d fwain :
Nor thou, tho’ learn"d,'his homelier thoughts negledl:
Let thy fweet Mufe the rural faith fuftain ;
Thefe are the themes of Ample, fure effeft,
That add new conquells to her boundlefs reign,
And fill, with double force, her heart-commanding
III. [ftrain.
Ev’n yet preferv’d, how often may’ll thou hear.
Where to the pole the Boreal mountains run,
Taught by the father to his lill’ning fon,
Strange lays, whofe pow’r had charm’d a Spenfer’s ear.
At ev’ry paufe, before thy mind poffell,
Old Runic bards Ihall feem to rife around,
With uncouth lyres in many-colour'd veil,
Their matted hair with boughs fantaftic crown’d :
Whether thou bid ft the well-taught hind repeat
The choral dirge that mourns fome chieftain brave,
When ev’ry Ihrieking maid her bofom beat,
And ftrew’d with choiceft herbs his feented grave;
Or whether fitting in the Ihepherd’s fhiel (h),
Thou hear’ft fome founding tale of war’s alamis,
When, at the bugle’s call, with fire and Heel,
The llurdy clans pour’d forth their brawny fwarms,
And hoftile brothers met to prove each other's arms.
IV.
’Tis thine to fing how framing hideous fpells,
In Sky’s lone ille the gifted wizzard-yfor §,
Lodg’d in the wintry cave with Fate s fell fpear (i).
Or in the depth of Uift’s dark foreft dwells :
How they whofe fight fuch dreary dreams engrofs,
With their own vifions oft allonilh’d droop,
When, o’er the wat’ry ftrath, or quaggy mofs,
They fee the gliding ghofts unbodied troop.
Or, if in fports, or on the feftive green,
Their dejlin'd f glance fome fated youth defery,
Who now, perhaps, in lufty vigour feen,
And rofy health, Ihall foon lamented die.
For them the vxewlefs forms of air obey ;
Their bidding heed, and at their beck repair.
They know what fpirit brews the ftormful day,
And heartlefs, oft like moody madnefs, ftare
To fee the phantom train their fecret work prepare.
V.
227
Of Lyric
Ltetry.
t bony.
§ fit*.
| embodied,
t piercing*
To monarchs dear (k), fome hundred miles aftray.
Oft have they feen Fate give the fatal blow !
The feer in Sky fhriek’d as the blood did flow
When headlefs Charles warm on the fcaffold lay !
F f 2 As
(g) A gentleman of the name of Barrowy who introduced Home to Collins.
( h ) A fummer hut, built in the high part of the mountains, to tend their flocks in the warm feafon, when the
pafture is fine.
(1) Waiting in wintery cave his wayward fits.
t k) Of this beautiful ode two copies have been printed: one by Dr Carlyle, from a manufeript which he ac¬
knowledges to be mutilated; another by an editor who feems to hope that a namelefs fomebody will be believed,
when he declares, that “ he difeovered a perfeS copy of this admirable ode among fome old papers in the concealed
drawers of a bureau left him by a relation.” The prefent age has been already too much amufed with pretend-
difeoveries of poems in the bottoms of old ckejis, to pay full credit to an aflertion of this kind, even though
the
228 POE
Of Lyric As Boreas threw his young Aurora (l) forth,
. Poetry. In the fir ft year of the firft George’s reign,
7 And battles rag’d in welkin of the North,
They mourn’d in air, fell, fell rebellion, flam !
And as of late they joy’d in Prefton’s fight,
Saw at fad Falkirk all their hopes near crown’d !
They rav’d divining through their fecond-fight (m),
Pale, red Culloden, where thefe hopes were drown’d!
Illuftrious William (u) ! Britain’s guardian name !
One William fav’d us from a tyrant’s ftroke j
He, for a fceptrc, gain’d heroic fame,
But thou, more glorious, Slavery's chain haft broke,
To reign a private man, and bow to Freedom’s yoke !
VK
Thefe, too, thoult fmg! for well thy magic mufe
Can to the topmoft heav’ii of grandeur foar!
Or ftoop to wail the fwain that is no more!
Ah, homely fwains ! your homeward fteps ne’er loofe;.
Let not dank Will (o) millead you to the heath:
Dancing in mirky night, o’er fen and lake,
He glows, to draw you downward to your death,
In his bewitch’d, low, marfhy, willow brake !
What though far off, from fome dark dell efpied,.
His glimm’ring mazes cheer th’ excurfxve fight.
Yet turn, ye wand’rers, turn your fteps afide,
Nor truft the guidance of that faithlefs light;
For watchful, lurking, ’mid th’ unruftling reed.
At thofe mirk hours the wily monfter lies,
And liftens oft to hear the palling Heed,
And frequent round him rolls his fallen eyes,.
If chance his favage wrath may fome weak wretch furprife.
VII.
Ah, lucklefs fwain, o’er all unbleft, indeed!.
Whom late bewilder’d in the dank, dark fen.
Far from his flocks, and fmoking hamlet, then !
•* his way- To that fad fpat * where hums the /edgy weed,
ward fate
fhall lead.      
TRY.
On him, enrag’d, tire fiend, in sngry mood.
Shall never look with pity’s kind concern.
But inftant, furious, raife the whelming flood
O'er its drown’d banks, forbidding all return !
Or, if he meditate his wilh’d efcape.
To fome dim hill that feems uprifing near.
To his faint eye, the grim and grifly ihape,
In all its terrors clad, fhall wild appear.
Meantime the wat’ry furge fhall round him rife.
Pour’d fudden forth from ev ry fwelling fource !
What now remains but tears and hopelefs fighs?
His fear-fhook limbs have loft their youthly force.
And down the waves he floats,apale and breathlefs corfe^
VIII.
For him in vain his anxious wife fhall wait,
Or wander forth to meet him on his way ;
For him in vain, at to-fall of the day,
His babes fhall linger at th-’ unclofmg gate !
Ah, ne’er fhall he return ! Alone, if night,
Her travell d limbs in broken flumbers fteep !
With drooping willows dreft, his mournful fprite
Shall vifxt fad, perchance, her filent fleep :
Then he, perhaps, with moift and wat’ry hand,
Shall fondly i'eem to prefs her fhudd’ring cheek.
And with his blue-fwoln face before her Hand,
And, fhiv’ring cold, thefe piteous accents fpeak :
“ Purfue, dear wife, thy daily toils purfue,
“ At dawn or dufk, induftrious as before }
Nor e’er of me one * helpiefs thought renew, * hapleffc
“ While I lie welt’ring on the ozier’d fhore,
Drown’d by the kelpie’sf wrath, nor e’er fhall aid thee f the watt
IX. [more!’* ^nd.
Unbounded is thy range ; with varied Jkill* # ftyk.
Thy mufe may, like thofe feath’ry tribes which fpring
From their rude rocks, extend her flcirting wing
Round the moift marge of each cold Hebrid ifle.
To
Part II,
Of Lyric
Luctry.
the fcene of difcovery be laid in a lureuu. As the ode of the anonymous editor differs, however, very little
from that of Dr Carlyle, and as what is affirmed by a gentleman may be true, though “ he choofes not at
prefent to publifh his name,” we have inferted into our work the copy which pretends to be perfedft, noting at
the bottom or margin of the page the different readings of Dr Carlyle's edition. In the Do&or’s manufcript,
which appeared to have been nothing more than the pnma curat or firft fketch of the poem, the fifth ftanza and
half of the fixth were wanting ; and to give a continued context, he prevailed with Mr M‘Kenzie, the ingenious
author of the Man of Feeling, to fill up the chafm. This he did by the following beautiful lines, which we can¬
not help thinking much more happy than thofe wliich occupy their place in the copy faid to be perfect:
« Or on fome bellyiag rock that fhades the deep,
They view the lurid figns that crofs the fky.
Where in the weft the brooding tempefts lie ;
And hear their firft, faint, ruftling pennons fweep.
Or in the arched cave, where deep and dark
Tire broad unbroken billows heave and fwell.
In horrid mufings wrapt, they fit to mark
The lab’ring moon ; or lift the nightly yell
Of that dread fpirit, whofe gigantic form
The feer’s entranced eye can well furvey,
Through the dim air who guides the driving ftorm,
And points the wretched bark its deftin’d prey.
Or him who hovers on his flagging wing,
O’er the dire whirlpool, that in ocean’s wafte.
Draws inftant down whate’er devoted thing
The falling breeze within its reach hath plac’d———
The diftant feaman bears, and flies with trembling hafte.
Or if on land the fiend exerts his fway,
Silent he broods o’er quickfand, bog, or fen,
Far from the (belt’ring roof and haunts of men.
When witched darknefs ffiuts the eye of day,
And fhrouds each liar that wont to cheer the night 5
Or if the drifted fnow perplex the way.
With treach’rous gleam he lures the fated wight
And leads him flound’ring on and quite aftray.”
(l) By young Aurora, Collins undoubtedly meant the firft appearance of the northern lights, which xs com*
jnonly faid to have happened about the year 1715.
{ m ) Second-fight is the term that is ufed for the divination of the Highlanders.
(n) The late duke of Cumberland, who defeated the Pretender at the battle of Culloden.
(o) A fiery meteor, called by various names, fuch as Will with the Wijp, Jack with the F ant horn, &c.
hovers in the air over marftiy and fenny places.
tt POE
Part II*
of Lyric To that hoar pile (r) which mil its ruin (hows:
Poetry. Jn whofe fmall vaults a pigmy-folk is found,
Whofe bones the delver with his fpade upthrows.
And culls them, wond’ring, from the hallow’d ground!
Or thither(q_), where beneath the Oiow’ry weft.
The mighty kings of three fair realms are laid :
Once foes, perhaps, together now they reft.
No flaves revere them, and no wars invade ;
Yet frequent now, at midnight folemn hour.
The rifted mounds their yawning cells unfold,
And forth the monarchs ftalk with fov’reign pow r
In pageant robes ; and, wreath d with fheeny gold.
And on their twilight tombs aerial council hold.
X.
But, eh ! o’er all, forget not Kilda’s race.
On whofe bleak rocks, which brave the Rafting tides,
Fair Nature’s daughter. Virtue, yet abides.
Go! juft, as they, their blamelefs manners trace !
Then to my ear tranfmit fome gentle fong.
Of thofe whofe lives are yet ftncere and plain,
Their bounded walks the rugged cliffs along.
And all their prafpeft but the wint’ry main.
With fparing temp'ranee at the needful time.
They drain the feented fpring ; or, hunger-preft.
Along th’Atlantic rock, undreading, climb,
* See 5/W- And of its eggs defpoil the Solan s neft *.
caching. Thus, bleft1 in primal innocence, they live,
p.i37. and Suffic’d, and happy with that frugal fare
DM  Which tafteful toil and hourly danger give.
Hard is their (hallow foil, and bleak and bare ;
Nor ever vernal bee was heard to murmur there.
XI.
Nor need’ll thou bluffi that fuch falfe themes engage
Thy gentle mind, of fairer (lores puffed ;
For not alone they touch the village bread.
But fill’d in elder time th’ hiftoric page.
There, Shakefpeare’sfelf, with every garland crown d
Flenv to ihofe fairy climes his fancy Jhten (r),
In mufing hour } his wayward fillers tound.
And with their terrors drefs’d the magic feene.
From them he fung, when, ’mid his bold defign,
Before the Scot, afflifted, and aghaft !
The (hadowy kings of Banquo’s fated line.
Thro’ the dark cave in gleamy pageant pafs'd.
Proceed ! nor quit the tales which, fimply told,
Gould once fo well my anfw’ring bofom pierce ;
Proceed, in forceful founds, and colours bold,
The native legends of thy land rehearfe ;
To fuch adapt thy lyre, and fuit thy pow’rful verfe.
XII.
In feenes like thefe, which, daring to depart
From fober truth, are dill to nature true.
And call forth frelh delight to fancy s view,
Th’ heroic mule employ’d her Taffo’s art!
* mimer®
. ous.
f fpacioufc.
| Three ri¬
vers in
Scotland.
J*,'lie anus y
a°3-
T R Y.
How have I trembl’d, when, at Tancred’s ftroke,
Its gufhing blood the gaping cyprefs pour’d.
When each live plant with mortal accents fpoke,
And the wild blaft upheav’d the vanifh’d fwoird !
How have I fat, when pip’d the penfive wind.
To hear his harp by Britilh Fairfax ftrung !
Prevailing poet 1 whofe undoubting mind,
Believ’d the magic wonders which he fung !
Hence, at each found, imagination glows !
Hence, at each piSlure, vivid life ftarts here / (s)
Hence his warm lay with fofteft fweetnefs flows!
Melting it flows, pure, murm’ring*, ftrong, and clear, ^
And fills th’ impaffion’d heart, and wins th’ harmonious
XIII. _ [ear!
All hail, ye feenes that o’er my foul prevail!
Ye fplendid\ friths and lakes, which, far away.
Are by fmooth Annan^ fill’d, or paft’ral Tay£,
Or Don’s romantic fprings, at diftance, hail!
The time (hall come, when I, perhaps, may tread
Your lowly glens §, o’erhung with fpreading broom; § valleys.
Or o’er your ftretebing heaths, by fanev led,
Or o'er your mountains creepy in aivful gloom / (t)
Then will I drefs once more the faded bow’r.
Where Jonfon(u) fat in Drummond’s claftc* (hadej * fociaL
Or crop, from Tiviotdale, each lyric flow’r,
And mourn, on Yarrow’s banks, where Willy's laid\\f the wi-
Meantime, ye pow’rs that on the plains which bore ciowed
The cordial youth* on Lothian’s plains(x), attend.
Where’er Home dwells\y on hill, or lowly moor, _ \ he dwelX*
To him I loofe §, your kind proteaion lend, [friend! § lofe>
And, touch’d with love like mine, preferve my abfent
Dr Johnfon, in his life of Collins, informs us, that
Dr Warton and his brother, who had feen this ode in
the author’s poffeffion, thought it fuperior to his other
works. The tafte of the Wartons will hardly be que-
ftioned ; but we are not fure that the following Ode to
* the Pajfions has muchlefs merit, though it be merit of a
different kind, than the Ode on the Superftitions of the-
Highlands:
W hen Mufic, heav’nly maid, was young,
While yet in early Greece (he fung.
The Paffions oft, to hear her (hell,
Throng’d around her magic cell,
Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting,
Poffeft beyond the Mufe’s painting ;
By turns they felt the glowing mind
Difturb’d, delighted, rais’d, refin’d. ,
Till once, ’tis faid, when all were fir’d.
Fill d with fury, rapt, infpir'd.
From the fupporting myrtles round
They fnatch’d her inftruments of found I
And as they oft had heard apart
Sweet leffons of her forceful art, ,
Each, e
(p) One of the Hebrides is called the Ifle P’gmU,, where it is reported, that feveral miniature bones of
the human fpecies have been dug up in the ruins of a chapel there. . XT . ,. r • a
(qJ Icolmkill, one of the Hebrides, where many of the ancient Seottiffi, Irdh, and Norwegian kings, are faid
to be interred.
(r) This line wanting in Dr Carlyle’s edition.
(s) This line wanting in Dr Carlyle’s edition.
. (uj b '.6^0 thn Scotch poet D-d, athisfeat of Hawthomdc, with.
in feven miles of Edinburgh. . . r r .u*
(x) Barrow, it feems, was at the univerfity of Edinburgh, which is in the county o Do uan.
O E
$30 F
Of Lyric Eaplj, for madn^rs rul'd the hour,
1 ^ ce ry* Would prove his own expreffive power.
Firft Fear his hand, its flail to try,
Amid the chords bewilder’d laid,
And back recoil’d, he knew not why,
Ev’n at the found himfelf had made.
Next Anger rufh’d ; his eyes on fire,
In lightnings own'd his fecret ftings ;
In one rude clafli he (truck the lyre,
And fwept with hurried hand the firings.
With woeful meafures wan Defpair:—
Low fuilen founds his grief beguil’d ;
A folemn, ftrange, and mingled air ;
’Twas fad by fits, by (tarts ’twas wild.
But thou, 0 Hope! with eyes fo fair,
What was thy delighted meafure ?
Still it whifper’d promis’d pleafure,
And bade the lovely feenes at diftance hail! —
Still would her touch the (train prolong,
And from the rocks, the woods, the vale.
She call’d on Echo (till through all her fong ;
And where her fweeteft theme (he chofe,
A foft refponfive voice was heard at every clofe,
And Hope enchanted fmil’d, and wav’d her golden hair.
And longer had fine fung ;—but, with a frown,
Revenge impatient rofe ;
He threw his blood-itain’d fword in thunder down,
And, with a withering look,
The war-denounc ng trumpet took,
And blew a blaft fo loud and dread,
Were ne’er prophetic founds fo full of woe.
A nd ever and anon he beat
The doubling drum with furious heat;
And though fometimes, each dreary paufe between,
Dejefted Pity at his fide
Her foul-fubduing voice applied.
Yet dill he kept his wild unalter’d mien, [his head.
While each (train’d ball of fight feem’d burfting from
Thy numbers, Jealoufy, to nought were fix’d,
Sad proof of thy diftrefsful (late ;
Of differing themes the veering fong was mix’d ;
And now it courted Love, now raving call’d on Hate.
With eyes up-rais’d, as one infpir’d,
Bale Melancholy fat retir ’d,
And from her wild fequefter’d feat, x
In notes by diftance made more fweet.
Pour’d through the mellow horn her penfive foul.
And daftiing foft from rocks around,
Bubbling runnels join’d the found ;
Through glades and glooms the mingled meafure dole,
Or o er fome haunted dreams with fond delay,
Round an holy calm diffufing,
Love of peace, and lonely mufing.
In hollow murmurs died away.
"^lrx ? ’ k°W a‘ter <l was its fprightlier tone !
When Cheerfulnefs, a nymph of healthieft hue,
Her bow acrofs her (boulder flung,
Her bulkins gemm’d with morning dew,
Blew an infpiring air, that dale and thicket rung.
The hunter’s call to Faun and Dryad known ;
Hie oak-crown’d filters, and their chafic-ey’d queet
TRY,
Satyrs and fylvan boys were feefi,
Peeping from forth their alleys green ;
Brown Exercife rejoic’d to hear,
And Sport leapt up, and feiz’d his beechen fpear.
Laft came Joy’s ecftatic trial;
He, with viny crown advancing,
Firft to the lively pipe his hand addreft.
But foon he faw the bride awakening viol,
Whofe fweet entrancing voice he lov’d the beft.
i hey would have thought who heard the drain,
They faw in Tempe’s vale her native maids,
Amidft the fefial founding (hades,
To fome unwearied minftrel dancing,
While, as his flying fingers, kifs’d the firings,
Love fram’d with Mirth agayfantaftic round;
Loofe were her treffes feen, her zone unbound
And he, amidft his frolic play.
As if he would the charming air repay.
Shook thoufand odours from his dewy wings.
O Mufic ! fphere-defeended maid.
Friend ot pleafure, wifdom’s aid,
Why, Goddefs, why to us denied ?
Lay’ft thou thy ancient lyre afide ?
As in that lov’d Athenian bower.
You learn’d an all-commanding power?
Thy mimic foul, O Nymph endear’d.
Can well recal what then it heard.
Where is thy native fimple heart,
Devote to virtue, fancy, art ?
A rife, as in that elder time.
Warm, energic, chafte, fublime !
Thy wonders, in that god-like age.
Fill thy recording filter’s page—
’Tis faid, and I believe the tale,
1 hy humbled reed could more prevail,
Had more of ftrength, diviner rage.
Than all which charms this laggard age ;
Ev’n all at once together found
Cascilia’s mingled world of found—
O! bid our vain endeavours ceafe.
Revive the juft defigns of Greece,
Return in all thy fimple (late !
Confirm the tales her fon’s relate.
.We (hall conclude this fe&ion, and thefe examples,
with Gray’s Progrefs of Poejy, which, in fpite of the fe»
verity of Johnfon’s criticifm, certainly ranks high among
the odes which pretend to fublimity. The firft ftanza,
when examined by the frigid rules of grammatical criti¬
cifm, is certainly not faultlefs; but its faults will be
overlooked by every reader who has any portion of the
author’s fervor;
I. 1.
Awake, JEolian lyre, awake.
And give to rapture all thy trembling firings.
From Helicon’s harmonious fprings
A thoufand rills their mazy progrefs take:
The laughing flowers, that round them blow,
Drink life and fragrance as they flow.
Now the rich dream of mufic winds along.
Deep, majeftic, fmooth, and ftrong,
Thro’ verdant vales, and Ceres’ golden reign:
Now rolling down the deep amain,
Headlong, impetuous, fee it pour;
The rocks, and nodding groves, rebellow to the roar.
Chi
Part If,
Of Lyrij
I'oetry.
P 0 E
FartH- s-
0po!trr-C OK ! Sovereign of the willing foul, ^
Parent of Tweet and folemn-breathiug airs,
Enchanting (hell! the fallen cares,
And frantic paffions, hear thy iott controuh.
On 'I'hracia’s hills the lord of war
Has curb’d the fury of his car.
And dropp’d his thirfty lance at thy command.
Perching on the fceptred hand
Of Jove, thy magic lulls the feather’d king
With ruffled plumes, and flagging wing ;
Quench’d in dark clouds of (lumber lie
The terror of his beak, and lightnings of his eye,
I- 3-
Thee the voice, the dance, obey,
Temper’d to thy warbled lay :
O’er Idalia’s velvet-green
The rofy-crowned loves are feen.
On Cytherea’s day,
With antic fports, and blue-ey’d pleafures,
Fri (Icing light in frolic meafures ;
Now purfuing, now retreating,
Now in circling troops they meet
To briflc notes, in cadence beating,
Glance their many-twinkling feet.
Slow melting drains their queen’s approach declare :
Where’er (lie turns, the graces homage pay.
With arms fublime, that float upon the air,
In gliding date (he wins her eafy way :
O’er her warm cheek, and riling bofom, move
The bloom of young defire, and purple light of love.
II. i.
Man’s feeble race what ills await ;
Labour, and penury, the racks of pain,
Difeafe, and forrow’s weeping train,
And death, fad refuge from the dorms of fate ..
The fond complaint, my fong, difprove,
And judify the laws of Jove.
Say, has he giv’n in vain the heav’nly mufe?
Night, and all her fiekly dews,_
Her fpe&res wan, and birds of boding cry,
He gives to range the dreary (ky ;
Till down the eadern cliffs afar _ . ' r ,
Hyperion’s march they fpy, and glitt’ring (hafts of war,
II. 2.
In climes beyond the folar road,
Where (baggy forms o’er ice-built mountains roam.
The Mufe has broke the twilight-gloom,
To cheer the (hiv’ring native’s dull abode.
And oft, beneath the od’rous.lhade
Of Chili’s boundlefs foreds laid,
She deigns to hear the favage youth repeat,
In loofe numbers wildly fweet,
Their feather-cin£tur’d chiefs, and dufley loves.
Her tract, where’er the goddefs roves.
Glory purfue, and gen'rous (hame,
Th* unconquerable mind, and freedom’s holy flame.
n- 3- . n
Woods, that wave o’er Delphi’s deep,
Ides, that crown th’ iEgean deep.
Fields, that cool Iliffus laves,
Or where Maeander’s amber waves
In ling’ring lab’rinths creep,
How do your tuneful echoes languiftl
'Mute, but to the voice of anguilh!
T r Y.
Where each old poetic mountain
Infpiration breath’d around ;
Ev’ry (hade and hallow’d fountain
Murmur’d deep a folemn found :
Till the fad nine, in Greece’s evil hour,
Left their Parnaffus for the Latian plains.
Alike they fcorn the pomp of tyrant potver,
And coward vice that revels in her chains'.
When Latium had her lofty fpirit lod,
They fought, oh Albion ! next thy fea-encircled coaft.
III. I.
Far from the fun, and fummer-gale,
In thy green lap was nature’s* darling laid,
What time, where lucid Avon dray’d,
To him the mighty mother did unveil
Her awful face : the dauntlefs child
Stretch’d forth his little arms, and fmil’d.
This pencil take ((he faid) whofe colours clear
Richly paint the vernal year:
Thine too thefe golden keys, immortal boy !
This can unlock the gates of joy;
Of horror that, and thrilling fears,
Or ope the facred fource of fympathetic tears.
III. .2.
Nor fecond he f, that rode fublime
Upon the feraph-wings of eedafy.
The fecrets of th’ abyfs to fpy.
He pafs’d the flaming bounds of place and time :
The living throne, the fapphire blaze,
Where angels tremble while they gaze.
He faw ; but, bladed with excefs of light,
Clos’d his eyes in endlefs night.
Behold, where Dryden’s lefs prefumptuous car.
Wide o’er the fields of glory bear
Two courfers of ethereal race,
With necks in thunder cloth’d, and long-refounding
III. 3. [pace.
Hark, his hands the lyre explore!
Bright-ey’d fancy, hov’ring o’er,
Scatters from her pi&ur’d urn
Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn.
But ah ! ’tis heard no more—
Oh ! Lyre divine, what daring fpirit
Wakes thee now ? tho‘ he inherit
Nor the pride, nor ample pinion,
That the Theban eagle bear,
Sailing with fupreme dominion
Through the azure deep of air:
Yet oft before his infant eyes would run
Such forms as glitter in the Mufe’s ray,
With orient hues, unborrow’d of the fun :
Yet (hall he mount, and keep his diftant way
Beyond the limits of a vulgar fate,
Beneath the good how far—but far above the great.
231
Of Lyric
Poetry.
* Shake,
fpear.
f Milton!
Sect. III. Of the Elegy.
The Elegy is a mournful and plaintive, but yet fweettkg?,
and engaging, kind of poem. . It was firft invented to
bewail the death of a friend ; and afterwards ufed to ex-
prefs the complaints of lovers, or any other melancholy
fubjeft. In procefs of time, not only matters of grief*
but joy, wiflies, prayers, expoftulations, reproaches, ad¬
monitions, and aim oft every other fubjedl, were admitted
into elegv 5 however, funeral lamentations and affairs of
4 b,e
2J2 P O .E
t £lggy» Idve feem mofl agreeable to its character,"which is gentle-
• » " ’ nefs an(] tenuity.
The plaintive elegy, in mournful flate,
Dilhevell’d weeps the (tern decrees of fate :
Now paints the lover’s torments and delights-?
Now the nymph flatters, threatens, or invites.
Ikit he, who would thefe pafiions well exprefs,
Muft more of love than poetry poflefs.
I hate thofe lifelefs writers vvhofe forc’d fire
In a cold ftyle deferibes a hot defire ;
Who figh by rule, and, raging in cold blood,
Their fluggifh mufe fpur to an am’rous mood.
Their ecllafies infipidly they feign ;
And always pine, and fondly hug their chain ;
Adore their prifon, and their fulf’rings biefs ;
Make fenfe and reafon 'quarrel as they pleafe.
’’Twas not of old in this aftefted tone.
That fxnooth Tibullus made his am’rous moan ?
Or tender Ovid, in melodious ftrains,
Of love’s dear art the pleafing rules explains.
You, who in elegy would juftly write,
Confult your heart; let that alone endite.
[From the French of Defpreux.l SoamES.
H vr^t be ^ie P^an 30 degy, as indeed of all other poems,
aijc c ought to be made before a line is written ; or elfe the
author will ramble in the dark, and his verfes have no
dependance on each other. No epigrammatic points or
. conceits, none of thofe fine things which moft people are
fo fond of in every fort of poem, can be allowed in this,
but muft give place to nobler beauties, thofe of nature
and the pajjions. Elegy rejefts whatever is facetious,
fatirical, or majeffic, and is content to be plain, decent,
and unaffefted ; yet in this humble ftate is ftie fweet
and. engaging, elegant and attractive. This poem is
adorned with frequent commiferations, complaints^ excla¬
mations t adilrejfes to things or per Jons, ftiort and proper
digrejfionst allufions, compar'fons, profopopceias or feigned
perfons, and fometimes with ftrort deferiptions. The
diftion ought to be free from any barflmefs ; neat, eafy,
pcrfpicuous, exprejfive of the manners, tender, and pathetic f
and the numbers Ihould be fmooth and flowing, and
captivate the ear with their uniform fweetnefe and de¬
licacy.
Of elegies on the fubjeCt of death,-that by Mr Gray,
written in a country chprch-yard, is one of the belt
that has appeared in our language, and may be juftly
efteemed a mafterpiece. But being fo generally known,
it would be fuperfluous to infert it here.
On the fubjeft of love, we lhall give an example from
the elegies of Mr Hammond.
Let others boaft their heaps of Alining gold,
And view their fidds with waving plenty crown’d,
Whom neighb’ring foes in coriftant tenror hold,
And trumpets break their flumbers, never found:
While, calmly poor, I trifle life away,
Enjoy fweet leifure by my .cheerful fire.
No wanton hope my quiet fhall betray.
But cheaply blefs’d I’ll fcorn each vain defirct
With timely care I’ll fow my little field,
And plant my orchard with its matter’s hand ;
Nor blufh to fpread the hay, the hook to wield.
Or range my fheaves along the funny land.
3 f late at dufk, while carelefsly I roam,
I meet a {trolling kid or bleating lamb,
TRY, pan jjr^
Under my arm I’ll bring the wand’rer home, Elegy.
And not a little chide its thoughtlefs dam,
What joy to hear thetempeft howl in vain,
And clafp a fearful miftrefs to my breaft ?
Or lull’d to flumber by the beating rain.
Secure and happy link at laft to reft.
Or if the fun in flaming Leo ride.
By lhady rivers indolently ftray,
And, with my Delia walking fide by fide.
Hear how they murmur, as they glide away.
What joy to wind along the cool retreat.
To flop and gaze on Delia as I go!
To mingle fweet difeourfe with kifles fweet.
And teach my lovely fcholar all I know !
Thus pleas’d at heart, and not with fancy’s dream.
In iilent happinefs I reft unknown ;
Content with what I am, not what I feem,
I live far Delia and myfclf alone.
Ah foolilh man ! who, thus of her polfefs’d.
Could float and wander with ambition’s wind.
And, if his outward trappings fpoke him bleft.
Not heed the fleknefs of his confcious mind.
With her I fcorn the idle breath of'praife,
Nor truft to happinefs that’s not our own j
The fmile of fortune might fufpicion raife,
But here I know that I am lov’d alone.
Stanhope, in wifdom as in wit divine.
May rife and plead Britannia’s glorious caufe.
With fteady rein his eager wit confine.
While manly fenfe the deep attention draws.
Let Stanhope fpeak his lift’ning country’s wrong,
My humble voice {hall pleafe -one partial maid ;
For her alone I pen my tender fong,
Securely fitting in his friendly {hade.
Stanhope {hall come, and grace his rural friend*
Delia fhall wonder at her noble gueft.
With blulhing awe the riper fruit commend.
And for her hufband’s patron cull the bett.
Her’s be the care of all my little train,
While I with tender indolence am bleft,
The favourite' fubject of her gentle reign,
By love alone diftinguifh’d from the reft.
For her 1*11 yoke my oxen to the plough.
In gloomy forells tend my lonely flock.
For her a goat-herd climb the mountain’s brow,
And fleep extended on the naked rock.
Ah! what avails to prefs the {lately bed,
And far from her ’midft tallelefs grandeur weep.
By marble fountains lay the penfive head.
And, while they murmur, ftrive in vain to fleep !
Delia alone can pleafe and never tire.
Exceed the paint of thought in true delight?
With her, enjoyment wakens new defire,
And equal rapture glows thro’ ev’ry night.
Beauty and worth in her alike contend
To charm the fancy, and to fix the mind ?
In her, my wife, my miftrefs, and my friend, '
I tatte the joys of fenfe and reafon join’d.
On her I’ll gaze when others loves are o’er,
And dying prCfs her with my clay-cold hand  
Thou weep’ll already, as I were no more,
Nor can that gentle breaft the thought withftand.
Oh ! when I die, my lateil moments fpare,
Nor let thy grief with {harper torments kill:
Wound not thy cheeks, nor hurt that flowing hair;
Tho’ I am dead, my foul {hall love thee ftiU.
3
Oh
Part II.
Paftoral.
>35
The pafto¬
ral,
136
Why it ge¬
nerally
pleafes.
*3?
Its charac¬
ters and
POE
OK quit the room, oh quit the deathful bed,.
Or thou wilt die, fo tender is thy heart!
Oh leave me, Delia! ere thou fee me dead,
Thefe weeping friends will do thy mournful part.
Let them, extended on the decent bier,
Convey the corfe in melancholy ftate,
Thro’ all the village fpread the tender tear,
While pitying maids our wond’rous love relate.
Sect. IV. Of the Pofloral.
This poem takes its name from the Latin word M-
y?or, a “ fhepherd the fubjedl of it being fomething
in the paftoral or rural life ; and the perfons, interlocu¬
tors, introduced in it, either fhepherds or other ruftics.
Thefe poems are frequently called eclogues, which
fignifies “ fele£t or choice piecesthough fome ac¬
count for this name in a different manner. They are
alfo called bucolicks, from “ a herdfman.”
This kind of poem, when happily executed, gives
great delight ; nor is it a wonder, fince innocence and
fimplicity generally pleafe : to which let us add, that
the fcenes of paftorals are ufually laid in the coun¬
try, where both poet and painter have abundant mat¬
ter for the exercife of genius, fuch as enchanting pro-
fpedts, purling ftreams, lhady groves, enamelled meads,
flowery lawns, rural amufements, the bleating of flocks,
and the mulic of birds ; which is of all melody the
moft fweet and pleafing, and calls to our mind the wif-
dom and tafte of Alexander, who, on being impor¬
tuned to hear a man that imitated the notes of the
nightingale, and was thought a great curiofity, replied,
that he had had the happtnefs of hearing the nightingale her-
M-
The character of the paftoral confifts in fimphcity,
brevity, and delicacy ; the two firft render an eclogue
natural, and the laft delightful. With refpeft to na¬
ture, indeed, we are to confider, that as a paftoral is an
image of the ancient times of innocence and undefign-
ing plainnefs, we are not to defcribe ftiepherds as they
really are at this day, but as they may be conceived
then to have been, when the belt of men, and even
princes, followed the employment. For this reafon, an
air of piety fhould run through the whole poem ; which
rs vifible in the writings of antiquity.
To make it natural with refpcCt to the prefent age,
fome knowledge in rural affairs fhould be difcovered,
and that in fuch a manner as if it was done by chance
rather than by defign ; left by too much pains to feem
natural, that limplicity be deftroyed from whence arifes
the delight; for what is fo engaging in this kind of
poefy proceeds not fo much from the idea of a coun¬
try life itfelf, as in expofing only the beft part of a
fhepherd’s life, and concealing the misfortunes and mi-
i'eries which fometimes attend it. Befldes, the fubjeft
inuft contain fome particular beauty in itfelf, and each
•eclogue prefent a fcene or profpeft to our view enrich¬
ed with variety : which variety is in a great meafure
obtained by frequent comparifons drawn from the moft
agreeable objects of the country; by interrogations to
things inanimate ; by Ihort and beautiful digreflions;
and by elegant turns on the words, which render the
numbers more fweet and pleafing. To this let us add,
that the connexions .mult be negligent, the narrations
and defcnptions fhort, and the periods concife.
Vol. XV. Part i.
TRY. 1 . 233
Riddles, parables, proverbs, antique phrafes, and fu- Paftora!^
perftitious fables, are fit materials to be intermixed with
this kind of poem. They are here, when properly ap¬
plied, very ornamental ; and the more fo, as they give
our modern compofitions the air of the ancient manner
of writing. 1 y8
The ftyle of the paftoral ought to be humble, yet Sty.e.
pure ; neat, but not florid ; eafy, and yet lively: and
the numbers fliould be fmooth and flowing.
This poem in general fhould be fhort, and ought
never much to exceed too lines; for we are to confi¬
der that the ancients made thefe fort of compofitions
their amufemeut, and not their bufinefs : but however
fhort they are, every eclogue mutt contain a plot or
fable, which mull be Ample and one ; but yet fo ma¬
naged as to admit of Ihort digreflions. Virgil has al¬
ways obferved this. We fhall give the plot or ar¬
gument of his firft paftoral as an example. Melibceus,
an unfortunateJhepherd, is introduced with Tityrus, cm
in more fortunate circumfances ; the former addreffes the
complaint of his fujfcrings and banfhment to the latter, viha
enjoys his flocks andfolds in the midjl of the public calamity,
and therefore expreffes his gratitude to the benefaBor from
whom this favour flowed : but Meliboeus accufes fortune,
civil wars, and bids adieu to his native country. This is
therefore a dialogue.
But we are to obferve, that the poet is not always
obliged to make his eclogue allegorical, and to have real
perfons reprefentcd by the ficlitious charaXers introdu¬
ced ; but is in this refpeX entirely at his own liberty.
Nor does the nature of the poem require it to be al¬
ways carried on by way of dialogue ; for a Ihepherd
may with propriety fing the praifes of his love, com-
plain of her inconftancy, lament her abfence, her death,
&c. and addrefs himfelf to groves, hills, rivers, and
fuch like rural objeXs, even when alone.
We fhall now give an example from each of thofe
authors who have eminently diftinguilhed themfefves
by this manner of writing, and introduce them in the
order of time in which they were written.
Theocritus, who was the father or inventor of this Example*
kind of poetry, has been delervedly efteemed by the°fthepa-
beft critics ; and by fome, whofe judgment we cannot
dilpute, preferred to all other paftoral writers, with
perhaps the Angle exception of the tender and delicate
Gefner. We fhall infert his third idyltium, not becaule
it is the beft, but becaufe it is within our compafs.
To Amaryllis, lovely nymph, I fpeed,
Meanwhile my goats upon the mountains feed.
O Tityrus, tend them with affiduous care, l
Lead them to cryftal fprings and paftures fair,
And of the ridgling’s butting horns beware. J
Sweet Amaryllis, have you then forgot
Our fecret pleafures in the confcious grott,
Where in my folding arms you lay reclin’d ?
Bleft was the fhepherd, for the nymph was kind.
I whom you call’d your Dear, your Love, fo late,
Say, am I now the objeX of your hate ?
Say, is my form difpleafing to your fight ?
This cruel love will furely kill me quite.
Lo ! ten large apples, tempting to the view,
Pluck’d from your favourite tree, where late they grew.
Accept this boon, ’tis all my prefent ftore ;
To-morrow will produce as many more.
•G g Meanwhile
»34
Paftoral.
POE
Meanwhile thefe heart-confuraing pains remove,
And give me gentle pity for my love.
Oh ! was I made by fome transforming power
A bee to buzz in your fequefter’d bow’r S
To pierce your ivy fhade with murmuring found.
And the light leaves that compafs you around.
I know thee, Love, and to my forrow find,
A god thou art, but of the favage kind ‘r
A lionefs fure fuckled the fell child,
And with his brothers nurft him in the wild ;
On me his fcorching flames inceffant prey,
Glow in my bones, and melt my foul away.
Ah, nymph, whofe eyes deftrutHve glances dart.
Fair is your face, but flinty is your heart:
With kifles kind this rage of love appeafe ;
For me, fond fwain 1 ev’n empty kifles pleafe.
Your fcorn didrafts me, and will make me tear
The flow’ry crown I wove for you to wear,
Where rofes mingle with the ivy-wreath.
And fragrant herbs ambrofial odours breathe.
Ah me i what pangs I feel ; and yet the fair
Nor fees my forrows nor will hear my pray’r.
I’ll doft my garments, fmce I needs mud die.
And from yon rock that points its fummit high,
Where patient Alpis fnares the finny fry,
I’ll leap, and, though perchance I rife again,
You’ll laugh to fee me plunging in the main.
By a prophetic poppy-leaf I found
Your chang’d affeftion, for it gave no found,
Though in my hand druck hollow as it lay,
But quickly wither’d like your love away.
An old witch brought fad tidings to my ears,
She who tells fortunes with the fleve and {heers
For leafing barley in my fields of late,
She told me, I Ihouid love, and you fhould hate L
For you my care a milk-white goat fupply’d,
Two wanton kids run frifking at her fide ‘r
Which oft the nut-brown maid, Erithacis,
Has begg’d and paid before-hand with a kifs ^
And fmce you thus my ardent palfion flight,
HeFs they fhall be before to-morrow night.
My right eye itches; may it lucky prove,.
Perhaps I foon fliall fee the nymph I love
Beneath yon pine I’ll fing didinft and clear.
Perhaps the fair my tender notes fliall hear ;
Perhaps may pity my melodious moan j
She is not metamorphos’d into done.
Hippomenes, provok’d by noble drife,
To win a midrefs, or to lofe his life,
Threw golden fruit in Atalanta’s way
The bright temptation caus’d the nymph to day ;
She look’d, die languifli’d, all her foul took fire.
She plung’d into the gulph of deep deiire.
To Pyle from Othrys fage Melampus came,
He drove the lowing herd, yet won the dame ;
Fair Pero bleft his brother Bias’ arms.
And in a virtuous race diffus’d unfading charms.
Adonis fed his cattle on the plain,
And fea-born Venus lov’d the rural fwain j
She mourn’d him wounded in the fatal chace.
Nor dead difmifs’d him from her warm embrace.
Though young Endymion was by Cynthia bled,
I envy nothing but his lading red.
Jafion flumb’ring on the Cretan plain
Ceres once faw, and bled the happy fwain
With pleafures too divine for ears profane.
try.
My head" grows giddy, love affefts me fore j
Yet you regard not; fo I’ll fing no more——
Here will I put a period to my care —
Adieu, falfe nymph, adieu ungrateful fair;
Stretch’d near the grotto, when I’ve breath’d my lad, 1
My corfe will give the wolves a rich repad, ;
As fweet to them as honey to your tade. j
Fawkes.
Part IT.
Paftorai.
Virgil fucceeds Theocritus, from whom he has in
fome places copied, and always imitated with fuccefs.
As a fpecimen of his manner, we fliall introduce his firfl
padoral, which is generally allowed to be the mod pttf-
feft.
Meliboeus and Tityrus.
Me/. Beneath the fhade which beechen boughs diflfufe,
You, Tityrus, entertain your fylvan mufe.
Round the wide world in banilhment we roam,
Forc’d from our pleafmg fields and native home ;
While dretch’d at cafe you ling your happy loves,.
And Amyrillis fills the fhady groves.
Tit. Thefe blefiings, friend, a deity bedow’d ;
For never can I deem him lefs than god.
The tender firdlings of my woolly breed
Shall on his holy altar often bleed.
He gave me kine to graze the flow’ry plain.
And fo my pipe renew’d the rural drain.
Mel. I envy not your fortune ; but admire.
That while the raging fvvord and wadeful fire
Dedroy the wretched neighbourhood around.
No hodile arms approach your happy ground.
Far diff’rent is my fate ; my feeble goats
With pains I drive from their forfaken cotes i
And this you fee I fcarcely drag along,
Who yeaning on the rocks has left her young.
The hope and promife of my falling fold,
My lofs by dire portents the gods foretold ;
For, had I not been blind, I might have feea
Yon riven oak, the faired on the green,
And the hoarfe raven on the bladed bough
By croaking from the left prefag’d the coming blow.
But tell me, Tityrus, what heav’nly pow’r
Preferv’d your fortunes in that fatal hour ?
Tit. Fool that I was, I thought imperial Rome
Like Mantua, where on market-days we come.
And thither drive our tender lambs from home.
So kids, and whelps thek fires and dams exprefs j
And fo the great I meafur’d by the lefs :
But country-towns, compar’d with her, appear
Like fhrubs when lofty cypreffes are near.
Mel. What great oecafion call’d you hence to Rome ?
Tit. Freedom, which came at length, tho’flowtoeome;
Nor did my fearch of liberty begin
Till my black hairs were chang’d upon my chin ‘r
Nor Amaryllis would vouchfafe a look,
Till Galatea’s meaner bonds I broke.
Till then ahelplefs, hopelefs, homely fwain,
I fought not freedom, nor afpir’d to gain :
Tho’ many a viftim from my folds was bought,
And many a cheefe to country markets brought.
Yet all.the little that I got I fpent.
And flill return’d as empty as I went.
Mel. We flood amaz’d to fee your miffrefs mourn,.
Unknowing that fhe pin’d for your return ;
We wonder’d why Ate kept her fruit fo long,
For whom fo late th’ ungather’d apples hung ;
140
Virgil.
But
Part II.
Pgftoral.
POE
But now the wonder ecafes, Tmce I fee
She kept them only, Tityrus, for thee :
For thee the bubbling fprings appear’d to mourn,
And whifp’ring pines made vows for thy return.
Tit. What rtiould I do while here I was enchain’d,
No glimpfe of godlike liberty remain’d ;•
Nor could I hope in any place but there
To find a god fo prefent to my pray’r.,
There firft the youth of heav’nly birth I view’d,
For whom our monthly viftims are renew’d.
He heard my vows, and gracioufly decreed
My grounds to be reftor’d my former flocks to feed.
Mti. O fortunate old man ! whofe farm remains p
Tor you fufficient, and requites your pains, _ >
Though ruihes overfpread the neighb’ring plains, j
Tho’ here the marfhy grounds approach your fields,
And there the foil a ftony harveit yields.
Your teeming ewes fhall no ftrange meadows try,
Nor fear a rot from tainted company.
Behold yon bord’ring fence of fallow trees [bees:
Is fraught with flow’rs, the flow’rs are fraught with
The bufy bees, with a foft murm’ring ftrain,
Invite to gentle fleep the labhing fwain :
While from the neighb’ring rock with rural fongs
The primer’s voice the pleating dream prolongs ;
Stock-doves and turtles tell their am’rous pain,
And, from the lofty elms, of love complain.
Tit. Th’ inhabitants of feas and tides thall change.
And fith on there and tlags in air thall range,
The banilh’d Parthian dwell on A.rar’s brink,
And the blue German thall the I igris drink ;
lire I, forfaking gratitude and truth,
Forget the figure of that godlike youth.
Mel. But we muft beg our bread in climes unknown.
Beneath the fcorchmg or the freezing zone ;
And fome to fair Oaxis (hall be fold,
Or try the Libyan heat or Scythian cold ;
The reft among the Britons be confin’d,
A race of men from all the world disjoin’d.
O ! muft the wretched exiles ever mourn ?
Nor after length of rolling years return i
Are we condemn’d by Fate’s unjuft decree,
No more our houfes and our homes to fee ?
Or ihall we mount again the rural throne,
And rule the country, kingdoms once our own ?
Did we for thefe barbarians plant and fow, 1
On thefe, on thefe, our happy fields bellow ? S
Good heav’n, what dire effe&s from civil difeord flow! J
Nov/ let me graft my pears, and prune the vine ;
The fruit is theirs, the labour only mine.
Farewel my paftures, my paternal llock !
My fruitful fields, and my more fruitful flock !
No more, my goats, Ihall I behold you climb
The fteepy cliffs, or crop the flow ry thyme ;
No more extended in the grot below.
Shall fee you browzing on the mountain's brow
The prickly fhrubs, and after on the bare
Lean down the deep abyfs and hang in air !
No more my Iheep {hall fip the morning dew; .
No more my fong Ihall pleafe the rural crew • ^
Adieu, my tuneful pipe! -and all the world, adieu!
Tit. rI his night, at leaft, with me forget your care;
Chefnuts and curds and cream Ihall be your fare :
'I he carpet-ground fhall be with leaves o’er-fpread,
And boughs Ihall weave a cov’ring for jour head :
T R Y.
For fee yon funny hill the fliade extends.
And curling fmoke from cottages afeends.
Drvden.
235
Pallor al.
Spenfer was the firft of our countrymen who acqui¬
red any conftderable reputation by this method of wri¬
ting. We Ihall infert his fixtlx eclogue, or that for June,
which is allegorical, as will be feen by the
Argument. “ Hobbinol, from a delcription of the
pleafures of the place, excites Colin to the enjoyment of
them. Colin declares himfelf incapable of delight, by
reafon of his ill fuccefs in love, and his lofs or Rofa-
lind, who had treacheroully forfaken him for Menal-
cas another fhepherd. By Tityrus (mentioned before
in Spenfer’s fecond eclogue, and again in the twelfth)
is plainly meant Chaucer, whom the author fornetitnes
profeffed to imitate. In the perfon of Colin is repre-
lented the author himfelf; and Hobbinol’s inviting'
him to leave the hill Country, feems to allude to his
leaving the North, where, as is mentioned in his life,
he had for fome time refided.”
*4*
Hob. Lo! Colin, here the place, whofe pleafant fight 3i)Ulltr*
From other fliades hath wean’d my wand’ring mind-c
Tell me, what wants me here, to work delight ?
The Ample air, the gentle warbling wind,
So calm, fo cool, as nowhere ell'e I find :
The gi-affy ground with dainty dailies dight,
The bramble-bulh, where birds of every kind
To th’ water’s fall their tunes attemper right.
Cot. O ! happy Hobbinol, I blels thy ftate.
That paradife haft found which Adam loft.
Here wander may thy flock early or late,
Withouten dread of wolves to been ytoft ;
Thy lovely lays here mayft thou freely boaft :
But 1, unhappy man ! whom cruel fate,
And angry gods, purfue from coaft to coaft,
Can nowhere find to Ihroud my lucklefs pate.
Hoi. Then if by me thou lift advifed be,
Forfake the foil that fo doth thee bewitch :
Leave me thofe hills, where harbroughnis to fee,
Nor holly-bufh, nor brere, nor Winding ditch ;
And to the dales refort, where Ihepherds rich,
And fruitful flocks been everywhere to fee
Here no night-ravens lodge, more black than pitch.
Nor elvilh gholts, nor ghaftly owls do flee.
But friendly fairies met with many graces.
And light-foot nymphs can chace the ling ring night.
With heydeguies, and trimly trodden traces ;
Whilft lifters nine, which dwell on Parnafs’ height,
Do make them mufic, lor their more delight;
And Pan himielf to kifs their cryftal faces,
Will pipe and dance, when Phoebe Ihineth bright:
Such peerlefs pleafures have we in thefe places.
Col. And I whilft youth, and courie of carelefs year*,
Did let me walk withouten links of love,
j- In fuch delights did joy amongft my peers:
But riper age fuch pleafures doth reprove,
My fancy eke from former follies move
To ftrayed fteps : for time in palling wears
(As garments doen, which waxen old above)
And draweth new delights with hoary hairs.
Though couth I ling of love, and tune my pipe
Unto my plantive pleas in verfes made :
Though would I feek for queen-apples unripe
To give tnv Rofalind, and in fommer lhade
G g s
/
236 POE
1’dtloral. Dight gawdy girlonds was tny common trade»•
1“"r"v To crown her golden locks : but years more ripe,
And lofs of her, whofe love as hfe I vvayde,
Thofe weary wanton toys away did wipe.
Hob. Colin, to hear thy rhymes and roundelays,
Which thou wert wont on wadeful hills to fing,
I more delight, than lark in fommer days :
Whofe echo made the neighbour groves to ring, _
And taught the birds, which in the lower fpring
Did fhroud in lhady leaves from funny rays,
Frame to thy fong their cheerful cheriping.
Or hold their peace, for Ihame of thy fwyet lays.
I faw Calliope with mufes moe,
Soon as thy oaten pipe began to found,
Their ivory kites and tamburins forego,
And from the fountain, where they fate around,.
Ren after haftily thy filver found.
But when they came, where thou thy Ikill didftfhow.
They drew aback, as half with fliame confound,
Shepherd to fee, them in their art out-go.
Col. Of mufes, Hobbinol, I con no tkill,
For they been daughters of the higheft Jove,
And holden fcorn of homely (hepherds quill:
For fith I heard that Pan with Phoebus drove
Which him to much rebuke and danger drove,
I never lift prefume to Parnafs’ hill.
But piping low, in tirade of lowly grove,
I play to pleafe myfelf, albeit ill.
^Nought weigh I, who my fong doth praife or blame,
Ne ftrive to win renown, or pafs the reft:
With fliepherds fits not follow flying fame,
But feed his flocks in fields, where falls him beft.
I wot my rimes been rough, and rudely drell;
The fitter they, my careful cafe to frame :
Enough is me to paint out my unreft,
And pour my piteous plaints out in the fame.
The God of flrepherds, Tityrus, is dead.
Who taught me homely, as I can, to make :
He, whilft he liv’d, was the fovereign head
Of flrepherds all, that been with love ytake.
Well couth he wail his woes, and lightly flake
The flames which love within his heart had bred,
And tell us merry tales to keep us wake.
The while our fheep about us fafely fed.
Now dead he is, and lieth wrapt in lead,
{O why flrould death on him fuch outrage flrow !)
And all his palling Ikill with him is fled,
The fame whereof doth daily greater grow.
But if on me fome little drops would flow
Of that the fpring was in his learned hed,
I foon would learn thefe woods to wail my wot.
And teach the trees their trickling tears to flred.
Then flrould my plaints, caus’d of difcourtefee,
As meffengers of this my painful flight,
Fly to my love, wherever that Are be.
And pierce her heart with point of worthy wight j
As Are deferves, that wrought fo deadly fpight.
And thou, Menalcas, that by treachery
Didft underfong my lafs to wax fo light.
Should’!! well be known for fuch thy villany.
But fince I am not, as I wiftr I were,
Ye : entle flrepherds, which your flocks do feed.
Whether on hills or dales, or other where,
Bear witnefs all of this fo wicked deed :
And tell the lafs, whofe flower is woxe a weed,
T R Y. PanU.
And faultlefs faith is turn’d ter faithlefs feere, i’aftorak
That Are the trueft flrepherd’s heart made bleed, v-—v—J
That lives on earth, and loved her molt dear.
Hob. O ! careful Colin, I lament thy cafe,
Thy tears would make the hardeft flint to flow!
Ah ! faithlefs Rofaiind, and void of grace,
That art the root of all this rueful woe >
But now is time, I guefs, homeward to go ;
Then rile, ye blefled flocks, and home apace.
Left night with Healing Heps do you foreflo,
And wet your tender lambs that by you trace.
By the following eclogue the reader will perceive that
Mr Philips has, in imitation of Spenfer, preferved in his
paftorais many antiquated words, which, though they are
difearded from polite converfation, may naturally be fup-
poled Hill to have place among the Ihepherds and other
rultics in the country. We have made choice of his fe-
cond eclogue, becaui'e it is brought home to his own bu-
finefs, and contains a complaint againft thofe who had
fpoken ill of him and his writings.
ThENOT, COLINET. 144
Th. Is it not Colinet I lonefome fee Philipsr
Leaning with folded arms againft the tree ?
Or is it age of late bedims my fight ?
*1 is Colinet, indeed, in woful plight.
Thy cloudy look, why melting into tears,
Unfeemly, now the Iky fo bright appears l
Why in this mournful manner art thou found,
Unthankful lad, when all things fmile around ?
Or hear’ll not lark and. Hnnet jointly fing,
Their notes blithe-warbling to falute the fpring?
Co. Tho’ blithe their notes, not fo my wayward fate |
Nor lark would fing, nor linnet, in my Hate.
Each creature, Thenot, to his talk is born;
As they to mirth and mufic, I to mourn.
Waking, at midnight, I my woes renew,
My tears oft mingling with the falling dew.
Th. Small caufe, I ween, has lufty youth to plain j
Or who may then the weight of eld fuftain,
When every llackening nerve begins to fail.
And the load prefleth as our days prevail ?
Yet though with years my body downward tend.
As trees beneath their fruit in autumn bend,
Spite of my fnowy head and icy veins,
My mind a cheerful temper Hill retains :
And why Ihould man, mifiiap what will, repine,
Sour eveiy fweet, and mix with tears his wine ?
But tell me then ; it may relieve thy woe,
To let a friend thine inward ailment know.
Co. Idly ’twill wafte thee, Thenot, the whole day,
Should’ft thou give ear to all my grief can fays,
Thine ewes will wander ; and the heedlefs lambs,
In loud complaints, require their abient dams.
Th. See Lightfoot; he lhall tend them clofe : and Is
’Tween whiles, acrofs the plain will glance mine eye.
Co. Where to begin I know not, where to end.
Does there one fmiling hour my youth attend ?
Though few my days, as well my follies Ihow,
Yet are thofe days all clouded o’er with wo:
No happy gleam of funlhine doth appear,
My lowering Iky and wint’ry months to cheer.
My piteous plight in yonder naked tree,
Which bears the thunder-fear too plain, I fee :
Quite deilitute it Hands of Ihelter kind,
The mark of itorms, and fport of every wind:
The
Pan II. P O E
mo:a\. The riven trunk feels not the approach of fpnng ;
     Nor birds among the kaflefs branches ling .
No more, • beneath thy ihade, fhall (hepherds throng
With jocund tale, or pipe, or pleafxng long.
Ill-fated tree ! and more ill-fated I!
from thee, from me, alike the fhepherds fly.
Tb. Sure thou in haplefs hour of time wait born,
When blightning mildews fpoil the rifmg com,^
Or blaiting winds o’er bloffom’d hedge-rows pals,
^ To kill the promis’d fruits, and fcorch the grafs ;
Or when the moon, by wizard charm d, forefhows,
Blood-itain’d in foul eclipfe, impending woes.
Untimely born, ill luck betides thee dill.
Co. And can there, Thenot, be a greater ill?
Th. Nor fox, nor wolf, nor rot among our flieep :
From thefe good'ihepherd’s care his flock may keep :
Againd ill luck, alas ! all forecaft fails ;
Nor toil by day, nor watch by night, avails.
Co. Ah me, the while ! ah me, the lucklefs day .
Ah lucklefs lad ! befits me more to fay.
Unhappy hour ! when frefh in youthful bud,
I left, Sabrina fair, thy filv’ry flood.
Ah filly 11 more filly than my fheep,
Which on thy flow’ry banks I wont to keep.
Sweet are thy banks ; oh, when ihall I once more
With ravifh’d eyes review thine amell’d Ihore ?
When, in the crydal of thy waters, fcan
Each feature faded, and my colour wan ?
When fhall I fee my hut, the finall abode
Myfelf did raife and cover o’er with fod ?
Small though it be, a mean and humble cell,
Yet is there room for peace and me to dwell.
Tb. And what enticement charm’d thee far away
From thy lov’d home, and led thy heart adray ?
Co. A lewd defire drange lands and fwains to know.
Ah me ! that ever I fliould covet wo.
With wand’ring feet unbled, and fond of fame,
I fought I know not what befides a name.
Th. Or, footh to fay, didd thou not hither rome
In fearch of gains more plenty than at home ?
A rolling done is ever bare of mofs ;
And, to their cod, green years old proverbs crofs. .
Co. Small need there was, in random fearch of gain,
To drive my pining flock athwart the plain
To -diflant Cam. Fine gain at length, I trow,
To hoard up to myfelf fuch deal of wo !
My fheep quite fpent through travel and ill fare.
And like their keeper ragged grown and bare,
The damp cold green fward for my nightly bed,
And fome flaunt willow's, trunk to red my head.
Hard is to bear of pinching cold the pain ;
And hard is want to the unpradtis’d fwain ;
But neither w^nt, nor pinching cold, is hard,-
To blading dorms of calumny compar’d :
Unkind as hail it falls ; the pelting fhow’r
Dedroys the tender herb and budding flow’r.
Th. Slander we fhepherds count the viled wrong :
And what worjids forer than an evil tongue ?
Co. Untoward lads, the wanton imps of fpite
Make mock, of all the ditties I endite.
In vain, O Colinet, thy pipe, fo fhrill,
Charms every vale, and gladdens every hill:
In vain thou feek’il the coverings of the grove,
In the cool fhade to ling the pains of love :
TRY.
Sing what thou wilt, ill-nature will prevail; T-ft.-nd.
And every elf hath fkill enough to rail. ' ^
But yet, though poor and artlefs be my vein,
Menalcas feems to like my Ample drain:
And while that he delighteth in my fong.
Which to the good Menalcas doth belong,
Nor night nor day fhall my rude mufic ceafe ;
I afk no more, fo I Menalcas pleafe.
Th. Menalcas, lord of thefe fair fertile plains,
Preferves the fheep, and o’er the fhepherds reigns ;
For him our yearly wakes and feads we hold,
And choofe the faired firdlings from the fold;
He, good to all who good deferves, fiiall give
Thy flock to feed, and thee at cafe to live,
Shall curb the malice of unbridled tongues,
And bounteoufly reward thy rural fongs.
Co. Fird then fhall lightfome birds forget to fly,
The briny ocean turn to padures dry,
And every, rapid river ceafe to flow,
Ere I unmindful of Menalcas grow.
Th. This night thy care with me forget, and fold •
Thy flock with mine, to ward th' injurious cold.
New milk, and clouted cream, mild cheefe and curd,
With fome remaining fruit of lad year’s hoard,
Sail be our ev’ning fare ; and, for the night,
Sweet herbs and mofs, which gentle fleep invite :
And now behold the fun’s departing ray.
O’er yonder hill, the fign of ebbing day : •
With fongs the jovial hinds return from plow ;.
And unyok’d heifers, loitering homeward, low.
Mr Pope’s Padorals next appeared, but in a different
drefs from thofe of Spenfer and Philips ; for he has
difcarded all antiquated words, drawn his fwains more
modern and polite, and made his numbers exquilitely
harmonious: his eclogues therefore may be called better
poems, but not better padorals. We fhall infert the
ecl®gue he has infcribed to Mr Wycherly, the beginning
of which is in imitation of Virgil’s fird padoral. ^ ^
Beneath the fhade a fpreading beech difpl.n s,
Hylas and jEgon fung their rural lays:
Tins mourn’d a faithlefs, that an abfent love.
And Delia’s name and Doris fill'd the grove.
Ye Mantuan nymphs, your facred fuccour bring ;
Hylas-and ^Egon’s rural lays I fing.
"Thou, whom the nine with Plautus’ wit infpire.
The art of Terence, and Menander’s fire :
Whofe fenfe indrucfs us, and whofe humour charms,
Whofe judgment fways us, and whofe fpirit warms \
Oh, .fkill’d in nature 1 fee the hearts of fwains.
Their artlefs pallions, and their tender pains.
Now fetting Phoebus flione ferenely bright.
And fleecy clouds were dreak’d with purple light;
When tuneful Hylas, with melodious moan,
Taught rocks to weep, and made the mountains groan.-
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
To Delia’s ear the tender notes convey.
As fome fad turtle his lod love deplores,
And with deep murmurs fills the founding fhores;
Thus, far from Delia, to the winds I mourn,
Alike unheard, unpity’d, and forlorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along !
For her the feather’d quires negleft their fong;
For her, the limes their pleafing fhades deny j
For her, the lilies hang their head a#d die.
6
^3
E
P O
i’aftoMl. Ye fiow’rs, that droop, forfaksn by the fpring }
' Ye birds, dial left by fummer ceafe to fing ;
Ye trees, that fade when autumn-heats remove ;
Say, is not abfence death to thole who love ?
Go, gentle gales, and bear my lighs away !
Curs d be the fields that caufe my Delia’s Hay:
Fade ev ry bio (Torn, wither ev’ry tree,
Die ev’ry flow’r and perilh all but ftie.
What have I faid ? where’er my Delia flies,
Let fpring attend, and hidden flovv’rs arife;
Let opening rofes knotted oaks adorn,
And liquid amber drop from ev’ry thorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along !
The birds lhall ceafe to tune their ev’ning fong.
The winds to breathe, the waving woods to move,
And ftreams to murmur, ere I ceafe to love.
Not bubbling fountains to the thirfty fwain.
Not balmy fleep to lab’rers faint with pain,
Not fhow’rs to larks, or funlhine to the bee,
Are half fo charming as thy fight to me.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
Come, Delia, come ! ah, why this long delay ?
Through rocks and caves the name of Delia founds }
. Delia, each cave an(l Echoing rock rebounds.
Ye pow’rs, what pleafing frenzy fooths my mind!
Do lovers dream, or is my Delia kind ?
She cOmes, my Delia comes !—now ceafe, my lay ;
And ceafe, ye gales to bear my fighs away !
Next vEgon fung, while Windlor groves admir’d ;
Rehearfe, ye mufes, what yourfelves infpir’d.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful llrain !
Of perjur’d Doris, dying, I complain ;
Here where the mountains, lefs’ning as they rife,
Lofe the low vales, and Heal into the Ikies ;
While lab’ring oxen, fpent with toil and heat.
In their loofe traces from the field retreat;
While curling fmokcs from village-tops are feen,
And the fleet {hades glide o’er the dalley green.
Refouud, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
Beneath yon poplar oft we pafs’d the day :
Oft on the rind I carv’d her am’rous vows,
While Hie with garlands hung the bending boughs:
The garlands fade, the boughs are worn away ;
So dies her love, and fo my hopes decay.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful flrain !
Now bright Anfturus glads the teeming graia;
Now golden fruits in loaded branches fhine.
And grateful cluHers, fwell with floods of wine,;
Now blufhing berries paint the yellow grove :
JuH Gods! lhall all things yield returns but love?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
The Ihepherdsxry, “• Thy flocks are left a prey.” 
Ah ! what avails it me the flocks to keep,
Who loH my heart, while I preferv’d my fheep ?
Pan came, and alk’d, what magic caus'd my fir-art.
Or what ill eyes malignant glances dart ?
What eyes but hers, alas! have pow’r to move ?
And is there magic but what dwells in love ?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful Hrains !
I 11 fly from fhepherds, flocks, and flow ry plains. 
From Ihepherds,' flocks, and plains, I may remove.
Fori like mankind, and all the woild—but love !
I know thee, Love! wild as the raging main.
More fell than tygers on the Libyan plain :
TRY.
T hou wert from ./Etna’s burning entrails torn,
Got'by fierce whirlwinds, and in thunder born.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
Farewel, ye woods, adieu the light of day !
One leap from yonder cliff lhall end my pains.
No more, ye lulls, no more refound my Itrains !
^ Thus fung the Ihepherds till th’ approach of night,
1 he Ikies yet biullring with departing light,
'When failing dews with fpangles deck’d the glade.
And the low lun had lengthen’d ev’ry fhade.
Part 1
PaftorJ
To thefe pafforals, which are written agreeably to the
taffe of antiquity, and the rules above preferibed, we fhall
beg leave to fubjoin another that may be called buriefque
pajtoral, wherein the ingenious author, Mr Gay, has
ventured to deviate from the beaten load, and deferibed
the flrepherds and ploughmen of our own time and coun¬
try, inffead of thofe of the golden age, to which the
modern critics confine the paltoral. His fix pafforals,
which he calls the Shepherd’s Weeky are a beautiful and
lively reprefentation of the manners, cuHoms, and notions
of our rallies. We lhall infert the firff of them, intitled
The Squabble, wherein two clowns try to outdo each
other in finging the praifes of their fweethearts, leaving
it to a third to determine the controverfy. The perfons
named are Lobb'in Clout, Cuddy, and Cloddipole.
Lob. Thy younglings, Cuddy, are but juff awake; Gay’
No thro Hie Ihrill the bramble-bulh forfake ;
No chirping lark the welkin Iheen * invokes ; * Shinin!
No damfel yet the fwelling udder Hrokes ; ^ bright
O’er yonder hill does fcant f the-dawn appear ; f scarce>
rI hen why does Cuddy leave his cott fo rear J f Early,
Cud. Ah Lobbm Clout! I ween j| my plight is gueH; t! Con^
For he that loves, a Jiranger is to rejl. ceive.
If fwains belye not, thou hall prov’d the fmart.
And Blouzalinda’s miilrefs of thy heart.
This riling tear betokeneth Well thy mind ;
Thole arms are folded for thy Blouzalind.
And well, I trow, our piteous plights agree ;
1 bee Blouzalinda fmites, Buxoma me.
Lob. Ah Blouzalind ! I love thee more by halfj
Than deer their fawns, or cows the new-falTn calf.
Woe worth the tongue, may blilters fore it gall,
I hat names Luxoma Blou%ahnd withal!
Cud. Hold, witlefs Lobbin Clout, I thee advife,'
Leil blillers fore on thy own tongue arife.
Lo yonder Cloddipole, the blithfome fwarn,
The wifell lout of all the neighb’ring plain!
From Cloddipole we learnt to read the Ikies,
To know when hail wall fall or winds arife.
.He taught us erll * the heifer’s tail to view, •Former!
When Hack aloft, that Ihow’rs would Hraight enfue :
He firH that ufeful lecret did explain, .
'i hat pricking corns foretold the gath’ring rain.
When fwallows fleet ibar high and fport in air,
He told us that the welkin would be clear.
Let Cloddipole then hear us twain rehearfe.
And praife his fweetheart in alternate wrfe.
111 wager this fame oaken Haff with thee,
That Cioddipole fhall give the prize to me.
Lob. See this tobacco-pouch, that’s lin’d with hair.
Made of the Ikin of fieekefl fallow-deer :
This pouch, that’s tied with tape of reddeH hue,
I’ll wager, that the prize fliall be my due,
5 Cud,
- Very
bon.
art II POE
art ii« . i
Paftoral. CW. Begin thy carrols, then, thou vaunting flouch ;
—Be thine the oaken ftaff, or mine the pouch.
Lok My Blouzalinda is the blitheft lais,
Than primrofe fweeter, or the oover-grafs.
Fair is the king-cup that in meadow blows,
Fair is thedaify that befide her grows ;
Fair is the gilly-fiow’r of gardens fweet;
Fair is the marygold, for pottage meet: _
But Blouzalind’s tlian gilly-flow’r more fair,
Thaadaify, marygold, or king-cup rare.
Cud. My brown Buxoma is the feateft maid
That e’er at wake delightfome gambol play’d ;
Clean as young lambkins, or the goofe’s down,
And like the goldfinch in her Sunday gown.
The witlefs lamb may fport upon the plain,
The frilking kid delight the gaping fwam ;
The wanton calf may flop with many a bound,
• Nimble(1.And my cur Tray play defteftf feats around:
But neither lamb, nor kid, nor calf, nor Fray,
Dance like Buxoma on the firft of May. ^
I.ob. Sweet is my toil when Blouzalind is near;
Of her bereft, ’tis winter all the year.
With her no fultry fummer's heat I know;
In winter, when ihe’s nigh, with love I glow.
Come, Blouzalinda, eafe thy fwain’s defire,
My fummer’s lhadow, and my winter s fire !
Cud. As with Buxoma once I work’d at hav,
E’en noon-tide labour feem’d an holiday ;
And holidays, if haply fhe were gone,
IJke worky-days I wifh’d would loon be done.
Eftfoons O fweetheart kind, my love repay,
And all the year {hall then be holiday.
Lob. As Blouzalinda, in a gamefome mood,
Behind a hay-cock loudly laughing ftood,
I (lily ran and fuatch’d a hally kifs ;
She wip’d her lips, nor took it much amus.
Believe me, .Cuddy, while I’m bold to fay,
Her breath was fweeter than the ripen’d hay.
Cud. As my Buxoma, in a morning fair,
With gentle finger ftioak’d her milky care,
I quaintly |j ftole a kifs ; at firft, ’tis true,
She frown’d, yet after granted one or two.
Lobbin, I fwear, believe who will my vows,
Her breath by far excell’d the breathing cows. ?
Lob. Leek to the Welch, to Dutchmen butter s dear.
Of Irilh fwains potatoes are the cheer ;
Oats for their feafts the Scottilh ftiepherds grind,
Sweet turnips are the food of Blouzalind-
While (he loves turnips, butter I’ll deipife.
Nor leeks, nor oatmeal, nor potatoes prize.
Cud. In good roaft beef my landlord fticks lus knife,
The capon fat delights his dainty wife ;
Pudding our parfon eats, the fquire loves hare ;
But white-pot thick is my Buxoma’s fare.
While Ihe loves white-pot, capon ne’er {hail be.
Nor hare, nor beef, nor pudding, food for me.
Lob. As once I play’d at blind man’s buff, it hapt
About my eyes the towel thick was wrapt:
I mifs’d the {wains, and feiz’d on Blouzalind ;
True fpeaks that ancient proverb, Love is blind.
Cud. As at hot-cockles once I laid me down,
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown ;
Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I
Quick rofe, and read foft mifebief in her eye.
Lob. On two near elms the flacken’d cord I .rung ,
Now high, now low, my Blouzalinda fwung j
239
PaftoraL
i Wag-
jiihly.
T R Y.
With the rude wind her rumpled garment rofe,
And fliow’d her taper leg and fcarlet hofe. _
Cud. Acrofs the Men oak the plank I laid.
And myfelf pois’d againft the tott’ring maid !
High leapt the plank, and down Buxoma fell ;
I ipy’d—-but faithful fweethearts never tell.
Lob. This riddle, Cuddy, if thou canft, explain,
This wily riddle puzzles every fwain :
What jtoiv'r is that ’which bears the virgin's name, , M
The richejl metal joined with the fame . gold.
Cud. Anfwcr, thou carle, and judge this riddle right,
I’ll frankly own thee for a cunning wight:
What fow'r is that which royal honour craves.
Adjoin the virgin, and’tis frown on graves \ ? _ m
Clod. Forbear, contending louts, give o eryour {trains;
An oaken ftaff each merits for his pains.
But fee the fun-beams bright to labour warn,
And gild the thatch of goodman Hodge’s barn.
Your herds for want of water ftand a-diy ;
They’re weary of your fongs—and fo am I.
We have given the rules ufually laid down for pafto¬
ral writing, and exhibited fome examples written on this
plan ; but we have to obferve, that this poem may take
very different forms. It may appear either as a comedy
or as a ballad. As a paftoral comedy, there * perhaps
nothing which poffeffes equal merit with Ramfay s
Gent/e Shepherd, and we know not where to find m any
language a rival to the Paf oral Ballad of Shenffone.
That the excellence of this poem is great can hardly be
queftioned, fince it compelled a critic, who was never la-
vifh of bis praife, and who on all occafions was ready
to vilify the paftoral, to exprefs himfelf in tenns o«
high encomium. “ In the firft part (fays he) are two
paffages, to which if any mind denies its fympathy, it
has no acquaintance with love or nature :
I priz’d every hour that went by,
Beyond all that had pleas’d me before ; .
But now they are paft, and I figh,
And I grieve that I priz’d them no more.
When forc’d the fair nymph to forego.
What anguifti I felt in my heart!
Yet I thought—but it might not be fo,
’Twas with pain that Ihe faw me depart.
She gaz’d, as I {lowly withdrew,
My path I could hardly difeern ;
So fweetly ftie bade me adieu,
I thought that Ihe bade me icturn.
«« In the fecond (continues the fame critic) this paffagfr
has its prettinefs, though it be not equal to the for¬
mer
Hi1
Shenuoii?j
I have found out a gift for my fair ;
I have found where the wood-pigeons breed r
But kt me that plunder forbear,
She would fay ’twas a barbarous deed :
For lie ne’er could be true, fne averr’d,
Who could rob a poor bird of its young ;
And I lov’d her the more when I heard
Such tendernefs fall from her tongue.
Sect. V. Of DidaBic or Preceptive Poetry.
The method of writing precepts in verfe, and
belli filing them with the graces oi poetry, had its ni ^
we may fuppofe, from a due confideration of the
146
24°
P O ' E
I U»ia<Sk. ties and perverfencfs of human nature ; and was intend-
ed to engage the affe&ions, in order to improve the
mind and amend the heart.
Dida&ie or preceptive poetry, has been ufually em¬
ployed either to illuftrate and explain oAr moral duties,
our philofophical inquiries, our bulinefs and pleafures.;
or in teaching the art of criticifm or poetjy itfelf. It
may be adapted, however, to any other fubjeft; and
.may in all cafes, where inftru&ion is defigned, be em¬
ployed to good purpofe. Some fubjects, indeed, are
more proper than others, as they admit of more poe¬
tical ornaments, and give a greater latitude to genius ;
but whatever the fubject is, tbofe precepts are to be
laid down that are the moft ufeful; and they (hould
follow each other in a natural eafy method, and be de¬
livered in the moft agreeable engaging manner. What
the profe writer tells you ought to be done, the poet
often conveys under the form of a narration, or ftiows
the necelfity of in a defcription ; and by reprefenting
the aftion as done, or doing, conceals the precept that
fhould enforce it. The poet likewife, inftead of tell-
ipg.the whole truth, or laying down all the rules that
are requifite, felects fuch parts only as are the moft
pleafing, and communicates the reft indiredlly, with¬
out giving us an open view of them ; yet takes care
that nothing- iliall efcape the reader’s notice with which
he ought to be acquainted. He difclofes juft enough
to lead the imagination into the parts that are conceal¬
ed ; and the mind, ever gratified with its own difco-
veries, is complimented with exploring and finding them
out; which, though done with eafe, feems fo confide-
rable, as not to be obtained but in confequence of its own
*47 j adroitnefs and fagacity.
obferved iu ^i3 i8 not Sufficient to render didaftic poetry
ks compo- always pleafing : for where precepts are laid down one
fetion. after another, and the poem is of confiderable length,
the mind will require fome recreation and refrefiiment
by the way ; which is to be procured by feafonable
moral reflexions, pertinent remarks, familiar fimilies,
and defcriptions naturally introduced, by allufions to
ancient hiltories or fables, and by fhort and pleafant
digreffions and excurfions into more noble fubjeXs, fo
aptly brought in, that they may feem to have a re¬
mote relation, and be of a piece with the poem. By
thus varying the form of mftruftion, the poet gives
life to his precepts, and awakens and fecures our at¬
tention, without permitting us to fee by what means we
are thus captivated: and his art is the more to be ad¬
mired, becaufe it is fo concealed as to efcape the
reader’s obfervation.
The ftyle, too, muft maintain a dignity fuitable to
the fubjeX, and every part be drawn in fuch lively
colours, that the things deferibed may feem as if pre-
fented to the reader’s view.
But all this will appear more evident from example ;
and though entire poems of this kind are not within
the compafs of our defign, we ftiall endeavour to feleX
iuch paffages as will be fufficient to illuftrate the rules
we have here laid down.
We have already obferved, that, according to the
ufual diviilons, there are four kinds of didaXic poems,
viz. thofe that refpeX our moral duties, our philofo-
.phical fpecillations, our bufmefs and pleafures, or that
give precepts for poetry and criticifm.
I. On the firft fubjeX, indeed, we have fcarce any thing
TRY. part: ij\
that deferves the name of poetry, except Mr Pope’s Bidaftr.*
I'l/fty on Alan, his Ethic EpiJUes, Blackmore’s Creation,  j
and part of Young’s Night Thoughts ; to which there¬
fore we refer as examples.
II. Thofe ipreceptive poems that concern philofophi¬
cal {peculations, though the fubjeX is fo pregnant
with matter, affords .fuch a field for fancy, and is fo
capable of every decoration, are but few. Lucretius
is the moft confiderable among the ancients who has
written in this manner ; among the moderns we have
little elfe but fmall detached pieces, except the poem
-called Anti-Lucretius., which has not yet received an
Englifh drefs; Dr Akenfide’s Pleafures of the Imagination,
and Dr Darwin’s Botanic Garden ; which are all wor¬
thy of our admiration. Some of the fmall pieces in this
department are alfo well executed; and there is one en¬
titled the Univerfe, written by Mr Baker, from which we
fhall borrow an example.
The author’s fcheme is in fome meafure coincident with
Mr Pope’s, fo far efpecially as it tends to reltrain the
pride of man, with which defign it was profefledlv written.
The paflhge we have feleXed is that refpeXing the
planetary fyftem.
Unwife 1 and thoughtlefs ! impotent! and blind ! Examples
Can wealth, or grandeur, fatisfy the mind ? 111 dlcb&is
Of all thofe pleafures mortals moft admire, ^0£tr^’
Is there one joy fincere, that will not tire ?
Can love itfelf endure r or beauty’s charms
Afford that blifs we fancy in its arms ?—
Then, let thy foul more glorious aims purfue :
Have thy Creator and his works in view.
Be thefe thy ftudy : hence thy pleafures bring :
And drink large draughts of wifdom from its fpring;
That fpring, whence perfeX joy, and calm repofe.
And blell content, and peace eternal, flows.
Obferve how regular the planets run,
In ftated times, their courfes round the Sun.
Diff’rent their bulk, their diftance, their career,
And diff'rent much the compafs of their year :
Yet all the fame eternal laws obey,
While God’s unerring finger points the way.
Fxrft Mercury, amidft full tides of light.
Rolls next the fun, through his fmall circle bright.
All that dwell here muft be refin’d and pure :
Bodies like ours fuch ardour can’t endure :
Our earth would blaze beneath fo fierce a ray,
And all its marble mountains melt away.
Fair Venus, next, fulfils her larger round,
With fofter beams, and milder glory crown’d.
Friend to mankind, ftie glitters from afar,
Now the bright ev’ning, now the morning ftar.
More diftant ftill, our earth comes rolling on.
And forms a wider circle round the fun :
With her the moon, companion ever dear !
Her courfe attending through the ftiining year.
See, Mars, alone, runs his appointed race,
And meafures out, exaX, the deftin’d fpace :
Nor nearer does he wind, nor farther ftray.
But finds the point whence firft he roll’d away.
More yet remote from day’s all-cheering fource,
Vaft Jupiter performs his conftant courfe :
Four friendly moons, with borrow’d luftre, rife,
Beftow their beams divine, and light his fkies.
Fartheft and laft, fcarce warm’d by Phoebus’ ray.
Through his vaft orbit Saturn wheels away.
How
Part II. ^ ° ^
Pi iaiftic. How great the change cmtM wc be wafted there!
     How flow the feafons! and how long the year !
One moon, on us, refle&s its cheerful light:
There, live attendants brighten up the night.
Here, the blue firmament bedeck d with liars ;
There, over-head, a lucid arch appears. _ >
From hence, how large,how ftrong,the fun’s bright bah!
But feen from thence, how languid and how fmall! —
When the keen north with ail its fury blows,
Congeals the floods, and forms the fleecy inows,
’Tis\eat intenfe to what can there be known :
Warmer our poles than is its burning zone.
Who there inhabit mull have other pow’rs,
Juices, and veins, and fenfe, and life, than ours.
One moment’s cold, like theirs, would pierce the bone,
Freeze the heart-blood, and turn us all to hom.
Strange and amazing mull the diff’rence be
-'Twixt this dull planet and bright Mercury :
Yet reafon fays, nor can we doubt at all,
Millions of beings dwell on either ball,
With conftitutions fitted for that fpot.
Where providence, all-wife, has fix a their lot.
Wondrous art thou, O God, in ad thy ways !
Their eyes to thee let all thy creatures raife ;
Adore thy grandeur, and thy goodnefs praife.
Ye fons of men ! with fatisfaclion know,
God’s own right hand difpenfes ail below :
Hor good nor evil Goes by chance befall;
He reigns fupreme, and he directs it all.
At his command, affrighting human-kind.
Comets drag on their blazing lengths behind:
Nor, as we think, do they at random rove.
But, in determin’d times,' through long ellipfes move.
And tho’ fometimes they near approach the fun,
Sometimes beyond our fyftem’s orbit run ; ^
Throughout their race they aft their Maker s will,
His pow’r declare, liis purpofes tulnl.
HI. Of tbofe preceptive poems that treat of the
• bufmefs and pleafures of mankind, Virgil’s Georgies
claim our firit and principal attention. In thefe he
has laid down the rules of hufbandry in all its branches
with the lit moil exaftnefs and perfpicuity, and at the
lame time embelliflied them with all the beauties and
graces of poetry. Though his fubjeft was hufbandry,
lie has delivered his precepts, as Mr Addifon obferves,
not with the iimplicity of a ploughman, but with the
nddrefs of a poet: the meaneil of Iris rules are laid
down witli a kind of grandeur ; and he breaks the clods,
and tnffes about the dung, <with an air of graccfninefs. Of
the different ways of conveying the fame truth to the
•mind, he takes that which is pleafanteil ; and this chief¬
ly ditlinguiihes poetry from profe, and renders Virgil s
rules of hufbandry more delightful and valuable than any
■other.
Thefe poems, which are efteemed the moil perfeft
of the author’s works, are, perhaps, the bell that can
be propoleu for the young iludent’s imitation in this
manner of writing ; for the whole of his Georgies is
wrought up with wonderful art, and decorated with
all the flowers of poetry.
IV. Of thofe poems which give precepts for the re¬
creations and pleafures of a country life, we have feve-
ral in our own language that are juftly admired. As
the moll conliderable of thofe diverfions, however, are
Voi. XV. Part 1.
T R Y. *4*
finely treated by Mr Gay m his Rural Sports, xH pur- Didadk.
ticularly refer to that poem. _ "’f
We fhould here treat of thofe preceptive poems that
teach the art of poetry itfelf, of which there are many
that deferve particular attention ; but we have antici¬
pated our deiignj and rendered any farther notice of
them in a manner ufelefs, by the cbfervations we have
made in the courfe of this treatiie. We ought how¬
ever to remark, that Horace was the only poet among
the ancients who wrote precepts for poetry in verfe ;
at leail his epiftle to the Pifos is the only piece of the
kind that has been handed down to us; and that is fo
perfeft, it feems almoft to have precluded the neceffity
of any other. Among the moderns we have feveral
that are jullly admired ; as Boileau, Pope, &c.
Poets' who write in the preceptive manner fiiould
take care to choofe fuch fubjefts as are worthy of their
mufe, and of ccnfequence to all mankind ; for to be¬
llow both parts and pains to teach people trifles that
are unworthy of their attention, is to the kill degree
ridiculous.
Among poems of the ufeful and interefting kind.
Dr > rmftrong’s drt of Prefer’vmg Health deferves par¬
ticular recommendation, as well in confideration of
the fubjeft, as of the elegant and malterly manner in
which he has treated it; for he has made thofe things,
which are in their own nature dry and unentertaining,
perfeftfy agreeable and pleafing, by adhering to the
rules obferved by Virgil and others, in the conduft of
thefe poems.
With regard to the ilyle or drefs of thefe poems, ts proper
it fliould be fo rich as to hide the nakednefs of the ftyle.
fubjeft, and the barrennefs of the precepts fliould be
loll in the luftre of the language. “ It ought to a- c»
bound in the molt bold and forcible metaphors, the nidi,(He
moft glowing and pifturefque epithets ; it ou/ht to be
elevated and enlivened by pomp of numbers and ma-
jtfty of words, and by every figure that can lift a lan¬
guage above the vulgar and current exprelhons.” One
mav add, that in no kind of poetry (not even in the
fublime ode) is beauty of exprellidn fo much to be re¬
garded as in this. Fpr the epic writer fliould be very
cautious of indulging himfelf in too florid a manner of
exprefiion, efpecially in the dramatic parts of his fable,
where he introduces dialogue : and the writer of tra¬
gedy cannot fall into fo naufeous and unnatural an af-
feftation, as to put laboured deferiptions, pompous epi¬
thets, lludied phrafes, and high-flown metaphors, into
the mouths of his charafters. But as the didaftic
poet fpeaks in his own perfon, it is neceflary and pro¬
per for him to ufe a brighter colouring of ftyle, and
to be more lludious of ornament. And this is agree¬
able to an admirable precept of Arillotle, which no
writer Ihould ever forget,—“ That diftion ou ht molt
to be laboured in the unaftive, that is, the deferip-
tive, parts of a poem, in which the opinions, manners,
and paffions of men are not reprefented ; for too gla¬
ring an exprefilon obfeures the manners and the fenti-
ments.”
We have already obferved that any thing in nature
may be the fubjeft of this poem. Some things how¬
ever wall appear to more advantage than others, as
they give a greater latitude to genius, and admit of
more poetical ornaments. Natural luftory and philo-
fophv are conious fubjefts.' Precepts in thefe might
Hh be
243 POE
EpMle. Jjc jecoi-ated with all the flowers in poetry; and, as
W ^ .Dr Trapp obferves, how can poetry be better employ¬
ed, or more agreeably to its nature and dignity, than
in celebrating the works of the great Creator, and de-
fcribing the nature and generation of animals, vege¬
tables, and minerals ; the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies ; the motions of the earth ; the flux and reflux
of the fea ; the caufe of thunder, lightning, and other
meteors ; the attraction of the magnet; the gravitation,
cohefion, and repulfxon of matter ; the impullive mo¬
tion of light; the flow progveflion of founds ; and other
amazing phenomena of nature ? Moll of the arts and
fciences are alfo proper fubje&s for this poem; and
none are more fo than its two filter arts, painting and
mufic. In the former, particularly, there is rodm for
the molt entertaining precepts concerning the difpofal
of colours ; the arrangement of lights and {hades ; the
fecret attraftives of beauty ; the various ideas which
make up the one ; the diltinguilhing between the atti¬
tudes proper to either fex, and every pallion ; the re-
prefenting profpe6ls of buildings, battles, or the coun¬
try ; and lallly, concerning the nature of imitation,
and the power of painting. What a boundlefs field of
invention is here ? What room for defcription, compa-
rifon, and poetical fable ? How eafy the tranfition, at
any time, from the draught to the original, from the
fliadow to the fubftance ? and from hence, what noble
excurfions may be made into hillory, into panegyric
upon the greatell beauties or heroes of the pail or pre-
fent age l.
Sect. VI. Of the Epiflle.
The cha- This fpecies of writing, if we are permitted to lay
theV/le ^own ru^es from the examples of our bed poets, ad-
^ P L - mjts 0f grcat latitude, and folicits ornament and deco¬
ration : yet the poet is Hill to confider, that the true
charadler of the epillle is eafe- and elegance ; nothing
therefore Ihould be forced or unnatural, laboured, or
affedled, but every part of the compofition Ihould breathe
an eafy, polite, and unconllrained freedom.
It is fuitable to every fubjedt ^ for as the epiltle
takes place of difeourfe, and is intended as a fort of
dillant converfation, all the affairs of life and refearches
into nature may be introduced. Thofe, however, which
are fraught with compliment or condolence, that con¬
tain a defcription of places, or are full of pertinent
remarks, and in a familiar and humorous way deferibe
the manners, vices, and follies of mankind, are the
bell ; becaufe they are moft fuitable to the true cha-
radler of epiftolary writing, and (bufinefs fet apart)
are the ufual fubjedts upon which our letters are em¬
ployed.
All farther rules and diredtions are unneceffary ; for
this kind of writing is better learned by example and
pradhee than by precept. We fhall therefore, in con¬
formity to our plan, feledt a few epiftles for the reader’s
imitation ; which, as this method of writing has of
late much prevailed, may be bell taken, perhaps, from
our modern poets.
The following, letter from Mr Addifon to Lord Ha¬
lifax, contains an elegant defcription of the curiofities
and places about Rome, together with fuch refledtions
.on the ineftimable bleflings of liberty as mull give plea-
fare to every Batons efpecially wdien he fees them thus
TRY.
placed in diredt oppofition to the baneful influence of
flavery and opprelfion, which are ever to be feen among
the miferable inhabitants of thofe countries.
While you, my lord, the rural {hades admire,
And from Britannia’s public polls retire,
Nor longer, her ungrateful fons to pleafe,
For their advantage facrifice your eafe ;
Me into foreign realms my fate conveys,
Through nations fruitful of Immortal lays,
Where the foft feafon and inviting clime
Confpire to trouble your repofe with rhime.
For wherefoe’er I turn my ravifh’d eyes,
Gay gilded feenes and fhining profpedts rife.
Poetic fields encompafs me around,
And ffill I feem to tread on clafiie ground ;
For here the mufe fo oft her harp has lining,
That not a mountain rears its head unfung,
Renown’d in verfe each lhady thicket grows,
And ev’ry ftream in heav’nly numbers flows.
Howr am I pleas’d to fearch the hills and woods
For rifing fprings and celebrated floods ;
To view the Nar, tumultuous in his courfe,
And trace the fmooth Clitumnus to his fource;
To fee the Mincia draw its wat’ry llore
Through the long windings of a fruitful Ihore,
And hoary Albula’s infedled tide
O’er the warm bed of fmoking fulphur glide !
Fir’d with a thoufand raptures, I furvey
Eridanus thro’ flow'ry meadows ftray,
The king of floods ! that, rolling o’er the plains.
The tow’ring Alps of half their moiflure drains.
And, proudly fwoln with a whole winter’s fnowv
Diilributes wealth and plenty where he flows.
Sometimes, mifguided by the tuneful throng,
I look for llreams immortaliz’d in fong,
That loll in filence and oblivion lie,
(Dumb are their fountains and their channels dry)
Yet run for ever by the mufe’s Ikill,
And in the fmooth defcription murmur Hill.
Sometimes to gentle Tiber 1 retire.
And the fam’d river’s empty flrores admire,
That, ddlitute of Hrength, derives its courfe
From thirlly urns, and an unfruitful fource;
Yet fung fo often in poetic lays,
With fcorn the Danube and the Nile furveys ;
So high the deathlefs mufe exalts her theme !
Such was the Boyn, a poor inglorious llream.
That in Hibernian vales obfeurely llray’d.
And unobferv’d in wild meanders play’d ;
Till, by your lines, and Naffau’s fword renown’d,-
Its rifing billows through the world refound,
Where’er the hero’s godlike a6ls can pierce,
Or where the fame of an immortal verfe.
Oh cou’d the mufe my ravilh’d brealt infpire
With warmth like yours, and raife an equal fire.
Unnumber’d beauties in my verfe Ihould Ihine,
And Virgil’s Italy fliould yield to mine !
See how the golden groves around me fmile,
That {hun the coafts of Britain’s ftormy life,
Or when tranfplanted and preferv’d with care,
Curfe the cold clime, and ilarve in northern air.
Here kindly warmth their mounting juice ferments
To nobler taftes, and more exalted {cents:
Ev’n the rough rocks with tender myrtles bloom,
And trodden weeds fend out a rich perfume.
Bear
Part II,
IJ!
Examples
in epi Sa¬
lary poetry
from Addi.
ton,
Part IT.
Epiftle.
P O E
Bear me, feme god, to Baia’s gentle feats,
Or cover me in Umbria’s green retreats ;
Where weftern gales eternally refide,
And all the feafons laviHr all their pride :
Bloffoms, and fruits, and flow’rs together rife,
And the whole year in gay confufion lies.
Immortal glories in my mind revive,
And in my foul a thoufand paffions ftrive.
When Rome’s exalted beauties I defery
Magnificent in piles of ruin lie..
An amphitheatre’s amazing height
Here fills my eye with terror and delight,
That on its public (hows unpeopled Rome,
And held uncrowded nations in its womb : '
Here pillars rough with fculpture pierce the flues ;
And here the proud triumphal arches rife,
Where the old Romans deathlefs adts difplay’d,
Their bafe degenerate progeny upbraid :
Whole rivers here forfake the fields below,
And wond’ring at their height thro’ airy channels flow.
Still to new feenes my wand’ring mufe retires ;
A nd the dumb fhow of breathing rocks admires ;
Where the fmooth duffel all its force has fhown,
And foften’d into flefh the rugged done.
In folemn filence, a majeflic band,
Heroes, and gods, and Roman confuls Hand,
Stern tyrants, whom their cruelties renown,
And emperors in Parian marble frown ;
While the bright dames, to whom they humbly fu’d,
Still fhow the charms that their proud hearts fubdu’d.
Fain would I Raphael’s godlike art rehearfe,
And fhow th’ immortal labours in my verfe,
Where from the mingled ftrength of fhade and light
A new creation rifes to my fight,
Such heav’nly figures from his pencil flow.
So warm with life his blended colours glow.
From theme to theme with fecret pleafure toft,
Amidft the foft variety I’m loft.
Here pleafing airs my raviih'd foul confound
With circling notes and labyrinths of found ;
Here domes and temples rife in diftant views,
And opening palaces invite my mufe.
How has kind heav’n adorn’d the happy land,
And fcatter’d bleflings with a wafteful hand !
But what avail her unexhaufted ftores,
Her blooming mountains, and her funny fhores,
With all the gifts that heav’n and earth impart,
The fmiles of nature,'and the charms of art,
While proud oppreffion in her valleys reigns,
And tyranny ufurps her happy plains ?
The poor inhabitant beholds in vain
The red’ning orange and the fwelling grain :
Joylefs he fees the growing oils and wines,
And in the myrtle’s fragrant fhade repines :
-Starves, in the midft of nature’s bounty curft,
And in the loaded vineyard dies for thirft.
O liberty, thou goddefs heav’nly bright,
Profufe of blifs, and pregnant with delight!
Eternal pleafures in thy prefence reign, .
And finding plenty leads thy wanton train :
Eas’d of her load, fubje&ion grows more light,
And poverty looks cheerful in thy fight ;
Thou mak’ft the gloomy face of nature gay,
Giv’ft beauty to the fun, and pleafure to the day.
TRY. 243
Thee, goddefs, thee, Britannia’s iflc adores ; , rT1ic‘ ^ •
How has fhe oft exhaufted all her ftores,
How oft in fields of death thy prefence fought,
Nor thinks the mighty, prize too dearly bought!
On foreign mountain may the fun refine
The grape’s foft juice, and mellow it to wine,
With citron groves adorn a diftant foil,
And the fat olive fwell with floods of oil:
We envy not the warmer clime, that lies
In ten degrees of more indulgent flues, .
Nor at the coarfenefs of our heav’n repine,
Tho’ o’er our heads the frozen Pleiads fhine :
’Tis liberty that crowns Britannia’s ifle, [funk.
And makes her barren rocks and her bleak mountains
Others with tow’ring piles may pleafe the fight.
And in their proud afpiring domes delight;
A nicer touch to the ftretch’d canvas give,
Or teach their animated rocks to live :
’Tis Britain’s care to watch o’er Europe's fate.
And hold in balance each contending ftate,
To threaten bold prefumptuous kings with war,
And anfwer her affli&ed neighbour’s pray’r.
The Dane and Swede, rous’d up by fierce alarms,
Blefs the wife conduft of her pious anus :
Soon as her fleets appear, their terrors ceafe,
And all the northern world lies hulh’d in peace.
Th’ ambitious Gaul beholds with fecret dread
Her thunder aim’d at his afpiring head,
And fain her godlike fons vyould difunite
By foreign gold, or by domeftic fpite;
But ftrives in vain to conquer or divide,
Whom Naffau’s arms defend and counfels guide.
Fir’d with the name, which I fo oft have found
The diftant climes and diff’rent tongues refound,
I bridle in my ftruggling mufe with pain,
That longs to launch into a bolder ftrain.
But I’ve already troubled you too long.
Nor dare attempt a more advent’rous fong :
My humble verfe demands a fofter theme,
A painted meadow, or a purling ftream ;
Unfit for heroes ; whom immortal lays,
And lines like Virgil’s, or like yours, Ihould praife. -
There is a fine fpirit of freedom, and love of liberty,
difplayed in the following letter from Lord Lyttleton
to Mr Pope ; and the meffage from the fhade of Virgil,
which is truly poetical, and juftly preceptive, may prove
an ufeful leffon to future bards.
From Rome, 17 30. 15%
Immortal bard ! for whom each mufe has wove FyttletoB*
The faireft garlands of the Aonian grove ;
Preferv’d, our drooping genius to reftore,
When Addifon and Congreve are no more ;
After fo many liars exthift in night,
The darken’d age's laft remaining light!
To thee from Latian realms this verfe is writ,
Infpir d by memory of ancient wit:
For now no more thefe climes their influence boaft,
Fall’n is their glory, and their virtue loft ;
From tyrants, and from priefts, the mufes fly.
Daug hters of reafon and of liberty.^
Nor Baize now nor Umbria’s plain they love,
Nor on the banks of Nar or Mincia rove ;
To Thames’s flow ry borders they retire,
And kindle in thy breaft the Roman fire.
H h 2
• S^a
244
POE
EpiiVIe. Su ■ n Shades, where cheer’d with fummer rays
Melodious linnets warbled fpri: htly lays,
Soon as the faded, falling leaves complain
Of gloomy winter's inaufpicious reign,
No tuneful' voice is heard of joy or love,
But mournful lilence faddens all the grove.
Unhappy Italy ! whofe alter’d ftate
Has felt the word; feverlty of fate :
Not that barbarian hands her fafces broke,
xAnd bow’d her haughty neck beneath their yoke ;
Nor that her palaces to earth are thrown.
Her cities defert, and her fields unfown ;
But that her ancient fpirit is decay’d,
i hat facred wifdom from her bounds is fled,
That there the fource of fcience flows no more,
Whence its rich ftreams fupply’d the world before.
Illuflrious names ! that once in Latium fhin’d,
Born to inftrudt and to command mankind ;
Chiefs, by whofe virtue mighty Rome was rais’d,
nd poets, who thofe chiefs fublimely prais’d !
Oft I the traces you have left explore,
Your allies vifit, and your urns adore ;
Oft kifs, with lips devout, fome mould’ring flone.
With ivy’s venerable fhade o’ergrown ;
Thofe hallow’d ruins better pleas’d to fee,
1 ban all the pomp of modern luxury.
As late on Virgil s tomb frefh flow’rs I ftrow’d.
While with th’ infpiring mufe my bofom glow’d,
Crown d with eternal bays, my ravifh’d eyes
Beheld the poet s awful form arife:
Stranger, he faid, whofe pious hand has paid
Thefe grateful rites to my attentive fhade,
When thou fhalt breathe thy happy native air,
To Pope this meffage from his matter bear.
Ore t bard, whofe numbers I myfelf infpire,
To whom I gave my own harmonious lyre,
If high exalted on the throne of wit,
Near me and Homer thou afpire to fit,
No more let meaner fatire dim the rays
That flow majeftic from thy noble hays.
In all the flow'ry paths of Pitidus ftray :
But fhun that thorny, that unpleafing way ;
Nor, when each foft engaging mufe is thine,
Addrefs the leaf! attractive of the nine.
Of thee more worthy were the talk to raife
A lafting column to thy country’s praife,
To fing the land, which yet alone can boafl
That liberty corrupted Rome has loft;
Where fcience in the arms of peace is laid,
And plants her palm beneath the olive s fhade.
Such was the theme for which my lyre I ftrung.
Such was the people whofe exploits I fung ;
Brave, yet refin d, for arms and arts renown’d,
With dift rent bays by Mars and Phcebus crown'd,
iDauntlefs oppofers of tyrannic fway,
But pleas d a mdd Augustus to cbey.
If thefe commands fubmifiive thou receive,
Immortal and unblam’d thy name fhall live ;
Envy to black Cocytus fhall retire.
And howl with furies in tormenting fire ;
Approving time fhall confecrate thy lays.
And join the patriot’s to the poet’s praife.
The following letter from Mr Philips to the earl of
Dorfet is entirely defcriptive ; but is one of thofe de-
fcriptions which will be ever read with delight.
TRY.
Copsnhagen, March 9. 1709,
From frozen.climes, and endlefs trails of fnow,
From ftreams which northern winds forbid to flow.
What prefent fhall the mufe to Dorfet bring.
Or how, fo near the pole, attempt to fing ?
T he hoaiy winter here conceals fight
All pleafing objecfs which to verfe invite.
The hills and dales, and the delightful woods.
The flow'ry plains, and filver-ftreaming floods,
By fnow difguis’d, in bright confufion lie.
And with one dazzling wafte fatigue the eye.
No gentle breathing breeze prepares the fpringy
No birds within the defert region fing:
The fhips, unmov’d, the boift’rous winds defv.
While rattling chariots o’er the ocean fly.
The vafl Leviathan wants room to play,
AjidTpout his waters in the face of day :
The flarving wolves along the main fea fprowl.
And to the moon in icy valleys howl.
O’er many a fhining league the level main
Here fpreads itfelf into a glafly plain :
There folid billows of enormous fize,
Alps of green ice, in wild diforder rife.
A nd yet but lately have I leen, ev’n here,
The wkiter in a lovely drefs appear.
Ere yet the clouds let fall the treafur’d fnow.
Or winds began through hazy ikies to blow.
At ev'ning a keen eaftern breeze arofe,
And the defcending rain unfully’d froze ;
Soon as the lilent fhades of night withdrew.
The ruddy morn difclos d at once to view
The face of nature in a rich diiguife,
d nd brighten d ev’ry objedt to my eyes :
For ev'ry fhrub, and ev’ry blade of grafs,
/"■nd ev’ry pointed thorn, feem’d wrought in glafs f.
In pearls and rubies rich the hawthorns fhow,
While through the ice the crimfon berries glow.
The thick fprung reeds, which watery marfhes yield.
Seem’d poliflr d lances in a hoflile field.
The flag in limpid currents with furprife.
Sees cryftal branches on his forehead rife :
The fpreading oak, the beech, and tow’ring pine.
Glaz’d over, in the freezing aether fhine.
The frighted birds the rattling branches fhun.
Which wave and glitter in the dittant fun.
"When if a fudden gull of wind arife,
The brittle forefl into atoms flies.
The crackling woods beneath the tempeft bends,
A nd in a fpangled fliower the profpedt ends :
Or, if a i'outhern gale the region warm,
A nd by degrees unbend the wint’iy charm.
The traveller a miry country fees,
A nd journey fad beneath the dropping trees ;
Like fome deluded peafant Merlin leads
Thro fragrant bow’rs and thro delicious meads,
"While here enchanted gardens to him rife,
And airy fabrics there attract his eyes,
His wandering feet the magic paths purfue,
A nd while he thinks the fair iilufion true,
The tracklafs fcenes difperfe in fluid air,
And woods, and wilds, and thorny ways appear ;
A tedious road the weary wretch returns,
And, as he goes, the tranfient vifion mourns.
The great ufe of medals is properly defcribed in the
enfuing degant epiflle from Mr Pope to Mr Addiion j
and
Part IT.
Epifilo.
Philios-
and. *
art II
I-piule.
I <4
Vopc.
POE
and the extravagant paiTion which fame peopie enter¬
tain only for the colour of them, is very agreeably and
very juftly ridiculed.
See the wild wafte of all devouring years!
How Rome her own fed fepulchre appears 1
With nodding arches, broken temples Ipread .
The very tombs now vanifh like their dead 1
Imperial wonders rais’d on nations fpoil d,
Where mix’d with Haves the groaning martyr toil d .
Huge theatres, that now unpeopled woods,
Now drain’d a diftant country _of her floods !
Fanes, which admiring gods with pride furvey.
Statues of men, fcarce lefs alive than they !
Some felt the filent flroke of mould’ring age,
Some hoftile fury, fome religious rage ; .
Barbarian blindnefs, Chriitian zeal confpxre,
And papal piety, and Gothic file.
Perhaps, by its own ruin fav d from flame,
Some bury d maible half preferves a name .
That name the learn’d with fierce difputes purfue.
And give to Titus old Vefpaiian’s due.
Ambition figh’d : She found it vain to truit
The faithlefs column and the crumbling bull;.
Huge moles, whofe fliadow ftretch dfrom fhore to ihore,
Their ruins nerifh’d, and their place no moie .
Convinc'd, fee now contrafts her vaft defign.
And all her triumphs fhrink into a coin.
A narrow orb each crowded conquell Keeps,.
Beneath her palm here fad Judaea weeps j
Now fcantier limits the proud arch confine, _
And fcarce are feen the proflrate Nile or RhmCi;
A fmall Euphrates through the piece is roll d,
And little eagles wave their wings in gold.
The medal, faithful to its charge of fame,
Through climes and ages bears each form and name t
In one fhovt view fubjefted to our eye,
Gods, emp'rors, heroes, fages, beauties, ha.
With fharpen d light pale antiquaries pore,
Th’ infeription value, but the ruft adore.
This the blue varnifh, that the green endears,
The fecred ruft of twice ten hundred years !
To gain Prefcennius one employs his fchemes,
One o rafps a Cecrops in ecftatic di earns.
Poor Vadius, long with learned fpleen devour d,
Can tafte no pleafure fince his fhield wasfeour d :
And Curio, reftlefs by the fair one’s fide,
Sighs for an Otho, and neglefts his bride.
Their’s is the vanity, the learning thine: _
Touch’d by thy hi nd, again Rome’s glories fhme ;
Her gods and god like heroes rife to view,
And all her faded garlands bloom anew.
Nor blufh thefe (Indies thy regard engage ;
Thefe pleas d the fathers of poetic rage;
The verfe and fculpture bore an equal part,
A nd art refle&ed images to art.
Oh when fhall Britai.% confcious ofher claim,
Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame ?
In living medals fee her wars enroll d,
And vanquifh'd realms fupply recording gold .
Here, rifmg bold, the patriot s honeft face ;
There, warriors frowning in hiftoric biafs?
Then future ages with delight fhall fee
How Plato’s, Bacon's, Newton’s, looks agree}
Or in fair ieries laurell d bards be fhown,
A Virgil there, and here an Addifon.
T R Y,
Then (hall thy Graggs (and let me call him mine)
On the call ore, another Pollio fhine ;
With afpeft open fhall ereft his head,
And round the orb in lading notes be read,
« Statefmzn, yet friend to truth ! of foul finccre,
«< In action faithful, and in honour clear ;
« Who broke no promife, ferv’d no private end,
«* Who gain’d no title, and who loft no friend;
“ Ennobled by himfelf, by all approv’d, ^
“ Prais d, wept, and honour’d, by the mufe he lov d.
We have already obferved, that the effential, and
indeed the true charaaeriftic of epiftolary writing, is
eaie ; and on this account, as well as others, the fol¬
lowing letter from Mr Pope to Mifs Blount is to be ad¬
mired.
To Mifs Blount, on her leaving the Town after the Co¬
ronation.
As fome fond virgin, whom her mother’s care
J)ra<rs from the town to wholefome country air ;
Juft when fee learns to roll a melting eye,
And hear a fpark, yet think no danger nigh ;
From the dear man unwilling fee muft fever,
Yet takes one kifsbefore fee parts forever :
Thus from the world fair Zephalmda flew,
Saw others happy, and with fighs withdrew :
Not that their pleafures caus’d hei difeontent ;
She figh’d, not that they flay’d, but that fee went.
She wrent, to plain-work, and to puiling brooks,
Old-fafeion’d halls, dull aunts, and croaking rooks :
She went from op’ra, park, affembly, play,
To morning-walks, and pray’rs three hours a-day ;
To part her time ’twixt reading and bohea,
To mufe, and fpill her folitary tea,
Or o’er cold coffee trifle with the fpoon.
Count the flow clock, and dine exaft at noon;
Divert her eyes with pictures in the fire,
Hum half a tune, tell ftories to the ’fquire ;
Up to her godly garret after feven.
There flarve and pray, for that s the waj to heav n„
Some ’fquire, perhaps, you take delight to iac^ 5
Whofe game is whifk, whofe treat’s a toaft in lack ;
Who vifits with a gun, prefents you birds,
Then gives a fmacking bufs, and cries,—no words !
Or with his hound comes hollowing from the (table.
Makes love with nods, and knees beneath a table ;
Whofe laughs are hearty, tho’ his jells are coarfe.
And loves you bed of all things—but his horfe.
In fome fair ev’ning, on your elbow laid,
You dream of triumphs in the rural (hade ;
In penftve thought recal the fency’d feene.
See coronations rife on every green ;
Before you pafs th’ imaginary lights
Of lords, and earls, and dukes, and garter d knights,
While the fpread fan o’erfeades your cioang eyes ;
Then give one flirt, and all the vifion flies.
Thus vanife feeptres, coronets, and balls.
And leave you in lone woods, or empty walls !
So when your Have, at fome dear idle time,
(Not plagu d with head-achs, or the want of rhyme)
Stands in the ftreets, abftra&ed from the crew,
And while he feems to itudy, thinks of you ;
Juft when his fancy points your fprightly eyes,
Or fees the blufe of loft Parthenia rife, ^
245
Epiftle.
246
POE
Defcriptive.
Gay pats my iTioulder, and you vanifh quite,
Streets, chairs, and coxcombs, rufh upon my tight;
Vex’d to be ft ill in town, I knit my brow,
Look four, and hum a tune, as you may now.
Sect. VII. Of Defcrlptive Poetry.
Defcriptive Descriptive poetry is of univerfal ufe, ftnce there
puetry. is nothing in nature but what may be defcribed. As
poems of this kind, however, are intended more to, de¬
light than to inftruft, great care thould be taken to
nuake them agreeable. Defcriptive poems are made beau¬
tiful by fimilies properly introduced, images of feigned
perfons, and allulions to ancient fables or hiftorical facts;
as will appear by a perufal of the beft of thefe poems,
efpecially Milton’s L’Allegro and II Penferofo, Den¬
ham’s Cooper Hill, and Pope’s Windfor ForeJL Every
■body being in pofteflion of Milton’s works, we forbear
inierting the two former ; and the others are too long
for our purpofe. That inimitable poem, The Seafons,
by Mr Thomfon, notwithftanding feme parts of it are
didactic, may be alfo with propriety referred to this
head.
Sect. VIII. Of Allegorical Poetry.
tyf>
Origin of Lovld truth engage the affeftions of mankind in
allegorical her native and fimple drefs, die would require no orna-
paetry. ment or aid from the imagination ; but her delicate
light, though lovely in itfelf, and dear to the moft dif-
cerning, does not ftrike the fenfes of the multitude fo
as to recure their efteem and attention: the poets there¬
fore dreffed her up in the manner in which they thought
flic would appear the moft amiable, and called in alle¬
gories and airy difguifes as her auxiliaries in the caufe
of virtue.
_ An allegory is a fable or {lory, in which, under the
difguife of imaginary perfons or things, fome real adtion
or inftruflive moral is conveyed to the mind. Every
,57 allegory therefore has two fenfes, the one literal and the
Its charac- other myftical; the firft has been aptly enough com-
ter. pared to a dream or vilion, of which the laft is the true
meaning or interpretation.
From this definition of allegorical poetry the reader
will perceive that it gives great latitude to genius, and
affords fuch a boundlefs fcope for invention, that the
poet is allowed to foar beyond all creation ; to give life
and aftion to virtues, vices, pafifions, difeafes, and natu¬
ral and moral qualities; to raife floating iflands, enchant¬
ed palaces, caftles, &c. and to people them with the
creatures of his own imagination.
The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,
Doth glance from heav’n to earth,"from earth to heav’n;
And, as imagination bodies forth
I he forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen
I urns them to fliape, and gives to airy nothing
A local habitation and a name. Shakespeare.
But whatever is thus railed by the magic of
mind muft be vif]om,,-y and typical, and the myftical fei
muft appear obvious to the reader, and inculcate foi
moral or ufeful Mon in life , otherwife the whole v
be deemed rather the effefts of a diftempered brain, tl:
ihe produftions of real wit and genius. The poet, li
3afon, may fad to parts unexplored, but will meet w
T Y- Pan If,
no applaufe if he returns without a golden fleece ; for Allegoric,.1,
thefe romantic reveries would be unpardonable but for \
the myftical meaning and moral that is thus artfully and
agreeably conveyed with them, and on which account
only the allegory is indulged with a greater liberty than
any other fort of writing.
i he ancients juftly confidered this fort of alltfgory as
the moft effential part of poetry ; for the power of rai-
fing images of things not in being, giving them a fort
of life and a£lion, and prefenting them as it were before
the eyes, was thought to have fomerfiing in it like cre¬
ation . but then, in fuch compofitions, they always ex¬
pedited to find a meaning couched under them of confe-
quence ; and we may reafonably conclude, that the al¬
legories of their poets would never have been handed
down to us, had they been deficient in this refpedft.
As ^ the fab/e is the part immediately offered to the EfTwitialj
reader’s confideration, and intended as an agreeable ve-ofajua
hide to convey the moral, it ought to be bold, lively, fab^‘
and furpriling, that it may excite cunofity and fupport
attention ; for if the fable be fpiritlefs and barren of in¬
vention, the attention will be difengaged, and the mo¬
ral, however ufeful and important in itfelf, will be little
regarded.
Iheie muft hkewife be a juftnefs and propriety ia
the fable, that is, it muft be clofely conneded with the
fubjed on which it is employed ; for notwithftanding
the boundlefs compafs allowed the imagination in thefe
writings, nothing abfurd or ufelefs is to be introduced.
In epic poetry fome things may perhaps be admitted
for no other reafon but to furprife, and to raife what is
called the wonderful, which is as neceffary to the epic
as the probable ; but in allegories, however wild and ex¬
travagant the fable and the perfons introduced, each
muft correfpond with the fubjed they are applied to,
and, like the members of a well-written limile, bear a
due proportion and relation to each other: for we are
to confider, that the allegory is a fort of extended or
rather multiplied fmule, and therefore, like that, fliould
never lofe the fubjed it js intended to illuftrate. Whence
it_will appeal, that genius and fancy are here infufiicient
without the aid oi tafte and judgment: thefe firft, in¬
deed, may produce a multitude of ornaments, a wilder-
nefs of fweets; but the laft muft be employed to accom¬
modate them to 1 eafon, and to arrange them fo as to
produce pleafure and profit. ,
But it is not fufficient that the fable be correlpondent
with the fubjed, and have the properties above defcri¬
bed ; for it muft alfo be eonfiftent with itfelf. The
poet may invent what ftory he pleafes, and form any
imaginary beings that his fancy {hall fuggeft; but here,
as in dramatic writings, when perfons are once intro¬
duced, they muft be fupported to the end, and all fpeak
and ad in charader: for notwithftanding the general
licence here allowed, fome order muft be obferved;
and however wild and extravagant the charaders, they
ftiould not be abfurd. To this let me add, that the
whole muft be clear and intelligible ; for the “ fable
(as Mr Hughes obferves) being defigned only to clothe
and adorn the moral, but not to hide it, fhould re-
femble the draperies we admire in fome of the ancient
ftatues, in which the folds are not too many nor too
thick, bur fo judicioufty ordered, that the ftiape and
beauty of the limbs may be feen through them.” 
But this will more obvioufly appear from a perufal of
the
rt IT. , P ° E
egorical-the bed compofitiom of tins cUs i bleb as Spenfer s
-V Fairy Queen, Thomfon’s Cattle of Indolence, . vod.fon
and Johnfon’s beautiful allegories in the bpeettator and
Rambler, &c. &c.
The word allegory has been ufed m a more extenfive
fenfe than that in which we have here applied it: for
all writings, where the moral is conveyed under the co¬
ver of borrowed charaaers and aaions, by which other
charaaers and aaions (that are real) are repreiented,
have obtained the name of allegories ; though the fable
or ftory contains nothing that is vifionary or romantic,
but is made up of real or hlftorical perfons, and of ac¬
tions either probable or poffible. But thefe writings
fhould undoubtedly be diftinguifhed by fome other name,
becaufe the literal fenfe is confident with right reafon,
and may convey an ufeful moral, and fatisfy the reader,
without putting him under the neceffity of feekmg for
Some of the ancient critics, as Mr Addifon obferves,
were fond of giving the works of their poets this fecood
or concealed meaning, though there was no apparent
necefiity for the attempt, and often but little (now of
reafon in the application. 1 hus the Iliad and Od\ (fey
of Homer are faid to be fables of this kind, and that
the gods and heroes introduced are only the affections of
the mind reprefented in a viiible fhape and character.
They tell us, fays he, that Achilles in the fiitt riiad
reprefents anger, or the irafcible part of human nature,
that upon drawing his'fword againft his fuperior, in a
fuff affembly, Pallas (which, fay they, is another name
for reafon) checks and advifes him on the occafion, and
at her firft appearance touches him upon the head; that
part of the man being looked upon as the feat of reafon.
In this fenfe, as Mr Hughes has well obferved, the
whole iFneis of Virgil may be faid to be an allegory,
if you fuppofe iEneas to reprefent Auguftus Caefar,
and that his conducting the remains of his countrymen
from the ruins of Troy, to a new fettlement in Italy, is
an emblem of Auguftus’s forming a new government
out of the ruins of the ariftocracy, and eftabliftung the
Romans, after the confufion of the civil war, in a
peaceable and flburiftiing condition. However ingeni¬
ous this coincidence may appear, and whatever d<Jign
Virgil had in view, he has avoided a particular and di-
reCt application, and fo conduded his poem, that it is per¬
fect without any allegorical interpretation; for whether
we confider JEneas or Auguftus as the hero, the morals
contained are equally inftruCtive. And indeed it feems
abfurd to fuppofe, that becaufe the epic poets have in¬
troduced fome allegories into their works, every thing
is to be underilood in a myftical manner, where the
fenfe is plain and evident without any fuch application.
Nor is the attempt that Taffo made to turn his jeru-
falem into a myftery, any particular recommendation o,f
the work : for notwithftanding he tells us, in what is
called the allegory, printed with it, that the Chriftian
army reprefents man, the city of Jerufalem civil happi-
nefs, Godfrey the underftanding, Rinaldo and Tancred
the other powers of the foul, and that the body is ty¬
pified by the common foldiers and the like ; yet the
reader will find himfelf as little delighted as edified by
tire explication : for the mind has little pleafure in an
allegory that cannot be opened without a key made by
the hand of the fame artift ; and indeed every allegory
that is fo dark, and, as it were, inexplicable, lofes its
TRY.  247
very effence, and becomes an enigma or riddle, that is A legoncal.
left to be interpreted by every crude imagination. ^
This laft fpecies of writing, whether called an fl//e-Theancientf
gory, or by any other name, is not lefs eminent and parable,
ufeful; for the introducing of real or hiftorical perfons
may not abridge or leffen either our entertainment or
inftruChon. In thefe compolitions we often meet with
an uncommon moral conveyed by the fable in a new
and entertaining manner ; or with a known truth fo
artfully decorated, and placed in fuch a new and beau¬
tiful light, that we are amazed how any thing fo charm¬
ing and ufeful fhould fo long have efcaped our obferva-
tion. Such, for example, are many of Johnfon’s pieces-
publifhed in the Rambler under the title of Eajlern Sto¬
ries, and by Hawkefworth in the Adventurer.
The ancient parables are of this fpecies ol writing :
and it is to be obferved, that thofe in the New Tefta-
ment have a moft remarkable elegance and propriety ;
and are the moft linking, and the moft inftrudlive,
for being drawn from objedls that are familiar. 1 he
more linking, hecaufe, as the things are feen, the mo*
ral conveyed becomes the objedt ol our fenfes, and re¬
quires little or no refledionthe more inftruaive, ,
becaufe every time they are feen, the memory is awa¬
kened, and the fame moral is again exhibited with
pleafure to the mind, and accuftoms it to reafon and
dwell on the fubjeft. So that this method of inftruc-
tion improves nature, as it were, into a book of life ;
fince every thing before us may be fo managed, as to
give leffons for our advantage. Our Saviour’s parables
of the fower and the feed, of the tares, of the muftard-
feed, and of the leaven (Matthew xiii.), are all of this
kind, and were obvioufly taken from the harveft juft
ripening before him ; for his difciples plucked the ears of
corn and did eat, rubbing them in their hands. See the
articles Allegory, and Metaphor and Allegory, in
the general alphabet.
Sect. IX. Of Fables.
160
No method of inftru&ion has been more ancient, The apo-
more univerfal, and probably none more effeaual, thanlogue «r
that by apologue or fable. In the firft ages, amongft
a rude and fierce people, this perhaps was the omy
method that would have Ipeen borne; and e\cn fince
the progrefs of learning has furmfhed other helps, the
fable, which at firft was ufed through neceffity, is re¬
tained from choice, en account of the elegant happu
nefs of its manner, and the refined addreis with which3
when well conduced, it infinuates its moral.
As to the adders in this little drama, the fabuhft has
authority to prefs into his fervice every kind of exiit-
ence under heaven ; not only beafts, birds, infedxs, and ^
all the animal creation ; but flowers, {limbs, trees, and
all the tribe of vegetables. Even mountains, foffils, mh
nerals, and the inanimate works of nature, difeourfe ar¬
ticulately at his command, and act uhe part -which he
affigns them. The virtues, vices, and every property
of beings, receive from him a local habitation and a
name. In fhort, he may perfonify, bellow life, fpeech,
and aftion, on whatever he thinks proper.
It it eafy to imagine what a, fource ci novelty <mcl
variety this muft open to a genius capable of concei¬
ving and of employing thefe ideal perfons in a proper
manner ; what an opportunity it affords him to diver-
q tfy
\
243 V O E
Of Fables, fify hits images, and to treat the fancy with changes
1 v  of obje&s, while he ilrengthens the underftanding, or
regulates the p iffions, by a fucceffion of truths. _ To
raife beings like thefe into a date of aft ion and intel¬
ligence, gives the fabulill an undoubted claim to that
, 6j fi'rft charafter of the poet, a creator.
Itules for When thefe perfons are once raifed, we mull care-
i s con- fully enjoin them proper talks, and affign them fenti-
tirudiem raeats anci langUage fuitable to their feveral natures
and refpeftive properties. A raven ihould not be ex¬
tolled for her voice, nor a bear be reprefented with an
elegant lhape. It were a very obvious initance of ab-
furdity, to paint a hare cruel, or a wolf compaffion-
ate. An als were but ill qualified fo be general of
an army, though he may well enough ferve, perhaps,
for one of the trumpeters. But fo long as popular
opinion allows to the lion magnanimity, rage to the
tiger, ftrength to the mule, cunning to the fox, and
buffoonery to the monkey ; why may not they fupport
the charafters of an Agamemnon, Achilles, Ajax,
XJlyffes, and Therfites ? The truth is, when moral
aftions are with judgment attributed to the brute crea¬
tion, we fcarce perceive that nature is at all violated
by the fabulifl. He appears at moft to have only
tranfiated their language. His lions, wolves, and foxes,
behave and argue as thofe creatures would, had they ori¬
ginally been endowed with the human faculties of fpeeoh
and reafon.
But greater art is yet required whenever we perfo-
nify inanimate beings. Here the copy fo far deviates
from the great lines of nature, that, without the niceft
care, reafon will revolt againll the fiftion. However,
beings of this fort, managed ingenroufly and with ad-
drefs, recommend the fabulift’s invention by the grace
of novelty and of variety. Indeed the analogy between
things natural and artificial, animate and inanimate, is
often fo very linking, that we can, with feeming pro¬
priety, give pafiions and fentiments to every individual
part of exillence. Appearance favours the deception.
The vine may be enamoured of the elm; her embraces
tellify her paffion. The fwelling mountain may, na¬
turally enough, be delivered of a moufe. The gourd
may reproach the pine, and the iky-rocket infult the
liars. The axe may folicit a new handle of the foreft ;
and the moon, in her female charafter, requell a fa-
fhionable garment. Here is nothing incongruous;
nothing that (hocks the reader with impropriety. On
the other hand, were the axe to delire a periwig, and
the moon petition for a new pair of boots, probability
would then be violated, and the abfurdity become too
glaring.
The moll beautiful fables that ever were invented
may be disfigured by the language in which they are
jgj clothed. Of this poor TEfop, in fome of his Englilh
The pro- dreffes, affords a melancholy proof. The ordinary ilyle
per Ryle 0f fable fhoulcl be familiar, but alfo elegant.
’1 he familiar, fays Mr La Motte, is the general
tone or accent of fable. It was thought fufficient, on
its trll appearance, to lend the animals our moll com¬
mon language. Nor indeed have they any extraordi-
naty pretentions to the fublime ; it being requilite they
Ihould fpeak with the fame fimplicity that they be¬
have.
1 he lamikar alfo is more proper for infinuatlon than
T R Y. Pnrt II,
the elevated; this being the language of redeftion, Of Fabler
as the former is the voice of fentiment. We guard 
ourfelves againll the one, but lie open to the other;
and inftruftion will always the moll effectually fway
us, when it appears leall jealous of its rights and pro •
vileges.
The familiar Ilyle, however, that is here required,
notwithffanding that appearance of eafe which is its
charafter, is perhaps more difficult to write than the
more elevated or fublime. A writer more readily per¬
ceives when he has rifen above the common language,
than he perceives, in fpeaking this language, whether
he has made the choice that is moll fuitable to the oc-
cafion : and it is, neverthelefs, upon this happy choice
that all the charms of the famil’ar depend. Moreover,
the elevated Ilyle deceives and feduces, although it b**
not the bell chofen ; whereas the familiar can procure
itfelf no fort of refpeft, if it be not eafy, natural, jutt,
delicate, and unaffefted. A fabulill mull therefore
bellow preat attention upon his Ilyle ; and even labour
it fo much the more, that it may appear to have coll
him no pains at all.
The authority of Fontaine juftifies thefe opinions in
regard to Ilyle. His fables are perhaps the bell ex¬
amples of the genteel familiar, as Sir Roger L’Ellrange
affords the grolfell of the indelicate and low. When
we read, that “ while the frog and the mouCe were dif-
puting it at fwords-point, down comes a kite powder¬
ing upon them in the interim, and gobbets up both
together to part the fray ;” and “ where the fox
reproaches a bevy of jolly goffipping wenches making
merry over a difii of pullets, that if he but peeped in- •
to a hen-rooll, they always made a bawling with their
dogs and their ballards; while you yourielves (fays
he) can lie fluffing your guts with your hens and capons,
and not a word of the pudding This may be fa¬
miliar ; but it is alfo coarfe and vulgar, and cannot fail
to difgull a reader that has the leall degree of talle or
delicacy.
The Ilyle of fable then muff be fimple and familiar;
and it muff likewife be correft and elegant. By'the
former, we mean, that it Ihould not be loaded with
figure and metaphor; that the difpolition of words be
natural, the turn of fentences ■eafy, and their con-
Itruftion unembarraffed. By elegance, we would ex¬
clude all coarfe and provincial terms ; all affected and
puerile conceits ; all obiolete and pedantic phrafes.
To this we would adjoin, as the word perhaps im¬
plies, a certain fimfhing polillt, which gives a grace
and fpirit to the whole ; and which, though it have
always the appearance of nature, is almolt ever the ef-
feft of art.
But notwithftanding all that has been faid, there
are fome oceafions on which it is allowable, and even
expedient, to change the Ilyle. The language of a
fable muff rile or fall in conformity to the fubjeft. A
lion, when introduced in his regal capacity, mull hold
diicourfe in a Itrain fomewhat more elevated than a
country-moufe. The lionefs then becomes his queen,
and the be ills of the foreft are called his fubjefts: a
method tha offers at once to the imagination both the
animal and the perlon he is defigned to reprefent. A-
gain, the buffoon-monkey Ihould avoid that pomp of
phrafe, which the owl employs as her bell pretence to
Tare II.
Satre
1^3
Origin of
Satire.
wifdom, TJnlefs tl.e (lylc be thus judiaouny varied,
it will be impoffible to preferve a jail duhnftioa ot cha-
ra Defcnptions, at once concife and pertinent, add a
trrace to fable ; but are then moft happy when inclu¬
ded in the aftion : whereof the fable of Boreas and the
Sun affords us an example. An epithet well cholen is
often a defeription in itfelf; and fo much the more agree¬
able, as it the lefs retards us in our puriuit ot the ca-
taitrophe. , .
Laitly, little ftrokes of humour when anling natu¬
rally from the fubjeft, and incidental^ reflections when
kept in due fubordination to the principal, add a value
to thefe compofitions. Thefe latter, however, ffomd
be employed very fparingly, and with great addrei&;
be very few, and very fhort: it is fcarcely enough that
they naturally fpring out of the fubjeft ; they ihould
be fnch as to appear neceffary and effential parts o. the
'fable. And when thefe embellifoments, pleating m
themfelves, tend to illuffrate the main action, they
then afford that narfield's grace remarkable in Fontaine
and feme few others, and which perfons ot toe belt
difeernment will more <*d!ly conceive than they can ex¬
plain.
Sect. X. Of Satire.
This kind of poem Is of very ancient date, and (if
we believe Horace) was introduced, by way of inter¬
lude, by the Greek dramatic poets in their tragedies,
to relieve the audience, and take off the force of thole
ftrokes which they thought too deep and affeding. In
thofe fatirical interludes, the feene was laid in the coun¬
try ; and the perfons were rural deities, latyrs, country
peafants, and other nifties.
7 he firft Tragedians found that ferious ftyle
T’oo grave for their uncultivated age,
And fo brought wild and naked Satyrs in
(Whole motion, words, andihape, were all a
As oft as decency wou’d give them leave ;
Becaufe the mad, ungovernable rout,.
Full of copfufion and the fumes of wine,
Lov’d fuch variety and antic tricks.
Roscommon's Horace.
7 he fatire we now have is generally allowed to be of
Roman invention. It was firft introduced without the
decorations of feenes and ait ion; but written in verfes of
different meafures by Ennius, and afterwards moulded
into the form we now have it by Lucilius, whom Ho¬
race has imitated, and mentions with efteem. 7 Ins is
the opinion of molt ot the critics, and particularly ot
Boileau, who fays,
Lucilius led the way, and, bravely bold,
To Roman vices did the mirror hold ;
Protected humble goodnefs from reproach,
Show’d worth on foot, and rafeals in a coach.
Horace his pleafing wit to this did add,
7'hat none, uncenfur’d, might be fools or mad:
• And Juvenal, with rhetorician’s rage,
Scourg’d the rank vices of a wicked age ;
Tho’ horrid truths thro’ all his labours fhine,
In what he writes there’s fomething of divine.
Our fatire, therefore, may be diftinguifoed into two
You XV. Parti.
O E T R Y.
kinds : the jocofe, or that, which makes fport with vice
and folly, andfets them up to ridicule; and the fe-
riousy or that ^which deals in afperity, and is fevere
and acrimonious. Horace is a perfect mailer of the
firft, and Juvenal much admired for the laft. The one
is facetious, and fmiles : the other is angry, and ftorms.
7'he foibles of mankind are the objeft of one ; but
crimes of a deeper dye have engaged the other. ^ They
both agree, however, in being pungent and biting:
and from a due confideration of the writings of tbefe t64
authors, who are our mailers in this art, we .may de- Definition
fine fatire to be, A free, (and often jocofe), witty, and of it.
{harp poem, wherein the follies and vices of men ni e
lafhed and ridiculed in order to their reformation. Its '
fubjecl is whatever deferves our contempt or abhorrence,
(including every thing that is nuiculous and absurd, oi
fcandalous and repugnant to the golden precepts of re¬
ligion and virtue.) Its manner is im,dhve; audits
end, ibame. So that iutire may be loo ted upon as the
phyfician of a diftempered mind, which it endeavours
to cure by bitter and unfavoury, or by pleaiant and fa-
lutary, applications.
A good fatiriit ought to be a man of wit and ad-
drefs, fagacity and eloquence, tie ftiould alfo have a
great deal of good-nature, as all the fentiments which
are beautiful in this way of writing mull proceed from
that quality in the author. It is good-nature produces
that diiclain of all bafenefs, vice, and folly, which prompts
the poet to exprefs himfelf with fuch fmartnefs againft
the errors of men, but without bitterneis to then per
fons. It is this quality that keeps the mind even, ami
never lets an offence unfeafonably throw the fatirift out
of his character.
In writing, fatire, care fhould be taken that it be
true and general; that is, levelled at abufes in which
numbers are concerned : for the perfonal kind of fatire,
or lampoon, which expofes particular characters, and
affeCts the reputation of thofe at whom it is pointed, is
fcarce to be diftinguifoed from fcandal and defamation.
7 he poet alfo, whilft he is endeavouring to correCt the
guilty, mull take care not to ufe fuch exprefiions as
may corrupt the innocent: he mult therefore avoid all ob-
feene words and images that tend to debafe and mif-
lead the mind. FI orate and Juvenal, the chief fatinfts
among the Romans, aie faulty in this refpeCt, and ought
to he read with caution. _ i(>6
The ft vie proper for fatire is fometimes grave and Proper
animated," inveighing againft vice with- warmth andMeof
earneftnefs; but that which is pleafant, fportive, and,
with becoming raillery, banters men out of their bad
difpofitions, has generally the beft tffeCl, as. it feems
only to play with their follies, though it omits no op¬
portunity of making them feel the lafo. The veries
fhould be fmooth and flowing, and the language manly,
juft, and decent.
Of well chofe words feme take not care enough.
And think they foould be as the fubjcCf rough :
But fatire mull be more exaClly made,
And iharpeft thoughts in fmootheft words convey’d.
Duke of Bucks's Essay.
Satires, efiher of the jocofe or ferious kind, may be
written in the epiflolary manner, or by way of dialogue.
Horace, Juvenal, and Perfius, have given us examples
I i (if
v
250 POE
Swire, of both. Nay, fome of Horace’s fatires may, without
‘ incongruity, be called ep'ijles, and his epiftles fatircs.
But this is obvious to every reader.
Of the facetious kind, the fecond fatire of the fe-
cond book of Horace imitated by Mr Pope, and Swift’s
verfes on his own death, may be referred to as ex¬
amples.
As to thofe fatires of the ferious kind, for which Ju¬
venal is fo much dillinguifhed, the char after illic proper¬
ties of which are, morality, dignity, and feverity ; a
better example cannot be mentioned than the poem en¬
titled London, written in imitation of the third fatire of
Juvenal, by Dr Johnfon, who has kept up to the fpirit
and force of the original.
Nor muft we omit to mention Dr Young’s Love of
Fame the Univerfal PaJJion, in feven fatires; which,
though charafteriftical, abound with morality and good
fenfe. The chargfters are well felefted, the ridicule
is high, and the fatire well pointed and to the pur-
pofe.
We have already obferved, that perfonal fatire ap¬
proaches too near defamation, to deferve any counte¬
nance or encouragement. Dryden’s Mack Flecknoe is
for this reafon exceptionable, but as a compofition it is
167 inimitable.
Benefits of We have dwelt thus long on the prefent fubjeft, be-
duded°ft, caufc there is reafon to apprehend, that the benefits
tire. arifing from well-condufted fatire have not been fuffi-
eiently confidered. A fatire may often do more fer-
vice to the caufe of religion and virtue than a fermon ;
fince it gives pleafure, at the fame time that it creates
fear or indignation, and conveys its fentiments in a
manner the moft likely to captivate the mind.
Of all the ways that wifeft men could find
To mend the age and mortify mankind.
Satire well writ has molt fuccefsful prov’d.
And cures, becaufe the remedy is lov’d.
Duke of Bucks's Ess^r.
But to produce the defired effeft, it mull be jocofe,
free, and impartial, though fevere. The fatirill (hould
always preferve good-humour; and, however keen he
cuts, fhould cut with kindnefs. When he lofes. temper,
his weapons will be inverted, and the ridicule he threw
at others will retort with contempt upon himfelf: for
the reader will perceive that he is angry and hurt, and
confider his fatire as the effeft of malice, not of judge¬
ment ; and that it is. intended rather to wound perfons
than reform manners.
Rage you mull hide, and prejudice lay down t
A fatyr’s fmile is lharper than his frown.
The beft, and indeed the only, method to expofe vice
and folly eflfeftually, is to turn them to ridicule, and
hold them up for public contempt; and as it moft of¬
fends thefe objefts of fatire, i’o it leaft hurts ourfelves..
One paffion frequently drives out another ; and as we
cannot look with indifference on. the bad aftions of
men (for they muft excite either our wrath or con¬
tempt), it is prudent to give way to that which moft
effends vice and folly, and leaft aftefts ourfelves ; and to
fneer and laugh, rather than be angry and fcold.
Burlefque poetry, which is chiefly ufed by way of
drollery and ridicule, falls properly to be fpoken of
■imder the head of fatire. An excellent example of
T R Y. Part IL
this kind is a poem in blank verfe, mtitled The Splen- Epigram.
did Shilling, written by Mr John Philips, which, in the v—^
opinion of one of the beft judges of the age, is the fineft
burlefque in the Englifli language. In this poem the B,(irle,<lue
author has handled a low fubjeft in the lofty ftyle and Splendid"
numbers of Milton ; in which way of writing Mr Phi-Shilling.-,
lips has been imitated by feveral, but none have come Hudibias.
up to the humour and happy turn of the original.
When we read it, we are betrayed into a pleafure that
we could not expeft ; though, at the fame time, the
fublimity of the ftyle, and gravity of the phrafe, feem
to chaftife that laughter which they provoke.
There is another fort of verfe and ftyle, which is
moft frequently made ufe of in treating any fubjeft
in a ludicrous manner, viz. that which is generally
called Hudibrajlic, from Butler’s admirable poem in-
titled Hudibras. Almoft every one knows, that this,
poem is a fatire upon the authors of our civil diffen-
fions in the reign of king Charles I. wherein the poet
has, with abundance of wit and humour, expofed and
ridiculed the hypocrify or blind zeal of thofe unhappy
times. In ftiort, it is a kind of burlefque epic poem,
which, for the oddity of the rhymes, the quaintnefs of
the fimilies, the novelty of the thoughts, and that fine
raillery which runs through the whole performance, is
not to be paralleled.
Sect. XI. Of the Epigram.
. .... . . *69
The epigram is a little poem, or compojition in verfe, Charadtef
treating of one thing only, and vuhofe d'tjlinguijhing characters ot the eP*'’
are brevity, beauty, and point. gram.
The word epigram fignifies “ infeription for epi¬
grams derive their origin from thofe inferiptions placed
by the ancients on their ftatues, temples, pillars, tri¬
umphal arches, and the like ; which, at firft, were very
fhort, being fometimes no more than a fingle word y
but afterwards, increafing their length, they made them
in verfe, to be the better retained by the memory. This
fhort way of writing came at laft to be ufed upon any
occafion or fubjeft; and hence the name of epigram
has been given to any little copy of verfes, without re¬
gard to the original application of fuch poems.
Its ufual limits are from two to 20 verfes, though
fometimes it extends to 50 ; but the fliorter, the better
it is, and the more perfeft, as it partakes more of the
nature and charafter of this kind of poem : befides,
the epigram, being only a fingle thought, ought to be
exprelfed in a little compafs, or elfe it lofes its force and
ftrength.
The beauty required in an epigram is an harmony
and apt agreement of all its parts, a fweet iimplicity,
and polite language.
The point is a fharp, lively, unexpefted turn of wit,
with which an epigram ought to be concluded., There
are fome critics, indeed, who will not admit the point
in an epigram ; but require that the thought be equally
diffufed through the whole poem, which is ufually the
praftice of Catullus, as the former is that of Martial.
It is allowed there is more delicacy in the manner of
Catullus ; but the point is more agreeable to the gene¬
ral, tafte, and feems to be the chief charafteriftic of the
epigram.
This fort of poem admits of all manner of fubjefts, of what
provided that brevity, beauty, and point, are prefer- fubje&s it
ved j admit*.
delicacy
i-ii
rr POE
B^an, ved; but it is generally employed either in praife or
^ ^Though the bed epigrams are faid to be fuch as are
comprifed in two or four verfes, we are not to under-
ftaud it as if none can be perfed which exceed thofe
limits Neither the ancients nor moderns have been fo
fcrupulous with refpeft to the length of thexr epigrams;
but,^however, brevity in general is always to be itudied
I7» in r0Cfexamples1 oT good epigrams in the Englilh lan-
l;Z(m puage, we (hall make choice of feveral in the different
epigrams ^ ftfg we have mentioned ; fome remarkable for their
remarkable tuvn and fimplicity of expreffion y and others
br th6ir for their fait and lharpnefs, their equivocating pun, or
altafion. In *e firft place, take that o Mr
Pope, faid to be written on a glafs with the earl
Cheflerfield’s diamond-pencil.
Accept a miracle, inflead of wit;
See two dull lines by Stanhope’s pencil writ.
The beauty of this epigram is more eafily feen than,
deihribed; ai^d it is difficult to determine, whether it
docs more honour to the poet who wrote .t, or to the
robleman for whom the compliment ,s defined.-! he
foU ‘winK epigram of Mr Pnor .9 written m the fame
tafte, beiiig a fine encomium on the performance of an
excellent painter.
On a Flower) painted by Varelst.
When fam’d Varelft this little wonder drew,
Flora vouchfaf’d the growing work to view;
Finding the painter’s fcience at a fland,.
The goddefs fnatch’d the pencil from his hand,
And, finiffiing the piece, ffie fmiling faid.
Behold one work of mine ’which ne erjhaUJade.
Another compliment of this delicate kind he has made
Mr Howard in the following epigram.
Venus Miflaken.
t r y.
Strange tears ! vvhofe pow'r can (often all
But that dear brealt on which they fall.
The epigram writter. on the leaves of a fan by Dr
Atterbury, late biffiop of Rochefter, contains a pretty
thought, expreffed with eafe and concifeneis, and cloied
in a beautiful manner.
*5*
Epigram.
i.n "imj
On a Fan.
Flavia tlie leafl: and flightefl toy
Can with refifllefs art employ.
This fan in meaner hands would prove
An engine of fmall force in love :
Yet ffie, with graceful air and mien,
Not to be told or fafely feen,
Direfts its wanton motion fo.
That it wounds more than Cupid’s bow,
Gives coolnefs to the matchlefs dame,
To ev’ry other bread a flame.
We fliall now feleft fome epigrams of the biting and For then?
fatirical kind, and fuch as turn upon the pun or_^i-Poult-
vogue, as the French call it: in which fort the point is
more cunipicuous than in thofe of the foimer chaiac-
ter. ... ,
The following diltich is an admirable epigram, ha¬
ving all the neceffary qualities of one, efpecially point
and brevity.
On a Company of bad Dancers to good Mafic.
How ill the motion with the mufic fuits !
So Orpheus fiddled, and fo danc d the bi utes.
This brings to mind another epigram upon a bad
fiddler, which we ffiall venture to infert merely for the
humour of it, and not for any real excellence it con¬
tains.
To a bad Fiddler.
Old Orpheus play'd fo well, he mov’d Old Nick;
When Chloe’s picture was to Venus fhown ;
Surpris’d, the goddefs took it for her own.
And what, faid ffie, does this bold painter mean ?
When was I bathing thus, and naked feen ? ,
Pleas’d Cupid heard, and check’d his mother s pride:
And who’s blind now, mamma ? the urchin cry’d.
’Tis Chloe’s eye, and cheek, and lip, and breait:
Friend Howard’s genius fancy’d all the reft.
Moft of Mr Prior’s epigrams are of this delicate caft,
and have the thought, like thofe of Catullus, diffufeu
through the whole. Of this kind is his addiefs
To Chloe Weeping.
See, whdft thou weep’ft, fair Chloe, fee
The world in fympathy with thee.
The cheerful birds no longer fing,.
Each drops his head, and hangs his wing.
The clouds have bent their bofom lower,
And fhed their forrow in a fhow’r.
The brooks beyond their limits flow.
And louder murmurs fpeak their wo :
The nymphs and fwains adopt thy cares ;
They heave thy fighs, and weep thy tears.
Fantaftic nymph ! that grief ffiould move
Thy heart obdurate agaiult love.
One of Martial’s epigrams, wherein he agreeably ral- «
lies the foolifh vanity of a man who hired people to
make verfes for him, and publifhed them as his own,
has been thus tranflated into Englifh;
Paul, fo fond of the name of a poet is grown.
With gold he buys verfes, and calls them his own.
Go on, mafter Paul, nor mind what the world fays.
They are furely his own for which a man pays.
Some bad writer having taken,the liberty to cenfure
Mr Prior, the poet very wittily lalffid his impertinence
in this epigram :
While fafter than his eoftive brain indites,
Philo’s quick hand in flowing letters writes,
His cafe appears to me like honeft Teague’s,
When he was run away with by his legs.
Phoebus, give Philo o’er himfelf command ;
(Quicken his fenfes, or reftrain his hand :
■ Let him be kept from paper, pen, and ink ;
So he may ceafe to write, and learn to think.
Mr Wefley has given us a pretty epigram, alluding
to a well-known text of Scripture,, on the fetting up a
monument in Weftminfter Abbey, to the memory of
the ingenious Mr Butler, author- of Hudibrat.
I i 2 While
POE
While Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive,
No generous patron would a dinner give.
See him when ftarv d to death, and turn’d to dull,
Prefented with a monumental buft !
'Plie poet’s fate is here in emblem fnovvn;
He -.Ik'd for Brcacy and he receiv’d a Stone.
We (hall ciefe this fedtion with an epigram written
on the well-known ftory’ of Apollo and Daphne, by Mr
Smart.
Wlien Phoebus was am’rous and long'd to be rude,
Mifs Daphne cry’d Pifh ! and ran fwift to the wood;
And rather than do fuch a naughty affair,
She became a nnc laurel to deck the god’s, hair.
The nymph was, no doubt, of a cold conilitution ;
For, fure, to turn tree was an odd refolution !
Yet in this fhe behav’d like a true modern fpoufe.
For fhe fled from his arms to diftinguifh his brows.
Sfct. XIl. Of the Epitaph.
Character These compofitions generally contain forre eulo-
of the epi- gium of the virtues and good qualities of the decea-
taph. ancj }iave a turn-of ferioufnefs and gravity adapt-
v ed to the nature of the fubjedh Their elegance
confifls in a nervous and expreffive brevity ; and fome-
times they are clofed with an epigrammatic point. In
thefe compofitions, no -mere epithet (properly fo call¬
ed) fhould be admitted ; for here illuflration would im¬
pair the ftrength, and render the fentiment too diffufe
and languid. Words that are fynonymous are alfo to
be rejefted.
Though the true charafferiflic of the epitaph is fe-
rioufnefs and gravity, yet we may find many that are
. jocofe and ludicrous : fome likewife have true metre
and rhyme ; while others are between profe and verfe,
without any certain meafure, though the words are truly
poetical ; and the beauty of this lafl fort is generally
heightened by an apt and judicious antithefis. We
lhall give examples of each.
** The following epitaph on Sir Philip Sydney’s filler,
the countefs of Pembroke, faid to be written by the fa¬
mous Ben Jonfon, is remarkable for the noble thought
with which it concludes.
i74
Epitaj hs
in verfe,
wi'-h re- -
marks up¬
on them.
On Mary Coun:efs-do<wager of Vkm.vkok'E.
Underneath this noble marble hearfe,
Lies the fubject of all verfe,
Sidney’s filler, Pembroke’s mother :
Death, ere thou hall kill’d another
Fair, and learn’d, and good as Ihe,
Time fhall throw a dart at thee.
Take another epitaph of Ben Jonfon’s, on a beauti¬
ful and virtuous lady, which has been defervedly ad¬
mired by very good judges.
Underneath this flone doth lie
As much virtue as could die ;
Which when alive did vigour give
To as much beauty as could live.
The following epitaph by Dr Samuel Johnfon, on
mufician much celebrated for his performance, will be;
a companfon with thefe, or perhaps with any thin
of the kind m the Englifh language.
T II Y.
Philips! whofe touch harmonious could remove
The pangs of guilty pow’r and haplefs love,
Reil here, diflrell by poverty no more ;
Find here that calm thou gav’fl fo oft before ;
Sleep undiilurbM within this peaceful {brine,
'Pill angels wake thee with a note like thine.
It is the juft obiervatiun of an eminent critic, that
the belt fubjeft for epitaphs is private virtue ; virtue
exerted in the fame circumllances in which the bulk of
mankind are placed, and which, therefore, may admit
of many imitators. He that has delivered his country
from oppreffion, or freed the world from ignorance and
error, be Tides that he Hands in no need of monumental
panegyric, can excite the emulation of a very fmall
number. The bare name of fuch men anfwers every
purpofe of a long infeription, becaufe their atchievementa-
are univerfally known, and their fame is immortal.—
But the virtues of him who has repelled the tempta¬
tions of poverty, and difdained to free himfelf from di-
flrefs at the expence of his honour or his confcience, as
they were practifed in private, are fit to be told, becaufe
they may animate multitudes to the fame firmnefs of.
heart and fleadineis of refolution. On this account,
there are few epitaphs of more value than the following,
which was written by Pope on Mrs Corbet, who died
of a cancer in her breafl.
Here refls a woman, good without pretence,
jo left with plain reafon, and with fober fenfe :
No conqueil fire, but o’er herfelf defir’d ;
No arts effay’d, but not to be admir d.
Paffion and pride were to her foul unknown?.
Convinc’d that virtue only is our own.
So unaffected, fo compos’d a mind,
So firm, yet foft, fo lli ong, yet fo refin’d,
Heav’n, as its pureil gold, by tortures try’d ;
The faint fuitam’d it, but the woman dy’d.
I his epitaph, as well as the fecond quoted from Ben
Jonfon, has indeed one fault; the name is omitted.
1 he end ot an epitaph is to convey fome account of the
dead; and to w'hat purpofe is anj thing told of him
whofe name is concealed ? The name, it is true, may be
inferibed by kfelf upon- the flone ; but fuch a fhift of
the poet is like that of an unfkilful painter, who is obli¬
ged to make his purpofe known by adventitious help.
Amougfl the epitaphs of a punning and ludicrous
call, we know of none prettier than that which is faid
to have been written by Mr Prior on himfelf, wherein
he is pleafantly fatirical upon the folly of thofe who
value themfelves upon account of the long feries of ance-
flors through which they can trace their pedigree.
Nobles and heralds, by your leave,
Here lie the bones of Matthew Prior,
The fon of Adam and of Eve :
Let Bourbon or Naffau go higher.
The following epitaph on n miier contains a good
caution and an agreeable raillery.
Reader, beware immod’rate love of pelf:
Here lies the worfl of thieves, who robb’d himfelf.
But Dr Swift’s epitaph on the fame fubjeit is a ma-
ilerpiece of the kind-
Part If,
h,.
Beneath
>art If*
P O
Beneath this verdant hillock lies
Demer, the wealthy and the wife.
His heirs, that he might fafely reil,
Have put his carcafe in a cheft :
The very cheft, in which, they fay,
His other Self, his money, lay.
And if Ids heirs continue h:nd
To that dear fdf he left behind,
I dare believe that four in five
Will think his better half alive.
E
We ftndl give but one example more of this kind,
■which is a merry epitaph on an old fiddler, who was
remarkable (we may fuppofe) for beating time to his
own muilc.
On Stephen /<6ff Fiddler.
Stephen and time are now both even ;
Stephen beat time, now time’s beat Stephen.
B-nuihs We are come now to that fort of epitaph which re-
in pn.fe jedts rhyme, and has no certain and determinate mea-
encomiaflic fure . ^,ut where the diction mult be pure and ftrong,,
®ad every word have weignt, and the antitheiis be prefer-
ved in a clear and direct oppofition. We cannot give
a better example of this fort of epitaph than that on
the tomb of Mr Pulteney in the cloifters of Weftmiu-
fter-abbey.
Reader,
If thou art a Briton,
Behold this Tomb with Reverence and Regret:
Here lie the Remains of
Daniel Pulteney,
The kindeft Relation, the trueft Friend,
The warmeft Patriot, the worthieft Man.
He exercifed Virtues in this Age,
Sufficient to have diftinguifh’d him even in the heft.
Sagacious by Nature,
- Induftrious by Habit,
Inquifitive with Art ;
He gain’d a complete Knowledge of the State of Britain,
Foreign and domeftic ;
In moft the backward Fruit of tedious Experience,
Jn him ihe early acquifition of undiffipated Youth.
He ferv d the Court feveral Years :
Abroad, in the aufpicious Reign of Queen Anne ;
At home,in the Reignof that excellentprince K. George L
He ferved his Country always,
At Court independent,
In the Senate unbiafs’d,
At every Age, and in every Station
This was the bent of his generous Soul,
This the bufinefs of his laborious Life.
Public Men, and Public Things,
He judged by one conftant Standard,
The True Inter eft of Britain :
He made no other Diftinftion of Party,
He abhorred all other.
Gentle, humane, difinterefted, beneficent.
He created no Enemies on his own A ccount:
Firm, determin’d, inflexible,
He feared none he could create in the Caufe of Britain.
Reader,
In this Misfortune of thy Country lament thy own :
For know,
The Lofs of fo much private Virtue
Is a public calamity.
T R Y. J253
That poignant fatire, as well as extravagant praife, r-P';ri!!y
may be conveyed in this manner, will be feen by^ the
following epitaph written by Dr Arbuthnot on h ran- Satirical,
cis Chartres ; which is too weft known, and too much
admired, to need our commendation.
Here continueth to rot
The Body of FRANCIS CHARTRES,
Who with an inflexible Constancy,
And inimitable Uniformity of Life,
Persisted,
In fpite of Age and Infirmities,
In the Pra&ice of every Human Vice,
Excepting Prodigality and Hypocrisy :
His infatiable Avarice exempted him from the firft,.
His matchlefs Impudence from the fecond.
Nor was he more Angular
In the undeviating Pravity of his Mannerst
Than fuccefsful
In Accumulating Wealth :
For, without Trade or Profession,
Without Trust of Public Money,
And without Bribe-worthy Service,
pie acquired, or more properly created,
A Ministerial Estate.
He was the only Perfon of his Time
Who could cheat without the Maflc of Honesty
Retain his Primaeval Meanness
When pofiefled of Ten Thousand a-year ;
And having daily deferred the Gibbet for what he didy
Was at laft condemn’d to it for what he cou!d not do.
Oh indignant reader!
Think not his Life ufelefs to Mankind ;
Providence conniv’d at his execrable defigns,
To give to After-ages
A confpicuous Proof and Example
Of how fmall Eftimation is Exorbitant Wealth
In the Sight of GOD,
By His beftowing it on the moft Unworthy of all
Mortals.
We fliall conclude this fpecies of poetry with a droll
and fatirical epitaph written by Mr Pope, which we
tranferibed from a monument in Lord Cobham’s gardens
at Stow in Buckinghamfhire.
To the Memory
of
SlGNIOR FlDO,
A n ftoiian of good extra&ion.;
Who came into England,
Not to bite us, like moft; of his Countrymen;,.
But to gain an honeit Livelihood.
Pie hunted not after Fame,
Yet acquir’d it;
Regardlefs of the Praife of his Friends,
But moft fenfible of their Love,
Though he liv’d amongft the Great,
He neither learnt nor flatter’d any Vice.
He was no Bigot,
Though he doubted of none of the 39 Articles
And, if to follow Nature,
And to refpeft the laws of Society,
Be Philofophy,
He was a perfect Philofopher,
A faithful Friend,
An agreeable Companion,
1 A
*
P o
E
T
R Y.
A loving Hoiband,
Diftinguilh’d by a numerous offspring,
All which he liv’d to fee take good Courfes.
In his old Age he retired
To the houfe of a Clergyman in the country,
Where he linifhed his earthly Race,
And died an Honour and an Example to the whole Species.
Part Ur.
Reader, ^ Verfiflca,
This Stone is guiltlefs of Flattery} twn.
For he to whom it is infsrib’d 'mm^.
Was not a Man,
But a
Gre-hound.
Part III. On VERSIFICATION.
/'AN this fubjeft it is meant to confine our inquiry to
Latin or Greek hexameters, and to French and
Englifh heroic verfe ; as the obfervations we fhall have
occafion to make, may, with proper variations, be eafily
tjy transferred to the compofition of other forts of verfe.
EfT.-ntials Before entering upon particulars, it mull be premifed
of verfe. Jn general, that to verfe of every kind five tilings are of
importance, ill, The number of fyllables that compofe
aline. 2d, The different lengths of fyllables, L e. the
difference of time taken in pronouncing. 3d, The
arrangement of thefe fyllables combined in wmrds.
4th, The paufes or flops in pronouncing. 5th, Pro¬
nouncing fyllables in a high or a low tone. The three
firfl mentioned are obvioufly effential to verfe: if any
of them be wanting, there cannot be that higher degree
of melody which diflinguifheth verfe from profe. To
give a juft notion of the fourth, it. muft be obferved,
that paufes are neceflary for three different purpofes:
Regulation C,rle, t0 %>arate periods, and members of the fame period,
of paufes according to the fenfe : another, to improve the melody
of verfe : and the laft, to afford opportunity for drawing
breath in reading. A paufe of the firft kind is variable,
beijig long or fliort, frequent or lefs frequent, as the
fenfe requires. A paufe of the fecond kind, being de¬
termined by the melody, is in no degree arbitrary. The
laft fort is in a meafure arbitrary, depending on the
reader’s command of breath. But as one cannot read
with grace, unlefs, for drawing breath, opportunity be
taken of a paufe in the fenfe or in the melody, this paule
ought never to be diftinguifhed from the others; and
for that reafon fhall be laid afide. With refpedl then to
the paufes of fenfe and of melody, it may be affirmed
without hefitation, that their coincidence in verfe is a
capital beauty : but as it cannot be expe&ed, in a long
work efpecially, that every line ffiould be fo perfedl; we
fhall afterward have occafion to fee, that, unlefs the
reader be uncommonly fkilful, the paufe. neceffary for the
fenfe muft often, in fome degree, befacrificed to the verfe-
paufe, and the latter fometimes to the former.
The pronouncing fyllables in a high or low tone con¬
tributes alfo to melody. In reading, whether verfe or
profe, a certain tone is affirmed, which may be called the
key-note; and in that tone the bulk of the words are
founded. Sometimes to humour the fenfe, and fome¬
times the melody, a particular fyllable is founded jn a
higher tone, and this is termed accenting a Jyliable^ or
gracing it with an accent. Oppofed to the accent is the
cadence, which, however, being entirely regulated by
the fenfe,. hath no peculiar relation to verfe. The ca¬
dence is a falling of the voice below the key-note at the
clofe of every period ; and fo little is it effential to verfe,
that in correa reading the final fyllable of every line is
accented, that fyliable only excepted which clofes the
period, where the fenfe requires a cadence.
Though the five requifites above mentioned enter the
compofition of every fpecies of verfe, they are however
governed by different rules, peculiar to each fpecies. . ,
Upon quantity only, one general obfervation may be Quantity,
premifed, becaufe it is applicable to every fpecies of verfe.
That fyllables, with refpea to the time taken in pro¬
nouncing, are long or Ihort; two fhort fyllables, with
refpea to time, being precifely equal to a long one.
Thefe two lengths are effential to verfe of all kinds;
and to no-verfe, it is believed, is a greater variety of time
neceffary in pronouncing fyllables. The voice indeed is
frequently made to reft longer than ufual upon a word
that bears an important fignification ; but this is done to
humour the fenfe, and is not neceffary for melody. A
thing not more neceffary for melody occurs wdth refpea
to accenting, fimilar to that now mentioned: A wrord
fignifying any thing humble, low, or dejeaed, is natu¬
rally', in profe as well as in verfe, pronounced in a tone
below the key-note.
We are now fufficiently prepared for particulars ; be¬
ginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are the
fame. The obfervations upon this fpecies of verfe wall
come under the four following heads ; number, arrange¬
ment, paufe, and accent; for as to quantity, what is
obferved above may fuffice.
I. HEXAMETER Lines, as to time, are all ofHexameter
the fame length; being equivalent to the time taken in verfesof
pronouncing twelve long fyllables or twenty-four fhort. t^ie ^ree^9
An hexameter line may confift of feventeen fyllables :3nd R.0'
and when regular and not Ipondaic it never has fewer fift 0f what
than thirteen : wftience it follows, that where the fyl-fect.
lables are many, the plurality muft be Ihort; where few,
the plurality' mull be long.
This line is fufceptible of much variety as to the fuc-
ceffion of long and fhort fyllables. It is, however, fub-
jedted to laws that confine its variety within certain
limits: and for afeertaining thefe limits, grammarians
have invented a rule by daclyles and fpondees, which
they denominate feet.
Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, thefe feet
regulated the pronunciation, which they are far from
doing among us ; of which the reafon will be difeovered
from the explanation that we fhall give of the Englifh
accent. We fhall at prefent content ourfelvcs with
pointing out the difference between our pronunciation
and that of the Romans in the firfl line of Virgil's
eclogues, where it is fcarcely credible how much wc
pervert the quantity'.
Tit'yre tu pat'uloe rec'ubans fub teg mine fagi.
It will be acknowledged by every reader who has an ear,
that we have placed the accentual marks upon every
fyllable, and the letter of every fyllable, that an Eng-
lifhman
Partlll. POE
Verruca- Kfhman marks with the \Bus of his voice when he recites
tion. the line. But, as will be feen prefently, a fyllable
which is pronounced with the ftrefs of the voice upon
a confonant is uttered in the fhorteft time poffible.
Hence it follows, that in this verfe, as recited by ^ us,
there are but two long fyllables, tu and fa ; though it
is certain, that, as recited by a Roman, it contained no
fewer than eight long fyllables.
TTtyre | tii patujlae recujbans fub j tegmine j fagt.
TRY. 255
rule, the final word always chimes with that which Vet^ca'
immediately precedes the paufe : u—y—>
De planftu cudo || metrum cum carmine nudo
Mingere cum bumbis || res eft faluberrima lumbis.
The difference of time in the paufe and femipaufe
occafions another difference not lefs remarkable ; that
it is lawful to divide a word by a femipaufe, but never
by a paufe, the bad effedt of which is fenfibly felt in the
following examples :
But though to pronounce it in this manner with the
voice dwelling on the vowel of each long fyllable would
undoubtedly be corredt, and preferve the true movement
of the verfe, yet to an Englifh ear, prejudiced in behalf
of a different movement, it founds fo very uncouth,
that Lord Karnes has pronounced the trae feet of the
Greek and Roman verfes extremely artificial and com¬
plex ; and has fubftituted in their ftead the following
rules, which he thinks more fimple and of more eafy
application, ift, The line muft always commence with
a long fyllable, and clofe with two long preceded by
two fhort. 2d, More than two fhort can never be found
together, nor fewer than two. And, 3d, 1 wo long
fyilables which have been preceded by two ihort cannot
alfo be followed by two fhort. Thefe few rules fulfil
all the conditions of a hexameter line with relation to
order or arrangement. For thefe again a fingle rule
may be fubftituted, which has alfo the advantage of re-
Elern of gulating more affirmatively the conftruftion of every
Crltkifm. part. To put this rule into words with perfpicuity, a
ch. xviii. hint is taken from the twelve long fyllables that com-
fe<a- 4* pofe an hexameter line, to divide it into twelve equal parts
or portions, being each of them one long fyllable or two
ffiort. The rule then is : “ The ift, 3d, 5th, 7th, 9th,
nth, and 12th portions, muft each of them be one
long fyllable ; the 10th muft always be two fhort fyl¬
lables ; the 2d, 4th, 6th, and 8th, may either be one
long or two fhort.,, Or to exprefs the thing ftill more
ffiortly, “ The 2d, 4th, 6th, and 8th portions may be
one long fyllable or two fhort; the 10th muft be two
fhort fyllables ; all the reft muft confift each of one long
fyliable.’’ This fulfils all the conditions of an hexame¬
ter line, and comprehends all the combinations of da&yles
8t and fpondees that this line admits.
Paufoin Next in order comes the paufe. At the end of every
hexameter hexameter line, every one muft be fenfible of a complete
confufered c]0fe or fu]l paufe ; the caufe of which follows. The
f eft to" tw0 hmg fyllables preceded by two fhort, which always
anelody and clofe an hexameter line, are a fine preparation for a
paufe r for long fyllables, or fyilables pronounced flow,
refembling a flow and languid motion tending to reft,
naturally incline the mind to reft, or, which is the fame,
to paufe ; and to this inclination the two preceding fhort
fyllables contribute, which, by contrail, make the flow
pronunciation of the final fyllables the more confpicuous.
Befide this complete clofe or full paufe at the end, others
are alfo requifite for the fake of melody ; of which two
are clearly difcoverable, and perhaps there may be more.
The longeft and moft remarkable fucceeds the 5th por¬
tion : the other, which, being fhorter and more faint,
may be called the femipaufe, fucceeds the 8th portion.
So ftriking is the paufe firft mentioned, as to be diftin-
guifhed even by the rudeft ear: the monkifh rhymes
■are evidently built upon it; in which, by an invariable
Effufus labor, at|jque inmitis ruptaTyranni
Again: _ ....
Obfervans nido im[[plumes detraxit; at ilia
Again:
Loricam quam Dejlmoleo detraxerat ipfe
The dividing a word by a femipaufe has not the fame
bad effedl:
Jamque pedem referens [] cafus e[vaferat omnes.
Again:
Qualis populea |j moerens Philolmela fub umbra
Again : '
Ludere que vellem [j calamo per[mifit agrefti.
Lines, however, where words are left entire, without
being divided even by a femipaufe, run by that means
much the more fweetly.
Nec gemere acrea |[ ceffabit | tuitur ab ulmo.
Again :
Quadrupedante putrem ][ fonitu quatit | ungula campum.
Again :
Eurydicen toto || referebant | flumine ripae.
The reafon of thefe obfervations will be evident upon
the flighteft refle&ion. Between things fo intimately
connedted in reading aloud as are fenfe and found, every
degree of difeord is unpleafant: and for that reafon it
is a matter of importance to make the mufical paufes
coincide as much as poffible with thole of fenfe ; which,
is requifite more efpecially with refpedt to the paufe, a
deviation from the rule being lefs remarkable in a femi¬
paufe. Confidering the matter as to melody folely, it
is indifferent whether the paufes be at the end of words
or in the middle ; but when we cany the fenfe along,
it is difagreeable to find a word fplit into two by a paule,
as if there were really two words: and though the dii-
agreeablenefs here be connedled with the fenfe only, it
is by an eafy tranfition of perceptions transferred to the
found; by which means we conceive a line to be harlh
and grating to the ear, when in reality it is only fo to
the underftanding.
To the rule that fixes the paufe after the 5 th portion
there is one exception and no more. If the fyllable
fucceeding the 5 th portion be Ihort, the paufe is fome~
times poltponed to it :
Pupillis quos dura [| premit cuftodia matrum
Again; _ t ,
In terras oppreffa ]| gravi fub religione
Again :
Et quorum pars magna j| fui; quis talia fando
This contributes to diverfify the melody ; and, where the
words are fmooth r id liquid, is not ungraceful; as in
the following examples •>
Formofana
3.
256
Veififica-
tion.
POE
Forraofam r cion are }| doccs Atnaryllida fylvas
Again:
Agricolas, qnibus ipfa || procul difcordibus armis
If this paufe, placed as aforefaid after the ihort fyl-
lable, happen alfo to divide a word, the melody by thefe
circumftances is totally annihilated. Witnefs the fol¬
lowing line of Ennius, which is plain profe :
Romae mosnia ten-u||it impigerl Hannibal armis.
Hitherto the arrangement of the long and fhort fyl-
lables of an hexameter line and its different paufes have
been confidered with refpett to melody : but to have a
juft notion of hexameter verfe, thefe particulars muff alfo
be confidered with refpedl to fenfe. There is not per¬
haps in any other fort of verfe fuch latitude in the long
and fhort fyllables ; a circumftance that contributes
greatly to that richnefs of melody which is remarkable
in hexameter verfe, and which made Ariftotle pronounce
that an epic poem in airy other verfe would not fucceed*.
One defeft, however, muft not be diffembled, that the
fame means which contribute to the richnefs of the me¬
lody render it lefs fit than feveral other forts for a nar¬
rative poem. There cannot be a more artful contrivance,
as above obferved, than to clofe an hexameter line with
two long fyllables preceded by two fhort : but unhap¬
pily this conftruftion proves a great embarraffment to
the fenfe ; which will thus be evident. A s in general
there ought to be a ftrift concordance between the
thought and the words in which it is dreffed; fo, in
particular, even' clofe in the fenfe ought to be accom¬
panied with a clofe in the found. In profe this law
may be ftrictly obferved, but in verfe the fame ftrictncfs
would occafion infuperable difficulties. Willing to fa-
crifice to the melody of verfe fome fhare of the concord-
unce between thought and expreffion, we freely excufe
the feparation of the mufical paufe from that of the fenfe
during the courfe of a line; but the clofe of an hexa¬
meter line is too confpicuous to admit this liberty : for
which reafon there ought always to be fome paufe in
the fenfe at the end of every hexameter line, were it
but fuch a pitufe as is marked by a comma; and for the
fame reafon there ought never to be a full clofe in the
fenfe but at the end of a line, becaufe there the melody
is elofed. An hexameter line, to preferve its melody,
cannot well admit any great relaxation ; and yet, in'a
narrative poem, it is extremely difficult to adhere ftrictly
to the rule even with thefe indulgences. Virgil, the
chief of poets for verfification, is forced often to end a
line without any clofe in the fenfe, and as often to clofe
the fenfe during the running of a line; though a clofe
in the melody during the movement of the thought, or
a clofe in the thought during the movement of the me-
183 l°dy, cannot be agreeable,
fffftrv - I he accent, tp which we proceed, is not lefs effential
Irori'11' tf etnan the other circumftances above handled. By a good
ear it will be difeerned, that in every line there is one
fyllable diftinguifhable from the reft by a capital accent:
I hat fyllable, being the feventh portion, is invariably
long 7
Nec bene promeritis || capitur nec | tangitur ira
Again :
non fii>i fed tnto ji gen it Am fe j credere mundo
A gain :
Quahs fpelunca jj fubito conftmota columba
?Stnfe.
* Poet.
oap. 15
^ K \, part
^ In theie examples the accent Is laid upon the kft fyl. Veififka.
lable of a word ; which is favourable to the melody in t:ou
the following reipect, that the paufe, which for the fake  
of reading diitindly muft follow every word, gives op¬
portunity to prolong the accent. And for that reafon,
a line thus accented has a more fpirited air than when
the accent is placed on any other fyllable. Compare
the foregoing lines with the following'.
Alba neque Affyrio || fueatur j lana veneno
Again:
Panditur interea [| domus 6rnnipo'tentis Olympi
A^gain :
Olli fedato || refpondit | corde Latinus.
In lines where the paufe comes after the fhort fyllable
fucceeding the 5th portion, the accent is difplaced, and
rendered lefs fenfible : it feerna to be fplit into two, and
to be laid partly on the 5th portion, and partly on the
7th, its ufual place ; as in
Nuda genu, nodoque J| finds coljlefta fluentes.
Again :
Formofam refonarc Jj doces Amarjylhda fylvas.
Befide tins capital accent, {lighter accents are laid
upon other portions ; particularly upon the 4th, unlefs
where it coniifts of two Ihort fyllables ; upon the 9th,
which is always a long fyllable ; and upon the 1 ith,
where the line concludes with a monofvilabie. Such
conclulion, by the by, impairs the melody, and for that
realon is not to be indulged unlefs where it is exprelfive
of the ienfe. I he following lines are marked with all
the accents.
Ludere quae velfem calamo permifit agrefti
Again :
Et dune quercus fudabunt rdfeida mella
Again :
Parturiunt monies, nafectur ridlculus mus.
1
Reflecting upon the melody of hexameter verfe, we Order and
find, that order or arrangement doth not conftitute thea:ranfe,e*
wrhole of it: for when we compare different lines, equally meilt .
regular as to the fuectffion of long and fhort fyllables, "neThe'*
the melody is found in very different degrees of per-w'hole me-
feCtion ; which is not occafioned by any particular com- •°(T °fan
bination of daCtyies and fpondees,' or of long and fhort
fyllables, becaufe we find lines where da&yles prevail,VClfC*
and lines where fpondees prevail, equally melodious. Of
the former take the following inftance
iEneadum genitrix hominum divumque voluntas. '
Of the latter :
Moll rip aulatim flavefeet campus arifta.
What can be more different as to melody than the two
following lines, which, however, as to the fucceffion of
long and fhort fyllables, are conitructed precifely in the
fame manner ?
,'prnd. i>aA. Spot'd; SponDadi. Spond. -
A d talos ftola dimiffa et circumdata palla. I/of.
Spond. Dad. Sp«i:d. S. ond. Dad. S|tmid.
Placatumque nitet diflfufo lumine coelum. Liter eh
In the former, the paufe falls in the middle of a word,
which is a great blemifh, and the accent is difturbed by
a harfh elilion of the vowel a upon the particle et. In
the latter, the paufes and the accent are all of them
diftinCt
„ m p O E 't'
Part, HI.
Verfifica- full: tlierc is no elifiofc: and the words
are more liquid and founding. In thefe particulars
w“~v confifts the beauty of an hexameter line with refpea to
melody; and by negleding thefe, many lines m the
fatires and epiilles of Horace are lefs agreeable than
plain profe ; for they are neither the one nor the other
in perfection. To draw melody from thefe lines, they
mu ft be pronounced without relation to the lenfe . it
muft not be regarded that words are divided by paufes,
nor that hnrfh elilions' are multiplied. To add to the
account, profaic low-founding words are introduced;
and, which is ftill wcrfe, accents are laid on them. Of
fuch faulty lines take the following inftances.
Candida re&aque fit, munda haftenus fit neque longa.
Jupiter exclamat fimul atque audirit; at in ic
Cuftodes, leCtica, ciniflones, parafitas
Optimus eft modulator, ut Alfenus Vafer omni
Nunc illud tantum quaeram, meritone tibi fit.
Thefe obfervations on paufes and femi-paufes, and on
the ftrufture of an hexameter line, are doubtlefs. inge¬
nious ; but it is by no means certain that a ftricft at¬
tention to them would aflift any man in the writing of
fuch verfes as would have been pleafing to a Roman ear.
Many of his Lordfhip’s rules have no other foundation
than what refts on our improper mode of accenting La¬
tin words ; which to Virgil or Lucretius would pro¬
bably have been as offenfive as the Scotch accent is to a
native of Middlefex.
II. Next in order comes Englis'H heroic verse ;
which fhall be examined under the heads of number, ac¬
cent, quantity, movement, and paufe. Thefe have been
treated in fo clear and mafterly a manner by Sheridan
in his Art of Reading, that we ft all have little more
to do than abridge his doarine, and point out the few
inftances in which attachment to a fyftem ana partiality
to his native tongue feem to have betrayed him into
error, or at leaft made him carry to an extreme what is
juft only when nfed with moderation.
» Art of ct Numbers, in the ftria fenfe of the word q whether
Jletifiiitg, -with regard to poetry or mulic, cofifift in certain im-
vo1 “• preffions made on the ear at ftated and regular diftances.
The lovveft fpecies of numbers is a double ftroke of the
fame note or found, repeated a certain number of times,
at equal diftances. The repetition of the fame.M*
note in a continued feries, and exaftly at equal diftances,
like the tickling of a clock, has in it nothing numerous;
but the fame note, twice ftruck a certain number of
times, with a paufe between- each repetition of double
the time of that between the Jlrokes, is numerous, i he
reafon is, that the pleafure arifing from numbers, con¬
fifts in the obfervationof proportion; now tne repeti¬
tion of the fame note, in exa&ly the fame intervals, will
admit of no proportion. But the fame note twice ftrucxv,
with the paufe of one between the two ftrokes, and re¬
peated again at the diftance of a paufe equal to two^
admits of the proportional meafurement in the paufes of
two to one, to which time can be beaten, and is the low-
eft and fimpleft fpecies of numbers. It may be exem¬
plified on the drum, as tu'tn-tu'm-tu'm-tu'm-tu'm-tu'm,
&c.
“ The next progrefilon of numbers is, when the fame
note is repeated, but in fuch a way as that one makes a
Vol. XV. Part I.
R Y. ^ 257
more fenfible impreffion on the ear than the ©trier, by
being more forcibly ftruck, and therefore having a great-
er degree of loudnefs ; as tl-tu m—ti-tu m ; or, tu ra-ti
—tu'm-ti: or when two weak notes precede a more
forcible one, as ti-ti-tu'm-ti-tUu m; or when the
weak notes follow the forcible one, tu m-ti-ti—tu m-
ti-ti.
“ In the firft and loweft fpecies of numbers which
we have mentioned, as the notes are exactly the fame
in every relpeft, there can be no proportion obieryed
but in the time of the paufes. In the fecond, which
rifes in a degree juft above the other, though the notes
are ftill the fame, yet there is a diverfity to be obferved
in .their relpcbtive loudnefs and foftnefs, and therefore a
meafurable proportion of the quantity of found. In
them we muft likewife take into confideration the order
of the notes, whether they proceed from ftrong to weak,
or from weak to ftrong ; for this diverfity of older ©c-
cafions a great difference in the impreftons made upon
the ear, and in the effefts produced upon the mind.
To exprefs the diverfity 01 order in the notes in all its
feveral kinds, the common term movement may be ufed,
as the term meafure will properly enougu exprefs die dif¬
ferent proportions of time both in the paufes and 111 the
notes.”
For it is to be obferved, that all notes are not of the
fame length or on the fame key. In poetry, as well as
in mufic, notes may be high or low, flat or ftarp ; and
fome of them may be prolonged at pleafure. “ Poetic
numbers are indeed founded upon the very fame prin¬
ciples with thofe of the mulical kind, and are governed
by fimilar laws (fee Music). Proportion and order aie
the fources of the plealure which we receive from both;
and the beauty of each depends upon a due 'obfervation
of the laws of meafure and movement. The effential
difference between them is, that the matter of the one
is articulate, that of the other inarticulate founds : but
fyllables in the one correfpond to notes in the other ;
poetic feet to mulical bars; and verfes to ftrains ; in
a word, they have all like properties, and are governed
J>y laws of the fame kind.
“ From what has been faid, it is evident, that the
ejfence of numbers conhfts in certain impreffions made on
Tie mind through the ear at ftated and regular diftances
of time, with an obfervation of a relative proportio^i in
thofe diftances; and that the other circumftances of
long or Ihort in fyllables, or diverfity of notes in utter¬
ing them, are not effentials but only accidents ot poetic
numbers. Should this be queftioned, the objeaor might
be filenced by having the experiment tried on a drum,
on which, although it is incapable of producing long
or ftiort, high or low notes, there is no kind oi metre
which may not be beat, ff hat, therefore, which regu¬
lates the feries and movement of the impreffions given
to the ear by the recitation of an Englifh verfe, muft,
when properly tiifpofed, conftitute the effence of Eng¬
lifh poetic numbers; but it is the accent which parti¬
cularly impreffes the found of certain fyllables or letters
upon the ear; for in every w6rd there is a fyllable or
letter accented. The necefiity and ufe ot the accent,
as well in profe as in verfe, we fhall therefore proceed
to explain.
“As words may be formed of various numbers of
fyllables, from one up to eight or nine*, it was necef- * Art of
fary that there fhould be fome peculiar mark to diltm- ^
Kk
guilh
358 POE
Verfifiea- gm'fh words from disjointed fyllables, otherwife fpeech
,, 1'!0!1, , would be nothing but a continued fucceffion of fyllables
conveying no ideas. This diitindtion of one word from
another might be made by a perceptible paufe at the
end of each in fpeaking, analagous to the diilance made
between them in writing and in printing. But thefe
paufes would make difcoude difguitingly tedious ; and
though they might render words fufficiently diftinft,
they would make the meaning of fentences extremely
confufed. Words might alfo be diftinguilhed from each
other, and from a collection of detached fyllables, by an
elevation or deprejjion of the voice upon one fyllable of
each word ; and this, as is well known to the learned,
was the practice of the Greeks and Romans. But the
Englith tongue has for this purpofe adopted a mark of
the eafiell and fimplelt kind, which is called accent. By
accent is meant, a certain ftrefs of the voice, upon a
particular letter of a fyllable, which diftinguifhes it from
the reit, and at the fame time diltinguilhes the fyllable
itfelf to which it belongs From the other fyllables which
compofe the word. Thus, in the word hab'lty the ac¬
cent upon the b diftinguifhes that letter from the others,
and the firft fyllable from the laft ; add more fyllables
to it, and it will ftill do the fame, as hab'itable. In
the word accept, the p is the diftinguifhed letter, and
the fyllable which contains it the diftinguifhed iyliable;
but if we add more fyllables to it, as in the word ac¬
ceptable, the feat of the accent is changed to the firft
fyllable, of which c is the diftinguilhed letter. Every
word in our language of more fyllables than one has
one of the fyllables diftinguifhed from the reft in this
manner, and every monofyllable has a letter. Thus,
in the word hut the t is accented, in hate the vowel a,
in cub1 the l, and in cube the u : fo that as articulation
is the efieneeof fyilables, accent is the eftence of words;
which without it would be nothing more than a mere
fuccefiion of fyllables.’5
We have faid, that it was the practice of the Greeks
and Romans to elevate or depiefs their voice upon one
fyllable of each word. In this elevation or depreflion
confifted their accent; but the Englifh accent confifts in
the mere ftrefs of the voice, without any change of note.
“ Among the Greeks, all fyllables were pronounced ei¬
ther in a high, low, or middle note ; or elfe in a union
of the high and low by means of the intermediate.
The middle note, which was exaftly at an equal di-
ftance between the high and the low, was that in which
the unaccented fyllables were pronounced. But every
word had one letter, if a monofyllable ; or one fyllable,
if it confifted of more than one, diftinguifhed from the
reft; either by a note of the voice perceptibly higher
than the.middle note, which was called the acute accent ;
or by a note perceptibly, and in an equal proportion,
lower than the middle one, which was called the grave
accent; or by an union of the acute and grave on one
fyllable, winch was done by the voice palling from the
acute, through the middle note, in continuity down to
the grave, which was called the circumflex.”
“ Now in pronouncing Englifh words, it is true that
one fyilable is always diftinguifhed from the reft, but
it is not by any perceptible elevation or depreflion of
the voice, any high or low note, that it is done, but
merely by dwelling longer upon it, or by giving it a
more forcible ftroke. When the ftrefs or accent is on
^ R Part III,
the vowel, we dwell longer on that fyllable than on the Verfifka.
reft; as, in the words glory, father, holy. When it is don,
on the conionant, the voice, palling rapidly over the ^
vowel, gives a fmarter ftroke to the confonant, which
diftinguifhes that fyllable from others, as in the words
bat'tie, hub'it, bar1 row.”
11 aving treated fo largely of accent and quantity next
thing to be confidered in verfe will be quickly difeufled;
for in Englilh it depends wholly on the feat of the ac¬
cent. “ When the accent or ftreis is on the vowel,
the fyllable is necefiarily long, becaufe the accent can¬
not be made without dwelling on the vowel a loncrer
time than ufual. When it is on the confonant, the fyi¬
lable is Ihort; becaufe the accent is made by palling
rapidly over the vowel, and giving a fmart ftroke of the
voice to the following confonant. Thus the words add,
led', bid, cub', are all Ihort, the voice palling quickly
over the vowel to the confonant; but for the contrary
reafon, the words all, laid, bide, cube,, are long ; the
accent being on the vowels, on which the voice dwells
feme time before it takes in the found of the confo¬
nant.”
“ Obvious as this point is, it has wholly efcaped the
obfervation of many an ingenious and learned writer.
Lord Karnes affirms*, that accenting is confined in * El. of
Englilh heroic verfe to tlie long fyllables ; for a fhort Cr/>. vol. if.
fyllable (fays he) is not capable of an accent : and Dr
Forfter, who ought to have underllood the nature of
the Englifh accent better than his Lordlhip, alks, whe¬
ther we do not ‘ employ more time in uttering the
frfi fyllables of heavily, haflily, quickly, flow/y ; and the
fee on d in folicit, m'flaking, refear ches, deluflve, than in the
others ?’ To this queftion Mr Sheridan repliesf, that t Art Bf
“ in fome ol thefe words we certainly do as the Docftor Rc tding,
fuppofes ; in haflily, flbwly, mflaking, deluflve, for in-vo^1**
llance ; where the accent being on the vowels renders
their found long: but in all fhe others, heav'dly. quick’-
ly, folis'-it, re-fear'-ches, where the accent is on the con¬
fonant, the fyllables heav , quick’, hs'. fer, are pronoun¬
ced as rapidly as poffible, and the vowels are all ihort.
In the Scotch pronunciation (continues he) they would
indeed be all reduced to an equal quantity, as thus;
hai-vily, hdis-tily, queek-ly,fl6w-iy, fo-Iee-cit, re-fdir-ches,
de-lu-flve. But here we fee that the four ffiort fy 11 aides
are changed into four long ones of a different found, oc-
calioned by their placing the feat of the accent on the
vowels inftead of the confonants: thus inftead of hevt
they fay haiv; for quick', quick; for Us', liece; and for
fer', fair.
“ It appears therefore, that the quantity of Engliffi
fyllables is adjufted by one eafy and fimple rule ; which,
is, that when the feat of tlie.accent is on a vowel, the
fyllable is long ; when on a confonant, ftiort; and that
all unaccented fyllables are fliort. Without a due ob¬
fervation of quantity in reciting verfes there will be no
poetic numbers; yet in compofing Engliffi verfes the
poet need not pay the leaft attention to the quantity of
his fyllables, as meafure and movement will refult from
the obfervation of other laws, which are now to he ex¬
plained.
It has been affirmed by a writer* of great authority •
among the critics, that in Eagliih heroic verfe every Knna,
line confifts of ten fyllables, five ffiort and five long;
from which there are but two exceptions, both of them
rare.
Part HI. P °. ’r
Verfifica- mye. The firil k, where each line of a couplet is made
tion. cieven fyllablee, by an additional fhort fyllable at the
' end.
There heroes wit's are kep t in ponderous vafes,
And beaus' in fnyff-boxes and tweezer-cafes.
The other exception, lie fays, concerns the fecond line
of a couplet, which is fometimes ftretched out to twelve
fyllableS, termed an Alexandrine line,
A ncedlefs Alexandrine ends the fong,
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length
along.
After what has been juft faid, it ismeedlefs to ftop for
the purpofe of pointing out the ingenious author’s mi-
ftake refpeCting long and ftiort fyllables. Every atten¬
tive reader of what has been already laid down, muit
perceive, that in the firft line of the former couplet,
though there are no fewer than fix accented fyllables
•when it is properly read, yet of thefe there are but
three that are long, vive. thofe which have the accent
on the vowel. Our hufinefs at prefent is, to (how the
falfity of the rule which reftrains the heroic line to ten
fyllables ; and this we ftiall do by producing lines of a
greater number.
And the fhrill founds ran echoing through.the wood.
This line, though it confifts of eleveh fyllables, and has
the laft of thofe accented, or, as Lord Kames would fay,
long, is yet undoubtedly a heroic verfe of very fine
found. Perhaps the advocates for the rule may con¬
tend, that the vowel o in echoing ought to be ftruck
out by an apoftrophe ; but as no one reads,
And the fhrill founds ran ech’ing through the wood,
it is furely veiy abfurd to omit in writing what canno
be omitted in utterance. The two following lines have
each eleven fyllables, of which not one can be fupprefied
in recitation.
Their glittering textures of the filmy dew,
The great hierarchal ftandard was to move,
Mr Sheridan quotes as a heroic line,
O’er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp;
and obferves what a monftroiis line it would appear, il
pronounced,
O’er man’ a frozen, man’ a fi’ry Alp*
inftead of that noble verfe, which it certainly is, when
all the thirteen fyllables are diftin&ly uttered. He
then produces a couplet, of which the former line has
fourteen, and the latter twelve fyllables.
And many an amorous, many a humorous lay,
Which many a bard had chaunted many a day.
That this is a couplet of very fine found cannot be con¬
troverted ; but we doubt whether the numbers of it or
©f the other quoted line of thirteen fyllables be truly he¬
roic. To our ears at leaft there appears a very percep¬
tible difference between the movement of thefe verfes
and that of the verfes of Pope or Dryden ; and we
think, that, though fuch couplets or ingle lines may,
for the fake of variety or expreflion, be admitted into
* heroic poem, yet a poem wholly compofed of them
try. 259
would not be confidered as heroic verfe. It has a much Verfifka.
greater refemblance to the verfe of Spenfer, which is ,
now broke into two lines, of which the firft has eight
and the fecond fix fyllables. Nothing, however, feems
to be more evident, from the other quoted inftances,
than that a heroic line is not confined to the fyllables,
and that it is not by the number of fyllables that an
Englifh verfe is to be meafured.
But if a heroic verfe in our tongue be not compo¬
fed, as in French, of a certain number of fyllables, how
is it formed ? We anfwer by feet, as was the hexameter
line of the ancients ; though between their feet and
ours there is at the fame time a great difference. The
poetic feet of the Greeks and Romans are formed by quan¬
tity, thofe of the Engiifli by ftrefs or accent. “ Though
thefe teims are in continual ufe, and in the mouths of
all who treat of poetic numbers, very confufed and er¬
roneous ideas are fometimes annexed to them. Yet as
the knowledge of the peculiar genius of our language
with regard to poetic numbers and its charadleriftical
difference from others in that refpeft, depends upon our
having clear and precife notions of thofe terms, it will
be neceffary to have them fully explained. The ge¬
neral nature of them has been already fufficiently laid
open, and we have now only to make ibme obfervations
on their particular effefts in the formation of metre.
“ No fcholar is ignorant that quantity is a term which
relates to the length or the fhortnefs of fyllables, and
that a long iyllable is double the length of a (hort one.
Now the plain meaning of this is, that a long fyllable
takes up double the time in founding that a fhort one
does; a faft of which the ear alone can be the judge.
When a fyllable in Latin ends with a confonant, and
the fubfequent fyllable commences with one, every
fchool-boy knows that the former is long, to ufe the
technical term, by the law of pn/ition. 'Phis rule was
in pronunciation ftri<ftly obferved by the Romans, who
always made fuch fyllables long by dwelling on the
vowels ; whereas the very reverfe is the cafe with us, be-
caufe a quite contrary rule takes place iu Englifh words
fo conftru&ed, as the accent or ftrefs of the voice is
in fuch cafes always transferred to the confonant, and
the preceding vowel being rapidly paffed over, that
fyllable is of courfe fhort.
“ The Romans had another rule of profody, that
when one fyllable ending with a vowel, was followed
by another beginning with a vowel, the former fyllablc
was pronounced fhort; whereas in Englifh there is ge¬
nerally an accent in that cafe on the former fyllable,
as in the word pnus> which renders the fyllable long.
Pronouncing Latin therefore by our own rule, as in
the former cafe, we make thofe fyllables fhort which
were founded long by them ; fo in the latter, we make
thofe fyllables long which with them were fhort. We
fay ar'ma and 'virum'qur, inftead of drma and vinmque ;
fao and tit us, inftead of feib and Urns'.
“ Having made thefe preliminary obfervations, we
proceed now to explain the nature of poetic feet. Feet
in verfe correfpond to bars in mufic: a certain number of
Lllables connected form a foot in the one, as a certain
number of notes make a bar in the other. They are
called feet, becaufe it is by their aid that the voice
as it were fteps along through the verfe in a meafured
pace ; and it is neceffary that the fyllables which mark
this regular movement of the voice Ihould in tome
K k 2 meafure
T R Y, Part IIL
is known to every reader of Engiifh poetry, tliat fome Verfifica.
of the fineft heroic verfes in our language begin with a t‘i;'n-
trochee; and that Pope, the foootheft of all our ver- ’
fifiers, was remarkable for his ufe of this foot, as is evi¬
dent from the following example, where four fucceed-
ing lines out of fix have a trochaic beginning.
Her lively looks a fprightly mind difclofe,
Quick as | her eyes j and as unfix’d as thofe:
Favours j to none i to all fire fmiles extends, ^
O ft fhe | rejeifs I but never once offends.
Bright as | the fun | her eyes the gazers flrike.
And like the fun,fhe fhines on all alike.
The ufe of this foot, however, is not neceffarily con¬
fined to the beginning of a line. Milton frequently
introduces it into other parts of the verfe ; of which,
take the following inftances :
That all | was lofl' | back' to j the thick'jet flunk—
Of E ve j whofe ey'e j darted contajgious fire.
The lafl, line of the following couplet begins with
Pyrrhic :
She faid, | and meljting as in tears fhe lay,
In a | foft silver ftream diffoly’d away ;.
P O E
- meafure be diflinguiilied from the others. This di-
ftinftion, as we have already obfeived, was made among
the ancient Romans, by dividing their fyllables inte long
and fhort, and afcertaining their quantity by an ex aft
proportion of time in founding them ; the long being
to the fhort as two to one ; and the long fyllables, be¬
ing thus the more important, marked the ruovement of
the verfe. In Engiifh, fyllables are divided into accent¬
ed and unaccented ; and the accented fyllables being as
ftrongly diflinguifhed from the unaccented, by the pe¬
culiar ftrefs of the voice upon them, are as capable
of marking the movement, and pointing out the regu¬
lar paces of the voice, as the long fyllables were by
their quantity among the Romans. Hence it follows,
that our accented fyllables correfponding to their long
ones, and our unaccented to their fhort, in the llrudlure
of poetic ftct, an accented fyllable followed by one un¬
accented in the fame foot will anfwer to their trochee ;
and preceded by an unaccented one, to their iambus ;
and fo with the reft.
“ All feet tifed in poetry confift either of two or
three fylkbles; and the feet among the ancients were
denominated from the number and quantity of their
fyllables. The meafure of quantity was the fhort fyl¬
lable, and the long one in time was equal to two ftiort,
A foot could not confift of lefs than two times, becaufe
it muft contain at leaft two fyllables; and by a law re-
fpecting numbers, which is explained elfewhere (fee
Music), a poetic foot would admit of no more than
four of thofe times. Confcquently the poetic feet were
neceffarily reduced to eight; four of two fyliables, and
four of three. Thofe of two fyllablee muft either con¬
fift of two fhort, called a pyrrhic; two long, called a
fpondee ; a long and a fhort, called a trochee ; or a fhort
and a long, called an iambus. Thofe of three fyllables
were, either three fhort, a tribrach ; a long and' two
fhort, a dactyl; a fhort, long, and ftiort, an amphibrach;
©r two fhort and a long, an anapajl (y).
We are now fufficiently prepared for confidering what
feet enter into the compofition of an Engiifh heroic verfe.
The Greeks and Romans made ufe of but two feet
in the ftru&ure of their hexameters ; and the Engiifh
heroic may be wholly compofed of one foot, viz. the
iambic, which is therefore the foot moft congenial to
that fpecies of verfe. Our poetry indeed abounds with
verfes into which no other foot is admitted. Such as,
The powers | gave ear | and grafted half | his pray’r,
The rest'' | the winds j difpers’d j in empjty air.
Our heroic line, however, is not wholly reftrained to
the ufe of this foot. In the opinion of Mr Sheridan
it admits all the eight before enumerated; and it cer¬
tainly excludes none, unlefs perhaps the tribrach. It
But this foot is introduced likewife with very good efT-
feft into other parts of the verfe, as
Pant on | thy lip' J and to | thy heart | bepreft.j
The phantom flies me j as uolkind as you.
Leaps o’er the fence with eafe | into j the fold.
.A ml the | fhrill' founds j ran echoing through the wood-.
In this laft line we fee that the firft foot is a pyrrhir,,
and the fecond a Jpondee ; but in the next the two firft.
feet are fpondees.
Hills peep j o’er hill's J and Alps J on Alps | arife..
In the following verfe a trochee is fucceeded by two fpon¬
dees, of which the former is a genuine fpondee by quan-.
tity, and the latter equivalent to a fpondee by accent.
See the | bold youth j {brain up' the threatening fteep.
We (hall now give fome inftane.es of lines containing
both the pyrrhk and the ftondee, and then proceed to,,
the confederation of the other four feet.
That on ; weak wings ) from far purfues your flight. .
Thro’ the | fair fcene j roll fl w | the ling’ring ftreams.
On her | white breas t ■ a fparkling crofs fhe wore.
Of the four triflyllabic feet, the firft, of which we fhaljt
give inftances in heroic lines, is the daftyl; as
Mur muring, | and with j him' fled j the (hades | of night.
Hovering
(v) For the convenience of the lefs learned reader we (hall here fubjoin a fcheme of poetic feet, ufing the marks
(- o) in ufe among the Latin grammarians to denote the genuine feet by quantity ; and the following marks.
( ' o) to denote the Englifti feet by accent which anfwer to thofe.
Roman Englilh
Trochee - u ' «
Iambus u - u <
Spondee _ < t
Pyrrhic u o w u'
Roman
Daftyl - u u
Amphibrach u - u
Anapaeft u o -
Tribrach v w u
Engiifti.
\j v
POE
^ XI f
^JfLa- Hovering 1 on wing 1 Under j the cape | of hell',
non. Tim orous ) and flothfulyethe plcafed the eai.
Of truth. ] in word ! mightier | than they j m aims.
Of the anap*Jl a frngle inftance ihall fuffice ; for except
by Milton it is not often ufed.
The great ) hferar|chal ftandard was to move.
The amphibrach is employed in the four following verfes,
and in the three laft with a Very fine effect.
With wheels ( yet hover ing o’er the ocean brim
Rous’d from their flumber on | that fiejry | couch.
While the | promis'cu ous crowd ftood yet aloof.
Throws his fteep flight | in many j an ai|ry whirl..
Having thus fufficiently proved that the Englifti he¬
roic verfe admits of all the feet except the tribrach, it
may be proper to add, that from the nature of our ac¬
cent we have duplicates of thefe feet, viz. fuch as are
formed by quantity, and fuch as are formed by the mere
jclus of the voice ; an opulence peculiar to our tongue,
and which may be the fource of a boundleis variety.
But as feet formed of fyllables which have the accent
or iftus on the confonant are neceflarily pronounced in
lefs time than fimilar feet formed by quantity, it may
be objedfed, that the meafure of a whole line, con-
ftrudfed in the former manner, muft be fhorter than
that of another line conftrudted in the latter ; and that
the intermixture of verfes of fuch different meafures
in the fame poem muil have a bad effcdf on the melody,
as being deilrudtive of proportion. This objeftion
would be well-founded, were not the time of the fhort
accented fyllables compenfated by a fmall paufe at^the
end of each word to which they belong, as is eviuent
in the following verfe :
Then rus jtling crack'jling craffring thunder down.
This line is formed of iambics by accent upon confo-
nants, except the lait fyHable ; and yet by means of
thefe foft paufes or refts, the meafure of the whole is
equal to that of the following, which confifts of pure
iambics by quantity.
O’er heaps | of rujia ftalk’d | the ftatejly hind.
Movement, of fo much importance in verfification,
regards the order of fyllables in a foot, meafure their
quantity. • The order of fyllables refpefts their progrefs
from fhort to long or from long to fhort, as in the
Oreek and Latin languages ; or from ftrong to weak
or weak to ftrong, i. r. from accented" or unaccented
fyllables, as in our tongue. It has been already ob-
ferved, that an Englifh heroic verfe may be compofed
wholly of iambics; and experience fhows that fuch
verfes have a fine melody. But as the ftrefs of the
voice, in repeating verfes of pure iambics, is regularly
on every fecond fyllable, fuch uniformity would difguft
the ear in any long fucceffion, and therefore iuch changes
were fought for as might introduce the pleafure of va¬
riety without prejudice to melody ; or which might
even contribute to its improvement. Of this nature
was the introduction of the trochee to form the firft
foot of an heroic verfe, which experience has fhown us
is fo far from fpoiling the melody', that in many cafes
it heightens it. This foot, however, cannot well be ad¬
mitted into any other part of the verfe without preju¬
dice to the melody, becaufe it interrupts and flops the
T R Y.
ufual movement by another directly oppofite. But
though it be excluded with regard to pure melody, it
may often be admitted into any part of the verfe with
advantage to expreffion, as is well known to the readers
of Milton.
“ The next change admitted for the fake of variety,
without prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of
pyrrhics and fpondees; in which two impreifions in the
one foot make up for the want of one in the other ; and
two long fyllables compenfate two fhort, fo as to make
the fum of the quantity of the two feet equal to two
iambics. That this may be done without prejudice to
the melody, take the following inftances:
On her | white breiift j a fparkling crofs fhe wore.—-
Nor th j deep trad | of hell—fay firft what caufe.—-
This intermixture may be employed ad libitum, in any
part of the line ; and fometimes two fpondees may be
placed together in one part of the verfe, to be com-
penfafed by two pyrrhics in another; of which Mr
Sheridan quotes the following lines as inftances :
Stoiid rul’d | ft55d vaft | infm|itude I confined.
She all | night long | her amo|r6us des;cant fung.
That the former is a proper example, will not perhape
be queftioned ; but tire third foot in the latter is certain¬
ly no pyrrhic. As it is marked here and by him, it is
a tribrach ; but we appeal to our Englifh readers, if it
ought not to have been marked an amphibrach by ac¬
cent, and if the fourth foot be not ant iambus. To us
the feet of the line appear to be as follow ;
She all j night long | ITr arn'orous des'|cant fun'g.
It is indeed a better example of the proper nfe of the
amphibrach than any which he has given, unlefs perhaps
the two following lines :
Up to | the ffe|ry con'cave tow'erling high
Throws his | fteep flight j in man y | an ai;ry whirl.
That in thefe three lines the introdudion of the amphi¬
brach does not hurt the melody, will be acknowledged
by every perfon who has an ear ; and thofe who have
not, are not qualified to judge. But we appeal to
every man of tafte, if the two amphibrachs fucceeding
each other in the laft line do not add much to the
exprelfion of the verfe; If this be queftioned, we have
only to change the movement to the common iambic^
and we fhall difeover how feeble the line will become.
Throws His ! fteep flight | in manly aijry whirls.
This is Ample defeription, inftead of that magical power
of numbers which to the imagination produces the ob-
jed itfelf, whirling as it were round an axis.
Having thus fiiown that the iambus, fpondee, pyr¬
rhic, and amphibrach, by accent, may be ufed in our
meafure with great latitude ; and that the. trochee may
at all times begin the line, and in fome cafes with ad¬
vantage to the melody ; it now remains only to add,,
that the dadyl, having the fame movement, may be in¬
troduced in the place of the trochee ; and the anapaeft
in the place of the; iambus. In proof of this, were not
the article fwelh’ng in our hands, we could adduce many
inftances which would ihow what an inexhauftible fund
of riches, and what art immenfe variety of materials, are
prepared for us, “ to. build the lofty rhime.” But we
r haftea
26a P O E
Verfifica. ],aft,en to the next thing to be eonfidered in the art of
, i 'n"’ , veriifying, which is known by the name of paufes,
J"'"v ' « Of the poetic paufes there are two forts, the ce-
fur a! and the final. The cefural divides the verfe into
equal or unequal parts ; the final clofes it. In a verfe
there may be two or more cefural paufes, but it is evi¬
dent that there can be but one final. As the final
paufe concerns the reader more than the writer of verfes,
it has been feldom treated of by the critics. Yet as it
Is this final paufe which in many cafes diftinguifhes verfe
from profe, it cannot be improper in the prefent article
to fhow how it ought to be made. Were it indeed a
law of our verfification, that every" line fhould termi¬
nate with a Hop in the fenfe, the boundaries of the mea-
fure would be fixed, and the nature of the final paufe
could not be miftaken. But nothing has puzzled the
bulk of readers, or divided their opinions, more than the
manner in which thofe verfes ought to be recited, where
the fenfe does not clofe with the line ; and whofe laft
words have a necefiary connection with thofe that be¬
gin the fubfequent verfe. “ Some (fays Mr Sheridan)
who fee the neceffity of pointing out the metre, pro-
. nounce the laft word of each line in fuch a note as ufu-
ally accompanies a comma, in marking the fmalleft mem¬
ber of a fentence. Now this is certainly improper, be-
caufe it makes that appear to be a complete member
of a fentence which is an incomplete one ; and by dif-
joining the fenfe as well as the words, often confounds
the meaning. Others again, but thefe fewer in num-
„ ber, and of the more abfurd kind, drop their voice at
the end of every line, in the fame note which they ufe
in marking a full flop ; to the utter annihilation of the
fenfe. Some readers (continues our author) of a more
enthufiaftic kind, elevate their voices at the end of all
verfes to a higher note than is ever ufed in the Hops
Which divide the meaning. But fuch a continued re¬
petition of the fame high note becomes difgufting by
its monotony, and gives an air of chanting to fuch re¬
citation. To avoid tljefe feveral faults, the bulk of
readers have chofen what they think a fafer courfe,
which is that of running the lines one into another with¬
out the leaft paufe, where they find none in the fenfe ;
but by this mode of recitation they reduce poetiy to
fomething worfe than profe, to verfe run mad.
But it may be afked, if this final paufe mull be mark¬
ed neither by an elevation nor by a depreflion of the
voice, how is it to be marked at all ? To which Mr
Sheridan replies, by making no change whatever in the
voice before it. This will fufficiently diftinguifii it
from the other paufes, the comma, femicolon, &c. be-
caufe fome change of note, by raifing or deprefiing the
voice, always precedes them, whilfl the voice is here
only fufpended.
Now this paufe of fufpenfion is the very thing want¬
ing to preferve the melody at all times, without inter¬
fering with the fenfe. For it perfeftly marks the bound
of the metre ; and being made only by a fufpenfion, not
by a change of note in the voice, it never can affe£t the
fenfe ; becaufe the fentential flops, or thofe which affeft
the fenfe, being all made with a change of note, where
there is no fuch change, the fenfe cannot be affefted.
Nor is this the only advantage gained to numbers by
this Hop of fufpenfion. It alfo prevents the monotony
at the end of lines; which, however pleafing to a rude,
is difgufting to % delicate, ear. For as this flop has
^ Parc ITT,
no peculiar note of its own, but always takes that which Verflfic^
belongs to the preceding word, it changes continually tion.
with the matter, and is as various as the fenfe. ——y—
Having faid all that is neceffary with regard to the
final, we proceed now to confider the cefural, paufe. To
thefe two paufes it will be proper to give the denomi¬
nation of mufical, to diftinguifh them from the comma,
femicolon. Colon, and full flop, which may be called fen-
tential paufes ; the office of the former being to mark
the melody, as that of the latter is to point out the
fenfe. The eefural, like the final paufe, fometimes
coincides with the fentential; and fometimes takes place
where there is no flop in the fenfe. In this laft cafe,
it is exaftly of the fame nature, and governed by the
fame laws with the paufe of fufpenfion, which we have
j uft deferibed, ,
The cefure, though not effential, is however a great
ornament to verfe, as it improves and diverfifies the
melody, by a judicious management in varying its iitu-
ation ; but it difeharges a ftill more important office than
this. Were there no cefure, verfe could afpire to no
higher ornament than that of fimple melody ; but by-
means of this paufe there is a new fource of delight
opened in poetic numbers, correfpondent in fome iort
to harmony in mufic. This takes its rife from that act
of the mind which compares the relative proportions
that the members of a verfe thus divided bear to each
other, as well as to thofe in the adjoining lines. In or¬
der to fee this matter in a clear light, let us examine
what effeft the cefure produces in fingle lines, and
afterwards in comparing contiguous lines with each
other.
With regard to the place of the cefure, Mr Pope
and others have exprefsly declared, that no line appeared
mufical to their ears, where the cefure was not after
the fourth, fifth, or fixth fyllable of the verfe. Some
have enlarged its empire to the third and feventh fyl-
lables ; whilft others have afterted that it may be admit¬
ted into any part of the line,
“ 1 here needs but a little diftinguiftiing (fays Mr
Sheridan) to reconcile thefe different opinions. If me¬
lody alone is to be confidered, Mr Pope is in the right
when he fixes its feat in or as near as may be to the
middle of the verfe. To form lines of the firft melody,
the cefure muft either be at the end of the fecond or
of the third foot, or in the middle of the third between
the two. Of this movement take the following ex¬
amples :
1. Of the cefure at the end of the fecond foot.
Our plenteous ftreams || a various race fupply ;
The bright-ey’d perch || with fins of Tyrian dye;
Hie filver eel in fhining volumes roll’d ;
Hie yellow carp' || in feales bedrop’d v/ith gold.
2. At the end of the third fogt.
With tender billet-doux || he lights the pyre.
And breathes three amorous sighs || to raile the fire,
3. Between the two, dividing the third foot.
The fields are ravifh’d || from the induftrious fwaing.
From men their cities, [| and from gods their fanes,
Thefe lines are certainly all of a fine melody, yet they
are not quite upon an equality in that refpe^t. Thofe
which have the ceiure in the middle are of the firft or¬
der |
art III. ? O ^
erilfica- der j thofc which have it at the end of the fee end foot
non. are next; and thofe which have the paufe at the end of
  the third foot the laft. The renfon of this preference
it may not perhaps be difficult to affign.
In the pleafure ariiing from comparing the propor¬
tion which the parts of a whole bear to each other, the
more eafily and diftinftly the mind perceives that pro¬
portion, the greater is the pleafure. Now there is no¬
thing which the mind more inftantaneoufly and clearly
difeerns, than the divifion of a whole into two equal
parts, which alone would give a fuperiority to lines of
the firft order over thofe of the other two. But this is
not the only claim to fuperiority which fuch lines pof-
fefs. The cefure being in them always on an unaccent¬
ed, and the final paufe on an accented, fyllable, they
have a mixture of variety and equality of which neither
of the other orders can boaft, as in thefe orders the
cefural and final paufes are both on accented fyllahles.
In the divifion of the other two fpecies, if we refpc£t
quantity only, the proportion is exactly the fame, the
one being as two to three, and the other as three to
two ; but it is the order or movement which here makes
the difference. In lines where the celure bounds the
fecond foot, the fmaller portion of the verfe is firft in
order, the greater laft ; and this order is reverfed in
lines which have the cefure at the end of the third foot.
Now, as the latter part of the verfe leaves the ftrongeft
and moft lafting impreffion on the ear, where the lar¬
ger portion belongs to the latter part of the line, the
impreffion muft in proportion be greater ; the e fie eft in
found being the fame as that produced by a climax in
fenfe, where one part rifes above another.
Having fhovvn in what maimer the cefure improves
and diveriifies the melody of 'verfe, we (hall now treat
of its more important office, by which it is the chief
fource of harmony in numbers. But, firft, it will be
neceffary to explain what we mean by the term harmo-
wf, as applied to verfe.
Melody in muftc regards only the effects produced
by fucceffive founds; and hannony, ftritftly fpeaking,
the effeifts produced by different co-exifting founds,
which are found to he in concord. Hannony, there¬
fore, in this fenfe of the word, can never be applied to
poetic numbers, of which there can be only one reciter,
and confequently the founds can only be in fucceffion.-
When therefore we fpeak of the harmony of verfe, we
mean nothing more than an effetft produced by an aftion
of the mind in comparing the different members of verfe
already conftrufted according to the laws of melody
with eacli other, and perceiving a due and beautiful pro¬
portion between them.
The firft and loweft perception of this kind of har¬
mony arifes from comparing two members of the fame
line with each other, divided in the manner to be feen
in the three inftances already given ; becaufe the beauty
of proportion in the members, according to each of
theie divifions, is founded in nature. But there is a
perception of harmony in verfification, which arifes
from the comparifon of two lines, and obferving the
relative proportion of their members; whether they
correfpond exaiftly to each other by fimilar divifions,
as in the couplets already quoted ; or whether they are
diverfified by cefures in different places. As,
See the bold youth || ftrain up the threatening fteep,
Rufh thro’ the thickets || down the valleys fweejp.
TRY. ^ .. 265
Where we find the cefure at the end ofthc fecond foot
of the firft line, and in the middle of the third foot or __
the laft.
Hang o’er their courfers heads || with eager fpeed.
And earth rolls back (j beneath the flying fteed.
Here the cefure is at the end of the third foot in the
former, and of the fecond in the latter line.   1 he
perception of this fpecies of harmony is far fupeiior to
the former; becaufe, to the pleafure of comparing the
members of the fame line with each other, there is fu-
peradded that of comparing the different members of
the different lines w'ith each other ; and the harmony is
enriched by having four members of companfon iu-
ftead of two. The pleafure is {fill increafed m compa¬
ring a greater number of lines, and obferving the rela¬
tive proportion of the couplets to each otliCr in point of
fimilarity and diverfity. As thus.
Thy forefts, Windfor, ]j and thy green retreats.
At once the monarch’s || and the mufe’s feats.
Invite my lays. || Be prefent fylvan maids,
Unlock your fprings [j and open all your fhades.
Here wre find that the cefure is in the middle of the
verfe in each line of the firft couplet, and at the end of
the fecond foot in each line of the laft ; which gives a
fimilarity in each couplet diftinftly confidered, and a
diverfity when the one is compared with the other, that
has a very pleafmg effeft. Nor is the pleafure lefs where
we find a diverfity in the lines of each couplet,, and a
fimilarity in comparing the couplets themfelves. As hr
thefe.
Not half fo fwift j[ the trembling doves can fly,
When the fierce eagle j| cleaves the liquid iky ;
Not half fo fwiftly || the fierce eagle moves,
When thro’ the cloudsj|he drives the trembling doves..
There is another mode of dividing lines well fuited to
the nature of the couplet, by introducing femipaufes,
which with the cefure divide the line into four por¬
tions. By a femipaufe, we mean a fmall reft of the
voice,'during a portion of time equal to half of that ta¬
ken up by the cefure ; as will be perceived in the follow¬
ing fine couplet:
Warms j in the fun JJ refrefhes | in the breeze,
Glows | m the liars || and bloffoms | in the trees.
That the harmony, and of courie the pleafure, re¬
fill ting from poetic numbers, is increafed as well by
the femipaufe as by the cefure, is obvious to every ear;
becaufe lines fo conftructed furnifli a greater number of
members for comparifon : but it is of more importance
to obferve, that by means of the femipaufes, lines which,
feparately coniidered, are not of the fineft harmony,
may yet produce it when oppofed to each other, and
compared in the couplet. • Of the truth of this obfer-
vation, the following couplet, efpecially as it lucceeds
that immediately quoted, is a ftriking proof:
Irives j thro’ all life || extends | thro’ all extent,
Spreads j undivided |j operates J unfpent.-
What we have advanced upon this fpecies of verfe,
will contribute to folve a poetical problem thrown out
by Dryden as a crux to his brethren: it was to ac¬
count for the peculiar beauty of that celebrated couplet
in Sir John Denham’s Cooper's Hilly where he thus de-
feribes the Thames;
, Tho5
P O E
Tho’ deep } yet clear \\ tho* gentle j yet not dull.
Strong | without rage || without o’erflowing | full.
Tins deicription has great merit independent of the
harmony of the numbers ; but the chief beauty of the
verfif cation lies in the happy difpoiition of the paufes
and femipaufes, fo as to make a fine harmony in each
line when its portions are compared, and in the couplet
when one line is compared with the other.
Having new faid all that is neceflary upon paufes
and femipaufes, we have done the utmoft juftice to- our
fubjedt which the limits afligned.us will permit. Feet
and paufes are the conftituent parts of verfe ; and the
proper adjuftment of them depends upon the poet’s
knowledge of numbers, accent, quavti , and movement,
all of which we have endeavoured briefly to explain. In
conformity to the practice of fome critics, we might
have treated feparatcly of rhime and of blank verfe ;
but as the effentials of all heroic verfes are the fame,
lion
T R Y. Parc IIF,
fuch a divifion of our fubjedl would have thrown no VerfiJka.
light upon the art of Englilh verflfication. It may be
juft worth while to obferve, that the paufe at the end
of a couplet ought to coincide, if pofiible, with a flight
paufe in the fenfe, and that there is no neceflity for this
coincidence of paufes at the end of any particular blank
•verfe. We might likewife compare our heroic line with
the ancient hexameter, and endeavour to appretiate their
refpedfive merits ; but there is not a reader capable of
attending to fuch comparifon who will not iudge for
himfelf; and it may perhaps be queftioned, whether
there be two who will form precifely the fame judgment.
Mr Sheridan, and all the mere Eng'lifh critics, give a
high degree of preference to our heroic, on account of
the vaft variety of feet which it admits; whilft the
readers of Greek and Latin poetry prefer the hexame¬
ter, on account of its more mufical notes and majeftic
length.
.11
Foi&ou.
P O I
Pf)GGE, the cataphractus cottus, in ich¬
thyology. See Cottus, n° 2.
POGGIUS Bracciolinus, a man of great parts
and learning, who contributed much to the revival of
knowledge in Europe, was born at Terranuova, in the
territories of Ffcrence, in 1380. His firft public em¬
ployment was that of writer of the apoftolic letters,
which he held 10 years, and was then made apoftolic
fecretary, in which capacity he officiated 40 years, un¬
der feven popes. In 1453, when he was 72 years of
age, he accepted the employment of fecretary to the re¬
public of Florence, to which place he removed, and died
in 1459. He vifited feveral countries, and fearched
many monafteries, to recover ancient authors, numbers
of which he brought to light: his own works conftft of
moral pieces, orations, letters, and A Hiftory of Flo¬
rence from 1350 to 1455, which is the moil conftder-
able of them.
POGO, is a name by which the inhabitants of the
Philippine iflands diftinguiih their quail, which, though
fmallerthan ours, is in every other refpedf very like it.
POICTIERS, an ancient, large, and confiderable
town of France, capital of Poidtou. It was a bifhop’s
fee, and contained four abbeys, a mint, an univerfity fa¬
mous for law, 2 2 parifhes, 9 convents for men, and 12
nunneries. There are here feveral Roman antiquities,
and particularly an amphitheatre, but partly demolifhed,
and hid by the houfes. I here is alfo a triumphal arch,
which ferves as a gate to the great ftreet. It is not
peopled in proportion to its extent. Near this place
Edward the Black Prince gained a deciftve victory over
the French, taking King John and his fon Philip pri-
foners, in 1356, whom he afterwards brought over into
England. See France, n° 71, &c.—It is feated on a
bill on the river Clain, 52 miles fouth-weft of Tours,
and i 20 north by call of Bourdeaux. E. Long. o. 2C.
N. Lat. 46. 35.
POICTOU, a province of France, bounded on the
north by Bretagne, Anjou, and part of Touraine : on
theeaft by Touraine, Berry, andManche; on the fouth
by Angoumois, Saintonge, and the territory of Aunis ;
and on the weft by the fea of Gafcony. It is divided
P O I
into the tipper and Lower; and is fertile in corn and Pot&oo,
wine, and feeds a great number of cattle, particularly PQinciana>[
mules. It was in pofleffion of the kings of Eng- ^ J
land for a conllderable time, till it was loft by the un¬
fortunate Henry VI. Poich'ers is the capital town.
Colic of Poic-tou. See Medicine, n° 303.
POINCIANA, Ba RBADOES FLOWER-FENCE : A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 33d order, Lament ace/e. The calyx is pen-
taphyllous; the petals five, the uppermoft larger than
the reft ; the ftamina long, and all fertile; the feed-vef-
fel a legumen. There is only one fpecies, viz. the pul-
cherrima, a native of both Indies. It rifes with a ftraight
ftalk 10 or 12 feet high, which is covered with a grey
bark, and is fometimes as thick as the fmall of a man’s
leg, dividing into feveral fpreading branches at the top,
which are armed at each joint with two Ihort, crooked,
ftfong fpines, and garnilhed with decompound winged
leaves, each leaf confifting of fix or eight pair of Ample
winged leaves. They are of a light green colour, and
when bruifed emit a ftrong odour. The branches are
terminated by loofe fpikes of flowers, which are fome¬
times formed into a kind of pyramid, and at others dif-
pofed more in the form of an umbel. The footftalk
of each flower is near three inches long ; the flower is
compofed cf five petals, which are roundifh at the top,
but are contratted to narrow tails at the bafe. They
fpread open, and are beautifully variegated with a deep
red or orange colour, yellow, and fome fpots of green ;
and emit a very agreeable odour. After the flower is
paft, the germen becomes a broad flat pod three inches
long, divided into three or four cells by tranfverfe par¬
titions, each including one flattifh irregular feed. The
plant is propagated by feeds ; but, being tender, is to
be conftantly kept in the bark-ftove. It is very im¬
patient of moifture in winter; and if the leaft damp
feizes its top, it either kills the plant or deftroys its
head. With proper management it will grow taller
here than in the places where it is native ; but its ftems
will not be thicker than a man’s finger. In Barbadoes
it is planted in hedges to divide the lands, whence it has
3 the
poinf. the name of jlower-finct,
"—■v are made ufe of as a purge inftead of fenna ; and in Ja¬
maica it is called fena.
POINT, a term ufed in various arts.
Point, in grammar* a character ufed to mark the dt-
vifions of difcourfe (See Comma, Colon, &t;.) A
point proper is what we otherwife call a full flop or pe*
riod. See Punctuation.
Point, in geometry, according to Euclid, is that
which hath neither parts nor magnitude.
Point, in mufic, a mark or note anciently ufed to
diltinguilh the tones or founds: hence we ftill call it
fmple countsr.pointy when a note of the lower part an-
fwers exaftly to that of an upper ; figurative counter¬
point, when any note is fyncopated, and one of the parts
makes feveral notes or inflexions of the voice, while the
other holds on one.
We ftill ufe a point, to raife the value of a note, and
prolong its time by one half, e. y. a point added to a
femibreve inftead of two minims, make it equal to three;
and fo of the other notes. See the article Time.
Point, in aftronomy, a term applied to certain points
or places marked in thfe heavens, and diftinguifhed by
proper epithets.
The four grand points of divifions of the horizon,
viz. the eaft, weft, north, and fouth, are called the car¬
dinal points.
The zenith and nadir are the vertical points ; the
points wherein the orbits of the planets cut the plane
of the ecliptic are called the nodes : the points wherein
the equator and ecliptic interfebt are called the equinoc¬
tial points: particularly, that whence the fun afcends to¬
wards the north pole, is called the vernalpoint; and that
by which he defcends to the fonth pole, the autumnal
point. The points of the ecliptic, where the fun’s afcent
above the equator, and defcent below it, terminate, are
called the foljhtial point; particularly the former oPthefn,
' the ejhval or fummer-point; the latter, the brumal or
'winter-point.
Point is alfo ufed for a cape or headland jutting out
into the fea : thus feamen fay, two points of land are in
one another, when they are fo in a right line againft
each other, as that the innermoft is hindered from being
feen by the outermoft.
Point, in perfpeftive, is ufed for various poles or
places, with regard to the perfpe£tive plane. See Per¬
spective.
Point is alfo an iron or fteel inftrument, ufed with
fome variety in feveral arts. Engravers, etchers, cut¬
ters in wood, -&c. ufe points to trace their defigns on
the copper, wood, ftone, &c. See the articles Engra¬
ving, &c.
Point, in tire manufactories, is a general term, ufed
for all kinds of laces wrought with the needle; fuch are
-the point le Venice, point de France, point de Genoa,
&c. which are diftinguifhed by the particular
and arrangement of their points.—Point is
ufed for lace woven with bobbins; as Englilh point
point de Malines, point d’Havre, &c*
Point, in poetry, denotes a lively brifk turn or con¬
ceit, uftially found or expected at the clofe of an epigram.
See PoEtRY, n° 169.
PoiNT-Blanb in gunnery, denotes the fliot of a gun
levelled horizontally, without either mounting .or fink¬
ing the muzzle of the piece.—In {hooting point-blank,
Vol. XV. Part I.
01 l 265 1 P 0 I
In the Weft Indies, its leaves the {hot or bullet is fuppofed to go direflly forward in
a ftraight line to the mark; and not to move in a curve,
as bombs and highly elevated random-fliots do.—When
a piece Hands Upon a level plane, and is laid level, the
diftance between the piece and the point where the
fhot touches the ground firft, is called the point-blank
range of that piece ; but as the fame piece ranges more
orlefs, according to a greater or lefs charge, the point-
blank range is taken from that of a piece loaded with
fuch a charge as is ufed commonly in aftion. It is
therefore neceffafy that thefe ranges of all pieces ftiould
be known; fince the gunner judges from thence what
elevation he is to give to his pieces when he is either
farther from or nearer to the object to be fired at ; and
this he can do pretty nearly by fight, after confiderable
pra&ice.
POINTING, in grammar, the art of dividing a dif-
courfc, by points, into periods and members of periods,
ia order to flioW the proper paufes to be made in read¬
ing, and to facilitate the pronunciation and underftand-
ing thereof. See the article Punctuation.
POINTS, in heraldry, are the feveral different parts
of an efcutcheon, denoting the local pofitions of any fi¬
gure. See Heraldry, p. 441. col. 2.
Points, in ele&ricity, are thofe acute terminations
of bodies which facilitate the paflage of the electrical
fluid from or to fuch bodies. See Electricity.
Points, or Vowel Points, in the Hebrew language.
See Philology, Se£t. 1.11’31, &c.
POISON, is any fubftance which proves deftrudtive
to the life of animals in a fmall quantity, either taken
by the mouth, mixed with the blood, or applied to the
nerves. See Medicine, h° 261, 269, 303, 322, 408,
&c. &c.
Of poifons there are many different kinds, which are
exceedingly various in their operations. The mineral
poifons, as arfenic and corrofive mercury, feern to at¬
tack the folid parts of the ftomach, and to produce
death by eroding its fubftance: the antimonials feem
rather to attack the nerves, and to kill by throwing the
whole fyftem into ctmvulfions ; and in this manner alfo
moft of the vegetable poifons feem to operate. All of
thefe, however, feem to be inferior in ftrength to the
poifons of fome of the more deadly kinds of ferpents,
which operate fo fuddenly that the animal bit by them
will be dead before another that had fwallowed arfenic
would be affected.
Much has been written concerning a poifon made ufe
of by the African negroes, by the Americans, and by
the Eaft Indians. To this very ftrange effefts have
been aferibed. It has been faid that by this poifon a
man might be killed at any certain time ; as, for in-
ftance, after the interval of a day* a week, a month, a
year, or even feveral years. Thefe wonderful effects,
however, do not feem worthy of credit ; as the Abbe
Pointing
11
Poifon.
his account it is extremely improbable that any fuch
effects could be produced with certainty.
With this poifon the Abbe was furnilhed by Dr He-
berden. It was clofed and fealed up in an earthen pot
inclofed in a tin-cafe. Within the tin-cafe was a note
containing the following words : “ Indian poifon,
brought from the banks of the river of the Amazons
Li 'ty
p O I [ 266 ] P O I
Polfon. by Don Pedro Maldonado. It 13 one of the forts men-
""“V  tioned in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, Vol. XLVII.
N0 1 2.” In the volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions here quoted, mention is made of two poifons little
different in their a&ivity ; the one called the poifon of
Isamas, and the other of Ticunas. The poifon in the
earthen velfel ufed by the Abbe Fontana was that of
the ticunas ; he was alfo furnifhed with a number of
American arrows dipped in poifon, but whether that of
the lamas or ticunas he could not tell.
Our author begins his account of the nature of this
poifon with detecting fome of the miftakes which had
been propagated concerning it.—It had been aflerted,
that the Ticunas poifon proves noxious by the mere ef¬
fluvia, but much more by the fteam which exhales from
it in boiling or burning : that, among the Indians, it
is prepared only by women condemned to die ; and
that the mark of its being fufficiently prepared is when
the attendant is killed by its fteam. All thefe afler-
tions are by the Abbe refuted in the cleareft manner.
He expofed a young pigeon to the fmell of the poifon
when the veffel was opened, to the fteam of it when
boiling, and to the vapour of it when burning to the
fides of the veffel, without the animal’s being the leaft
injured ; on which, concluding that the vapours of this
poifon were not to be dreaded, he expofed himfelf to
them without any fear.
This poifon diffolves very readily even in cold water,
and likewife in the vegetable and mineral acids. With
oil of vitriol it becomes as black as ink, but not with
the reft of the acids. In oil of vitriol it alio diffolves
more flowly than in any of the reft. It does not ef-
fervefce with acids or alkalis ; neither does it alter milk,
nor tinge it, except with the natural colour of the
poifon ; nor does it tinge the vegetable juices either
red or green. When examined by the microfcope,
there is no appearance of regularity or cryftallization ;
but it for the moft part appears made up of very fmall,
irregular, roundifh bodies, like vegetable juices. It
dries without making any noife, and has an extremely
bitter tafte when put upon the tongue.
The ticunas poifon is harmlefs when put into the
eyes ; nor is it fatal when taken by the mouth, unlefs
the quantity is confiderable. Six grains of the folid
poifon, diffolved in water, killed a young pigeon which
drank it in lefs than 20 minutes. Five grains killed a
fmall Guinea-pig in 25 minutes. Eight grains killed a
rabbit in an hour and eight minutes, &c. In thofe Potforr.
experiments it was obferved that much lefs poifon was—v-"
required to kill an animal whofe ftomach was empty
than one that had a full ftomach. Three rabbits and
two pigeons were killed in leis than 35 minutes by ta¬
king a dofe of three grains each on an empty ftomach ;
but when the experiment was repeated on five animals
with full ftomachs, only one of them died.
The moft fatal operation of this poifon is when mix¬
ed with the blood. The fmalleft quantity, inje&ed in¬
to the jugular vein, killed the animal as if by a ftroke
of lightning. When applied to wounds in fuch a man¬
ner that the flowing of the blood could not wafh it
away, the animal fell into convullions and a train of
fatal nervous fymptoms, which put an end to its life in
a few minutes. Yet, notwithftanding thefe feeming
affections of the nerves, the poifon proved harmlefs when
applied to the naked nerves themfelves, or even to the
medullary fubftance of them flit open.
The ftrength of this poifon feems to be diminilhed,
and even deftroyed, by mineral acids, but not at all by
alkalis or ardent fpirits ; but if the frefli poifon was ap¬
plied to a wound, the application of mineral acids im¬
mediately after could not remove the pernicious effedts.
So far, indeed, was this from being the cafe, that the
application of nitrous acid to the wounded mufcle of a
pigeon killed the animal in a fhort time without any
poifon at all.—The effedhs of the arrows were equally
fatal with thofe of the poifon itfelf (a).
The poifon of the viper is analogous in its effedts to
that of ticunas, but inferior in ftrength ; the latter kill¬
ing more inftantaneoully when injedfed into a vein than
even the poifon of the moft venemous rattlefnake.
The Abbe has, however, obferved a difference in the
adtion of the two poifons upon blood taken out of the
body. He cut off the head of a pigeon, and received
its blood into two warm conical glaffes, to the amount
of about 80 drops into each. Into the blood contained
in one porringer, he put four drops of water ; and into
the other four drops of the poifon diffolved in water as
ufual. The. event of this experiment was, that the
blood, with which the water only was mixed, coagulated
in a fhort time ; but that in which the poifon was
mixed did not coagulate at all. The poifon of the vi¬
per alfo hinders the blood from coagulating, but gives
it a much blacker tinge than the poifon of the ticunas.
The poifon of the viper alfo proves certainly fatal when
injedted
(a) Mr Paterfon, in his travels in Africa, in the years 1 777-8-9, fell in with an European woman who had been
wounded with a poifoned arrow. Great pains had been taken to cure her, but in vain ; for at different periods of the
year an inflammation came on which was fucceeded by a partial mortification. She told hirn that the wound was
eafily healed up ; but in two months afterwards there was a certainty of its breaking out again, and this had been
the cafe for many years. The Hottentots poifon their arrows with a fpecies of euphorbia. See Euphorbia.
The amaryllis difticha, a large bulbous plant growing about the Cape of Good Hope, called mad poifon, is ufed
for the fame purpofe. The natives take the bulbs when they are putting out their leaves, cut them tranfverfely,
extradl a thick fluid, and keep it in the fun till it acquires the confiftence of gum, when it is fit for ufe. With
arrows poifoned with this gum they kill antelopes and other fmall animals intended for food. After they are
wounded, the animals generally run for feveral miles, and are frequently not found till next day. When the
leaves of this plant are young, the cattle are very fond of them, though they occafion inftant death. ^ Mr Pater¬
fon mentions another fhrubby plant producing a nut, called by the Dutch ’ivoolf gift or luolf po fon, the only
poifon ufeful to the European inhabitants. The nuts are roafted like coffee, pulverized, and fluffed into fome
pieces of meat or a dead dog, which are thrown into the fields. By tins means the voracious hyenas are gene-*
rally killed. See Rhus.
P O I
[ 267 ]
P O I
PoifoR#
Jnie&ed Into the veins, even in very fmall quantity;
but it produces a kind of grumous coagulation and
blacknefs in the blood when drawn from a vein, though
it prevents the proper coagulation of that fluid, and its
reparation into craflamentum and ferum as ufual. bee
V‘in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 335* we have
a number of experiments which fhow the effefts of ma-
ny different poifons upon animals; from whence it ap¬
pears, that many fubftances which are not at all account¬
ed poifonous, yet prove as certainly fatal when mixed
with the blood as even the poifon of rattlefnakes, or the
ticunas itfelf.—An ounce of emetic wine, being inject¬
ed into the jugular vein of a large dog, produced no
effedl for a quarter of an hour. At the expiration of
that fpace he became fick, had a continual vomiting,
and evacuation of fome hard excrements by ftool. By
'thefe evacuations he feemed to be fomewhat relieved;
but foon grew uneafy, moved from place to place, and
vomited again. After this he laid himfelf down on the
ground pretty quietly ; but his reft was difturbed by a
return of his vomiting, and his ftrength greatly decrea-
fed. An hour and an half after the operation he ap¬
peared half dead, but was greatly revived by having
fome warm broth poured down his throat with a funnel.
This, however, proved only a temporary relief; for in
a fhort time the vomiting returned, he made urine in
great quantity, howled miferably, and died in convul¬
sions.—A dram and an half of fal ammoniac diffolved
in an ounce and an half of water, and injedted into the
jugular vein of a dog, killed him with convulfions al-
moft inftantly.—The fame effeft followed from injeft-
ing a dram of fait of tartar diffolved in an ounce of
warm water; but a dram and an half of common fait
injefted into the jugular produced little other bad confe-
quence than a temporary thirft.—A dram of purified
white vitriol, inje&ed into the crural vein of a dog,
killed him immediately.—Fifteen grains of fait of urine
diffolved in an ounce of water, and injefted into the
crural vein of a dog, threw him into fuch violent con¬
vulfions that he feemed to be dying; neverthelefs he re¬
covered from a fecond dofe, though not without a great
deal of difficulty : but an ounce of urine made by a
man faffing produced no bad effeft. Diluted aqua¬
fortis inje&ed into the jugular and crural vein of a dog
killed him immediately by coagulating the blood. Chi
of fulphur (containing fome quantity of the volatile vi¬
triolic acid) did not kill a dog after repeated trials. On
the contrary, as foon as he was let go, he ran into all
the corners of the room fearching for meat: and ha¬
ving found fome bones, he fell a gnawing them with
ftrange avidity, as if the acid, by injection into his veins,
had given him a better appetite.—Another dog who
had oil of tartar injected into his veins,, fwelled and
died, after fuffering great torment. His blood was
found florid, and not coagulated.—A dram and a halt
of fpirit of fait diluted with water, and injedfed into the
jugular vein of a dog, killed him immediately. In the
right ventricle of the heart the blood was found partly
grumous and concreted into harder clots than ordinary,
and partly frothy. Warm vinegar was injedted with¬
out doing any manifelt harm.—Two drams of fugar
diffolved into an ounce of water were injedfed into the
jugular vein of a dog without any hurt.
Thefe are the refults of the experiments where faline
fubftances were injedfed into the veins. Many acrids 
proved equally fatal. A decodtion of two drams of
white hellebore, injedfed into the jugular vein of a dog,
killed him like a ftroke of lightning. Another dog
was killed in a moment by an injedfion of an ounce of
redfified fpirit of wine in which a drant of camphor was
diflblved.—Ten drams of highly redfified fpirit of wine,
injedfed into the crural vein of a dog, killed him in a
very ftiort time : he died quietly, and licking his jaws
with his tongue, as if with pleafure. In the vena cava
and right ventricle of the heart the blood was coagula¬
ted into a great many little clots.—Three drams of rec¬
tified fpirit of wine injedfed into the crural vein of a
fmall dog made him apopledfic, and as it were half dead.
In a little time he recovered from the apoplexy, and be¬
came giddy ; and, when he endeavoured to go, reeled
and fell down. Though his ftrength increafed by de¬
grees, yet his drunkennefs continued. His eyes were
red and fiery; and his fight fo dull that he fcarce feem¬
ed to take notice of any thing : and when he was beat,
he would fcarce move. However, in four hours he be¬
gan to recover, and would eat bread when oftered him;
the next day he was out of danger.— Five ounces of
ftrong white-wine injedfed into the crural vein of a dog
made him very drunk for a few hours, but did not pro¬
duce any other confequences. An ounce of ftrong de-
codfion of tobacco injedted into a vein killed a dog in a
very fhort time in terrible convuliions. Ten drops of oil of
fage rubbed with half a dram of fugar, and thus diffolved
in water, did no harm by being injedfed into the blood.
Mercury, though feemingly void of all acrimony,
proves alfo fatal when injedted into the blood. Soon
after the injedfion of half an ounce of this mineral into
the jugular vein of a dog, he was feized with a dry
fhort cough which came by intervals. About two
days after, he was troubled with a great difficulty of
breathing, and made a noife like that of a broken-
winded horfe. There was no tumour about the root of
the tongue or the parotid glands, nor any appearance
of a falivation. In four days he died ; having been
for two days before fo much troubled with an orthop-
ncea, that he could fleep only when he leaned his head
againft fomething. When opened, about a pint of
bloody ferum was found in the thorax, and the outfide
of the lungs in molt places was bliftered. Some of the
blifters were larger and others fmaller than a pea, but
moft of them contained mercurial globules. Several
of them were broken ; and upon being prefled a little,
the mercury ran out with a mixture of a little fanies;
but upon ftronger prefTure,’a confiderable quantity of fa¬
nies iflued out. In the right ventricle of the heart fome .
particles of quickfilver were found in the very middle of
the coagulated blood lodged there, and the fame thing
alfo was obferved in the pulmonary artery. Some blood
alfo was found coagulated in a very ftrange and unufual
manner between the columnae of the right ventricle of the
the heart, and in this a.greater quantity of quicklllver than
anywhere eltb. In the left ventricle was found a very tena¬
cious blood, coagulated, and flicking to the great valve,
including the tendons of it, and a little refembling a poly¬
pus. No mercury could be found in this ventricle by the
moft diligent fearch; whence it appears, that the mercury
had palled no farther than the extremities of the pulmona¬
ry artery,where it had ftuck, and occafioned fatal obftruc-
tions.—In another dog, which had mercury injected
F 1 z into
poifcfo.
 »<
ratio
* See Cle-
mijiry, n°
9»S»i2S6>
S(C. Medi.
cine as a-
bove re¬
ferred to,
and Pbar-
macyi paf-
ftm.
P O I [268
into the jugular, it appears to have pafied the pulrao-
' nary artery, as part of it was found in the cavity ©f
the abdomen, and part alfo in fome other cavities of
the body. All the glandules were very turgid and full
of liquor, efpecially in the ventricles of the brain, and
all round there was a great quantity of ferum.
In like manner, oil of olives proves certainly fatal
when injefted into the blood. Half an ounce of this,
injected into the crural vein of a dog, produced no ef-
feef in half a quarter of an hour : but after that, the
animal barked, cried, looked dejefted, and fell into a
deep apoplexy ; fo that his limbs were deprived of all
fenfe and motion, and were flexible any way at plea-
fure. His refpiration continued very ftrong, with a
fnorting and wheezing, and a thick humour fometimes
mixed with blood flowing out of his mouth. He loft
all external fenfe : the eyes, though they continued
open, were not fenlible of any objects that were put to
them ; and even the cornea could be touched and rub¬
bed, without his being the leaft fenfxble of it: his eye¬
lids, however, had a convulfive motion. The hearing
was quite loft ; and in a fhort time the feeling became
fo dull, that his claws and ears could be bored with red-
hot pincers without his exprefling the leaft fenfe of pain.
Sometimes he was feized with a convullive motion of
the diaphragm and mufcles fubfervient to refpiration ;
upon which he would bark ftrongly, as if he had been
awake : but this waking was only in appearance; for
all the time of this barking he continued as infenfible
as evex*. In three hours he died ; and on opening his
body, the bronchije were filled with a thick froth.—
An ounce of oil of olives injefted into the jugular of
another dog killed him in a moment; but a third
lived an hour after it. He was feized with greht
fleepinefs, fnorting, and wheezing, but did not bark
like the firft. In all of them a great quantity of thick
froth was found in the lungs.
We come now to fpeak of thofe poifons which prove
mortal (b) when taken by the mouth. The principal
of thefe are, arfenic, corrofive mercury, glafs of anti¬
mony, and lead *. What the effects of thefe fubftances
are when injected into the blood, cannot be related, as
no experiments feem to have been made with them in
that way, excepting antimony, whofe effects have been
already mentioned. The effects of opium, when injected
into the veins, feem to be fimilar to its effects when
taken by the mouth. Fifty grains of opium, diflblved
in an ounce of water, were injedted into the crural
vein of a cat. Immediately after the operation (he
feemed much dejected, but did not cry; only made a
low, interrupted, and complaining noife. This was
] p o 1
fucceeded by trembling of the limbs, convulfive motions Poifon>
of the eyes, ears, lips, and almoft all parts of the body, **'—v—■
with violent convuliions of the breaft. Sometimes (he
would raife up her head, and feem to look about her ;
but her eyes were very dull, and looked dead. Though
the was let loofe, and had nothing tied about her neck,
yet her mouth was fo filled with froth, that fhe was
almoft ftrangled. At laft, her convulfive motions con¬
tinuing, and being feized with ftretching of her limbs,
Ihe died in a quarter of an hour. Upon opening the
body, the blood was found not to be much altered from
its natural ftate.—A dram and an half of opium was
diffolved in an ounce and an half of water, and then
injected into the crural vein of a lufty ftrong dog. He
ftruggled violently; made a loud noife, though hie
jaws were tied ; had a great difficulty of breathing, and
palpitation of the heart; with convullive motions of
ahnoft all parts of his body. Thefe fymptoms were
fucceeded by a profound and apopledtic deep. Having
untied him, he lay upon the ground without moving
or making any noife, though feverely beaten. About
half an hour after he began to recover fome fenfe, and
would move a little when beaten. The fleepinefs ftill
decreafed ; fo that in an hour and a half he would make
a noife and walk a little when beat. However, he died
in four days, after having voided a quantity of fetid
excrements, in colour refembling the diluted opium he
had fwallowed.
The oil of tobacco has generally been reckoned a
very violent poifon when introduced into the blood ;
but from the Abbe Fontana’s experiments, it appears
to be far inferior in ftrength to the poifon of ticu-
nas, or to the bite of a viper. A drop of oil of to¬
bacco was put into a fmall incifion in the right thigh
of a pigeon, and in two minutes the animal could not
Hand on its right foot. The fame experiment was
repeated on another pigeon and produced exactly the
fame effect. In another cafe, the oil was applied to a
flight wound in the breaft; three minutes-after which, the
animal could not ftand on the left foot. This experi¬
ment was alfo repeated a fecond time, with the fame
fuccefs. A tooth-pick, fteeped in oil of tobacco, and
introduced into the mufcles of the breaft, made the
animal fall down in a few feconds as if dead. Ap¬
plied to two others, they threw up feveral times all the
food they had eaten. Two others treated in the fame
manner, but with empty ftomachs, made many efforts
to vomit. — In general, the vomiting was found to be
a conftant effedi of this poifon : but the lofs of motion
in the part to which the poifon is applied, was found
to be only accidental. None of the animals died by the
application
* See^ (b) Of all poifons* thofe which may be called culinary are perhaps the moft deftrudlive, becaufe they are
^“aaical genera% the leaft fufpedted. All copper J veffels, therefore, and veffels of bell-metal, which contains copper, | See Pol-
•Treatife on Should be laid afide. Even the common earthen-<warey when they contain acids, as in pickling, become very per-/0" °J
Difeafes of nicious, as they are glazed with lead, which in the fmalleft quantity when diffolved is very fatal; and even tin, the/i'’°
the Pfccra. leaft exceptionable of the metals for culinary purpofes except iron, is not always quite free of poifonous quali¬
ties, it having been found to contain a fmall portion of arfenic. Mufhrooms and the common laurel are alio
very fatal. The bitter almond .contains a poifon, and its antidote likewife. The cordial dram ratajia, much
ufed in France, is a flow poifon, its flavour being procured from the kernels of peach, black cherry ftones, &c.—
The fpirit of lauro-cerafus is peculiarly fatal. The adulteration of bread, beer, wine, porter, &c. produces
very fatal confequences, and merits exemplary punilhment. Next to culinary poifons the abide of medicines de*
ierves particular attention.
P O I [2
Poifon. application of oil of tobacco. Dr Leake Upweyer af-
—v— ferts the contrary ; faying, that this oil, which is uied
bv the Indians in poifoning arrows, when mfufed into
a irefh wound, behdes ficknefs and vomiting, occahons
convulfions and death. See Pradical LJJay on Dijeqes
of the Pi/cera y p. 67.
J The pernicious efTefts of laurd-water are taken no¬
tice of under the article Medicine, n 261. The ac;
count is confirmed by the experiments of the Abbe
Fontana ; who tells us, that it not only kills m a ihort
time when taken by the mouth, but that, when giyen
in fmall dofes, the animal writhes fo that the head joins
the tail, and the vertebra; arch out in fuch a manner as
to ftrike with horror every one who fees it. In order
to afeertain the effects of this water when taken into
the blood, our author opened the flu 11 of the lower belly
of a pretty large rabbit, and made a wound in it aaout
an inch long ; and having flightly wounded the muicles
under it in many parts, applied two or three tea-fpoon-
fuls of laurel-water. Tire animal fell down convpUed
in leis than three minutes, and aied foon aftei. 1 n~
experiment was repeated with fimilar iuccefs in other
animals; but was always found to aftmoft powerfully,
and in the fhorteft time, when taken by the mouth, or
injefted by way of clyiter. From thefe experiments,
however, he concluded, that laurel-water would kill
by beino- injefted into the blood ; but in this he was
deceived ; for two rabbits had each of them a large teu-
fpoonful injefted into the jugular vein, without any in¬
convenience either at the time of injeftion or after-
wards. It proved innocent aifo when applied to the
bare nerves, and even when introduced into their medul¬
lary fubftance.
We ought now to give fome account of the proper
antidotes for each kind of poifon ; but from what has
been related concerning the extreme activity of fome
of them, it is evident that in many cafes there can be
but very little hope. People are molt apt to be bit by
ferpents in the legs or hands ; and as the poifon, from
the Abbe Fontana’s experiments, appears to aft only
in confequence of being abforbed into the blood, yt is
plain, that to prevent this abforptmn is the chief indi¬
cation of cure. We have recommended feveral methods
for this purpofe under the article Medicine, n‘; 408. ;
but the Abbe Fontana propofes another not mentioned
there, namely, ligature. This, if properly applied be¬
tween the wounded part and the heart, muff ceitainiy
prevent the bad effefts of the poifon : but then it tends
to produce adifeafe almoft equally fatal ; namely, a gan¬
grene of the part ; and our author gives mftances of
animal* being thus deftroyed after the efSefts of the
poifon were prevented ; for which reaion he prefers am.
potation. But the good effefts of either of thefe me¬
thods, it is evident, muff depend greatly on the nature
of the part wounded, and the time when the hgatuie
is applied or the amputation performed. If the teeth
of the ferpent, or the poifoned arrow, happens to ffrike
a large vein, the only puilibility of efcaping inffant death
is to comprefs the trunk of the vein above the wounded
place, and to enlarge the wound, that the blood may
flow freely and in large quantity, in order to wafli
away the poifon, and difeharge the infefted paxts of the
blood itfelf. If this is neglefted, and the perfon falls
into the agonies of death, perhaps ffrongly iUmulating
medicines givea in large doles, and continued foi a
69 ] P o I
length of time* may enable nature to counteraft the vi
rulence of the poifon. For this purpofe volatile alkalis
feem moll proper, as afting fooneft. See Medicine,
p. 346. col. 2. and p. 347. col. 1.; and perhaps a com¬
bination of them with ether might be advantageous, as
by the volatility of that medicine the aftivity of the al¬
kali would probably be increafed. In the Philofophicai
Tranfaftions, we have an account of the recovery of a
dog feemingly by means of the volatile alkali, when pro¬
bably he was in a dying condition. This dog indeed
feems to have had a remarkable llrength of conilitution.
The poor creature had firfl got two ounces of the juice
of pightfhade, which he bore without any inconve¬
nience. An equal quantity of the juice of hemlock
was then given him without effeft. He then got a large
dofe of the root of wolfsbane with the fame fuccefs. Two
drachms of white hellebore root w^ere next given. Thefe
caufed violent vomitings and purgings, but flill he out¬
lived the operation. He was tlicn made to fwallow five
roots of the colchicum, or meadow-faffron, dug frefh
out of the earth. The effeft of thefe was fimilar to that
of the white hellebore, but ftill he did not die. Laftly,
he got tw'O drams of opium ; and he even outlived this
dofe. He wras firff caff into a deep fleep by it; but
foon awaked, and was feized with violent vomitings
and purgings, which carried off the effeft of the opium.
Seeing then that the animal had refifted the moil vio¬
lent poifons, it was refolved to try the effefts of the
bite of a viper ; and he wras accordingly bit three or
four times on the belly a little below the navel by
enraged. The immediate confequence of this
wras an incipient gangrene }n the parts adjoining to the
wound, as appeared by the fifing of little black blad¬
ders filled with a famous matter, and a livid colour
which propagated itfelf all around. The motion of the
heart became very faint and irregular, and the animal
lay without ffrength or fenfation, as if he had been fei¬
zed with a lethargy or apoplexy. In this condition his
wound wras cupped and fcarified, and Venice treacle (a
famous antidote) applied to it. In two hours after this
all the fymptoms were increafed, and he feemed to be
nearly dead ; upon w'hich half a drachm of volatile fait
of hartlhorn mixed writh a little broth was poured,
down his throat; and tire confequence wTas, that in a
ihort time he was able to ttand on his feet and walk.
Another dole entirely difpelled his lethargy, and the
}reart began to recover its ffrength. However, he con¬
tinued very weak; and though he eat no folid meat for
three days, yet at the end of that time his ffrength
was evidently increafed. The firff day he drank water
plentifully and greedily, and on tire fecond day he
drank fome broui. On tire third day he began to eat.
iblid meat, and feemed out of danger ; only iome large
and foul ulcers remained on that part of the belly which
was bit, and before thefe were healed he was killed by
another dog.
From comparing this with fome other obfervations,
indeed, it would feem that volatile alkali is the bell an¬
tidote againft all poifons which iuddenly kill by a mix¬
ture with the blood, and even of fome others. Indeed
its effefts in curing the bite of fnakes feems to be put
beyond all doubt, by a paper in the 2d volume of the
Aiiatic Refearches, p. 323. “ From the effeft of a
ligature applied between the bitten part and the heart
(fays Mr Williams, the author of the paper), it is evident
that
Poifon,
Foifor*
P O I t *7° J P O I
tKat the polfon efjffufcs itfelf over the body by the re¬
turning venous blood ; deitroying the irritability, and
rendering the fyftem paralytic. It is_ therefore pro¬
bable, that the volatile cauitic alkali, in refilling the
difeafe of the poifon, does not a£t fo much as a fpecific
in deitroying its quality, as by counteradting the effedt
on the fyllem, by ftimulating the fibres, and prefei'ving
that irritability which it tends to deltroy.”
But whatever be the mode of its operation, the me¬
dicine is unquellionably powerful. Mr Williams ufed
cither the volatile cauitic alkali, or eau-de-luce; the for¬
mer of which he feems to have preferred. Of it he
gave 60 drops as a dofe in water, and of the eau-de-luce
he gave 40, at the fame time applying fome of the me¬
dicine to the part bitten, and repeating the dofe as he
found occalion. Of feven cafes, fome of which were
apparently very defperate, only one died, and that appears
to have been occafioned by bad treatment after the cure.
Many of the patients were perfedtly recovered in feven
or eight minutes, and none of them required more than
two hours: On the whole, Mr Williams fays that he
“ never knew an initance of the volatile caullic alkali
failing in its effedt, where the patient has been able to
fwallow it.” Dr Mead alferts, that the alkali counter-
adts the deadly elfedts of laurel water; we have feen its
elfedts in curing the bite of a viper, and of fnakes ; and
from Dr Wolfe’s experiments on hydrophobous pa¬
tients, it may even claim fome merit there. Still,
however, there is another method of attempting a cure
in fuch deplorable cafes ; and that is, by injedting into
the veins any thing which will not deftroy life, but will
deftroy the effedts of the poifon. It is much to be
regretted, that in thofe cruel experiments which we
have already related, the intention feems almoft ah
ways to have been to kill the animal at all events ;
whereas, it ought to have been to preferve him alive,
and to afcertain what medicines could be fafely injedt-
ed into the blood, and what could not, with the effedts
which followed the injedtion of different quantities,
none of vehich were fufficient to deftroy life. But in
the way they were managed, fcarce any conclufion can
be drawn from them. Indeed it appears that little good
is to be expedted from this mode ; it is mere fpecula-
tion, and future experiments muft fhow whether it ever
ftiall be ufed for the cure of poifons, or for any other
purpofes ; its being now totally laid afide, feems to mili¬
tate ftrongly againit the efficacy of it; befides, the ex¬
treme cruelty of the operation will ever be a ftrong bar
to its general introdudtion. See Injection.
There ftill remains another method of cure in defpe¬
rate cafes, when there is a certainty that the whole
mafs of blood is infedted ; and that is, by the bold at¬
tempt of changing the whole difeafed fluid for the
blood of a found animal. Experiments of this kind
have alfo been tried ; and the method of making them,
together with the confequences of fuch as are recorded
in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, we fhall notice under
the article Transfusion.
Dr Mead, finding that many pretenders to philofo-
phy have called the goodnefs of the Creator in queftion,
for having created lubftanees whofe manifeft and obvi¬
ous qualities are noxious and deftrudtive, remarks, by
way of anfwer, that they have alfo falutary virtues.
But, befides their phyfical effedts, they are likewife food
for animals which afford us good nouriftunent, goats and
quails being fattened by hellebore, darlings by hemlock,
and hogs innocently eating henbane ; befides, fomc of
thofe vegetables, which were formerly thought poifon-
ous, are now ufed in medicine, and future difcoveries
may probably increafe the number. The poifon of
many vegetables is their only defence againlt the ra¬
vages of animals ; and by means of them we are often
enabled to defend ufeful plants from the deftroying in-
fedt; fuch as by fprinkling them with effential oil of
turpentine 5 and by means of fome fubftances poifonous
to them, we are enabled to deftroy thofe infedts which
infeft the human body,and the bodies of domeftic animals,
&c.—As for poifonous minerals, arfenic for example.
Dr Mead obferves, that it is not a perfedt mineral, but
only an adtive fubftance, made ufe of by nature in pre¬
paring feveral metals in the earth, which are of great
fervice to mankind ; and, after confirming this by feve¬
ral inftances, he concludes by faying, the cafe will be
found much the fame in all natural produdtions of this
kind. As for poifonous animals, &c. their noxious
qualities may eafily be accounted for, by refledting that
it is their only mode of felf-defence. See Aranea,
p. 195. and Serpent.
Poison of Copper. This metal, though when in
an undiffolved ftate it produces no fenlible effedts, be¬
comes exceedingly adtive when diffolved; and fuch is
the facility with which the folution is effedted, that it
becomes a matter of fome confequence to prevent the
metal from being taken into the human body even in
its proper form. It doth not, however, appear that
the poifon of copper is equally pernicious with thofe
of arfenic or lead; much lefs with fome others treated
of in the laft article. The reafon of this is, that it ex¬
cites vomiting fo fpeedily as to be expelled, even though
taken in confiderable quantity, before it has time to
corrode the itomach. Roman vitriol, which is a fo¬
lution of copper in the vitriolic acid, has been ufed as
a medicine in fome difeafes with great fuccefs. Ver-
digrife alfo, which is another very adtive preparation
of the metal, has been by fome phyficians prefcribed
as an emetic, efpecially in cafes where other poifona
had been fwallowed, in order to procure the moft
fpeedy evacuation of them by vomit. Where copper is
not ufed with this view, it has been employed as
a tonic and antifpafmodic, with which it has been ad¬
mitted into the Edinburgh Difpenfatory under the
title @f Cuprum Ammoniacale. The effedts of the
metal, however, when taken in a pretty large quan¬
tity, and in a diffolved ftate, or when the ftomach
abounds with acid juices fufficient to diffolve it, are
very difagreeable and even dangerous; as it occa-
fions violent vomitings, pains in the ftomach, faint-
ings, and fometimes convuliions and death. The only
cure for thefe fymptoms is to expel the poifon by vo¬
miting as foon as poffible, and to obtund its acri¬
mony ; for which purpofe drinking warm milk will
probably be found the moft efficacious remedy. In
order to prevent the entrance of the poifon into the
body, no copper veffels Ihould be ufed in preparing
food but fuch as are either well tinned or kept ex¬
ceedingly clean. The pradtice of giving a fine blue or
green colour to pickles, by preparing them in copper
-veffels, ought not to be tolerated ; for Dr Falconer, in
a treatife on this fubjedt, affures us, that thefe are
fometimes fo ftrongly impregnated by this method of
preparing
Poifon.
Poifon.
0 1 [ ^7' 1
fmall quantity of them will feen there
P
PpXnega flight Monars of brafs or beU-
metal ought for the fame reafon to be avoided, as by
this means a confiderable quantity of the pernicious
metal may be mixed with our food, or with medi¬
cines. In other cafes, an equal caution ought to be
ufed." The cuftom of keeping pins in the mouth,
of giving copper halfpence to children to play with,
See ought to be avoided ; as thus a quantity of the
metal may be infenfibly taken into the body, after
which its effeas muft be uncertain. It is proper
to obferve, however, that copper is much more eaiiiy
diffolved when cold than when hot ; and therefore the
greateft care (hould be taken never to let any thing
defigned for food, even common water, remain long
in copper veffels when cold; for it is obferved, that
though the confedioners can fafely prepare the molt
acid fyrups in clean copper veffels without their recei¬
ving any detriment whilft hot, yet if the fame fyrups
are allowed to remain in the veffels till quite cold, they
become impregnated with the pernicious qualities ot
the metal.
Poison of Leaa\ See Medicine, n 303.
Poisow-Tree, See Rhus.
PoisoN-Tree of Java, called in the Malayan language
lohun upas, is a tree which has often been defenbed by
naturalifts; but its exiftence has been very generally
doubted, and the deferiptions given of it containing
much of the marvellous, have been often treated as idle
fidions. N. P. Foerfch, however, in an account °f
written in Dutch, afferts that it does exift ; and tells
us, that he once doubted it as much as any perfon; but,
determined not to truft general opinions, he made the
molt particular inquiries poffible ; the _ refult of which
was, that he found that it is fituated in the ifland ol
lava, about 27 leagues from Batavia, 14 from boura
Charta, the emperor’s feat, and about 19 from 1 inkjoe,
the refidence of the fultan of Java. It is furrounded
on all fides by hills and mountains, and the adjacent
country for 12 miles round the tree is totally barren.
Our author fays he has gone all round the ipot at about
18 miles from the centre, and on all fides he found the
country equally dreary, which he afenbes to its noxious
effluvia. The poifon procured from it is a gum, illuing
from between the bark and the tree ; and it is brought
by malefactors who have been condemned to death, but
who are allowed by this alternative to have a chance for
their life. An old eccleiiaftic, our author informs us,
dwelt on the outiide of the furrounding hills, whofe bu-
fmefs it was to prepare the criminals for their fate, it
death {hould be the confequence of their expedition.
And indeed fo fatal is its effluvia, that he acknowledged
that fcarcely two out of 20 returned from above yOO
whom he had difmiffed.
Mr Foerfch farther tells us, that he had feen feveial or
the criminals who had returned, and who told him, that
the tree Hands on the borders of a rivulet, is of a mid¬
dling fize, and that five or fix young ones of the fame
kind Hand clofe to it. They could not, however, lee
any other plant or fhrub near it; and the ground was
of brownffh fand, full of ftones and dead bodies, and
difficult to pafs. The Malayans think this trail was
thus rendered noxious and uninhabitable by the judge¬
ment of God, at Mahomet’s defire, on account .of the
fins of the inhabitants. No animal whatever is ever
9
V O I
wen uivn* , and fuch as get there by any means never
return, but have been brought out dead by fuch of the ”
criminals as have themfelves efcaped death.
Our author relates a circumftance which happened
in the year 1775, to about 400 families (1600 fouls),
who refufed to pay fome duty to the emperor, and who
were in confequence declared rebels and bamffled : they
petitioned for leave to fettle in the uncultivated parts
round Upas : the confequence of which was, that in lefs
than two months their number was reduced to about
300 fouls, who begged to be reconciled to the emperor,
and were again received under his protection. Many
of thefe furvivors Mr Foerfch faw, and they had jult
the appearance of perfons tainted with an infedious dif-
°r<With the juice of this tree arrows, lancets, and other
offenfive weapons, are poifoned. With lancets thus poi-
foned, Mr Foerfch obferves, that he faw 13 of the em¬
peror’s concubines executed for infidelity to his bed in
February 1776. They were lanced in the middle of
their breafts ; in five minutes after which they were fei-
zed with a tremor and fubfultus tendlnum, and in 15 mi¬
nutes they were dead. Their bodies were full of livid
fpots, like thofe of petechix, their faces fwelled, colour
blue, and eyes yellow, &c. Soon after he faw feven
Malayans executed in the fame way, and faw the iame
effeCls follow; on which he refolved to try it on other
animals, and found the operation fimilar on three pup¬
pies, a cat, and a fowl, none of which furvived more
than 13 minutes. He alfo tried its effeas internally
on a dog feven montlis old; the animal became deliri¬
ous, was feized with convulfions, and died in halt an
hour. From all which our author concludes, that it
is the moft violent of all vegetable ppifons, and that it
contributes greatly to the unhealthinefs of the ifland
in which it grows. By means of it many cruel and
treacherous murders are perpetrated. He adds, that
there exifts a fort of cajoe-upas on the coaff of
Macaffar, the poifon of which, though not near fi>
violent or malignant, operates nearly in the fame man-
ner.
To this account our readers will give fuch a degree
of credit as they think is due ; it is our bufmefs how¬
ever to add, that it has been controverted mall its parts
in a memoir of Lambert Nolft, M. D. fellow of the Ba,
tavian Experimental Society at Rotterdam, (fee Gentle¬
man’s Mag. May i794> P- 433-) This memoir was pro,
cured from John Matthew a Rhyn, who had been 23
years, from 1763 to 1786, refident in the .ifland., and
therefore had every opportunity of informing himieif
on the fpot. In this memoir we are told, that F oerfeh s
account of the tree is extremely fufpicious, from a var t-
ety of circumftances : 1. Though he had letters of in¬
troduction, he went to no confiderable houfe, and after¬
wards privately withdrew among the Enghffl. 2. VV hen
the emperor was afked refpeCting Foerfch, and the facts
he relates, he anfwered, that he had never heard either
of him or of the tree. 3. The diftances given to mark
the fituation of the tree are not accurate. 4. The exe¬
cution of criminals is different from what he repiefents..
c. The circumftance of feveral criminals returning when
Foerfch was there has a fufpicious appearance. 6.
There exifts no fuch tradition, as that the tree was pla¬
ced there by Mahomet. 7. There were no fuch dif-
turbancesin 1775 as Foerfch reprefents, the tr
Poifon.
POX [ 472 ] P 0 I-
which he alltides having fubmi'tted to the Dutch Eall nations indeed are involved in fable * but the Polos ne
India Company as early as 1756. 8. The ifland is not ver had even a fabulous hiitory of their own nation'
unhealthy, as Foerfch afferts ; nor are violent or pre- The reafon of this is, that it was not the cuitom with
mature deaths frequent. 9. The Javanele are a curi- that nation to entertain itinerant poets for the amufe
ous and intelligent people, and ofcourfe could not be fo merit of the great ; for to the fongs of thefe poets en
ignorant of this tree if it had any exiftence. 10. The tertained among other nations we are obliged for the’
affertions and pretended fa£s of Foerfch have no co- nearly part of their hiftory ; but this affiftance being
Poland,
lateral evidence; and every thing which we gather from
the accounts of others, or from the hiilory of the people,
invalidates them. For thefe and other reafons, Dr
Nolft concludes, that very little credit is due to the re-
prefentatrons of - Foerfch, and that the ifland of Java
produces no fuch tree, which, if it really grew there,
would be the moft remarkable of all trees.
POLA, in ichthyology, is the name of a flat fifh, re-
fembling the foal, but fomewhat fborter and fmaller.
It is called cynogioffiis and linguatula. It abounds in
the Mediterranean, and is fold both in Rome and in Ve¬
nice for the table.
POLACRE, £ fhip with three mails, ufually na¬
vigated in the Levant and other parts of the Medi¬
terranean. Thefe vefiels are generally furnifhed with
fquare’fails upon the main-maft, and lateen fails upon
the fore-mait and mizen-maft. Some of them, how¬
ever, carry fquare fails upon all the three mails, par¬
ticularly thofe of Provence in France. Each of their
mails is commonly formed of one piece, fo that they
have neither top-mail nor top-gallant-maft; neither
have they any horfes to their yards, becaufe the men
Hand upon the top-fail-yard to loofe or furl the top¬
gallant-fail, and on the lower-yard to m/, to loofe, or
furl, the top-fail, whofe yard is lowered fufficiently down
for that purpofe.
POLAEDRASTYLA, in natural hiftory, is the
name of a genus of cryilals, derived from the Greek
many, ^/=«,fides, the primitive particle not, and
a column ; and means a cryftal with many planes,
and without a column.
The bodies of this genus are cryftals of two octan¬
gular pyramids, with the bafes joined, the whole body
confifting of 16 planes. Of this genus there are only
two fpecies known : 1. A brown kind with ftiort pyra¬
mids, found in great plenty in Virginia on the fifles of
hills ; and, 2. A colourlefs one, with longer pyramids.
This has yet been found only in one place, which is the
great mine at Goffalaer, in Sax6ny, where it ufually
lies at great depths.
POLAND, a kingdom of Europe, in its largeft ex¬
tent bounded by Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silefia, and
Moravia, to the weft ; and, towards the call, by part
of Rufiia and the Leffer Tartary ; on the north, it
has the Baltic, Ruffia, the grand province of Livo-
and Samogitia ; and on the fouth, it is bounded
by Befiarabia, Tranfylvania, Moldavia, and Hungary^
Geographers generally divide it into the provinces of
Poland Proper, Lithuania, Samogitia, Courland, Pruf-
ha, Maflovia, Polachia, Polefia, Little Rufiia, called
likewife Rujfia Rubra or Red Rtljfiu, Podolia, and the
Uxraim Now, however, it is very confiderably re¬
duced in extent, as will appear in the courfe of its hi¬
ftory. For a rnap of Poland, Lithuania, and Prufiia,
fee Plate CCCCX.
With repaid to < the hiftory of Poland, we are not
to gather l e earlier part of it from any accounts tranf-
unitted to us by the natives? The early hiitcries of all
deficient in Poland, we mull have recourfe to what is
recorded concerning it by the hiftorians of ot her nations-
The fovereigns of Poland at firft had the title ofiVifhfo.
duces, dukes or generals, as if their office had been reigns at
only to lead the armies into the field. The firft 0ffirfl:only
thefe is univerfally allowed to have been Lechus or
Lecht; and to render him more illuftrious, he is faid "
to have been a lineal defeendant from Japhet the fon of^schusthe
Noah. According to fome writers, he migrated atduk*’
the head of a numerous body of the defendants of the
ancient Sclavi from fome of the neighbouring nations ;
and, to this day-, Poland is called by the Tartars the
kingdom of Ret bus. Bufching, however, gives a dif¬
ferent account of the origin of the Poles. Sarmatia,
he obferves, was an extenfive country, inhabited by a
variety of nations of different names. He fuppofes the
Poles to be the defendants of the ancient Lazi, a peo¬
ple who lived in Colchis near the Pontus Ecxinus; 3
whence the Poles art fornetimes called Pohxu Crofs- Derivation
mg feveral rivers, they entered Pofnania, and fettled on of the diffe<
the borders of the Warta, while their neighbours the rfo
Zechi fettled on the Elbe, in the 55cth year of Chrift. ^
As to the name of Poland, or Po/Jha, as it is called by
the natives, it comes from the Sclavonic word Pole,
or Poln, which fignifies a country adapted to hunt¬
ing, becauf the whole country was formerly covered
with vail forefts, exceedingly proper for that emplov-
ment. ]
Of the tranfa&ions of Lechus during the time that Vifdmer
he enjoyed the fovereignty, we have no certain ac-t,1e ^ecot1^
count. His fucceflbr was named Vtjc'tmer, who is ge- du^e*
nerally fuppof d to have been the nephew of Lechus.
He was a warlike and fuccefsful prince, fubduing many
provinces of Denmark, and building the city of Wif-
mar, fo called from the name of the fovereign. But
the Danifh hiftorians take no notice of his wars with
their country; nor do they even mention a prince of
this name. However, he is faid to have reigned for a
long time with great glory ; but to have left the people
in great(diilrefs5 on account of the difputes which arof
about a fucceflbr.
After the death of Vif imer, the nobility were on Form of
the point of ele£ing a fovereign, when the people, £overn'
haraffed by the grievous burdens occafioned by the mean-f3”'
wars of Vifcimer, unanimoufly demanded another form ariftocracy.
of government, that they might no longer be liable to
Puffer from ambition and tyranny. At firft the nobi¬
lity pretended to yield to this humour of the people
with great relu&ance ; however, they afterwards deter¬
mined on fuch a form of government as threw ail the
power into their own hands. Twelve palatines, or
vaivodes, were chofen ; and the Polifh dominions di¬
vided into as. many provinces. Thefe palatines exer-
cifed a defpotic authority within their feveral jurifdic-
tions, and aggravated the mifery of the people by per¬
petual wars among themfelves ; upon which the Poles,
worn out with oppreffion, refolved to return to their
old form of government. Many affemblies were held
for
!
.
X
' tttyi'us y 'Z
)
*
■
f "
)
p O L [27
for th!» pimofc; but, by teafon of the bppoftUon of
—  the vaivodes, they came to nothing. At laft, however,
they caft their eyes upon Cracus, or Gracus, whole
wealth and popularity had raifed him to the hiVheft
honours among his countrymen. The Poles fay that
he was a native of Poland, and one of the 12 vaivodes -,
d but the Bohemians affirm that he was a native of their
The duke- country : however, both agree in maintaining, that he
dom refto- was defcended from the ancient family of the Gracchi
in Rome ; who, they fay, were banilh*!. to this country,
lie is faid to have lignalized himfelf againft the Franks,
whom he overthrew in feme defperate engagements, and
afterwards built the city of Cracow with their fpoils.
Ife did not enlarge his dominions, but made his fubjefts
happy by many excellent regulations. At lait, after a
long and glorious reign, he expired, or, according to
fome, was afl'affinated by a nobleman who afpired to the
crown.
Cracus left three children ; Cracus, Lechus, and a
daughter named Vanda. 1 he firft fucceeded to the
dukedom in virtue of his birthright; but was foon after-
murdered by his brother Lechus. However, it feems
the thoughts of the crime which he had committed to
difturbed his confcience, that the fecret could not be
kept. When it was known that he had been the mur¬
derer of his late fovereign, he was depofed with all
poffible marks of ignominy and contempt, and his filter
Vanda declared duchefs. She was a moll beautiful and
accoirpliffied lady; and foon after the had been raifed
to the fovereignty, one Rithogar, a T eutonic prince,
lent an ambaffador demanding her in marriage, and
threatening war if liis propofals were refufed. \ anda
marched in perfon againil him at the head of a numer¬
ous army, and the event proved fatal both to Rithogar
and herfelf. The troops of Rithogar abandoned him
without Itriking a blow, upon which he killed himfelf
in defpair ; and Vanda, having become enamoured of
him, was fo much concerned for his death, that fhe
drowned'herfelf in the river Viltula or Wefel. From
this unfortunate lady the country of Vandalia takes its
name.
Again abo- The family of Cracus having become extina: by the
liked. death of Vanda, the Poles were again left at liberty to
choofe a new fovereign or a new form of government.
Through a natural levity, they changed the form, of
government, and rettored the vaivodes notwit hllandmg
all that they had formerly fuffered from them. . The
confequences were the fame as beiore: the vaivodes
abufed their power ; the people were oppreffed, and the
3 ftate was diifradted between foreign wars and civil con-
Reftored tentions. . At that time the Hungarians and Moravians
a fecond had invaded Poland with a numerous army, and were
lime. ‘oppofed only by a handful of men aim oil ready to fur-
render at diferetion. However, one Premiilaus, a pri¬
vate foldier, contrived a flratagem by which the numer¬
ous forces of the enemy v/ere overthrown 5 and for his
valour was rewarded with the dukedom. W e are ig¬
norant of the other tranfadfioUs of his reign ; but all
hiftorians inform us that he died deeply regretted, and
without iflue; fo that the Poles had once more to
•choofe a fovereign.
On the death of Premiilaus feveral candidates appeared
ior the throne ; and the Poles determined to prefer him
who could overcome all his competitors in a horfe-race.
A ftone pillar was ere died /near the capital, on which
Vol. XV. Part I.
3 3 POL
were laid all the enfigns of the ducal authority; and sfrt _PoUn<1'
herald proclaimed, that he who firil arrived at that pil¬
lar from a river at fome diftance, named Pouc!eric> was
to enjoy them, A. Poliih lord named Lectins was le-
folved to fecure the vidfory to himfelf by a ftratagem ;
for which purpofe he caufed iron fpikes to be driven all
over the courfe, referring only a path for his own hone.
The fraudulent defign took effedl in part, all the reft
of the competitors being difmounted, and fome feyerely
hurt by their fall. Lechus, in confcquence of this vic¬
tory, -was about to be proclaimed duke ; when, unlucki¬
ly for him, a peafant who had found out the artifice op- •
pofed the ceremony; and upon an examination of the
fadl, Lechus was torn in pieces, and the ducal authority
conferred upon the peafant.
The name of the new monarch was alfo Lechus. He
attained the fovereignty in the year 774, and behaved
with great wifdom and moderation. Though he pofteffed
the qualities of a great warrior, and extended his domi¬
nions on the fide of Mbravia and Bohemia, yet Ins chief
delight was to make his fubje£ls happy by peace. In
the decline of life he was obliged to engage in a war
with Charlemagne, and is faid by fome to have fallen in
battle with that powerful monarch though others affert
that he died a natural death, having lived fo long that
the fprings of life were quite worn out.
Lechus III. was fucceeded by his fon Lechus IV.
who inherited all his father’s virtues. He fiippreffed an
infurre&ion in the Poliffi provinces, by which he ac¬
quired great reputation ; after which he led his army
againfl the Greek and Italian legions who had over¬
run Panonia. He gained a complete vi&ory over his
enemies. Nor was his valour more confpicuous in the
battle than his clemency to the Vanquifhed : for he dii-
miifed all his prifoners without ranfom ; demanding no
other conditions than that they ffiould never again diilurb
the peace of Poland, or the allies of that kingdom. This
duke is faid to have been endowed with many virtues,
and is charged only with the vice of incontinence. He
left 20 natural children, and only one legitimate fon^,
named Popiely to whom he left the fovereignty. Popiei
was alfo a virtuous aud pacific prince, who never had re-
courfe to arms but through neceffity. He removed the
feat of government from Cracow to Gnefna, and was
fucceeded by his nephew Popiei II. a minor.
The young king behaved with propriety as long as
he was under the tuition of others; but as foon as he
had got the reins of government into his own hands the
face of affairs was altered. Lechus III. who, as hath
been already mentioned, had 20 illegitimate children,
had promoted them to the government of different pro- .
viiKes ; and they had difeharged the duties of their offices
in fuch a manner as fhowed that they were worthy of the
confidence repofed in them. How ever, as foon as Popiel
came of age, being feduced by the advice of his wife, an
artful and ambitious woman, he removed them from then-
polls, treated them with the utrnoil contempt, and at laft
found means to poifon them all at once at an entertain¬
ment. A dreadful puniffiment, however, according to
the hiftorians of thole times, attended his treachery and
cruelty. The bodies of the unhappy governors were
Jeft unburied; and from them iffued a fwarm of rats,
who purfued Popiei, his wife, ahd children, wherever they
went, and at lail devoured them. The nation now be¬
came a .prey to civil difeord at the fame time that it was
M m haraffeti
POL L 274 ] POL
yWsi.d, haraffcd by a foreign enemy; and, in flhort, the ftatc
" feemed to be on the verge of diffolution, when Piaftus
p was proclaimed duke in 830, from whom the natives of
Why the ducal or regal dignity were called Fiajles. See Piastus.
fovcragns Xhis excellent monarch died in 861, and was fucceeded
afi-1 calied ^ ^on Ziemovitus, who was of a more warlike dif-
Jt'i'ijie:, portion than his father, and who fir ft introduced a re¬
gular difcipline among the Polifh troops. Pie main¬
tained a refpetfable army, and took great pains to ac¬
quire a perfect knowledge in the art of war. The con-
fcquence of this was, that he was victorious in all his
battles ; and retook from the Germans and Piungarians
not only all that they had gained, but enlarged his do¬
minions beyond what they had been. After his death
nothing remarkable happened in Poland till the time of
Mieczflaus I. who attained the ducal authority in 964.
He was born blind, and continued fo for feven years:
after which he recovered his fight without ufing any
medicine ; a circumftance fo extraordinary, that in thofe
10 times of ignorance and fuperftition it was accounted a
Chrlftianl- miracle. In his reign the Chriftian religion was intro-
ty introdu- duced into Poland. The moft probable account of the
eczlkufl*" manner i*1 which Chriftianity was introduced is, that
Mieczflaus having by ambafiadors made his addrefles to
Daborwka daughter to the Duke of Bohemia, the lady
rejedled his offer unlefs he wmuld fuffer himfelf to be
baptized. To this the duke confented, and was bap¬
tized, after having been inftruCted in the principles of
Chriftianity. He founded the archbifhopries of Gnefna
and Cracow; and appointed St Adalbert, fent by the
pontiff to propagate Chriftianity in Poland, primate of
the whole kingdom. On the birth of his fon Boleflaus he
redoubled his zeal; founding feveral biftioprics and mo-
nafteries ; ordering likewife that, when any part of the
Gofpel was read, the hearers fliould half-draw their
fwords, in teftimony of their readinefs to defend the faith.
He was, however, too fuperftitious to attend to the duties
of a fovereign ; and fuffered his dominions to be ravaged
by his barbarous neighbour the duke of Ruflia. Yet,
with all his devotion, he could not obtain the title of
king from the pope, though he had warmly folicited it;
but it was afterwards conferred on his fon, who fucceed¬
ed to all his dominions.
Boleilaus Boleflaus I. the firft king of Poland, furnamed Chrobryt
the fir it fucceeded to the fovereignty in 999. He alfo profeffed
king of fo- and cheriftted Chriftianity, and was a man of great va-
land. lour and prudence. However, the firft tranfaCfion of
his reign favoured very much of the ridiculous piety of
thofe times-. He removed from Prague to Gnefna the
remains of a faint which he had purchafed at a confider-
able price. The Emperor Otho III. made a pilgrimage,
on account of a vow, to the tomb of this faint. He was
hofpitably received by Boleflaus, whom, in return, he
■ nvefted with the regal dignity; an aft which was con¬
firmed by the pope. This new dignity added nothing
to the power of Boleflaus ; though it increafed his con-
fequence with his own fubjefts. He now affeCted more
Hate than before: his body-guards were confiderably
augmented; and he was conftantly attended by a nu¬
merous and fplendid retinue whenever he ftirred out of
his palace. Thus he mfpired his people with an idea
of his greatnefs, and confequently of their own import-,
a-nce ; which no doubt was neceffary for the accomplifli-
ment of a defign he had formed, namely, an offenfive
war with Ruffia; but when he was upon the point of
fetting out on this expedition, he was prevented by the Poland,
breaking out of a war with the Bohemians. The ele- -y—
vation of Boleflaus to the regal dignity had excited the
envy of the duke of Bohemia, who had folicited the
fame honour for himfelf, and had been refufed. His
jealoufy was further excited by the connexion between
Boleflaus and the emperor, the former having married
Rixa the emperor’s niece. Without any provocation,
therefore, or without giving the leaft intimation of his
defign, the duke Bohemia entered Poland at the head -
of a numerous army, committing everywhere dreadful' -
ravages. Boleflaus immediately marched againft him,,,
and the Bohemians retired with precipitation. Scarcity qUerC8°Ba-
of provifions, and the inclemency of the feafon, preventedhemia
Boleflaus at that time from purfuing; but as foon as
thefe obftacles were removed, he entered Bohemia at the
head of a formidable army, with a full refolution of
taking an ample revenge. The Bohemians were alto¬
gether unable to refift ; neither indeed had they courage
to venture a battle, though Boleflaus did all in his power
to force them to it. So great indeed was the cowardice
of the duke or his army, that they fuffered Prague, the
capital of the duchy, to be taken after a fiege of two,
years’; having never, during all that time, ventured t®
relieve it by fighting the Polifh army. The taking of
this city was quickly followed by the reduftion of all the
places of inferior note: but though Boleflaus was in
poffeflion of almoft all the fortified places in Bohemia,
he could not believe his conquefts to be complete until
he became mafter of the duke’s perfon. This unfortu-
tunate prince had fhut himfelf up with his fon in his
only remaining fortrefs of Wiffogrod, where he imagined
that he fliould be able to foil all the attempts of the
Polifh monarch. In this, however, he found himfelf
difappointed. Boleflaus invefted the place, and made
his approaches with fuch rapidity, that the garrifon,
dreading a general affault, refolved to capitulate, and
perfifted in their refolution notwithftanding all the in¬
treaties and promifes of the duke. The confequence
was, that the^ unhappy prince fell into the hands of his
enemies, and had his eyes put out by Boleflaus; after
which, his fon Jaremir was put into perpetual and clofe
confinement.
From Bohemia Boleflaus marched towards Moravia ; And Mon>i
but no fooner did he arrive on the frontier than thevia‘>
whole province fubmitted without a blow. He then
refumed his intention of invading Ruffia ; for which he
had now a very fair opportunity, by reafon of a civil
war which raged with violence among the children of
duke Volodomir. The chief competitors were Jariflaus
and Suantepolk. The latter, having been defeated
by his brother, was obliged to take refuge in Poland,
where he ufed all the arguments in his power with
king Boleflaus in order to induce him to revenge his
caufe. Boleflaus having already an intention of invading
that country, needed but little intreaty ; and therefore
moved towards Ruflia at the head bf a very numerous -
army : giving out, that he had no other defign than to
revenge the injuftiee done to Suantepolk. Pie was met
on the banks of the river Bog by Jariflaus at the head
of an army much fuperior in number to his own ; and
for fome days the Polifh army was kept at bay by .
the Ruffians. At laft Boleflaus, growing impatient,Gains*C3
refolved to pafs the river at all events ; and therefore flyover
forming his cavalry in the bell manner for breaking the the Ruf-
torrent4 ^an8’
p o
[ 475 ]
POL
Tolanc!.
15
Places
Suantepolk
on the
throne of
Rufiia,
t6
Who at¬
tempts to
cut him off
with his
whole ar¬
my, but is
defeated.
17 ,
A dreadful
battle be-
Iween the
Ruflians
iad Poles.
18
Saxony
conquered
by Bole-
Saus,
tdrfent, expofed his own perfon to the utfnoft of its
force. Encouraged by his example, the Poles advan¬
ced breaft-high in the water to the oppofite (hore ; from
Whence the enemy gave them all the annoyance in their
power. In fpite of all oppofition, however, the Poles
reached the bank, and foon gained a complete vi&ory,
Jariflaus being obliged to fly to Kiovia. This city was
immediately invefted; but Jariflaus retired farther into
the country in order to recruit his army* leaving the city
to its fate. The garrifon made a brave defence, but
were at laft compelled to furrender at difcretion. A vaft
treafure was found in the place; great part of which
was dillributed by Boleflaus among the foldiers.
Though the king of Poland had now become mafter
of the greatefl: part of Ruffia, he knew that the only
pofiible means of keeping the country in fubje&ion was
by placing a natural fovereign over the inhabitants. For
this reafon he reinftated Suantepolk, though his preten-
fions were ftill difputed by Jariflaus. Phe latter had
formed a flying camp, and meditated a fcheme of fur-
prifing and carrying off his rival brother; but having
failed in this attempt, he retired to Novogofod, where
the attachment of the inhabitants enabled him to make
fome refiftance, till at laft he was attacked and defeated
by Boleflaus, which feemed to give the finifliing ftroke
to his affairs. The king of Poland, however, now met
with a more dangerous enemy in the perfidious and un¬
grateful Suantepolk than he had experienced in Jariflaus,
The Ruffian prince, imagining himfelf a dependent on
Boleflaus, formed a confpiracy againft him ; by which
he projected nothing lefs than the deftru&ion of him
and his whole army. The maffacre was already begun
when Boleflaus received intelligence. The urgency of
the cafe admitted of no delay: the king therefore
mounted his horfe ; and having with the utmoft hafte
affembled part of his army, fell upon the traitors with
fuch fury, that they were obliged to betake themfelves
to flight, and Boleflaus got fafe into Poland. But in
the mean time Jariflaus having affembled frefli forces,
purfued the Polifh army ; and having come up with
them juft as one half had croffed the river Borifthenes,
attacked them with the utmoft fury. Boleflaus defend¬
ed himfelf with the greateft refolution ; but, by reafon
of his forces being divided, vi&ory was dubious for
a long time. At laft, when the army had wholly croffed,
the Ruffians were entirely put to the rout, and a terrible
carnage enfued. The vi&ory, however, though com¬
plete, was not decifive j for which reafon Boleflaus
thought proper to continue his retreat, without attempt¬
ing to conquer a country too extenflve for him ever to
keep in fubje&ion. ■ Still, however, his martial inclina¬
tion continued, and he led his army into Saxony. Phe
inhabitants of this country had hitherto refilled all at¬
tempts that had been made on their freedom, and ftill
made a violent ftruggle for liberty; though, in fpite of
their utmoft efforts, they were obliged at laft to fubmit
to the yoke. On his withdrawing the troops from
Saxony, however, the king thought proper to leave the
people to their liberty, contenting himfelf with a rich
booty. The boundaries of his empire he now fixed at
the river Elbe ; where he ere&ed two iron columns,
in order to tranfmit the memory of his conqueft to
pofterity.
-Boleflaus, ftill unfated with vi&ory, now meditated
the conqueft of Pruffia and Pomerania; the .latter of Poland. ^
which provinces had, in the former civil wars, been dif- jj'
membered from Poland. His arms were attended with With f’nif-
equal fuccefs againft both : indeed the very terror of his fii and Po-
name feemed to anfwer all the purpofes of a formidable mcrauu.
army. Thefe, however, he feems to have defigned to
be the laft of hie warlike enterprifes ; for he now applied
himfelf wholly to the ena&ing of wholefome laws for the
benefit of his people. But in the midft of this tran¬
quillity Jariflaus aflembled the moft numerous army that
had ever been heard of in Ruffia, with which he appear- 2(5
ed on the frontiers of Poland. Boleflaus, though now Gains ann»
advanced in years, marched out againft his adverfaries,ther great
and met them on the banks of the Borifthenes, rendered^r°^e
famous by the vi&ory he had lately gained there. TheRufflang>
Poles croffed the river by fwimming ; and attacked the on which
enemy before they had time to draw up in order ofthe whole
battle with fuch impetuoftty, that a total rout foon en-^^PJL
fued. The Ruffians were feized with a panic, and Ja¬
riflaus was hun-ied away, and almoft trampled to death
by the fugitives. Many thoufand prifoners were taken,
but Boleflaus releafed them upon very eafy conditions ;
contenting himfelf with an inconflderable tribute, and
endeavouring to engage the affe&ions of the people by
his kindnefs. This well-timed clemency produced fuch
an happy effe&, that the Ruffians voluntarily fubmitted
to his jurifdi&ion, and again became his fubje&s. Soon ^
after this he died in the year tozy, after having
vaftly extended his dominions, and rendered his fubje&s
happy.
Boleflaus was fucceeded by bis fon Mieczflaus II.
but he poffeffed none of the great qualities of his father,
being indolent and debauched in his behaviour. In
the very beginning of his reign, th& Ruffians, Bohe¬
mians, and Moravians, revolted. However, as the fpirit
and difcipline introduced by Boleflaus ftill remained in
the Polifh army, Mieczflaus found no great difficulty
in reducing them again to obedience : after which, de¬
voting himfelf entirely to voluptuoufnefs, he was feized
with a frenzy, whith put an end to his life in the year
1034. The bad qualities of this prince proved very R;xaj a tp,
detrimental to the intereft of his fon Cafimir; thoughrannical
the latter had received an excellent education, and wasr,e?ent»
^ driven r
' Boleflattl
poffeffed of many virtues. Inftead of ele&ing him king,
they chofe Rixa his mother queen-regent. She proved fon Cali-
tyrannical, and fo partial to her countrymen the Ger-niir.
mans, that a rebellion enfued, and fhe was forced to fly
to Germany ; wiiere file obtained the prote&ion of the
emperor by means of the immenfe treafures of Boleflaus,
which fhe had caufed to be tranfported thither before
her. Her bad behaviour and expulfion proved ftill more
fatal to the affairs of Cafimir than even that of his father.
He wras immediately driven out of the kingdom; and a
civil war taking place, a great many pretenders to the 23
crown appeared at once. To the iniferies occafioned Poland di*
by this were added thofe of a foreign war ; for the Bo-^re^e^ by
hemians and Ruffians invaded the kingdom in different
places, committing the moft dreadful ravages. Thewais.
confequence of thefe accumulated diitreffes was, that the
nobility came at laft to the refolution of recalling Cafimir,
and ele&ing him fovereign. However, before they
took this meafure, it was thought proper to fend to
Rome to complain of the behaviour of the duke of Bo¬
hemia. The deputies were at firft received favourably t
M m & but
?Jo]atid.
4 4
Cafinur re
called and
eVdled
bn-/.
Poland fib
je&ed to
the tax
called Pe-
te>-J)encc.
nfy
BoleflansII.
a valiant
and fuccefe
ful prinee.
27
Entertains
three un¬
fortunate
princes.
28
Affords
effectual
fuccour to
Jacemir
prince of
Uohemia,
POL [2
but the Influetic* of the duke’s gold prevailing, no re-
drefs was obtained ; fa that at lalt it was refolved, with¬
out more ado, to fend for Cafimir.
The only difficulty was where to find the fugitive
prince ; for he had been gone five years from the king¬
dom, and nobody knew the place of his retreat. At
Juft, by fending an embafiy to his mother, it was found
out that he had retired into France, where he applied
elofely to finely at the univerfity of Paris. Afterwards
he went to Italy ; where, for the fake of fubfiflence, he
took upon him the monaftic habit. At that time he
had returned to France, and obtained fome preferment
in the abbey of Clugni. Nothing now obftrufted the
prince’s Return but the facred function with which he
was invefied. However, a difpenfation was obtained
from the pope, by which he was releafed from his ec-
clefiaftical engagements, on condition that he and all
the kingdom fhould become fubjedl to the capitation tax
called Peter-pence. Some other conditions of lefs con-
fequence were added ; fuch as, that the Poles fhould
fhave their heads and beards* and wear a white linen
robe at feflivals, like other profeffors of the Catholic
religion. Great preparations were made for the recep¬
tion of the young prince : and he was met on the
frontier by the nobility, clergy, and forces of the nation ;
by whom he was conduced to Gnefna, and crowned by
the primate with more than ufual folemnity. He proved
a virtuous and pacific prince, as indeed the diitra&ed
fituation of the kingdom would not admit of the carry¬
ing on of wars. However, Cafimir proved his courage
in fubduing the banditti by which the country was
over-run ; and by marrying the princefs Mary, filler to
the duke of Ruffia, all quarrels with that nation were
for the prefent extinguifhed. Upon the whole, the
kingdom flourished during his reign ; and became more
rfcfpedlable from the wifdom and liability of the admi-
niflration than it could have been by many victories.
After a happy reign of 16 years, he died beloved and
regretted by all his fubjedts.
By the happy adminillration of Cafimir the kingdom
recovered fufficient flrength to carry on fuccefsful wars
againfl its foreign enemies. Bolefiaus II. the fon of
Cafimir, an enterprifing and valiant prince, fucceeded to
the throne ; and foon made himfelf fo famous, that three
unfortunate princes all took refuge at his court at once,
having been expelled from their own dominions by their
rebellious fubjedls. Thefe were, Jacomir, fon of Brite-
flaus duke of Bohemia; Bela, brother to the king of
Flungary; and Zaflaus <luke of Kiovia, eldefl fon to
fariflaus duke of Ruffia, and coufin to the king of Po¬
land. Boleflaus determined to redrefs all their grievances;
but while he deliberated upon the mofl proper means
for fo doing, the duke of Bohemia, dreading the confe-
quence of Jacomir’s efcape, aflembled an army, and,,
without any declaration of war, marched through the
Hercynian forefl, defolated Silefia, and laid wafte the
frontiers of Poland with fire and fword. Boleflaus
marched againfl him with a force greatly inferior; and,
by mere dint of fuperior capacity, cooped up his adver-
fary in a wood, where he reduced him to the greatefl
diflrefs. In this extremity the duke lent propoials for
accommodation ; but they were rejected with difdain by
Bcleflaus ; upon which the former, ordering fires to be
kindled in his camp, as if he defigned to continue there,
removed with the utmoll filence in the night-time;
76 .1 POL '
and marching through narrow defiles, was advanced fe- Poland,
veral leagues before Boleflaus received advice of his re-
treat. The king purfued him, but in vain ; for which
reafon he returned, after haying ravaged tl^i frontiers 0/
Moravia. The next year he entered Bohemia with a
numerous army ; but the duke, being unwilling to en¬
counter fuch a formidable adveriary, iubmitted to fuch
terms as Bolefiaus thought proper to impofe. In thefe
the king of Poland flipulated for certain conditions in
favour of Jacomir, which he took care to fee punctually
executed ; after which he determined to march towards
Hungary, to afiiit the fugitive prince Bela.
This prince had been fgr fome time foiicited by a And to De-
party of difaffecled nobility to return, as his brother, la prince os
the reigning king, had alienated,the hearts of his fub- bluaKarJ-
jects by his tyrannical behaviour: as foon therefore as
Boleflaus had finifhed the war in Bohemia, he was fo¬
iicited by Bela to embrace fo favourable an opportunity, ,
and put him in poffeffion of the kingdom of Hungary.
This the king readily complied with, as being agreeable
to his own inclinations; and both princes entered Hun¬
gary by different routes, each at the head of a numer¬
ous body. The king of that country, however, was..
not difconcerted by fuch a formidable invafion ; and be¬
ing largely aflifted by tht emperor, advanced againit his
antagonills with a vafl army ; among whom was a nu¬
merous body of Bohemians, who had come to his afllil-
ance, though in direct violation of the treaty fubfifting
between the duke and the king of Poland. At lafl a
decifive battle was fought, in which the Germans be¬
haved with the greateit valour, but were entirely de¬
feated through the treachery of the Hungarians, who in
the heat of the battle deferted and went over to Bela.
Almofl all the foreign auxiliaries were killed on the
fpot; the king himielf was feized, and treated with,
iuch infolence by his perfidious fubje&s, that he died in
a fhort time of a broken heart; fo that Bela was placed
on the throne without further oppofition, except from a
revolt of the peaiants, which was foon quelled by the
Polifh army.
Boleflaus, having fucceeded fo happily in thefe twoHeprojedh
enterprifes, began to look upon himfelf as invincible ;the C011;
and, inflead of defigning only to aliiit Zaflaus, as he
had firil intended, now projected no lefs than the fub-
jedlion of the whole country. He had indeed a claim
to the lovereignty by virtue of bis defeest from Mary,
queen of Poland, filter to Jariflaus ; and this he endea¬
voured to flrengthen by marrying a Ruffian princefs
himfelf. Having therefore aflembled a very numerous
and well-difciplined army, he entered the duchy of
Kiovia, where he was oppofed by Wiffeflaus, who had
ufurped the fovereignty, with a vafl multitude of forces. f
Bolefiaus, however, continued to advance ; and the Meets with
Ruffian prince being intimidated by the number and'urpriling
good order of his enemies, deferted his own troops, and iucceh.
fled away privately with a flender retinue ; upon which
his force difperfed themfelves for want of a leader. The
inhabitants of the city of Kiovia now called to their
affiflance Suantoflaus and Wfzevold two brothers of
Wifleilaus ; but thefe princes adling the part of media¬
tors, procured pardon for the inhabitants from Zaflaus
their natural fovereign. With the fame facility the two
princes recovered all the other dominions belonging to
Zaflaus; only one city venturing to Hand a fiege, and
that was foon reduced. But in the mean time the kinc
o,
of
■pr.hrif!
Seduce^
Kiovia, but
enervates
himfelf
tJiere.
33
Univerfal
defedlion
rif the I'o
lilh wo-
fcien.
34
A terrible
civil war
enfues.
POL . f 2
of Hungary dying, a revolt enfued, and t he two fons
of Bela°were on the point of being deprived of their
paternal dominions. This Bolefiaus no fooner heard
than he marched dire£11 y into Hungary ; where by the
bare terror of his name, lie re-eftabliihed tranquillity,
and confirmed the princes in the enjoyment of their
kingdom. In the time that this was doing, Zaflaus
was again driven from his territories, ad the conquefts
that had been formerly made were loft, and Suantofiaus
and Wfzevold more powerful than ever. The king’s
vigour, however, foon difconcerted all their meafures.
He ravaged all thofe territories which compofed the
palatinates of Lufac and Chelm, reduced the ftrong city
of Wolyn, and tranfported the booty to Poland. The
campaign was fiiufhed by a battle with Vv fzevokl; which
proved fo bloody, that though Boleflaus was victorious,
Ids army was weakened in fuch a manner that lie could
not purfue his conquefts. In the winter he made nu¬
merous levies", and returning in the fpring to Ivioyi.i,
reduced it, after feveral defperate attacks, by famine.
On this occafion, inftead of treating the inhabitants
with cruelty, he commended their valour, and ftri£tly
prohibited his troops from pillaging or mfulting them;
diftributing provilions among them with the utmoil
liberality.
This clemency procured the higheft honour to the
king of Poland ; but his ftay here produced a moft ter¬
rible difafter. Kiovia was the moft difiblute, as well
as the richeft city, in the north ; the king and all his
foldiers gave themfelves up to the pleafures of the place.
Bolellaus himfelf affefted all the imperious ftate of an
eaftern monarch, and contracted an inclination for the
groffeft debaucheries. The confequence had aimoft
proved fatal to Poland. The Hungarian and Ruffian
wars had continued for feven years, during all which
time the king had never been at home excepting once
for the finort {pace cf three months. In the mean time
the Polilh women, exafperated at hearing that their
hulbands had negledted them and connedted themfelves
with the women of Kiovia, railed their Haves to the
beds of their mailers; and in fhort the whole fex
confpired in one general fcheme of proftitution, in or¬
der to be revenged cf the infidelity of their hufbands,
excepting one fingle woman, namely, Margaret, the
wife of Count Nicholas of Demboifin, who preferved her
fidelity in fpite of all folicitation. Advice ox this ftrange
revolution was foon received at Kiovia, where it excited
terrible commotions. The foldiers blamed the king for
their dilhonour ; forgetting how much they had to ac-
cufe their own condudt in giving their wives fuch ex¬
treme provocation^ The effedt of thefe difoontents was
a general defertion, and Boltllaus faw himfelf luddenly
left a!moil alone in the hear' of Ruffia ; the foldiers ha¬
ving unanimoufty refolved to return home to take ven¬
geance of their wives and their gallants.
A dreadful kind of war now enfued. the women
knew that they were to expedl no mercy from their
enraged hufbands, and therefore perfuaded their lovers
to take arms in their defence. They themfelves fought
by the fide of their gallants with the utmoft fury, and
fought out their hufbands in the heat of battle, in or¬
der to fecure themfelves from all danger of punifhrnent
by their death. They were, however, on the point of
being fubdued, when Bolefiaus arrived with the few re¬
maining Poles, but affifted by a vaft army of Ruffians,
Pol an#.
77 ] P OL
with whom he intended to take equal vengeance on the
women, their gallants, and his own foldiers who had
deferted him. This produced a carnage more dreadful
than ever. The foldiers united with their fqrmer wives
and their gallants againft the common enemy, and
fought againft Bolefiaus and his* Ruffians with the fury
of lions. At laft, however, the fortune of the king
prevailed ; the rebels were totally fubdued, and the few
who efcaped the fword were tortured to death, or died
in prifon. > ^
To add to the calamities of tin's unhappy kingdom, ReHgj0Uf
the fchifms which for feme time had prevailed in theennum-
church of Rome found their way into Poland alfo; and dons-
the animofity of parties became aggravated in propor¬
tion to the fnvolo ^ refs of their differences. By per-
verfe accident the matter came at laft to be a contention
for wealth and power between the king and clergy. ^
This foon gave occafion to bloodihed ; and the bilhop Boleflav,
of Cracow was maffacred in the cathedral while he was depef-d by
performing the duties of his office. This and fome other d^Pj>Pe>
enormous crimes in a ftiort time brought on the moft whr>[e
fignal vengeance of the clergy. Gregory VII. the pope kingdcmi
at that time, thundered out the moft dreadful anathe-put under
mas againft the king, releafed his fubjedts from their
allegiance, deprived him of the titles of fovereignty,
and laid the kingdom under a general interdidl, which
the archbifhop of Gnefna faw pundlually enforced. To
this terrible fentenee Boleflaus in^vain oppofed his au¬
thority, and recalled the fpirit which had formerly ren¬
dered him fo formidable to the neighbouring ftates. The
minds of the people were blinded by fuperflition, fo
that they deemed it a lefs heinous crime to rife in re¬
bellion againft their fovereign than to oppofe the ty¬
ranny of the holy fee. Confpiracies were daily formed
againft the perfon and government of Boleflaus. T he
whole kingdom became a feene of confufion, fo that the
king could no longer continue with fafety in his own
dominions, tie fled therefore with his fon Mieczflaus,
and took refuge in Hungary ; but here alfo the holy
vengeance of the clergy purfued him, nor did they
ceafe purfecuting him till he was brought to a miferabie •
end. Authors differ widely with refpedito the man-'rjie
ner of his death. Some fay that he was murdered by extremeh
the clergy as he was hunting; others, that he killeddiftieband
himfelf in a fit of defpair; and one author tells us, heath,
that he wandered about in the woods of Hungary,
lived like a favage upon wild beafts, and was at lait
killed and devoured by dogs. The greateft number,
however, tell us, that being driven from place to place
by the perfecutions of the clergy, he was at laft ob¬
liged to become a cook in a monaftery at Carinthia, in
which mean occupation he ended his days. -g
The deftrudlion of Boleflaus was not fuffxcient to al-The inters
lay the paparrefentment. It extended to the whole king-hi* remo -
dom of Poland. Mieczflaus, the fon of Boleflaus, was Spence of
not fuffered to afeend the throne; and the kingdom^,jev‘(.us
continued under the moft fevere interdidl, which could impoli¬
te removed only by the force of gold, and the moft ab-tl0n8-
jedl .conceffions. Befides the tax called Pder-peme, new
impofitions were added of the moft oppreffive nature ;
till at length the pontiff, having fi.-tiated his avarice,
and impoverifhed the country', confented that the bro¬
ther of the deceafed monarch ftiould be raifed to the
fovereignty, but only with the title of duke. Tins
prince, named Uiachjlaus, being of a msek difpofition^
wkK
POL
^Poland, with little ambition, thought It his duty to acquiefce
v " ' implicitly in the will of the pope; and therefore ac-
Uladiflaus cePted the terms offered, fending at the fame time an
becomes embaffy to Rome, earneflly intreating the removal of
fovereign, the'interdict. The requett was granted; but all his en-
lowed on ^eavours to recover the regal dignity proved fruitlefs,
ly the title ^ie P°Pe having, in conjunction with the emperor of
of duke. Germany, conferred that honour on the duke of Bohe¬
mia. This was extremely mollifying to Uladiflaus,
but it was abforbed in considerations of the utmoft con-
fequence to himfelf and his dominions. Ruflia took the
opportunity of the late civil difturbances to throw off
the yoke ; and this revolt drew after it the revolt of
Fruffia, Pomerania, and other provinces. The fmaller
provinces, however, were foon reduced; but the duke
had no fooner returned to Poland, than they again re¬
belled, and hid their families in impenetrable forefts.
Uladiflaus marched againft them with a confiderable
army; but was entirely defeated, and obliged to return
back with difgrace. Next ye<*--, however, he had bet¬
ter fortune; and, having led againft them a more nu¬
merous army than before, they were content to fubmit
and deliver up the ringleaders of the revolt to be pu-
tiifhed as the duke thought proper.
No fooner were the Pomeranians reduced, than (jivil
diffenfions took place. Sbigneus, the fon of Uladi-
fiaus by a concubine, was placed at the head of an army
, by the difeyntented nobility, in order to fubveil his fa¬
ther’s government, and difpute the title of Boleflaus,
the legitimate fon of Uladiflaus, to the fucceflion. The
war was tenninated by the defeat and captivity of Sbig-
neus ; who was at firft confined, but afterwards releafed
on condition that he fhould join his father in punifliing
the palatine of Cracow. But before this could be done,
the palatine found means to effect a reconciliation with
■ihe duke ; with which the young princes being dif-
pleafed, a war took place between them and their fa¬
ther. The end of all was, that the palatine of Cracow
was banilhed, and the princes fubmitted ; after Which,
Uladiflaus, having chaftifed the Pruffians and Pomera¬
nians v/ho had again revolted, died in the year 1103,
. 4° the 59th of his agei
I Undivided Uladiflaus was fucceeded by his fon" Boleflaus III.
his domi- who divided the dominions equally betwixt his brother
nions be- Sbigneus and himfelf. The former being diflatisfied with
-ix^g-hi3 fliare, railed cabals againft his brother. A civil
illegitimatewar vvas ^or ^ome t™e prevented by the good offices of
brother and *he primate : but at laft Sbigneus, having privately ftir-
himfdf. red up the Bohemians, Saxons, and Moravians, againft
A civil ^1IS brother, made fuch formidable preparations as
war 1 threatened the conqueft of all Poland. Boleflaus, being
4a unprovided with forces to oppofe fuch a formidable
Generofity power, had recoUrfe to the Ruffians and Hungarians;
mBolcfhut, ^ho readily embraced his Caufe, in expeftation of turn-
titude o” inS h to their own advantage. The event was, that
Sbign us, Sbigneus was entirely defeated ; and might eafily have
been obliged to furrender himfelf at diferetion, had not
Boleflaus generoufly left him in quiet pofleffion of the
duchy of MaZovia, in order to maintain himfelf fuitably
to the dignity of his birth. This kindnefs the ungrate¬
ful Sbigneus repaid by entering into anothef confpi-
racy } but the plot being difeovered, he was feized, ba-
'tiiflied, and declared a traitor if ever he fet foot again
in Poland. Even this feverity did not produce the de-
iired effed; Sbigneus perfuaded the Pomeranians to
VOL
arm in his behalf; but he Was defeated, taken priion- Poland,
er, and again banilhed. Almoft all the nobility fo- '•—*
licited the king to put fuch an ungrateful traitor to
death ; however, that generous prince could not think
of polluting his hands with the death of his brother,
notwithftanding all he had yet done. Nay, he even
took him back to Poland, and appointed him a main¬
tenance fuitable to his rank: but he foon had reafon 4-
to repent his kindnefs ; for his unnatural brother in a Who j* at
fhort time began to raifefrefh difturbances,in cohfeqtiencela^ Put to
of which he foon met with the death which he deferved.deatl1,
Boleflaus was fcarce freed from the intrigues of his
brother, when he found himfelf irt greater danger than
ever from the ambition of the emperor Henry IV.
The emperor had attacked the king of Hungary, with War44 •.
whom Boleflaus was in clofe alliance, and from whom the empe-
he had received affiftance when in great diftrefs him- ror Heal
felf. The king of Poland determined to affift his -7
friend; and therefore made a powerful diverfion in Bo¬
hemia, where he repeatedly defeated the Imperialifts :
upon which, the emperor collecting all his forces, ra¬
vaged Stlefia, and even entered Poland, where he laid
fiege to the ftrong town of Lubufz; but was at laft ob¬
liged to abandon the enterprife, after having fuftained
much lofs. However, Henry was not difeouraged, but
penetrated ftill farther into Poland, and was laying
wafte all before him, when the fuperior flail of Bole¬
flaus compelled him to retire, after having almoft de-
ftroyed his army with fatigue and famine, without once
Coming to aCtion. Enraged at this difappointment*
Henry laid fiege to Glogaw, in hopes of drawing the
Poles to an engagement before he ihbuld be obliged
to evacuate the country. The fortifications of the place
were weak ; but the fpirit of the inhabitants fupplied
their deficiencies, and they gave the Imperialifts a moft
unexpefted and vigorous reception. At laft, however,
they were on the point of furrendering to fuperior
force ; and actually agreed to give up the place, provi¬
ded they did not receive any fuccours during that time*
Boleflaus determined, however, not to let ftieh a brave
garrifon fall a Sacrifice to their loyalty; and therefore
prevailed on the befieged to break the capitulation ra*
ther than furrender when they were on the point of be¬
ing deliveredi All this was tranfafted with the uU
moft fecrecy ; fo that the emperor advanced, without
thoughts of meeting with any refiftance, to take pof-
feffion of the city; but, being received by a furious
difeharge of arrows and javelins, he was fo incenfed,
that he refolved to ftorm. the place, and give no quar¬
ter. On the approach of the army, the Imperialifts
were aftonifhed to fee not only the breaches filled up,
but new walls, fecured by a wet ditch, reared behind
the old, and erefted during the fufpenfion of hoftilities ^
by the induftry of the befieged. The attack, however) Who 1*
went on ; but the inhabitants, animated by defpair,
defended themfelves with incredible valour, and at laft
obliged the Imperialifts to break up the fiege with pre¬
cipitation. Next day Boleflaus arrived, and purfued
the emperor with fuch vigour, that he obliged him to
fly with difgrace into his own country. This foon ^
brought on a peace, which was confirmed by a mar-
riage between Boleflaus and the emperor’s After. into cufti-
- Hitherto the glory of Boleflaus had equalled, or culties by
even eclipfed, that of his namefake and predecefTor Bo-^*^”
leflaus the Great; but about the year 1135 he was^dge'Dfi,
brought rotky.
{ 278 1
P 0 L
Potarx!.
brought into difficulties and difgracc by his own ere-
dulity. He was impofed upon by an artful {lory patch¬
ed up by a certain Hungarian ; who infinuated himfelt
fo far into his affedions, that he gave him the govern¬
ment of Wiflica, a flrong town on the river Nid?. but
the traitor gave up the place to the Ruffians, who pil-
lao-ed and burnt it; carrying the inhabitants at the
fame time into flavery. Boleflaus was mcenfed, and
entered immediately upon a war with Ruffia, by which
means he only heaped one calamity upon another, rie
received a deputation from the inhabitants of Hahtz,
to implore his affiftance in favour of a young prince,
who had been banifhed into Poland. Boleflaus march¬
ed to their relief with a choice body of troops ; but as
he was preparing to enter the town, he was attacked
by the whole Ruffian army, and, after a molt violent
conflia, entirely defeated. By this difgrace the duke
was fo much afflided, that he died in a ihort time, af¬
ter having reigned 36 years. .... ....
Boleflaus, by his will, left his dominions equally fU-
- vided among his four fons. Uladiflaus, the eldeft, had
the provinces of Cracow, Sirad, Lencici, Silefia, and
S2. Pomerania. Boleflaus, the fecond Ton, had for h.s flrare
[ 279 1
POL
Poland.
47
Po’and di¬
vided a-
monrr the
effect a reconciliation, but in vain ; for.Uladiflaus was ______
as inexorable as if he had received an injury, and there¬
fore infilled that the belieged princes fhould furrender
at diferetion, and fubmit to the will of the conqueror.
Thus driven to defpair, the brothers falhed out, and
attacked the duke’s army with fuch impetuofity, that
they obtained a complete viftory, and took ah his bag¬
gage and valuable effedls. The brothers improved their
victory, and laid fiege to Cracow, The Ruffians, who
had affifted Uladiflaus at firfl, now entirely abandoned
him, and evacuated Poland, which obliged him to lkut
himfelf up in Cracow *, but, finding the inhaoitants
little difpofed to Hand a fiege, he retired mto Germany
in order to folicit affiftance from his wife s friends. But
here he found himfelf miftaken, and that thefe friends
were attached to him only in his profperityj while m Ja
the mean time the city of Cracow furrendered, the un-And 1S
fortunate Uladiflaus was formally depofed, and his bro- P»t«d.
ther Boleflaus raifed to the fupreme authority.
The new duke begau his admmiftration with an act
of generofity to his brother Uladiflaus, to whom he
save the duchy of Silefia, which thus was feparated
from Poland, and has never fince been re-annexed t» -
romerama. jjuicnauo, ^    . T,°- 1 otper effe6l upon Uladiflaus than the
the palatinates of Culm and Cujava, with the diic iy _ • h. ‘. condition to raife frefh difturbances ;
Mazovia. The palatinates of Kalefzh and Pofnama ^ the emperor Con-
fell to Mieczflaus the third fon ; and to Henry, the ^ ^ invade p0land: but Boleflaus fo haraffed and
fourth fon, were affigned thole of Lublin and S - f • d hjs a by perpetual marches, ambufeades,
mir. Cafimir the youngeft child, then an infant m the g - J was obliged ia a fliort time t»
cradle, was entirely forgot, and no provifion made for and Ikirmiihes, that ne * .
_ . 1 1   infl-cmrpQ where
^ Weld v-ilvl-i v-*^ • n 1
him There have been but very few inftances where
dominions were thus divided, that the princes remam-
ed fatisfied with their refpeftive {hares ; neither did the
fons of Boleflaus long continue at peace with one an¬
other. By the will of the late duke, all the brothers
were obliged to own the fupremacy of Uladiflaus, who
« 0 • v 1 r n xTrprp rplttramed
return to his- own country ; and for fome years Poland
enioyed a profound tranquillity.
During-this interval Henry entered on a crufade;
and, though he loft almoft all his army in that enthu-
fiaftic undertaking, he is celebrated by the fuperftitious
writers of that age, as the bulwark of the church, and
4S
A civil
war.
were obliged to own the fupremacy of Uladiflans, who ChriftIan heroes: however, in all '
was declared duke of all Poland: they were reftrai h ,^ie reafon Gf this extraordinary fame is, .
from forming alliances, declaring war, or concluding P ^ , donations to the knights of St John
peace, without ffis approbation : they were obhged to gg after the return 0f HenryyPo-PoWia-
Lethe field with a certain number of troops, whenever emperor Frederic Barbaroffa, vaded by
the duke required it; and they were foibid to medd t - nerfuaded to this by the folicitations of Ula-the®mP*
with the guardianlhip f ^“"’The diflaus J his wife Chriftina. The numberof the
education being left. entirely to the fovereign. The
harmony of the princes was firft difturbed by the am¬
bition of Chriftina, the wife of Uladiflaus, who formed
a fcheme to get poffeffion- of all Poland, arid deprive
the younger children of the benefit of their father s
will. Having obtained her hufband’s concurrence, ffie
affembled the ftates of Poland, and made a long fpeech,
{bowing the dangers which might arife from a parti¬
tion of the ducal dominions among fo many 5 and con¬
cluded with attempting to {how the neceffity of revoking
the ratification of the late duke’s will, in order to cn-
diflaus and his wife Chriftina. The number of the Im- roffaj
perialifts was fo great, that Boleflaus and his brothers
did not think proper to oppofe thern in the field; they
contented themfelves with cutting off the convoys, pla¬
cing ambufeades, haraffing them on their march, and
keeping them in perpetual alarms by falfe attacks and
fkirmilhes. With this view the three brothers divided
their forces, defolated. the country before the enemy,
and burnt all the towns and cities which were in no
condition to Hand a fiege. Thus the emperor, advan¬
cing into the heart of a defolated country where he
uladiflaus Uladiflaus now having got the nobility on his fide, tnat a .^c^yma^ia 7“be^”“ Adelaide, niece to the
drives out firft drove Boleflaus out of his territories; next, he firmed by a,n^maSeDC', f pofna •’
marched again* Henry, and difpoMed hinr alfo, fo, mnpe^ and M.eczflaus fo great
cing both to take refuge with Mieczflaus in Pofnama, Bo g PP J £ t th conqucft
where all the three brothers were befieged. Several of a danger, took it mtohishead ^attempt^t ^
the nobility interpofed, and ufed all their influence to of Pruff 3 tantsr
the ratification of the late duke’s will, in order to en- cmg f ^ q reduced to fuch a fituation
fare the obedience of the princes and the tran,mU.tj go fomard nor retr eat, and was ,
of the republic. Many of the nobility exprefled t a conference with Boleflaus. The lat-Wh0 lS
refentment againft this fpeech, and fully refuted every o ig nrudent to irritate him by an unfeafonablewbliged
article in it; tot they were aU afterwards gamed over, ter wa too ‘"e went to the Germa. campto &
or intimidated by Uladiflaus, fo that none appeared to ^gHmefo andfcef^ ^ ^ ^ ^ peace,
take the part of the young princes except a noble Dane, at^ ^ fo agreeable to the emperor,
who loft his life for fo doing, treatv was foon agreed upon, which was con-
Uladiflaus now having got the nobility on his ude, t. at a ) . ,   & f,-.
« « -i-* 1 n  a. „C "La.  • mPvt ViP
POL [ 280 ] POL
. VffiFe^heathens. Having unexpectedly invaded the
* v country with a very numerous army, he fucceeded in
his enterprife; great numbers of infidels were converted,
and many churches fet up: but no fooner was Bolefiaus
gone, than the inhabitants returned to their old religion.
Upon this Boleflaus again came againfl them with a
formidable power; but, being betrayed by fome Pruf-
finns whom he had taken into his fervice and raifed to
polls of honour, his army was led into defiles and al-
moft entirely cut oil, duke Henry was killed, and Bo¬
leflaus and Mieczllaus efcaped with great difficulty.
This misfortune was quickly followed by another;
for now the children of Uladiflaus laid claim to all the
Polilh dominions which had been polreffed by their fa-
ther, moll of which had been bellowed upon young Ca-
A civil Iffiiir. hey were fupported in their pretenfions by a
v ar. great pumber of difeontented Poles, and a conliderable
body of German auxiliaries. BoleflaUs, finding him*
felf unable to wfthftand his enemies by force, had re-
courfe to negociation, by which means he gained time
to recruit his army and repair his Ioffes. An affembly
of the Hates was held, before which the duke fo fully
refuted the clkims of the children-of Uladiflaus, that it
was almoff unanimoufly voted that they had kindled an
unjuft war; and to take away every pretence for re¬
newing the civil difeords cf Poland, they were a fe-
cond time invefted with the duchy of Silefia, which for
■ the prefent put an end to all difputes. After this, Bo¬
leflaus applied himfelf to promote, by all means, the
happinefs of his fubjacls, till his death, which happened
in the year 1174.
On the death of Bolellaus, the Hates raifed his bro¬
ther Mieczfiaus to the ducal throne, on account of the
great opinion they had of him. But the moment that
Mieczllaus ceafed to be a fubjedl, he became a tyrant,
and a Have to almoft every kind of vice ; the confe-
q uence of which was, that in a very Ihort time he was
,4 depofed, and his brother Cafimir elefted in his Head.
C-afimir, an Cafimir was a prince of the greatdl juftice and bene-
excelletit volence, infomuch that he fcrupled to accept of the honour
prince, which the Hates had conferred upon him, left it fliould
be a trefpafs againft tlve laws of equity. However, this
fcruple being foon got over, he fet bimfelf about the fe-
curing peace and tranquillity in all parts of bis dpmi-
mons. He redreffed all grievances, fuppreffed exorbitant
impofts, and affembled a general diet, in which it was
propofed to refeue the peafants from the tyranny of the
nobility ; an affair of finch confequence, that the duke
could not enter upon it by his own authority, even
though fupported by the clergy. Yet it proved Ids
difficult than had been imagined, to perfuade the nobi¬
lity to relinquifh certain privileges extremely detrimen¬
tal to natural right. They were influenced by the ex¬
ample of their virtuous fevereign, and immediately grant¬
ed rul that he required ; and, to fecure this declaration
m lavo^r of the peafants, the archbifhop of Gnefna thun¬
dered out anathemas againft thofe who fliould endeavour
to regain the unjuft privileges which they had now re¬
nounced ; and to give a ftill greater weight to this de-
eifion, the a<fts of the diet were tranfmitted to Romi?,
wnere they were confirmed by the pope.
, ^ut lh°ugfi the nobility in general confented to have
’’uui power fiomewhat retrenched, it proved matter of
difeontent to fonie, who for this rea/bn immediately be¬
came the partifans of tLe depofed Mieczflaus. This un¬
fortunate prince was now reduced to fuch indigence, P.-iart?,
that he wrote an account of his fituation to his brother v—^
Cafimir 5 which fo much affefted him, that in an af¬
fembly of the diet he propofed to refign the fovereignty
in favour of his brother. To this the ftates replied in,
the moll peremptory manner: they defined him never
more to mention the fubjeeft to them, left they fliould
be under the neceffiry of depofing him and excluding
his brother, who, they were determined, fhould never
more have the dominion of Poland. Cafimir, however,
was fo much concerned at the account of his brother’s
misfortunes, that he tried every method to relieve him,
and even connived at the arts praftifed by fome difeon¬
tented noblemen to reftore him. By a very fingular
generofity, he facilitated the redudlion of Gnefna and
Lower Poland, where Mieczflaus might have lived in
peace and fplendor, had not his heart been fo corrupted
that it could not be fubdued by kindnefs. The confe¬
quence was, that he ufed all his art to wreft from his
brother the whole of his dominions, and actually con¬
quered the provinces of Mazovia and Cujava ; but of
thefe he was foon difpoffcffed, and only fome places in
Lower Poland were left him. After this he made an¬
other attempt, on occafion of a report that Cafimir had
been poifoned in an expedition into Ruffia. He fun*
prifed the city of Cracow : but the citadel refufed to *
furrender, and his hopes were entirely blafted by the re¬
turn of Cafimir himfelf; who, with an unparalleled ge¬
nerofity and magnanimity, afked peace of his brother
whom he had vanquifhed and had in a manner at his
mercy. The laft aftion of this amiable prince was the Conquers
conqueft of Ruffia, which he effefted rather by toe re-
putation of his wifdom and generofity than by the force
of his arms. Thofe barbarians voluntarily fubmitted to
a prince fo famed for his benevolence, juftice, and hu¬
manity. Soon after his return, he died at Cracow, la¬
mented as the beft prince in every refpedl who had evef
filled the throne of Poland.
Cafimir left one fon, named Lech us y an infant; and
the ftates, dreading the confequences of a long mino¬
rity, hefitated at appointing him fovereign, conlidering
how many compel itors he mull necefiarily have, and
how dubious it mull be whether he might be fit for the ^
fovereignty after be had obtained it. At laft, however, Civil war :
Lechus was nominated, chiefly through the intereft he between
had obtained on account of the reputation of his father’s
virtues. The confequence of his nomination was pre- \peCzflau,'.
rifely what might have been expected. Mieczflaus
formed an alliance agaihll him with' the dukes of Op-
pelen, Pomerania, and Breflau; and having raifed all
the men in Lower Poland fit to bear arms; took the
road to Ciacow with a very numerous army. A bloody
battle was fought ©n the banks of the river Mozgarva ;
in which both Tides were fo much weakened, that thev
were unable to keep the field, and confequently were
forced to retire for fome time in order to repair their
forces. Mieczflaus was firft ready for adtion, and there¬
fore had the advantage: however, he thought proper to
employ artifice rather than open force; and therefore
having attempted in vain to corrupt the guardians of
Lechus, he entered into a treaty with the duchefs-dow-
ager his mother. To her he reprefented in the ftrong-
eft manner the miferies which would enfue from her re-
fufaf of the conditions he propofed. He ftipulated to
adopt Lechus -and Conrade, her Tons, for his own ; to
.7 furrender
POL [ 281 ] POL'
FoUnd. fyrrender the province of Cujavia for their prefent fup-
— port ; and to declare them heirs to all his dominions,
57 The principal nobility oppofed this accommodation,
Mieczflaus but jt was accepted by the duchefs in fpite of all their
reftorcd. rerndhftranoes ; and Mieczflaus was once more put in
pofleffion of the capital, after having taken a folemn
oath to execute punctually every article of the treaty.
It is not to be fuppofed that a prince of fuch a per¬
fidious difpofition as Mieczflaus would pay much regard
to the obligations of a fimple contradt. It was a ma¬
xim with him, that a fovereign is no longer obliged to
keep his oath than while it is neither fafe nor beneficial
to break it. Having therefore got all the power into
his hands, he behaved in the very fame manner as if no
treaty with the duchefs had fubfifted. The duchefs,
perceiving herfelf duped, formed a ftrong party, and
excited a general infurredtion. The rebellion could not
be withftood: Mieczflaus was driven out of Cracow,
and on the point of being reduced to his former circum-
ftances, when he found means to produce a variance be¬
tween the duchefs and palatine of Cracow ; and thus
once more turned the fcale in his favour. The forces
of Mieczflaus now became fuperior, and he, in confe
quence, regained poflefiion of Cracow, but did not long
enjoy his profperity, falling a vidtim to his intempe¬
rance ; fo that Lechus was reftored to the fovereignty
,3 in the year 1206.
Poland ra- The" government of Lechus was the moft unfortunate
vaged by 0f any of the fovereigns of Poland. In his time the
the Tar- Tartars made an irruption, and committed everywhere
Wr8, the moft cruel ravages. At laft they came to an en¬
gagement with the Poles, affifted by the Ruffians ; and
after an obftinate and dreadful conflift, obtained a com¬
plete vi&ory. This incurfion, however, terminated as
precipitately as it commenced; for without any appa¬
rent reafon they retired, juft as the whole kingdom was
ready to fubmit; but the devaftations they had com¬
mitted produced a famine, which was foon followed by
a plague that depopulated one of the moft populous
countries of the north. In this unhappy fituation of
affairs, death ended the misfortunes of Lechus, who was
murdered by his own fubjecls as he was bathing. A
civil war took place after his death; and the hiftory
for fome time' is fo confufed, that it is difficult to fay
with certainty who was his fucceffor. Luring this un¬
fortunate ftate of the country, the Tartars made a fe-
cond irruption, laid all defolate before them, and were
advancing to the capital, when they were attacked and
defeated with great daughter by the palatine of Cra¬
cow with only a handful of men. The power of the
enemy, however, was not broken by this victory; for,
next year, the Tartars returned, and committed fuch
barbarities as can fcarce be imagined. Whole provinces
were defeated, and every one of the inhabitants maf-
facred. They were returning, laden with fpoil, when
the palatine fell upon them a fecond time, but not with
the fame fuccefs as before : for, after an obftinate en¬
gagement, he was defeated, and thus all Poland was
laid open to the ravages of the barbarians ; the nobility
fled into Hungary, and the peafants fought an afylum
among rocks and impenetrable forefts. Cracowr, being
left entirely defencelefs, was foon taken, pillaged, and
burnt; after which the barbarians, penetrating into Si-
lefia and Moravia, defolated thefe countries, deftroying
Breflau and other cities. Nor did Hungary efcape the
Vol.XV. Parti,
fury of their barbarity: the king gave battle to the IMamb
Tartars, but was defeated with vaft {laughter, and had
the mortification to fee his capital laid in afties, and
above 100,000 of his fubjeCts perifh by fire and fwoxd.
The arms of the Tartars were invincible ; nothing
could withftand the prodigious number of forces which
they brought into the field, and the fuiy with which
they fought. They fixed their head-quarters on the
frontiers of Hungary ; and fpread their devaftations on
every fide with a celerity and fuccefs that threatened
the deftrudtion of the whole empire, as well as of the
neighbouring kingdoms.
In this dreadful fituation was Poland when Boleflaus,
furnamed the Chajle, was raifed to the fovereignty ;
but this, fo far from putting an end to the troubles,
only fuperadded a civil war to tlie reft of the calamities.
Boleflaus was oppofed by his uncle Conrade the bro¬
ther of Lechus, who was provoked at becoming the
fubjedt of his own nephew. Having affembled a power¬
ful army, he gained poffeffion of Cracow ; affumed the
title of Duke of Poland; and might poffibly have kept
poffeffion of the fovereignty, had not hi* avarice and
pride equally offended the nobility and peafants. la
confequence of their difeontents, they unanimoufly in¬
vited Boleflaus, who had fled into Hungary, to come
and head the infurredtion which now took place in every
quarter. On his arrival, he was joyfully received into
the capital: but Conrade {till headed a powerful party; n;c or(jer
and it is reported that on this occafion the knights of firft, called
the Teutonic order were firft called into Poland, to into Po-
difpute the pretenfions of Boleflaus. All the endea-^an^’-
vours of Conrade, however, proved unfuccefsful: he
was defeated in two pitched battles, and forced to live
in a private fituation ; though he never ceafed to ha-
rafs his nephew, and make frefli attempts to recover the
crown. However, of the reign of Boleflaus we have
little account, except that he made a vow of perpetual
continency, and impofed the lame on his wife ; that he
founded near 40 monafteries ; and that he died after a
long reign in 1279, after having adopted Lechus duke
of Cujavia, and procured a confirmation of his choice
by the free eleftion of the people. ^
The reign of this laft prince was one continued feene Poland
of foi-eign and domeftic trouble. On his firft acceffion over-run by
he was attacked by the united forces of Ruffia and Li-^®R^'r
thuania affifted by the Tartars; whom, however, he hadtars8’and
the good fortune to defeat in a pitched battle. By this Lithuanb
victory the enemy were obliged to quit the kingdom ; ans.
but Lechus was fo much weakened, that civil diffen-
fions took place immediately after. Thefe increafed to
fuch a degree, that Lechus was obliged to fly to Hun¬
gary, the common refource of diftreffed Polifh princes.
The inhabitants of Cracow alone remained firm in their
duty ; and thefe brave citizens ftood all the fatigue and
danger of a tedious fiege, till they were at laft relieved
by Lechus at the head of an Hungarian army^ho de¬
feated the rebels, and reftored to his kingdom a legiti¬
mate government. He had fcarce reafeended the throne
when the united forces of the Ruffians, Tartars, and
Lithuanians, made a fecond irruption into Poland,
and defolated the country with the moft favage barbari¬
ty. Their forces were now rendered more tenable than
ever by their having along with them a vaft number of
large dogs trained to the art of war. Lechus, how¬
ever, with an army much inferior, obtained a complete
N n vidory {
POL r 282 1 POL
rolar.d. v!&ory 5 the Poles being animated by defpnir, as per-
ceiving, that, if they were conquered, they mull alfo be
devoured. 80011 after this, Lee bus died with the repu¬
tation of a warlike, wife, but unfortunate prince. As
he died without ifl'ue, his crown was contefted, a civil
war again enfued ; and the affairs of the flate continued
in a very declining way till the year 1296, when Pre-
mlflaus, the duke at that time, refumed the title of king,
'However, they did not revive in any confiderable de-
61 £ree year 13C5, when Uladiflaus Lo&icus, who
SVar with had Seized the throne in 13 :0, and afterwards been dvi-
the Teuto ■ ven out, was again reftored to it. The firfl tranfaction
uic knights. 0f yg reJgn was a war w{th the Teutonic knights, who
had ufurped the greater part of Pomerania during the
late difturbances. They had been fettled in the terri¬
tory of Culm by Conrade duke of Mazovia ; but Soon
extended their dominion over the neighbouring provin¬
ces, and had even got poffefiion of the city of Dantzic,
where they maffacred a number of Pomeranian gentle¬
men in cold blood ; which fo much terrified the neigh¬
bouring towns, that they fubmitted without a ftrokc.
The knights were commanded by the Pope himfelf to
renounce their conquefts ; but they Set at nought all his
thunders, and even fuffered themfelves to be excommu¬
nicated rather than part with them. As Soon as this
happened, the king marched into the territories of the
marquis of Brandenburg, becaufe he had pretended to
fell a right to the Teutonic knights to thofe countries,
when he had none to them himfelf. Uladiflaus next
entered the territory of Culm, where he laid everything
wafte with fire and fword ; and, being oppofed by the
joint forces of the marquis, the knights, and the duke
of Mazovia, he obtained a complete vi&ory after a de-
fperate and bloody engagement. Without purfuing
the blow, lie returned to Poland, recruited his army,
and being reinforced by a body of auxiliaries from Hun¬
gary and Lithuania, he difperfed the enemy’s forces,
and ravaged a Second time all the dominions of the
Teutonic order. Had he improved this advantage, he
might eafily have exterminated the whole order, or at
leaft reduced them fo low, that they could never have
occafioned any more difturbances in the ftate ; but he
' differed himfelf to be Toothed and cajoled by the pro-
mifes which they made without any deiign of keeping
them, and concluded a treaty under the mediation of
the kings of Hungary and Bohemia. In a few months
he was convinced of the perfidy of the knights; for they
hot only refufed to evacuate I^mierania as had been fti-
pulated in the treaty, but endeavoured to extend their
tifurpations, for which purpofe they had aflembled a ve¬
ry confiderable army. Uladiflaus, enraged at their treach¬
ery, took the field a third time, and gave them battle
with fuch fuccefs, that 4 000 knights were left dead on
the fpot, and 30,000 auxiliaries killed or taken prifon-
ers. Yet, though the king had it once more in his
power to deftroy the whole Teutonic order, he fatisfied
himfelf with obtaining the territories wdiich had occa¬
fioned the war; after which he fpent the remainder of
his life in peace and tranquillity.
Rufiia Ni- Uladiflaus was fucceeded by his fon Cafimir III. fur-
gra con- named the Great. He fubdued the province called Ruf-
Kmir the^ Nlgra .in U fingle camPaign- Next he turned his
Great. 1 arms againft Mazovia; and with the utmoft rapidity
over-ran the duchy, and annexed it as a province to the
erown; after which he applied himfelf to domeftic af¬
fairs, and was the firft who introduced a written code of Poland,
laws into Poland. He was the molt impartial judge, v'—-^
the moll rigid obferver of juitice, and the mofl fubmif-
live to the laws, of any potentate mentioned in the hit,"
tory of Europe. The only vice with w hich he ia'thar*
ged is that of iilcontmcncy; but even this the clergy
declared to be a venial fin, and amply compenfated by
his other virtues, particularly the great liberality which
he fliowed to the clerical order. -
_ Cafimir was fucceeded in 1370 by his nephew Louis Unhappy
king of Hungary ; but, as the Poles looked upon him r‘:iKn </
to be a foreign prince, they were not happy under his
adminiftration. Indeed a coldnefs between this monarch
and his people took place even before he afeended the
throne ; for in the pa&a convent*, to which the Polifii
monarchs were obliged to fwear, a great number of un-
ufual articles were inferted. This probably was the
reafon why lie left Poland almoft as foon as his corona- *
tion was over, carrying with him the crown, feeptre,
globe, and fword of ftate, to prevent the Poles from
electing another prince during his abfence. He left the
government in the hands of his mother Elizabeth ; and
(he would have been agreeable to the people, had her
capacity for government been equal to the talk. At
that time, however, the ftate of Poland was too much
diftrarited to be governed by a woman. The country
was over-run with bold robbers and gangs of villains,
who committed the moil horrid diforders; the king¬
dom was likewife invaded by the Lithuanians ; the
whole province of Ruffin Nigra revolted; and the king¬
dom was univerfally filled with diffenfion. The Poles
could not bear to fee their towns filled with Hungarian
garrifons ; and therefore fent a meflage to the king,
telling him that they thought he had been fufficiently
honoured in being ele&ed king of Poland himfelf, with¬
out fullering the kingdom to be governed by a woman
and his Hungarian fubje&s. On this Louis immediate¬
ly raifed a numerous army, with a defign fully to con¬
quer the {pint of his fuhjedls. His firft operations were
directed againft the Ruffians; whom he defeated, and
again reduced to fubjedlion. Then he turned his arms
againft the Lithuanians, drove them out of the king¬
dom, and re-eftabliihed public traijjfuillity. However,
inftead of being fatisfied with this, and removing the
Hungarian ganifons, he introduced many more, and
railed Hungarians to all the chief pofts of government.
His credit and authority even went fo far as to get a
fucceffor nominated who was difagreeable to the whole
nation, namely Sigifmund marquis of Brandenburg. Af¬
ter the death of Louis, however, this election was fet
afide ; and Hedwiga, daughter of Cafimir the Great,
was proclaimed queen. .
This princefs married Jagello duke of Lithuania, who Hedwfga
was now converted to Chriftianity, and baptized by the marries the
name of Ulodtjlaus. In confequence of this marriage, '1uke
the duchy of Lithuania, as well as the vail provinces
Samogitia and Ruffia Nigra, became annexed to the unitingthat
crown of Poland. Such a formidable acceffion of power duchy, to-
excited thejealoufy of the Teutonic knights, who were |ether .w.ith
fenfible that Uladifiaus was now bound to undertake the and^Ruffia
reduction of Pomerania, and revenge all the injuries Nigra, to
which Poland had fuftained from them for a great num- Poland,
ber of years. From his firft acceffion therefore they
conftdered this monarch as their greateft enemy, and en¬
deavoured to prevent his defigns againft them by effefit-
1 inS
POL [ 283. r I’ O L
Poland, jnr a revolution in Lithuania in favour of his brother tacking the whole ftrength of the nation under fuch a Pa{an<,> ,
u-—y  Andrew. The profpeA of fuccefs was the greater celebrated commander as famerlane : but Vitowda was ^
here as moft of the nobility were difcontented with the obilinate ; he encountered an army of 400,000 Tar-Tepr;j,lc
late alliance, and Uladiflaus had propofed to effed a re- tars under Ediga, Tamerlane’s lieutenant, with only a battle with
volution in religion, which was highly difagreeable. tenth part of their number. The battle continued for l ar-
On a hidden, therefore, two armies marched towards a whole day; but at lait Vitowda^ was furrounded ar3‘
the frontiers of the duchy, which they as fuddenly pe- by the numbers of his enemy, and in the utmoil danger
netrated, laying wafte the whole country, and feizihg of being cut in pieces. However, he broke his way
upon fome important fortreffes before the king of Po- through with prodigious daughter on both fides ; and
land had any notice of the matter. As foon as he re- came off at lalt without a total defeat, having killed a
ceived advice of thefe ravages, Uladiflaus raifed fome number of the enemy equal to the whole of his own
^ forces with the utmoft celerity, which he committed to army. _ # ^7
the care of his brother Skirgello, who defeated the During the abfence ofVitowda, the Teutonic knights Wars with
Teutonic knights, and foon obliged them to abandon all had penetrated into Lithuania, committing every where U®
their conquefts. In the mean time Uladiflaus marched the molt dreadful ravages. On his return he attacked ‘
in perfon into the Higher Poland, which was fubje&ed and defeated them, making an irruption into Livonia,
to a variety of petty tyrants, who oppreffed the peo- to puniih the inhabitants of that country for the aflilt-
ple, and governed with intolerable defpotifm. The pa- ance they had given to the Teutonic order. This was
latine of Pofnia in particular had diltinguilhed himielf fucceeded by a long feries of wars between Poland and
by his rebellious practices ; but he was completely de- Prufiia, in which it became neceflary for Uladiflaus him-
feated by Uladiflaus, and the whole country reduced to felf to take the field. The knights had now one way
obedience. or ether got pofieffion of Samogitia, Mazovia, Culm,
Troubles in Having fecured the tranquillity of Poland, Uladiflaus Silefia, and Pomerania ; fo that Uladiflaus refolved to
Lithuania, vifited Lithuania, attended by a great number of the punilh them before they became too powerful. With
clergy, in order to convert his fubje&s. This he ef- this view he affembled an army compofed of feveral dif-.
fedled without great difficulty ; but left the care of the ferent nations, with which he penetrated into Pruffia,
duchy to his brother Skirgello, a man of a cruel, haugh- took feveral towns, and was advancing to Marienburg
ty, and debauched turn, and who immediately began to the capital of Pomerania, when he was met by the army
a'bufe his power. With him the king fent his coufin of the Pruffian knights, who determined to hazard a
Vitowda, a prince of a generous, brave, and amiable battle. When the engagement began, the Poles were
difpofition, to be a check upon his conduft ; but the deferted by all their auxiliaries, and obliged to Hand
barbarity of Skirgello foon obliged this prince to take the brunt of the battle by them elves. Bat the cou-
refuge among the" Teutonic knights, who were now be- rage and conduct of their king fo animated them, that
come the afylum of the oppreffed and difcontented. For after a molt defperate battle they obt ained a complete
fome time/however, he did not affift the knights in vidory ; near 40,000 of the enemy being killed in the
their defigns againft his country; but having applied field, and 30,000 taken prii'oners. This terrible over-
for protection to the king, and finding him remits in throw, however, was lefs fatal to the affairs of the Pruf-
affording the neceflary afliftance, he at lall joined in the fian knights than might have been expected ; as Uladi-
fchemes formed by the knights for the deftru&ion of flaus did not improve his vi&ory, and a peace was con-
Poland. Entering Lithuania at the head of a nume- eluded upon eafier terms than his adverfaries had any
rous army, he took the capital, burnt part of it, and reafon to exped.—Some infradion of the treaty occa-
deftroyed 14,000 perfons in the flames, befides a great fioned a renewal of hoffilities; and Uladiflaus was fo
number who were maffacred in attempting to make their much elated with vidory that he would hearken to no
efcape. The upper part of the city, however, was vi- terms, by which means the enemy were driven to the
goroufly defended, fo that the befiegers were at laft defperate refolution of burying themfelves in the ruins
obliged to abandon all thoughts of making themfelves of their capital. The liege was accordingly commen-
mafters of it, and to content themfelves with defolating ced, and both fides behaved with the greateft vigour ;
the adjacent country. The next year Vitowda renewed but at lall, through the good condud and valour of the
his attempts upon this city, but with the fame ill fuc- grand mailer of the knights named Plaweti, the Polilh
cefs ; though he got poffeffion of fome places of lefs monarch found himfelf obliged to grant them an advan-
note! As foon, however, as an opportunity offered, he tageous peace, at a time when it was univerfally ex-
came to an accommodation with the king, who bellow- peded that the whole order would have been extermi-
» ed on him the government of Lithuania. During the nated.
firll years of his government, he bellowed the molt dili- _ Uladiflaus V. died in 1435, and was fucceeded by
gent attention upon dorneitic affairs, endeavouring to re- his fon Uladiflaus VI. at that time only nine years of
pair the calamities which the late wars had occafioned; .age. He had fcarce afeended the thi'one, when the
but his impetuous valour prompted him at lall to en- kingdom was invaded by the altars, wrho defeated
gage in a war with Tamerlane the Great, after his vie- Buccarius the general of the Polilh forces; and com-
tory over Baj'azet the Turkilh emperor. For fome time mitting everywhere dreadful ravages, returned to their
before, Vitowda had been at war with the neighbour- own countiy loaded with booty. A few years after,
ing Tartars, and had beengconllantly victorious, tranf- the nation was involved in a war with Amurath the
porting whole hordes of that barbarous people into Po- emperor of the Turks, who threatened to break into
land and Lithuania, where to this day they form a co- Hungary ; and it was thought by the diet to be good
lony diffina in manners and drefs from the other inha- policy to affiit the Hungarians at this jun&ure, be-
bitants. Uladiflaus, however, diffuaded him from at- eaufe it was impoffible to know where the llorm might
N n 2 fall
Poland.
63
Uladillaus
defeated
and killed
by the
Turks.
_ 69
Teutonic
‘knights
(fubdued.
POL [
fall after Hungary was conquered. But before all
things were prepared for the young king to take the
field, a ftrong body of auxiliaries were difpatched un¬
der the celebrated John Hunniades vaivode of Tran-
fylvania, to oppofe the Turks, and likewife to fupport
the election of Uladiflaus to the crown of Hungary. This
detachment furprifed the Turkifh army near the river
Morava, and defeated Amurath with the lofs of 30,000
men; after which Hunniades retook all the places which
had been conquered by Amurath, the proud fultan was
forced to fue for peace, and Uladillaus was raifed without
oppofition to the crown of Hungary. A treaty was
concluded, by which the Turks promifed to relinquifh
their defigns upon Hungary, to acknowledge the king’s
right to that crown, and to give up all their conqueits
in Rafcia and Servia. This treaty was fealed by mutual
oaths : but Uladiflaus broke it at the perfuafion of the
pope’s legate ; who infifted, that now was the time for
humbling the power of the infidels ; and produced a
fpecial commiffion from the pope, abfolving him from
the oath he had taken at the late treaty. The confe-
quence of this perfidy was, that Uladiflaus was entirely
defeated and killed at Varna, and the greatefl part of
his army cut in pieces.
Uladiflaus VI. was fucceeded by Cafimir IV. in
whofe reign the Teutonic knights were fubdued, and
obliged to yield up the territories of Culm, Michlow,
and the whole duchy of Pomerania, together with the
towns of Elbing, Marienburg, Talkmith, Schut, and
Chriftburgh, to the crown of Poland. On the other
hand, the king rdtored to them all the other conquefts
he had made in Pruffia, granted a feat in the Polifh
fenate to the grand-mailer, and endowed him with
other privileges, on condition that, fix months after
his accefiion, he fhould do homage for Prufiia, and take
an oath of fidelity to the king and republic.
This fuccefs raifed the fpirits of the Polifh nation,
which had drooped ever fince the battle of Varna. The
diet did not, however, think proper to renew the war
againfl the Turks, but took under their protection the
hofpodar of Moldavia; as thinking that this province
would make a convenient barrier to the Polifh domi¬
nions on one fide. The requefl of the prince who afked
this protection was therefore readily granted, an oath of
fidelity exadted from him and the inhabitants, and a tri¬
bute required ; regular payment of which was made for
a great number of years afterwards.
About this time alfo the crown of Bohemia beco¬
ming vacant, the people wci'e extremely defirous of
unitedb^^g govern'Jd by one of the princes of Poland ; upon
to Pplaud. which the barons were induced to beflow the crown
upon Uladillaus, eldefl fon of Cafimir, in oppofition
to the intrigues of the king of Hungary. Not fatis-
iied with this acquifition, Uladiflaus took advantage
of the diflcnfions in Hungary, in order to unite that
crown to his own : and this, he alfo effedfed ; by which
means his power was greatly augmented, though not
the felicity of his people. So many foreign expedi¬
tions had exhaufted the treafury, and oppreffed the
peafants with taxes ; the gentry were greatly dimi-
nifhed by a number of bloody engagements ; agricul¬
ture was negledled, and the country almoft depopula¬
ted. Before a proper remedy could be applied for
thefe evils, Cafimir died in 1492 ; much more admi¬
red, than beloved or regretted, by his fubjedls. It is
7° r
Crowns of
Bohemia
and Hun-
%ary
284 ] POL
related by the hiftorians of this period, that in the Poland,
reign of Cafimir IV. the deputies of the provinces —\r—",f
firfl appeared at the diet, and affumed to themfelves
the legillative power ; all laws before this time having
been framed by the king in conjunction with the fe¬
nate. It is obferved alfo, that before Cafimir’s time,
the Latin language was underftood only by the clergy
of Poland ; in proof of which, it is alleged, that at an
interview between this prince and the king of Sweden
at Dantzick, his Polifh majefty was forced to make
ufe of the affiitance of a monk to interpret between
him and the Swedifh monarch. Cafimir, aihamed of
the ignorance fhown by himfclf and court, publifhed an
edidl, enjoining the diligent fludy of the Latin, which
in our days is fpoken as vernacular by every Polifh gen¬
tleman, though very unclafiically.
During the fucceeding reigns of John, Albert, and
Alexander, the Polifh affairs fell into decline ; the
kingdom being harafied by continual wars with the
Turks and Tartars. However, they were retrieved
by Sigifmund I. who afeended the throne in 1507.
This monarch, having reformed feme internal abufes, Exploits of
next fet about rendering the kingdom as formidable as it^'S^1111111^
had formerly been. He firfl quelled a rebellion which1’
broke out in Lithuania ; after which, he drove the
Walachians and Moldavians out of Ruflia Nigra, and
defeated the Ruffians in a pitched battle, with the lofs
of 30,000 men. In this engagement he was obliged to
caufe his cavalry to fwim acrofs the Boriflhenes in order
to begin the attack, while a bridge was preparing for the
infantry. Thefe orders were executed with aftonifh-
ing celerity, notwithflanding the rapidity of the ftream,
the fleepnefs of the banks, and the enemy’s oppofition.
The o-nfet was led by the Lithuanians, who were di- »
refled to retreat gradually, with a view of drawing
the enemy within reach of the cannon. This the Ruf¬
fians miflook for a real flight; and as they were pur-
fuing with eagernefs, Sigifmund opened his line to the
right and left, pouring in grape-lhot from the artillery
with dreadful fuccefs. The Ruffian general, and fe-
veral noblemen of the firfl diflinftion, were taken pri-
foners, while the whole lofs of the royal army did not
amount to 300 men.
After this complete viflory, the king turned his
arms againfl: the Teutonic knights, who had elefled
the marquis of Brandenburgh their grand-mailer ; and
this prince not only refufed to acknowledge the fove-
reignty of the crown of Poland, but even invaded the N . yj
Polifh territories. Sigifmund marched againil him,
and gained pofieffion of feveral important places in
Brandenburgh ; but as he was purfuing his conquefls,
the marquis was reinforced by 14,000 Germane, led
by the duke of Schonenburg, who ventured to lay
fiege to Dantzic, after having ravaged all the neigh¬
bouring country. The Dantzickers, however, de¬
fended themfelves with fo much fpirit, that the be-
fiegers were foon obliged to relinquifh their enter-
prife. In their retreat they were attacked by a llrong de¬
tachment of Polilh cavalry, who made prodigious havock
among them, and compelled the wretched remains to take
fhelter in Pomerania, where they were inhumanly but¬
chered by the peafants. Soon after this the marquis
was obliged to fubmit to the clemency of the conque¬
ror ; from whom, however, he obtained better condi¬
tions than could have been expedkd, or indeed than he
WOuld
POL
[ 285 ]
POL
Poland' would have got, had he not abandoned the inter eft of the
-~y  Teutonic order, and refxgned the dignity cf grand-
mafter. In order to /ecure him in his mtereft, there¬
fore, Slgifmund grafted him half the province of
Pruflia as a fecular duke, and dependent on the crown
of Poland; by which means he entirely deprived that
order of the beft part of their dominions, and put it
quite out of their power to difturb the tranquillity of
Poland any more. r .
The power of Sigifmund had now excited the jea-
loufy of the Houfe of Auftria ; for which reafon they
took every method in their power to llir up enemies
againft him. 13y their means, the Ruffians, blolda-
vians, and Tartars, were all excited to fall upon the
Poliffi territories at once. The vaiyode of Walachia,
with 50,000 men, made an irruption into the fmall
province of Pokatior, but was entirely defeated by
count Taro at the head of no more than 6000. 1 his
victory is wholly afcribed to the good conduit of the
commander, who poffeffed himfelf of lome eminences
on the flanks of the enemy. On thefe he ereded bat¬
teries ; which played with fuch fury as foon put their
ranks in diforder : upon which the Poles attacked them
fword in hand, and entirely difperfed them with the lofs
of 1 ©,000 killed or taken. The count having then
augmented his army with a ftrong body of Lithua¬
nians, attacked the Mufcovites and 1 artars, drove
them entirely out of the duchy, purfued them into
Ruffia, reduced feveral towns, and at laft laid liege
to the ftrong fortrefs of Straradub ; in which the re¬
gent, together with fome of the beft troops of Ruffia,
were inclofed. The garnfon made a gallant defence ;
and the fortifications were compofed of beams joined
together, and fupported by a bulwark ot eaith, upon
which the cannon-lhot made no impreffion ; but the
count contrived a method of fetting the wood on hi e ;
by which means the regent and nobility were obliged
to furrender at difcretion, and 1 aro canied od up¬
wards of 60,0co prifoners, with an immenfe booty.
In the reign of Sigifmund, we may look upon the
kingdom of Poland to have been at its greateft pitch
of glory. This monarch poffelfed, in his own perion,
the republic of Poland, the great duchies of Lithua¬
nia, Smolenlko, and Saveria, befides vaft territories
lying beyond the Euxine and Baltic ; while his ne¬
phew Lewis polTeffed the kingdoms of Bohemia, j..ian¬
gary, and Silefta. But this glory received a hidden
check in 1548, by the defeat and death of Louis,
who periihed in a battle fought with Solyman the
Great, emperor of the 1 urks. Phe daughter ol this
prince married Ferdinand of Auftria,; whereby the
dominions of liungaiy, Bohemia, and Silefia, became
infeparably connected with the hereditary dominions of
the Auftrian family. This misfortune is thought to
have hallened the death of Sigifmund ; though, being
then in his 84th year, he could not have lived long by
the ordinary coui fe of nature. He did not, however,
furvive the news many months, but died of a lingering
diforder, leaving behind him the charaftcr of the com-
pleteft general, the able'! politician, the bell prince,
and the ftrongeft man, in the north ; of which laft, in¬
deed, fome inflances are related by hiftorians that are
almo'f incredible.
Sigifmund Auguftus, who fucceeded his father Si¬
gifmund I. proved alio a very great and happy prince.
At that time the moft violent and bloody wars were Poland,
carrying on in Germany, and indeed through other
parts of Europe, on account of religion ; but Sigif-s;g;fmunj
mund wifely avoided interfering in thefe difputes. He Auguilus, *
would not admit into his dominions any of thofe di-wife and
vines who were taxed with holding heterodox opinions,
nor even allow his people the liberty of correfpondingp
with them ; yet he never perfecuted, or employed any
other means for the prefervation of the ftate than thofe
of a well-conduCted and regular policy. Inftead of dif-
puting with his fubjefts about fpeculative opinions, Si¬
gifmund applied himfelf diligently to the reforming of
abufes, enforcing the laws, enriching the treafury, pro¬
moting induftry, and redeeming the crown-lands where
the titles of the poffeftbrs appeared illegal. Out of the
revenue recovered in this manner he obtained a for¬
midable Handing army', without laying any additional
tax upon the fubjefts ; and though he preferred peace
to war, he was always able to puniffi thofe that offer- ^
ed indignities to his crown or perfon. His knowledge War with,
in the art of war was foon tried in a conteft with the Ruffia.
Ruffians, who had made an irruption into Livonia, en¬
couraged by the difputes which had fubfifted between
the Teutonic knights and the archbiffiop of Riga, cou-
fin to Sigifmund. The province was at that time di¬
vided between the knights and the prelate ; and the
Ruffians, under pretence of affifting the former, had
feized great part of the dominions of the latter. The
archbifhop had recourfe to his kinfman the king of Po¬
land ; who, after fruitlefs efforts to accommodate mat¬
ters, marched towards the frontiers of Livonia with an
army of 100,000 men. The knights were by no means
able to refift fuch a formidable power; and therefore,
deferting their late allies, put themfelves under the pro¬
tection of the king of Poland. The czar, John Bafi-
lides, though deferted by the knights, did not lofe his
courage ; nay, he even infolently refufed to return any ,
anfwer to the propofals of peace made by Sigifmund.
His army conlifted of 300,000 men, with whom he
imagined himfelf able to reduce ail Livonia, in fpite
of the utmoft efforts of the king of Poland : however,
having met with fome checks on that quarter, he di¬
rectly invaded Poland with his whole army. At firft
he carried every thing before him ; but the Poles foon
made a vigorous oppofition. \ et the Ruffians, though
everywhere defeated, ftill continued their incurlions,
which Sigifmund at laft revenged by invading Ruffia
in his turn. Thefe mutual deiolations and ravages at
laft made both parties deiirous of peace, and a truce
for three years was agreed on ; during the continuance , 11_
of which the king of Poland died, and with him was^xtoeW^
extinguiffied the houfe of Jagellon, which had governed^ jageiloK>
Poland for near 200 years.
On the death of Sigifmund, Poland became a prey
to inteftine divifions; and a vaft number of intrigues
were fet on foot at the courts of Vienna; France, Sax¬
ony, Sweden, and Brandenburgh ; each endeavouring
to eftabliih a prince of their own nation on the throne ^
of Poland. The confequence of all this was, that the Diftra&ed ,
kingdom became one univerfal feene of corruption, hate of Po^
faction, and confufion ; the members of the diet con-,3U<i-
fulted only their own intereft, and were ready on every
occailon to fell themfelves to the beft bidder. The
Proteftants had by this time got a confiderable footing
ia the kingdom, and thus religious difputes were m-
2 . termiagkd.' ‘
Poland.
POL [2
termingled with political ones. One good efteft, how-
ever, flowed from this confufxon : for a law was palled,
by which it was enatted, that no difference in religious
opinions fhould make any contention among the fub-
jecfs of the kingdom; and that all the Poles, without
difcrimination, fhould be capable of holding public of¬
fices and trulls under the government; and it was alfo
refolved, that the future kings Ihould fwear exprefsly
to cultivate the internal tranquillity of the realm, and
cherilh without diltinction their fubjedts of all perfua-
fions.
While the candidates for the throne were feverally
Attempting to fupport their own intere l in the bell
manner they could, John Crafolki, a Polifh gentleman
of great merit, but diminutive ftature, had juil returned
from I ranee, whither he had travelled for improve¬
ment. His humour, wit, and diverting lize, had ren¬
dered him univerfaliy agreeable at the court of France,
and in a particular manner engaged the elleem of Ca¬
tharine de Medicis, which the little Pole had the ad-
drefs to make ufe of for his own advantage. He owed
many obligations to the duke of Anjou ; whom, out of
gratitude, he reprefented in fuch favourable terms, that
' the Poles began to entertain thoughts of making him
their king. Thefe fentiments were confirmed and en¬
couraged by Cnifolki, who returned into France by
order of feveral leading men in Poland, and acquainted
the king and queen Catharine, that nothing was want¬
ing befides the formality of an embaffy to/procure the
crown for the duke of Anjou, almoft without oppofi-
tion. Charles IX. king of France, at that time alfo
promoted the fcheme, being jealous of the duke of An¬
jou’s popularity, and willing to have him removed to
as great a di (lance as poffible. Accordingly the par¬
ties came to an agreement; and it was ilipulated that
the duke of Anjou Ihould maintain the laws, liberties,
Anjou"cho. anc* cui*oms °f the kingdom of Poland, and of the
fen king of Krand duchy of Lithuania ; that he fhould tranfport all
*■' 1 ’ his effedls and annual revenues in France into Poland ;
that the French monarch fhould pay the late king Si-
gifmund’s debts; that he fliould maintain 100 young
Polifh gentlemen at his court ; and 50 in other places;
that he fhould fend a fleet to the Baltic, to affifl Po¬
land againfl the Ruffians ; and laflly, that Henry fhould
marry the princefs Anne, filler to the late king Sigif-
mund ; but this article Henry would not ratify till his
return to Poland.
Every thing being thus fettled, the young king quit¬
ted France, attended by a fplendid retinue, and was
accompanied bylfee queen-mother as far as Lorrain.
Fie was received by his fubjedts on the frontiers of Po¬
land, and conducted to Cracow, where he was foon af¬
ter crowned. The affedlions of the Poles were foon
engaged by the youth and accomplifhments of Henry ;
but fearce was he feated on the throne, when, by the
death of Charles IX. he became heir to the crown of
France. Of this he was informed by repeated mef-
fages from queen Catharine ; he repented his having
accepted the crown of Poland, and refolvcd to leave it
R ns iwa • ^°r ^iat 0^" •^rance’ P^t being fenlible that the Poles
from his ^ wou^ 0PP°^e his departure, he kept his intentions fe-
kingdom, cret> and watched an opportunity of Healing out of the
palace in difguife in the night-time. The Poles, as
might well have been expedted, were irritated at being
thus abandoned, from the mere motive of interefl, by
76
Duke of
Poland.
77
And is de*.
36 ] POL
a prince whom they had loved and honoured fq much, Poland.
Parties were _ difpatched after him by different roads ;  v—«
and Zamoflci, a nobleman who headed one of thefe
parties, overtook him fome leagues diflant from Cra¬
cow. All the prayers and tears of that nobleman, how¬
ever, could not prevail on Henry to return; lie rode
poll to Vienna, and then palled into France by the way
of Italy. 7
In the mean time, the Poles were fo much exafpera-
ted againfl Henry and his whole nation, that all the
French in Cracow would have been maffacred if the
magillrates had not placed guards in the flreets. Hen¬
ry, however, had forefeen the confequences of his flight,
and therefore endeavoured to apologife for his beha¬
viour. One Danzai undertook his caufe in full fenate ;
and with great eloquence explained the king’s motives
for his abrupt departure. Henry alfo wrote to the
chief nobility and clergy with his own hand. But no¬
thing could fatisfy the Poles ; who now acquainted
their king, that it he did not immediately return, they
would be obliged to divefl him of the royal dignity, *
and to choofe another lovereign. Henry began to ex-
cute himfelf on account of the wars in which he was
engaged, and promifed to fend men of unexceptionable
integrity to govern Poland till he fhould return : but
no excufes could be accepted ; and, on the 15th of July
I575> ^ie was folemnly di veiled of the regal dignity in^
full diet, and the throne declared vacant.
•^•fter the depolition of Henry, commotions and fac¬
tions again took place. However, the contending
parties were now reduced to two ; one who fupported
the interefl of Maximilian emperor of Germany ; the
other, who were for electing the princefs Anne, and
marrying her to Stephen Batori prince of Tranfylva-
nia. I he latter prevailed through the courage of ond-HephcuSa-
gentleman, who, in imitation of "the power affumed by t?ri ch‘ife“'
the Roman tribunes, flood up in the full fenate, andk,nS*
oppofed the proclamation of Maximilian, declaring
that his election was violent and illegal. In this fitua-
tion of affairs, it was obvious that ilrength and cele¬
rity muft determine which election was legitimate:
both parties wrote to the princes whofe caufe they had
efpouied, intreating them to come with all pofhble ex¬
pedition to take pofiefiion of the throne.- Baton pro¬
ved the more alert; for while Maximilian was difputing
about certain conditions which the Poles required for
the fecurity of their privileges, he entered Poland, mar¬
ried the princefs, and was crowned on the firfl of May
is?6- 1. I
No oppofition was made to the authority of Batori rc*
except by the inhabitants of Dantzic. Thefe adhe-volts,
red to the intereil of Maximilian even after he was
dead, and had the prefumption to demand from the
king an oath acknowledging their abfolute freedom
and independence. Batori referred them to the fenate,
declaring that he had no right to give up the privileges
of the republic ; but admonifhed the citizens to avoid
all occafion of a civil war, which mull neceffarily termi¬
nate in their difadvantage. But the obilinate citizens,
conftruing the king’s lenity into fear, flrut the gates
againfl tire ambailador, f'eized upon the fortrefs of
Grebin, and publifhed a manifefto refembling a libel
upon the king and the republic. The king, incenfed
at theie proceedings, marched againfl Grebin, re¬
took the cairic, and ravaged certain territories bc-
longing
II'
Poland.
eland in-
aded by
le Ruf-
U'
■)antzic
ubmits.
83
Cruelty of
the Ruf-
iianf.
p o r, [ 2
longing to the Dant'/ickers} who retaliated by burning
to the ground a monaftery named Olivr,, to prevent
the Poles from taking poffeiHon of fo important a fitu.
ation. . .
Notwithftanding thefe outrages, Baton renewed his
overtures for an accommodation • but the T^antzickers
were deaf to tlvefe falutary propofals ; fo that be was
obliged to declare them rebels, and fend againft them a
body of troops under one Zborowfki. As the number
of the Polilh aimy, however, was not confiderable, the
Dantzickers marched out to give him battle. They
were aflifted by a corps of Germans, and a refolution
was formed of attacking the Poles 'in their camp by
furprife ; but the projeft was difconcerted by a fudden
dorm, accompanied with dreadful thunder and lightning,
which fpread a panic through the army, as if it had been
a judgment from heaven, and obliged the commander,
John de Collen, to retire into the city. In a fhort
time, however, they recovered their fpirits, and came
to an action with the Poles ; but were defeated with
the lofs of 8000 men killed on the fpot, a great many
taken prifoners, and the lofs of feveral pieces of cannon.
But this check, inftead of abating the courage of the
Dantzickers, only animated them the more, and they
refolved to hold out to the laft extremity. In the
mean time, the czar of Mufcovy, thinking the prefent
opportunity favourable for extending his dominions,
laid liege to Revel; but, not being able to make lum-
felf mailer of that place, he was obliged to con¬
tent himfelf with ravaging Livonia, which he did in a
dreadful manner. This did not, however, hinder Ba¬
ton from laying fiege to Dantzic in perfon, and purfu-
ing the operations with the utmoft vigour. Collen made
many vigorous fallies, in feveral of which he defeated
the Poles; but happe/iing at laft to be killed, no¬
body was found capable of fupplying his place, and
the citizens were at laft obliged to furrender at dif-
eretion ; though not till they had obtained a promife
from the eleftor of Saxony and landgi-ave of Heffe of
interpofing as mediators in their behalf. The only
terms which the king demanded of them were, that
they Ihould afk his pardon, difmifs their troops, and
rebuild the monaftery of Oliva which they had deftroy-
ed ; while his majefty, on the other hand, confirmed all
their privileges, and granted them full liberty of adhe¬
ring to the confcfiron of Auglburg, for which they h&d
for fome time been ftrenuous advocates.
The war'with Dantzic was no looner ended, than
the king direfted his whole ftrength againft the-czar
of Mufcovy, who had made himfelf mafter of feveral
important cities in Livonia, ft he czar behaved every
where with the greateft cruelty, flaughtering all without
diftin&ion who were able to bear arms, and abandon¬
ing the women and children to the (hocking brutality
of the Tartars who ferved in his army. Such was the
horror infpired by the perfidy and cruelty of the czar’s
conduct, that the inhabitants of Wender chofe rather
to bury themfelves in the ruins of their town than to
fubmit to fuch an inhuman enemy. For a confiderable
time the Ruffians were allowed to proceed in this man¬
ner, till the whole province of Livonia, excepting Riga
and Revel, had fuffered the barbarities of this infulting
conqueror ; but at laft, in 1578, a body of forces was
difpatched into the province, the towns of Wender and
87 ] POL
Dtmnenburcr were furprifed, and an army fent by the
czar to furprife the former was defeated.
At this time the Mufcovites were not the only ene¬
mies who oppofed the king of Poland, and opprefied
Livonia. That unhappy province was alfo invaded by
the Swedes, who profeffed themfelves to be enemies
equally to both parties, and who were fcarce inferior
in cruelty to the Ruffians themfelves. The king, how-
' ever, was not daunted by the number of his adverfa-
but having made great preparations, and called
Poland.
to his affiltance Chriftopher prince of Tranfylvania,
with all the {landing forces of that count 17, he took
the field in perfon ar ainft the Mufcovites, and laid fiege
to Polocz, a town of great importance fituated on the 84
river Dwina. The Ruffians no fooner heard of the
approach of the Polifh army, than they refolved to put' 0 °L ’
all the citizens to death, thinking by this means to
ftrike terror into the enemy. When Batovi came near
the town, the moft (hocking fpeftacle prefented itfelf;
the river appeared dyed with blood, and a vaft number
of human bodies faftened to planks, and terribly man¬
gled, were carried down its dream. This barbarity,
in dead of intimidating the Poles, irritated them to fuch
a degree, that nothing could refill them. Finding that
their cannon made little impreffion upon the walls of
the city, which were conftrufted of wood, they advan¬
ced to the aftault with burning torches in their hands;
and would foon have reduced the fortifications to affies,
had not a violent ftorm of rain prevented them, ft’he
defign, however, was put in execution as foon as the
rain (lackened ; and the barbarous Ruffians were obli¬
ged to furrender at diferetion. It reflects the higheft
honour on Batori, that, notwithftanding the dreadful
inftances of cruelty which he had before his eyes, he
would not fuffer his foldiers to retaliate. Indeed the
cruelties committed by the Ruffians on this occafion, gj
feem almoft to have authorifed any revenge that could Monftrous
poffibly have been taken. A number of Germans were
found in the city, fome expiring under the moft dread- ^
ful tortures, and others dead of pains which nature ;-ians in
could no longer fupport. Several of the officers had that city,
been dipped in cauldrons of boiling oil,, with a cord
drawn under the (Itin of the umbilical region, which
faftened their hands behind ; in which (filiation their
eyes had been torn out from their fockets, or burnt
with red-hot irons, and their faces otherwife terribly
mangled. The disfigured carcafes, indeed, plainly (bow¬
ed the barbarous treatment they had met with; and
the dreadful tale was confirmed by the teftimony of the
few who furvived. The Poliffi foldiers were exafpera-
ted almoft to madaefs ; fo that fcarce all the authority
of Batori could reftrain them from cutting in pieces the
wretches who had been the authors of fuch a dreadful
tragedy. 8(*
After the reduction of Polocz, Batori continued the r^2"
war with great fuccefs. ftwo detachments from theI
army penetrated the enemy’s country by different roads,
wafted all before them to the gates of Smolenlko, and
returned with the fpoils of 2000 villages which they had
pillaged and deftroyed. In the mean time the Swedes
and Poles thought proper to come to an accommoda¬
tion : and though John king of Sweden was at that
time prevented from bearing his (hare of the war, yet
Batori reduced fuch a number of cities, and committed
fuch
POL r 288 ] POL
Poland, fueh dcvailations in the RufHaa tem'torfts, that the
czar waa obliged to fue for peace; which he obtained
The jt’z’r 011 condition of relinquiihing Livonia, after having
fues for thrown away the lives of more than 400,000 of his
peace, fubje&s in attempting to conquer it.
Baton, being thus freed from a moil deftruftive and
cruel war, applied himfelf to the internal government
of his kingdom. He regulated the Polifh cavalry in
fuch a manner as made them become formidable to the
Turks and other neighbouring nations : and this is the
military eilablifhment to which the Poles have given
the name of quartienne; becaufe a fourth part of the
revenue is employed in fupporting them. Batori fent
this body of cavalry towards the frontiers of Tartary,
to check the incurfions of thofe barbarians ; by which
means the Ukraine, a vaft traft of defert country, was
filled with flourifliing towns and villages, and became a
ftrong barrier againft the Turks, Tartars, and Ruffians.
’BatcHdvi ^ memora^e a&i°n Batori was his attaching
lizes the ^ Coflacks to Poland, civilizing and inflxu&ing them
CefTacks. in the arts of war and peace. His firft endeavour was
to gain their afteftions by his liberality ; for which pur-
pofe, he prefented them with the city of Techtemeravia,
fituated on the Borifthenes, which they formed into a
magazine, and made the refidence of their chieftains. He
gave them officers of all degrees, eltabliffied difeipline
among them, altered their arms, and formed them into
a regular militia, which afterwards performed eminent
fervices to the Hate. All kinds of manufa&ures at that
time known in Poland were likewife eftablifhed among
the Coflacks ; the women were employed in fpinning
and weaving woollen cloths, while the men were taught
agriculture, and other arts proper for their fex.
While Batori was employed in this manner, the
Swedes broke the convention into which they had en¬
tered with Poland, and were on the point of getting
poffeffion of Riga. To this, indeed, Batori himfelf
had given occafion, by attempting to impofe the Romifh
religion upon the inhabitants, after having promifed
them entire liberty of confcience. This fo irritated
them, that they revolted, and were on the point of
admitting a Swedifli garrifon into the city, when the
king was informed of what was going forward. Upon
this he refolved to take a mofl: exemplary vengeance on
the inhabitants of Riga; but before he could execute
his intention, he died in the year 1586, the 54th of his
89 aSe> anc^ 10th of his reign.
;His death. The death of Batori involved Poland in frefh troubles.
Four candidates appeared for the crown, viz. the princes
Ernefl; and Maximilian of the houfe of Auftria ; Sigif-
mund prince of Sweden, and Theodore czar of Mufcovy.
Each of thefe had a feparate party ; but Sigifmund
and Maximilian managed matters fo well, that in 1587
both of them were elefted. The confequence of this
was a civil war ; in which Maximilian was defeated and
taken prifoner: and thus Sigifmund III. furnamed De
Vafa, became mailer of the throne of Poland without
oppofition. He waged a fuccefsful war with the Tar¬
tars, and was otherwife profperous ; but though he
fucceeded to the crown of Sweden, he found it impof-
fible for him to retain both kingdoms, and he was for¬
mally depofed from the Swedilh throne. In 1610 he
conquered Ruffia, and placed his fon on the throne;
out tne Poliih conquefts ol that country have always
Beep but for a Ihort time. Accordingly the young
ponce was foon after depofed; and the Ruffians not Poland,
only regained their liberty, but began to make en- v—
croachments on Poland itfelf. A very unfortunate war r 9°.
alfo took place with Sweden, which was now governed GuftaTu^
by the great Guftavus Adolphus; the particulars ofAdokhui,
which, with the other exploits of that renowned warrior,
are related under the article Sweden. At laft Sigif-
mund, worn out with cares and misfortunes, died in
1629.
After Sigifmund’s death the affairs of Poland feemed
to revive a little under Uladiflaus VII.; for he obliged
the Ruffians to fue for peace, and Sweden to reltore
fome of her conquelts: but having attempted to abridge
the liberty of the Coflacks, they revolted, and gave the
Poles feveral terrible defeats. Nor was the war termina¬
ted in the lifetime of Uladiflaus, who died in 1648. His
fucceflbr, John Cafimir, concluded a peace with thefe dan¬
gerous enemies : but the war was foon after renewed ;
and while the kingdom was dillracled between thefe
enemies and the difeontents of its own inhabitants, the
Ruffians took the opportunity of invading and pillaging 9r
Lithuania. In a little after the whole kingdom was Poland fub-
fubdued by Charles Guilavus, fucceflbr to Chriitmad"ed by
queen of Sweden. Charlej
Happily for Poland, however, a rupture took place GlUUV'US‘
between the courts of Sweden and Copenhagen; by
which means the Poles were enabled to drive out the
Swedes in 1657. This was fucceeded by civil wars and
contefts with Ruffia, which fo much vexed the king,
that he refignad the crown in 1668.
_ For two years after the refignation of Cafimir the
kingdom was filled with confufion ; but on the 17th of
September 1670, one Michael Coribut Wiefnowilki,
collaterally defeended from the houfe of Jagello, but in
a very mean fituation at that time, was chofen king.
His reign continued but for three years ; during which
time John Sobielki, a celebrated Polifh general, gave
the Turks a dreadful overthrow, though their army
confifled of more then 300,000 men ; and had this blow
been purfued, the Coflacks would have been entirely
fubdued, and very advantageous terms might have been
obtained from the fultan. Of that vaft multitude of
Turks no more than 15,000 made their efcape, the reft
being all either killed or taken : however, the Polifh
foldiers, being bound by the laws of their country only
to ftay a certain time in the field, they refufed to pur-
fne this fignal vidlory, and fuffered the king to make
peace on any terms he could procure.
Wiefnowifki died before the news of this tranfa&ion
reached Cracow; and after his death a new feene of
confufion enfued, till at laft the fortune of John Sobielki John So*
prevailed, and he was ele£ted king of Poland in 1674.bieflci re*
He was a moft magnanimous and heroic prince ; who, tne.ves ths
by his valour and good conduit, retrieved the affairs of
Poland, and entirely checked the progrefs of the Turks
weltward. Thefe barbarians were everywhere defeated,
as is particularly related under the article Turky ; but
notwithftanding his great qualities, Poland was now fo
thoroughly corrupted, and pervaded by a fpirit of dif-
affeition, that the latter part of this monarch’s reign
was involved in troubles, through the ambition and con¬
tention of fome powerful noblemen.
Sobielki died in 1696; and with him fell the glory
of Poland. Moft violent contefts took place about the
fucceffion;. the recital of which would far exceed our
limits.
1
POL
[ 289
POL
Poland. limits. At laft Frederic Auguftus, eledtor of Saxony,
  prevailed; but yet, as foine of the moil effential cere¬
monies were wanting in his coronation, oecaufe the
primate, who was in an oppoiite intereft, would not
perform them, he found it extremely difficult to keep
his fubjedts in proper obedience. To add to his mis¬
fortunes, having engaged in a league with Denmark
and Ruffia againft Sweden, he was attacked with irre-
P >land fiilible fury by Charles XII. Though Auguftus had
conquered Il0l: geen betrayed, as indeed he almoil always was, he
LyChaileb was py no meansa match for the ferocious Swede. The
particulars of this' war, however, as they make great
part of the exploits of that northern hero, more properly
fall to be related under the article Sweden. Hen^
therefore, We {hall only obierve, that Auguftus was re¬
duced to the humiliating neceffity of renouncing the
crown of Poland on oath, and even of congratulating
his rival Staniflaus upon bis acceffion to the throne :
but when the power of Charles was broken by his defeat
at Pultowa, the fortune of Auguftus again prevailed ;
Staniflaus was driven out; and the former being ab-
folved from his oath by the pope, relumed the throne
of Poland.
„ Since that time the Polilh nation hath never made
■of tiie any figure. Surrounded by great and ambitious powers,
it hath funk under the degeneracy of its inhabitants;
fo that it now fcarce exifts as a nation. This cata-
ftrophe took place in the following manner : On the
5th of O&ober 1763, died Auguftus III. eledtor of
Saxony, and king of Poland. He was fucceeded by
Count Poniatowlki, a Poliftr grandee, who was pro¬
claimed September 7th 1764, by the name of Siantflaus
Jttgujlus, and crowned on the 25 th of November the
fame year.-*—During the interregnum which took place
s Auguf-between the death of Auguftus III. and the eledlion of
to me Staniflaus, a decree had been made by the convocation-
diet of Poland, with regard to the diffidaits, as they
were called, or diflenters from the Popifli religion. By
this decree they were prohibited from the free exercife
of their religion, much more than they had formerly
been, and totally excluded from all polls and places un¬
der the government. On this fovertft of the European
powers interpofed, at the application of tire diffidents,
for their good offices. The courts of Ruffia, Pruffia,
■Great Britain, and Denmark, made remonftrances to
the diet; but, notwithftandirig thefe remonftrances, the
decree was confirfned by the coronation-diet held after
the king’s election.
Otlobtr 6. 1766, an ordinary diet was affembled.
Pclann.
.Poles,
95.
Hevatii n
of Ponia-
towlki, by
the iiame
of Stanif-
1
t
throne.
96
Interfe-
reign
powers in
behalf of
the difli-
dents.
rence of fu-J-Xere declarations from the courts above mentioned
were prefented to his Polilh majefty, requiring the re-
eftablifhment of the diffidents in their civil rights and
privileges, and the peaceable enjoyment of their modes
of worfhip fecured to them by the laws of the kingdom
which had been obferved for two •centuries. ThWe
privileges, it was alleged, had been confirmed by the
treaty of Oliva, concluded by all the northern powers,
which could not be altered but by the eonfont of all
the contracting parties. The Popilh party contended
itrongly for a confirmation of feme decrees made againft
the diffidents in 1717, 1723, and 1736. The deputies
from the foreign powers replied, that thofe decrees had
palled in the midlt of intelline troubles, and were con¬
tradicted by the formal protellations and exprefs decla-
Vol. XV. Part I.
rations of foreign powers. At laft, after violent contefts,
the matter was referred to the bilhops and fenators for
their opinion. Upon a report from them, the diet
came to a refolution, That they would fully maintain
the diffidents in all the rights and prerogatives to which
they were intitled by the laws of their country, particu¬
larly by the conftitutions of the year 1717, &c. and by
treaties ; and that as to their complaints with regard t(V
the exercife of their religion, the college of archbiffiops
and bilhops, under the dircdlion of the prince primate,
would endeavour to remove thofe difficulties in a manner
conformable to juftice and neighbourly love.—By tins
time, however, the court of Ruffia foemed determined
to make her remonftrances more effectual, and a final!
body of Ruffian troops marched to within two miles of
the capital of Poland.
Thefe refolutions of the diet were by no means agree¬
able to the diffidents. They dated the beginning of
their fufferings from the year 1717. The referring
their grievances to the archbilhops and bilhops was
looked upon as a meafure the moll unreafonable that
could be imagined, as that body of men had always been
their oppofers, and in fadt the authors of all the evils
which had .befallen them.— Shortly after matters were
confidered in this view, an additional body of Ruffians,
to the number of about 15,000, entered Poland.
The diffidents, being now pretty fore of the protec- Confcqiien*
tion of foreign powers, entered, on the 20th of Marchces
1767, into two confederacies, at Thorn and Sluck.
One of them was figned by the diffidents of Great and
Little Poland, and the other by thofe of the Great
Duchy of Lithuania. The purport of thefe confede¬
racies was, an engagement to exert themfelves in the
defence of their ancient privileges, and the free exercife
of their religion ; profeffing, at"the fame time, however,
the utmoft loyalty to the king, and refolving to fend a
deputation to him to implore his protection. They
even invited thofe of the Catholic communion, and all
true patriots, to unite with- them in maintaining the
fundamental laws of the kingdom, the peace of religion,
and the. right of each one jointly with themfelves. They
claimed, by virtue of public treaties, the protection of
the powers who were guarantees of their rights and li¬
berties ; namely, the emprefs of Rufila, and the kings
of Sweden, Great Britain, Denmark, and Pruffia. Laft-
ly, they protdled, that they had no intention of aCting
to the detriment of the Roman Catholic religion, which
they duly refpeCted; and only afked the liberty of
their own, and the re-ellabliihment of their ancient,
rights. The three cities of Thorn, Elbing, and Dant-
zic, acceded to the confederacy of Thorn on the 10th
of April; as did the duke and nobles of Courland to
that of Sluck on the 15th of May.
The emprefs of Ruffia and king of Pruffia, in the
mean time, continued to iffue forth new declarations in
favour of the diffidents ; and the Ruffian troops in Po¬
land were gradually augmented to 30,000 men. Great
numbers of other confederacies were alfo formed in dif¬
ferent parts of the kingdom. Theft at firft took little
part in the affairs of the diffidents : they complained
only of the adminillration of public affairs, into which
they alleged that innovations had been introduced, and
were therefore for fome time called confederations of mal¬
contents, All thefc confederacies publiftied manifeftoes,
O o in
1
POL [ 290 ] POL
Poland jn which they recommended to the inhabitants to quar- mofities, that the meeting was again adjourned till the Pa'and.
    1 ter an(i treat the Ruffian troops as the defenders of the
ng Poliffi liberties.
General The different confederacies of malcontents formed in
confedera- the 24 diftridts of Lithuania united at Wilna on the
C“"* 22d of June ; and that general confederacy re-eftabliffied
. prince Radzivil, who had married the king’s fxfter, in
his liberty, eftates, and honour, of which he had been
deprived in 1764 by the flates of that duchy. On the
23d of June prince Radzivil was chofen grand marfhal
of the general confederacy of all Poland, which then be¬
gan to be called the national confederacy, and was faid to
be compofed of 72,000 noblemen and gentlemen.
The general confederacy took fuch meafures as ap¬
peared moft proper for ftrengthening their party. They
lent to the feveral waywodes of the kingdom, requiring
their compliance with the following articles : 1. That
all the gentlemen who had not figned the confederacy
fhould do it immediately ; 2. That all the courts of
juft ice fhould fubiift as formerly, but not judge any of
the confederates; 3. That the marffials of the crown
fhould not pafs any fentence without the participation
of at lealt four of the confederates; and, 4. That the
marfhals of the crown and the treafurers fhould be im¬
mediately reftored to the poffeffion of their refpe&ive
rights. The Catholic party in the mean time were not
idle. The bifhop of Cracow fent a very pathetic and
zealous letter to the dietines affembled at Warfaw on the
15th of Auguft, in which he exhorted them to arm their
nuncios with courage, by giving them orthodox and
patriotic inftru&ions, that they might not grant the
diffidents new advantages beyond thofe which were fe-
cured to them by the conftitutions of the country, and
treaties with foreign powers, &c. The pope alfo fent
briefs to the king, the great chancellor, the nobleffe,
biffiops of the kingdom, and to the prince primate,
with fuch arguments and exhortations as were thought
moft proper to ward off the impending danger. Coun¬
cils in the mean time were frequently held at the bifhop
of Cracow’s palace, where all the prelates atWarfaw
affembled.
On the 26th of September 1767 the confederacy of
diffidents was united with the general confederacy of
malcontents in the palace of prince Radzivil, who on that
occafion expreffed great friendfhip for the diffidents. In
a few days after, the Ruffian troops in the capital were
reinforced, and a confiderable body of them was polled
at about five miles diftance.
Tumults On the 5th of October an extraordinary diet was
iii the diet, held : but the affair of the diffidents met with fuch op-
pofition, that it was thought neceffary to adjourn the
meeting till the 12th; during which interval, every ex¬
pedient was ufed to gain over thofe who oppofed prince
RadziviPs plan. This was, to appoint a commiffion,
furnifhed with full power to enter into conference with
prince Repnin, the Ruffian ambaffador, concerning the
affairs of the diffidents. Notwithftanding all the pains
taken, however, the meeting .of the 12th proved ex¬
ceedingly tumultuous. The bifhops of Cracow and
•Kiow, with fome other prelates, and feveral magnats,
declared, that they would never confent to the effa-
bliflunent of fuch a commiffion ; and at the fame time
fpoke with more vehemence than ever againlt the pre-
tenfions of the diffidents. Some of the deputies an¬
swered with great warmth; which occafioned fuch ani-
16th. f ^
On the 13th the bifhops of Cracow and Kiow, the
palatine of Cracow, and the ftarofte of Dolmfki, were pmceedingi
carried off by Ruffian detachments. The crime alleged of the Rut.
againff them, in a declaration publifhed next dayby114113’
prince Repnin, was, that they had been wanting in
refpeft to the dignity of the emprefs of Ruffia, by at¬
tacking the purity of her intentions towards the repu¬
blic ; though fhe was refolved to continue her protec¬
tion and affiilancc to the general confederacy united
for preferving the liberties of Poland, and corredting
all the abufes which had been introduced into the go¬
vernment, &c.
It was probably owing to this violent proceeding of
the Ruffians, that prince Radzivil’s plan was at laff ad¬
opted, and feveral new regulations were made in fa¬
vour of the diffidents. Thefe innovations, however,
foon produced a civil war, which at laft ended in the
ruin of the kingdom. In the beginning of the year
1768, a new confederacy was formed in Podolia, a pro¬
vince bordering on Turky, which was afterwards call- tor
ed the confederacy of Bar. The intention of it was, to Confedera-
abolifh, by force of arms, the new conftitutions, par-cy°fBir*
ticularly thofe in favour of the diffidents. The mem¬
bers of the new confederacy likewife expreffed great re-
fentment againff the carrying away the bifhops of Cra¬
cow, &c. and ffill detaining them in cuftody.
Podolia was reckoned the fitted place for the pur-
pofe of the confederates, as they imagined the Ruffians-
could not attack them there without giving umbrage
to the Ottoman court. Similar confederacies, however,
were quickly entered into throughout the kingdom
the clergy excited all ranks of men to exert themfelves
in defence of their religion ; and fo much were their
exhortations regarded, that even the king’s troops
could not be trufted to aft againft thefe confederates.
The emprefs of Ruffia threatened the new confederates
as difturbers of the public tranquillity, and declared
that ker troops would aft againft them if they perfifted.
It was, however, fome time before the Ruffian troops
were confiderably reinforced ; nor did they at firfl feem
inclined to add with the vigour which they might have
exerted. A good many fkirmifhes foon happened be¬
tween thefe two contending parties, in which the con¬
federates were generally defeated. In one of thefe the
latter being worited, and hardly preffed, a number of
them paffed the Niefter, and took refuge in Moldavia.
This province had formerly belonged to Poland, but
was now fubjeft to the Grand Signior: the Ruffians,,
however, purfued their enemies into Moldavia; but in
order to prevent any offence being taken by the Porte,
prince Repnin wrote to the Ruffian refident at Con-
ftantinople, to intimate there, that the conduft of the
Ruffian colonel who commanded the party was quite
contrary to the orders of his court, and that therefore
he would be turned out of his poll.
Great cruelty in the mean time was exercifed againff
the diffidents where there were no Ruffian troops to
proteft them. Towards the end of Oftober 1769,
prince Martin Lubomirffii, one of the fouthern confe¬
derates, who had been driven out of Poland, and had
taken Ihelter with fome of his adherents among the
mountains of Hungary, got a manifefto polled up on
feveral of the churches of Cracow, in which he invited
the
IC4
War be-
POL [29
'Poland, the nation to a general revolt, and afittring them of the
-v  affiftance of the Ottoman Porte, with whom he pre¬
tended to have concluded a treaty. This was the be¬
ginning of hoftilities between the Turks and Ruffians,
which were not terminated but by a vail effufion of
blood ort both fides.
The unhappy kingdom of Poland was the firft fcene
of this war, and in a fhort time was reduced to the moil
deplorable fituation. In the end of the year 1768, the
peafants of the Greek religion in the Poliffi Ukraine,
and province of Kiow, took up arms, and committed
the greateil ravages, having, as they pretended, been
threatened with death by the confederates unlefs they
would turn Roman Catholics. Againil thefe infurgents
tween tills the Ruffians employed their arms, and made great num-
conferlera. bers of them prifoners. The reft took refuge among
UuiruLthe t^ie Haidamacks ; by whom they were foon joined, and
in the beginning of 1769 entered the Ukraine in con-
jundlion with them, committing everywhere the moil
horrid maflacres.. Here, however, they were at lait
defeated by the Poliffi troops, at the fame time that
feveral of the confederacies in Poland were feverely
chaftifed. Soon after, the Chan of the Crim Tartars,
having been repulfed with lofs in an attempt on New
Servia, entered the Poliffi territories, where he left
frightful marks of his inhumanity upon fome innocent
and defencelefs perfons. This latter piece of conduct,
with the cruelties exercifed by the confederates, indu¬
ced the Poliffi coffacks of Braclau and Kiovia, amount¬
ing to near 30,000 effedlive men, to join the Ruffians,
in order to defend their country againft thefe deftroy-
ers. Matters continued much in the fame way during
the reft of the year 1769; and in 1770, fkirmiffies
frequently happened between the Ruffians and confe¬
derates, in which the latter were almoft always worft-
ed; but they took care to revenge themfelves by the
moft barbarous cruelties on the diffidents, wherever
they could find them. In 1770, a confiderable num¬
ber of the confederates of Bar, who had joined the
Turks, and been exceffively ill ufed by them, came to
an accommodation with the Ruffians, who topk them
under their prote&ion on very moderate terms.—Agri¬
culture in the mean time had been fo much negle&ed,
that the crop of 1770 was very deficient. This en¬
couraged a number of defperadoes to affociate under
the denomination of confederates., who were guilty of
ftill greater exceffes than thofe who had been under fome
kind of regulation. Thus a gi'eat part of the country
was at lafl reduced to a mere defert, the inhabitants be¬
ing either exterminated, or carried off to flock the re¬
mote Ruffian plantations, from whence they never could
return.
In the year 1771, the confederacies, which feemed
to have been extinguiffied, fprung up afreffi, and in-
creafed to a prodigious degree. Thia was occafioned
by their having been fecretly encouraged and fupplied
with money by France. A great number of French
officers engaged as volunteers in their fervice ; who,
having introduced difeipline among their troops, they
adted with much greater vigour than formerly, and
i'ometimes proved too hard for their enemies. Thefe
gleams of fuccefs proved at laft their total ruin. The
Ruffians were reinforced, and properly fupported. The
Auilrian and Prufiian troops entered the country, and
advanced «n different other fides; and the confederates
Poland.
T03
>3Eew co.nfe
dcraciet.
1 ] POL
found themfelves in a fliort time entirely furrounded by
their enemies, who feemed to have nothing lefs in view
than an abfolute conqueft of the eountry, and lharing
it among themfelves. 104
Before matters came to this crifis, however, the
confederates formed a defign of affaffinating the king, ^
on account of his fuppofed attachment to the diffi¬
dents. Of this Angular occurrence we have the fol¬
lowing account in the travels of Mr Cox-e, communi¬
cated to the author by Mr Wraxall.—“ A Poliffi noble¬
man, named Pulajki, a general in the army of the con¬
federates, was the perfon who planned the atrocious
enterprife ; and the confpirators who carried it into
execution were about 40 in number, and were headed 1
by three chiefs, named Lukaiuft, Strawerfki, and Ko~
JittJki. Thefe three chiefs had been engaged and hired
to that purpofe by Pulafki, who in the town of Czetf-
chokow in Great Poland obliged them to fvvear in the
moft folemn manner, by placing their hands between
his, either to deliver the king alive into his hands,
or, in cafe that was impoffible, to put him to death. The
three chiefs chofe 37 perfons to accompany them. On
the fecond of November, about a month after they had
quitted Czetfchokow, they obtained admiffion into War-
faw, unfufpeefted or undifeovered, by the following llra-
tagem. They difguifed themfelves as peafants who
came to fell hay, and artfully concealed their faddles,
arms, and clothes, under the loads of hay which they
brought in waggons, the more effectually to efcape de«
tetlion.
“ On Sunday night, the third of September 1771, a
few of thefe confpirators remained in the fkirts of the
town ; and the others repaired to the place of ren¬
dezvous, the ftreet of the Capuchins, where his maje-
lly was expedited to pafs by about his ufual hour of re¬
turning to the palace. The king had been to vifit his
uncle prince Czartorilki, grand chancellor of Lithuania,
and was on his return from thence to the palace be¬
tween nine and ten o’clock. He was in a coach, ac¬
companied by at leaft 15 or 16 attendants, befide an i0?
aid-de-camp in the carriage : fcarce was lie at the di- Who is ts>
fiance of 200 paces from prince Czartoriiki’s palace, jien Pr^*
when he was attacked by the confpirators, who com- ner*
manded the coachman to Hop on pain of inftant death.
They fired feveral fhot into the carriage, one of which
paffed through the body of a heyduc, who endeavoured
to defend his mailer from the violence of the aflaffins.
Almoft all the other perfons who preceded and accom¬
panied his majelly were difperfed; the aid-de-camp
abandoned him, and attempted to conceal himfelf by
flight. Meanwhile the king had opened the door of
his carriage with the defign of effedling his efcape un¬
der (belter of the night, wliich was extremely dark.
He had even alighted, when the affaffins feized him by
the hair, exclaiming in Poliffi, with horrible execrations,
‘ We have thee now ; thy hour is come.’ One of them
difeharged a piftol at him fo very near, that he felt the
heat of the flaffi ; while another cut him acrofs the
head with his fabre, which penetrated to the hone. ^ncj '
They then laid hold of his majelly by the collar, and, wounde#4
mounting on horfeback, dragged him along the ground
between their horfes at full gallop for near 500 paces
through the ftreets of Warfaw.
“ Soon finding, however, that he was incapable of fol¬
lowing them on foot, and that he had already almoll
O 0 2 loft
lotf
POL ' [ 292 ] POL
tMamL loft his reipiration from the violence with which they fame time informed him, that beyond the wood they Poland
^ had dragged him, they fet him on horfeback ; and then fhould find a carriage. They continued their walk, till ~~v
redoubled their fpecd for fear of being overtaken, they came to the door of the convent of Bielany. Ko-
When they came to the ditch which furrounds War- linflci appeared loft in thought, and fo much agitated
faw, they obliged him ta leap his horfe over. In the by his refleftions, that the king perceiving his difor-
attempt the horfe fell twice, and at the fecond fall broke der, and obferving that he wandered without knowing
its leg. They then mounted his majefty upon another, the road, faid to him, ‘ I fee you are at lots which way
yo^ all covered as he was with dirt. to proceed. Let me enter the convent of Bielany, and
And rifled. “ The confpirators had no fooner crofted the ditch, do you provide for your own fafety.’ ‘No (replied
* than they began to rifle the king, tearing off the or- Kofinfki), 1 have fwornd
der of the Black Eagle of Pruflia which he wore round “ They proceeded till they came to Mariemont, a
his neck, and the diamond crofs hanging to it. He fmall palace belonging to the houfe of Saxony, not
requefled them to leave his handkerchief, which they above half a league from Warfaw: here Kofmfki be-
confented to : his tablets efcaped their rapacity. A trayed fome fatisfaction at finding where he was, and the
great number of the afiaflins retired after having thus king fldl demanding an i nil ant’s repofe, he confented
plundered him, probably with intent to notify to their at length. They fat; down together on the ground^ He gain*
refpedtive, leaders the fuecefs of their enterprife ; and and the king employed thefe moments in endeavouring0Vtr his
the king’s arrival as a prifoner. Only feven remained to foften his conductor, and induce him to favour or
with him, of whom Kofinfki was the chief. The night permit his efcape. His majefty repreiented the atro-^j^e ^
was exceedingly dark ; they were tibfolutely ignorant city of the crime he had committed in attempting to" " *
of the way ; and, as the horfes could not keep their murder his fovejeign, and the invalidity cf an oath ta-
legs, they obliged his majefty to follow them on loot, ken to perpetrate fo heinous, an aition : Kofinfki lent
with only one flioe, the other being loft in the dirt. attention to this difeourfe, and began to betray fome
“ They continued to wander through the open mea- marks of remorfe. But (fard he), if I fhould confent and
clows, without following any certain path, and with- recondutt you to Warfaw, what will be the confe-
out getting to any diftance from Warfaw. They again quence r I fhall be taken and executed! I give you my
mounted the king on Lorfeback, two of them holding word (anfwered his majefty), that von fhall fuffer no
108 him on each fide by the hapd, and a third leading his harm ; but if you doubt my promife, efcape while there
His pre- horfe by the bridle. In this manner they were pro- is yet time. I can find my way to fome place of feou-
rrind rf ceeding, when his majefty, finding they had taken the rity ; and I will certainly dirett your purfuers to take
eWkable. roac^ which led to a village called Burahonv, warned the contrary road to that which you have choferu, Ko-
them not to enter it, becaufe there were fome Ruffians fmfki could not any longer contain, ftimfelf, but, throw—
ftationed in that place who might probably attempt to ing himfelf at the king’s feet, implored forgivenefs for
refeue him (a). Finding himfelf, h.v.vever, incapable the crime he had committed ; and fwore to proteft him
of accompanying the aflaffins in the painful pollute againft every enemy, relying totally on his generofity
in which they held him kept down on the faddle, he re- for pardon and prefervation. His majefty reiterated to
quefted them, fince they were determined to oblige him him his aflurances of fafety. Judging, however, that
to proceed, at leaft to give him another horfe and a it was prudent to gain fome afylum without delay, and
boot. This requeft they complied with ; and conti- recollecting that there was a. mill at fome confiderabk
lining their progrefs through aim oft impaffable lands, diftance, he immediately made towards it. Kofiniki
without any road, and ignorant of their way, they at knocked, but in vain; no anfwer was given: he then
length found themfelves in the wood of Bielany, only broke a pane of glafs in the window, ami in treated
a league diftaat from Warfaw. From the time they for fhelter to a nobleman who had been plundered by
had pafted the ditch they repeatedly demanded of Ko- robbers. The miller refuted, fuppofing them to be
fin flci their chief, if ;t was not yet time to put the banditti, and continued for more than half an hour to
king to death ; and thefe demands were reiterated in perfift in his denial. At length the ling approached,
proportion to the obftacles and difficulties they encoun- and fpeaking through the broken pane, endeavoured to
tered, till they were fuddeniy alarmed by a Ruffian pa- perfuade him to admit them under his roof, adding, < If
trole or detachment. Inftantly holding council, four we were robbers, as you fuppofe, it would be very ealy
of them difappeared, leaving him with the other three, for us to break the whole window, inftead of one pane
who compelled him to walk on. Scarce a quarter of of glafs.’ Tins argument prevailed. They at length
an hour after, a fecond. Ruffian guard challenged them opened the door, and admitted his majefty. He im-
anew. Two of the aftaffins then fled, and the king mecyitely wrote a note to General Coccei, colonel of
remained alone with Kofinfki the chief, both on foot, the foot-guards, informing him of his danger and mi-
His majefty, exhaufted with all the fatigue which he raculous cfcape>
had undergone,, implored his conductor to flop, and “ When the meffenger arrived with the note, the.
luffer him to take a moment’s repofe. Kofinfki refu- aftonifhment and joy was incredible. Coccei inftantly
fed it, menacing him with, his naked fabre ; and at the rode to the mill, followed by a detachment of the guards.
He
tA) “ 1 his intimation, which the king gave to his affaffins, may at firft fight appear extraordinary and un«
accountaole, but was really dictated by the greateft addrefs and judgment. He apprehended with -reafon,
tnat, on the light of a Ruffian guard, they would inftantly put him to death with their fabres, and fly-; where¬
as by informing them of the danger they incurred, he in fome meafure gained their confidence : in effeft, this
behaviour of the king feemed to {often them a little, and made them believe he did not mean to efcape from.
Po’ard.
TtO
I?; received
at Warfavv
■♦vith de-
monftra-
tit ns of joy
T I I
Partition
of Poland
projedfe!
Ity the hi g
ei Pruiha,
POL [29
He met Kofiniki at the door with his fabre drawn,
who admitted him as loon as he knew him. 1 he king
had funk into a fieep, caufed by his fatigue ; and was
ftretched on the ground, covered with the millers
cloak. Coceei immediately threw himfelf at his ma-
jefty’s feet, calling him his fovereign, and killing his
hand. It is not eafy to paint or defcribe the altonifh-
ment of the miller and his family, who inltantly imi¬
tated Coccei’s example, by throwing themfeives on
their knees (b). The'king returned to Warfaw in Ge¬
neral Coecei’s carriage, and reached the palace about
five in the morning. His wound was found not to be
dangerous ; and he foon recovered the bruifes and inju-
nes which he had fulfered during this memorable night.
So extraordinary an efcape is fcarce to be paralleled in
hiftory, and aliords ample matter of wonder and fur-
prife. 4 . r ir r '
ft is natural to inquire what re become ol Ivoim-
fei, the man who laved' his mcjefty’s life, and the
other confpirators. He was born in the palatinate of
Cracow, and of mean extraction ; having affumed the
name of Kcfinjkt (c), which is that of a noble family,
to give himfelf credit. He had been created an officer
hi the troops of the confederates under Pulalki. . It
would feem as if K-oimlki began to entertain the idea
ot preferring the king’s life from the time when Lu-
kawlki and Strawenllti abandoned him ; yet he had
great ftrii'igles with himfelf before he coultt refolve
on this conducl, after the folemn engagements into
winch he had entered. Even after he nad conducLed
the king back to Warfaw, he exprelfed more than once
his doubts of the propriety of what he had done, and
feme remorfe lor having deceived his employers. He
was detained under a very llrict confinement, and obli¬
ged to give evidence againil his two companions Lu-
kawfki and Strawenffii, who were beheaded, his ma-
jefty having obtained for them from the diet a mitigation
of the horrible punifnment which the laws of Poland in-
Ihdt upon regicides. About a week after the execution
of thefe confpirators, Kofinfki was fent out of Poland, af¬
ter the king had fettled upon him an annual peniion
which he enjoyed at Semigailia in the papal territo¬
ries.”
. Upon the king’s return to Warfaw he was received
with the utmoft denwmilrations of joy. Ever}” one ex¬
claimed with rapture) u Phe king is alive!” anti all ftrug-
gled to get near him, to.iens lus hand, or even to touch
his clothes. But neither the virtues nor the popularity
of the fovereign could allay the fafiious fpiiit of the
Poles, nor prevent the difmemberment of his kingdom.
“ The partition of Poland was firft projected by the
king of Pruffia. poltih or Weitem Pruflia had long
been an objedt of his ambition: exclufive or its fertility,
commerce, and population, its local fituation rendered
it highly valuable to that monarch ; it lay between his
German dominions and Ealtern Pruffia, and while pof-
feffied by the Poles, cut off at their will all communica¬
tion between them.” The period was now arrived
when the fituation of Poland feemed to promde the eafy
acqnifition of this valuable province. “ Frederic pur-
5 ] POL
fixed it, however, with all the caution of an aisle pen- PoiaT!'-' t
tician. On the commencement of the troubles, he " * " -
fhowed no eagernefs to interfere in the affairs of this
country ; and although he had concurred with the em-
prefs of Raffia in railing Stanifiaus Auguftus to the
throne of Poland, yet he declined takipg any active
part in his favour againft the confederates. Afterwards,
when the whole kingdom became convulfed throughout
with civil commotions (1769)} and defolated likewife
by the plague, he, under pretence of forming lines to
prevent the fpreading of the infection, advanced his
troops into Poliffi Pruffia, and occupied that whole di-
itria. II* .
“ Though now completely mailer of the country, and stam*4
by no means appreheniive of any formidable refiftance
from the difunited and diftraaed Poles, yet, as he was ancj
well aware that the fecurity of his new acquiiltion de- emprefs t®
pended upon the acquiefcence of Ruffia and Auftria, he ™ea-
planued the partition of Poland. He communicatedfu^es,
the projea to the emperor, either upon their interview
at Niefs in Silelia in 1769, or in that of the following
year at Neuftadt in Auftria; from whom the overture
met with a ready concurrence. To induce the emprels
of Ruffia to acquiefce in the fame projea, he difpatch-
ed his brother Henry to Petcrfourg, who fuggelted to
the emprefs that the houfe of Auftria .was forming an
alliance with the Porte, with which ihe was then at
war; that if fuch alliance took place, it would create a
moll formidable combination againft her ; that, never-
thelefs, the friendlhip of that houfe was to be pm-chafed
by acceding to the partition ; that upon this condition
the emperor was willing to renounce his connexion
with the Grand Signior, and would fuffer the Ruffians
to profecute the war withe, t interruption. Catha¬
rine, anxious to pufh her conquefts againft the Turks,
and dreading the interpofition of the emperor in that
quarter; perceiving likewife, from the intimate union
between the courts of Vienna and; Berlin, that it would
not be in her power,, at the prefent juncture, to prevent
the intended partition - elefed with the propofal, and
feleCled no inconliderable portion of the Poluh territo¬
ries for herfelf. The treaty was figneft at Peterlburg
in the beginning of February 1772, by the Ruffian,.
Auftrian, and Pruffian plenipotentiaries. It would be
tedious to enter into, a detail of die pleas urged by the
three powers in favour of their feveral demands ; it
would be no lefs unintereftlng to lay before the reader
the anfvvers and remonftrances of the king and ienate, as
well as the appeals to the ottier ftates which had gua- Ir^
ranteed the poffeffions of Poland. The courts- of Lon- Poland dil
don, Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, remonllrated membereU
againft the ufurpations ; but remonllrances without af-
fiftance could.be of no elfeCt. Poland fubmitted to the
difmemberment. not without the moil violent ftruggles,
and now for the lirft time felt and lamented the fatal
effefts of faction and difeord.
A diet beinL demanded by the partitioning powers,
in order to ratify tH ceffion of the provinces, it met on
the 19th of April 1773 ; and fuch was the fpirit of the
members, that, notvvithllandiug the deplorable fituation
of
(n) “ I have been (fays Mr Wraxall) at this mill, rendered memorable by fo fmgular an event. It is a
wretched Polifh hovel, at a diftance from any houfe. ft he king has fewaided^ihe miller to tuc extent ox Es
wiihes in building him a mill upon the Villula, and allowing him a msai! peuuon.
(c) Flir real name was John Kutfma.
m
Provinces
feized by
the three
jpartition-
eng power,
POL
Poland, of th<nr country, the threata «od
' powers, the partition-treaty was not carried through
without much difficulty. For fome time the majo¬
rity of the mmci®8 appeared determined to oppofe the
difmemberment, and the king firmly perfilled in the fame
refolution. The ambafiadors of tiie three courts en¬
forced their requifitions by the molt alarming menaces,
and threatened the king with depofition and impn/on-
ment. They alfo gave out by their emiflaries, that in
cafe the diet continued refractory, Warfaw fhould be
pillaged. This report was indultrioufly circulated, and
made a fenfible impreffion upon the inhabitants. By
menaces of this fort, by corrupting the marihal of the
diet, who was accompanied with a Ruffian guard ; in
a word, by bribes, promifes, and threats, the members
of the diet were at length prevailed on to ratify the dif¬
memberment.
Of the difmembered countries, the Ruffian province
is the larged, the Aultrian the mod populous, and the
Pruffian the mod commercial. The population of the
. whole amounts to near 5,000,000 fouls 5 the fird con¬
taining 1,500,000, thefecond 2,500,000, and the third
860,000. Wcdern Pruffia was the greated lofs to Po¬
land, as by the difmemberment of that province the na¬
vigation of the Vidula entirely depends upon the king
of Pruffia : by the lofs confequently of this didrief a
fatal blow was given to the trade of Poland ; for his
Pruffian majedy has laid fuch heavy duties upon the
merchandize puffing to Dantzic, as greatly to diminilh
the commerce of that town, and to transfer a condder-
able portion of it to Memel and Konigfburgh.
The partitioning powers, however, did lefs injury to
the republic by difmembering its faired provinces, than
by perpetuating the principles of anarchy and confu-
fion, and ebabhdiing on a permanent footing that exor¬
bitant liberty which is the parent of fa&ion, and has
proved the decline of the republic. Under pretence of
amending the conditution, they have confirmed all its
defefts, and have taken effectual precautions to render
this unhappy country incapable of emerging from its
prefent deplorable date, as has been lately feen in the
failure of the mod patriotic attempt that was perhaps
ever made by a king to reform the conditution of his
kingdom,
The kings of Poland were anciently hereditary and
abfolute ; but afterwards became elective and limited,
as we find them at this day. In the reign of Louis,
towards the end of the 14th century, feveral limitations
were laid on the royal prerogative. In that of Cad-
mir IV. wjro afeended the throne in 1446, reprefenta-
tives from the feveral palatinates were fird called to the
diet ; the legidative power till then having been lodged
in the dates, and the executive in the king and fenate.
On the deceafe of Sigifmund Augudus, it was enaft-
ed by law, “ That the choice of a king for the future
diould perpetually remain free and open to all the
nobles of the kingdom which law has accordingly
been hitherto obferved.
£‘ As foon as the throne is vacant, all the courts of
j udice, and other ordinary fprings of the machine of go¬
vernment, remain in a date of ina&ion, and all the au¬
thority is transferred to the primate, who, in quality of
Poland.
115
The kings
of Poland
originally
hereditary,
116
Afterwards
cleClive.
Univerfal
ffijlory.
iaterrex, has in fome refpe&s more power than the king
lu’mfelf; and yet the republic takes no umbrage at it,
becaufe he has not time to make himfelf formidable.
I 294 1 p o r,
bribes of the three He notifies the vacancy of the throne to foreign prin*
ces, which is in effeCl proclaiming that a crown is to
be difpoled of; lie iffues the univerfalia, or circular let¬
ters for the election; gives orders to the darods (a fort
of military officers who have great authority, and whole
proper bufmefs it is to levy the revenue) to keep a
drift guard upon the fortified places, and to the grand-
generals to do the fame upon the frontiers, towards
which the army marches.
“ The place of deftion is the field of Wola, at the Place ani
gates ol Warfaw. All the nobles of the kingdom have rnanner of
a right of voting. The poles encamp on the left lide^15 e‘ec*
of the Vidula, and the Lithuanians on the right, eachtlon*
under the banners of their refpeftive palatinates, which
makes a fort of civil army; confiding of between a hun¬
dred and fifty and two hundred thoufand men, aflem-
bled to exercife the highed arit of freedom. Thofe who
are not able to provide a horfe and a fabre dand behind
on foot, armed with feythes, and do not ftem at all lefs
proud than the red, as they have the fame right of vo¬
ting.
“ The field of eleftion is furrounded by a ditch with
three gates, in order to avoid confufion, one to the
ead for Great Poland, another to the fouth for Little
Poland, and a third to the wed for Lithuania. In the
middle of the field, which is. called Ko/au, is erefted a
great building of wood, named the fzopa or hall for
the fenate, at whofe debates the deputies are prefent,
and carry the refult of them to the feveral palatinates.
The part which the marfluil afts upon this occafion is
very important ; for, being the mouth of the nobility,
he has it in his power to do great fervice to the candi¬
dates ; he is alfo to draw up the indrument of eleftion,
and the king eleft mud take it only from his hand.
“ It is prohibited, upon pain of being declared a
public enemy, to appear at the eleftion with regular
troops, in order to avoid all violence. But the nobles,
who are always armed with pidols and fabres, commit
violence againd one another, at the time that they cry
out ‘ liberty 1*
“ All who afpire openly to the crown are exprefsly
excluded from the field of eleftion, that their prefe-nce
may not condrain the voters. The king mud be eleft-
ed nemine contradkente, by all the fuffrages without exr
ception. The law is founded upon this principle, that
when a great family adopts a father, all the children
have a right to be pleafed. The idea is plaudble in fpo
culation ; but if it was rigoroudy kept to, Poland
could have no fuch thing as a lawful king. They
therefore give up a real unanimity, and content them-
felves with the appearance of it; or rather, if the law,
which preferibes it, cannot be fulfilled by means of mo¬
ney, they call in the affidance of the fabre.
“ Before they come to this extremity, no eleftioa
can polfibly be carried on with more order, decency,
and appearance of freedom. The primate in few words
recapitulates to the nobles on horieback the refpeftive
merit of the candidates ; he exhorts them to choofe
the mod worthy, invokes heaven, gives his bleffing to
the aflembly, and remains alone with the marihal of
the diet, while the fenators difperfe themfelves into the
feveral palatinates, to promote an unanimity of fenti-
ments. If they fucceed, the primate goes himfelf to
colleft the votes, naming once more all the candidates.
‘ Szoda (answer the nobles), that is the man we chuofe
and
f»o'and.
118
The paBa
csnventa.
POL [
and Inftantly the air refounds with his name, with cries
' of vlvat, and the noife of piftols. If all the palatines
agree in their nominations, the primate gets on horfe-
back ; and then the profoundeft filence fucceeding to the
greateft noife, he alks three times if all are fatisfied ?
and after a general approbation, three times proclaims
the king; and the grand-marlhal of the crown repeats
the proclamation three times at the three gates of the
camp. How glorious a king this, if endued with royal
qualities 1 and how inconteftable his title in the fuflra-
ges of a whole people ! But this Iketch of a free and
peaceable eleftion is by no means a reprefentation of
what ufually happens. The corruption of the great,
the fury of the people, intrigues and faftions, the gold
and the arms of foreign powers, frequently fill the fcene
with violence and blood.”
Before the king is proclaimed, the paBa conventa is
read aloud to him, which on his knees at the altar he
fwears to obferve. As this contract, which is drawn
up, methodized, and approved, by the fenate and no¬
bility, may be deemed the great charter of Poland, we
(hall enumerate the principal articles of which it con-
fifts. Thefe are, that the king lhall not attempt to en¬
croach on the liberty of tlm people, by rendering the
crown hereditary in his family; but that he fhall pre-
ferve alUhe cuftoms, laws, and ordonnances, refpe&ing
the freedom of ele&ion : that he fhall ratify all treaties
fubfifting with foreign powers which are approved by
the diet; that it fhall be his chief ftudy to cultivate
peace, preferve the public tranquillity, and promote the
intereft of the realm : that he fhall not coin money ex¬
cept in the name of the republic, nor appropriate to
himfelf the advantages arifing from coinage : that, in
declaring war, concluding peace, making levies, hiring
auxiliaries, or admitting foreign troops upon any pre¬
text within the Polifh dominions, the confent of the
diet and fenate fhall be neceffary : that all offices and
preferments fhall be given to the natives of Poland and
Lithuania ; and that no pretence fhall excufe or palliate
the crime of introducing foreigners into the king’s coun¬
cil or the departments of the republic: that the officers
of his majefty’s guards fhall be Poles or Lithuanians ;
and that the colonel fhall abfolutely be a native of Po¬
land, and of the order of nobility : that all the officers
{hall be fubordinate to the authority of the marefchal:
that no individual fhall be vefted with more employments
than the law allows: that the king fhall not marry with¬
out the approbation of the fenate ; and that the houfe-
hold of the queen fhall be determined and regulated by
the republic : that the fovereign fhall never apply his
private fignet to acts and papers of a public nature :
that the king fhall difpofe of the offices both of the
court and of the republic; and regulate with the feuate
the number of forces neceffary for the defence of the
kingdom : that he lhall adminifter juftice by the advice
of the fenate and his council: that the expences of his
civil lilt fhall be the fame with thofe of lus predeceffors:
that he fhall fill up all vacancies in the fpace of fix
weeks: that this fhall be his firft bufinefs in the diet,
obliging the chancellor to publifh his appointments in
due form: that the king fhall not diminiffi the treafure
kept at Craeow ; but, on the contrary, endeavour to
augment that and the number of the crown-jewels:
that he fhall borrow no money without the confent of
the diet.: that he fhall act equip a naval force without
Po’anA
119
95 1 POL
the confent and full Approbation of the republic • that
he fhall profcfs the Roman Catholic faith, promote,
maintain, and defend it, through all the Pofifh do¬
minions : and finally, that all their feveral liberties,
rights, and privileges, fhall be preferved to the Polan-
ders and Lithuanians in general, and to all the di-
flrifts and provinces contained within each of thefe
great divifions, without change, alteration, or the final-
left violation, except by the coufent of the republic.
To thefc articles a variety of others are added, accord¬
ing to circumftances and the humour of the diet; but
what we have recited form the Handing conditions,
which are fcarce ever altered or omitted. . ,
The diet of Poland is compofed of the king, the fe-Thc diet
nate, bifhops, and the deputies of the nobility or gen- 0 an 1 an
try of every palatinate, called, in the colleftrve capa¬
city, comitia togata ; that is, when the ftates affemble in.
the city without arms and horfes ; or comitia paludatar
when they meet in the fields armed, as during an .inter¬
regnum, at the diet of election. It is a prerogative of
the crown to affemble the diet at any particular place,
except on occafion of a coronation, which the cuftom
of the country requires fhould be celebrated at the ca¬
pital. For a number of years, indeed, the diet regu¬
larly affembled at Warfaw •> but, on complaint made by
the Lithuanians, it was agreed, that every third diet
ffiould be held at Grodno. “ When it is propofed to
hold a general diet, the king, or, in cafe of an inter¬
regnum, the primate, iffues writs to the palatines of the
feveral provinces, fpecifying the time and place of the
meeting. A fketch likewife is fent of tire bufinefs to
be deliberated on by the affembly ; the fenate is con-
fulted in this particular, and fix weeks are allowed the
members to prepare themfelves for the intended feffiori.
It is remarkable, that the diet never fits more than fix
weeks in the moft critical conjunctures and preffing
emergencies: they have been known to break up in the
middle of an important debate, and to leave the bufinefs
to a future meeting. This cuftom hath been juftly
efteemed one of the greateft defe&s of the Polifh con-
ftitution, which probably owes, its origin to convenience,
but is now fuperftitioufly obferved from whim, and ca¬
price. On receipt of the king’s writ, the palatine com¬
municates the meeting of the diet to all the caftellan.s,
ftaroftas, and other inferior officers and gentry within
his jurifdiftion, requiring them to affemble on a certain
day to eleft deputies, and take into confideration the
bufinefs fpecified in the royal fummons., Thefc meet- Diecines,
ings are called petty dietsy dietines, or iantage, in the lan¬
guage of the country ; every gentleman poffeffing three
acres of land having a vote, and matters being deter¬
mined by a majority •, whereas in the general diet de¬
crees are only valid when the whole body is unanimous.
Every palatinate has, three reprefentatives, though the
bufinefs devolves on one called a nuncio, who is elected
for his ability and experience ; and the other two are
added only to give weight to this leading member, and
do honour by their magnificent appearance to the pa¬
latinate they reprefent. As. thefe deputies, fince the
reign of Cafimir III. have feats in the diet, it naturally
dmdes the general affembly into two bodies, the upper
and lower ; the one being compofed of the fenate, the
fuperior clergy, and the great officers; the other of the
reprefentatives of the palatinates, who prepare all bufi¬
nefs for the fuperior body.
“ Tha
Po!an$.
1’erved in
the diet.
P 0 L [296
(< Tbe firft. bulmefs of the affcmbly is to choofe a
w^“v~ “ marefchal; upon which occafion the debates and tu¬
mults run fo high, that the whole ti?ne for the feffion
of the diet is often confumed in altercation and wrang¬
ling about the ele&ion of a fpeaker, who has now no¬
thing farther to do than return quietly to his own home.
After his election, he kifles the king’s hand; and the
chancellor, as the royal reprefentative, reports the mat¬
ters to be deliberated by the diet. Then the marefchal
acquaints the king with the inftruStions of the deputies
from their conllituents, the grievances which they would
have redrefied, and the abufes they require to be reme¬
died. He.likewife requefts of his majelly to fill up the
vacant offices and benefices, according to law ; and he
is anfwered by a fet fpeech from the chancellor, wrho re-
12T ports the king’s inclination to fatisfy his people, as foon
Abfurd cuf.as he hath confulted his faithful fenate There is fome-
toms ob- thing very peculiarly abfurd in fome of the cuftoms ob-
ferved by the Polifh diet : one in particular merits at¬
tention. Not onty an unanimity of voices is neceffiary
to pafs anyr bill, and conftitute a decree of the diet, but
every bill muft likewife be affented to unanimoufly, or
none can take eficct. Thus, if out of twenty bills one
121 fhould happen to be oppofed Iry a fingle voice, called
The Merum/;frerUm vet0, all the rell are thrown out, and the diet
meets, deliberates, and debates, for fix weeks to no pur-
pofe.
“ To add to the other inconveniences attending the
couftitution of the diet of Poland, a fpirit of Venality
in the deputies, and a general corruption, hath feized
all ranks and degrees in that affembly. Here, as in
fome other countries, the cry of liberty is kept up for
the fake of private intereft. Deputies come with a full
refolution of profiting Icy their patriotifm, and not
lowering their voice without a ^gratification. Deter¬
mined to oppofe the moll falutary meafures of the court,
they either withdraw from the affembly, proteft again ft
till that ihall be tranfadfed in their abfence, or elfe ex¬
cite fuch a clamour as renders it neceffary for the court
to filence them by fome lucrative penfion, donation, or
employment. Thus not only the bufinefs of the affem¬
bly is obftru&ed by its own members, but frequently
by largeffes from neighbouring powers, and fometimes
by the liberality of an open enemy, who has the art of
diftributing his money with diferetion.
“ Perhaps- the mod; refpe&able department of the
Poliih government is the lenate, compofed of the hi-
fitops, palatines, caftellans, and ten officers of Hate, who
derive a right from their dignities of fitting in that af¬
fembly; in all amounting to 144 members, who are
ftyled fenatnrs of the kingdom or connfeHors of the flute,
and have the title of excellency^ a dignity fupporteed by
no penfion or emoluments neceffarrly annexed. The fe¬
nate prefides over the laws, is the guardian of liberty,
the judge of right, and the protector of juftice and
■equity. All the members, except the biffiops, who are
fenators ex ojfuio, are nominated by the king, and they
■take an oath to the republic before they are permitted
to enter upon their fundtions. Their honours continue
for life : at the general diet they fit on the right and
lelt of the fovereign, according to their dignity, with¬
out regard to feniority. ] hey are the mediators be¬
tween the monarch and the iubjedf, and, in conjunction
with the king, latify all the laws palled by the nobility.
As a fenator is bound by cath to maintain the liberties
125
The fenate
Poland.
1 POL
of the republic, it is thought no difrefpeft to majelty Poland!,
that they remind the prince of his duty. They are his ——
counfellors, and this freedom of fpeech is an infeparabie
prerogative of their office.”
Such w'as the confiitution of Poland before it was
new-modelled by the partitioning powers. That it w'as
a very bad conftitution needs no proof; but thofe fo¬
reign reformers did not improve it. For two centuries
at lealt, the Poles have, with great propriety denomina¬
ted their government a republic, becaufe the king is fo
exceedingly limited in his prerogative, that he refembles
more the chief of a commonwealth than the fovereign
of a powerful monarchy. That prerogative, already nJ^rma-
too confined to afford prote&ion to the peafants, groan-tienVcown-
ing under the ariilocratic tyranny of the nobles, was,cii*
alter the partition treaty, Hill further reilrained by the
eftablilhment of the permanent council, which wras veiled
with the whole executive authority, leaving to the fo¬
vereign nothing but the name. The permanent coun¬
cil con fils of 36 perfons, eleCled by the diet out of the
different orders of nobility ; and though the king,'when
prefent, prefides in it, he cannot exert a fingle a6t of
powrer but with the confent of the majority of perfons,
who may w'ell be called his colleagues.
That the virtuous and accomplilhed Stanillaus Ihould
labour to extricate himfelf and the great body of the
people from fuch unparalleled oppreffion, and that the
more refreClable part of the nation Ihould wilh to give
to therm elves and their polterity a better form of go¬
vernment, w'as furely very natural anti very meritorious.
The influence of the partitioning powers was indeed ex¬
erted <to make the king contented wfith his fituation.
His revenues, which before did not exceed L. 100,00c,
were now increafed to three times that lum. The re¬
public likewife agreed to pay his debts, amounting to
upwards of L. 400,000. It bellowed on him alfo, in
hereditary poffeifion, four llaroilies, or governments of
caltles, wfith the diilritts belonging to them ; and re-
imburfed him of the money he had laid out for the llate.
It was alfo agreed, that the revenues of the republic
Ihould be enhanced to 33 millions of florins (near two
•millions Sterling), and the army Ihould conlill of 30,000
men. Soon after the conclufion of the peace wfith
Turky, the emprefs of Ruffia alio made the king a pre-
fentof 250,000 rubles, as a cornpenfation for that part
of his dominions which fell into her hands.
Thefe bribes, however, were not fufficient to blind ^ r*^con.
the eyes of Stanillaus, or to cool the ardour of his pa-mtuuon
triotifm. He laboured for pofterity, and with fuch ap-«flabli(hei
parent fuccefs, that on the 3d of May 1791, a new con-’n I79I*
llitution of the government of Poland w'as eftablilhed
by the king, together with the confederate Hates af-
fembled in double number to reprefent the Polilh nation.
That thin was a perfect conllitution, wre are far from
thinking ; but it was probably as perfect as the invete¬
rate prejudices of the nobles w'ould admit of. It devia¬
ted as little as poffible from the old forms, and was
drawm up in x 1 articles, refpe&ing the government of
the republic ; to which w'ere added 21 fed!ions, regu¬
lating the dietines or primary aflemblies of Poland. ^
Of tins conHkution, the firH article ellablilhed the SuMrance
Roman Catholic faith, with all its privileges and immu-ofthe firft
nities, as the dominant national religion ; granting to 'xf articie®
all other people, of whatever perfuafion, peace in mat-0 lt*
ters of faith, and the protection of government. The
3 fecond
POL
Ihoufe of
XHincioSj
Poland, fecond article guaranteed to the nobility or the eque-
ftrian order, all the privileges which it enjoyed under
the kings of the houfe of Jagellan. The third and
fourth articles granted to the free royal towns internal
jurifdi&ions of their own ; and exempted the peafants
from flavery, declaring every man free as foon as he fets
his foot on the territory of the republic. The fifth ar¬
ticle, after declaring, that in civil fociety all power
fhould be derived from the will of the people, enabled
that the government of the Polilh nation Ihould be Com-
pofed of three diftinft powers, the legjlative^ in the
ilates aflembled; the executive, in the king and the
council of infpe£tion ; and the judicial power, in the ju-
rifdi&ions exilling, or to be ellablifhed. The fixth and
feVfcnth articles, as being of more importance, we fhall
147 give in the words of the conilitution itfelf.
The diet to VI, The Diet, or the legijlative power, {hall be divid-
confift of ed into two houfes, viz. the houfe of nuncios, or depu-
rthh°eUfCS^s> an^ ^ie l10U^e °f fen ate, where the king is to pre-
fide. The former being the reprefentative and central
point of fupreme national authority, (hall pofTefs the pre¬
eminence in the legiflature ; therefore all bills are to be
decided firft in this houfe.
1. All General Laws, viz. conftitutional, civil, cri¬
minal, and perpetual taxes ; concerning which matters*
the king is to ifliie his propofitions by the circular let¬
ters fent before the dietines to every palatinate and
to every diftrift for deliberation, which coming before
the houfe with the opinion expreffed in the inllrudlions
given to their reprefentatives, {hall be taken the fird for
decifion.
2. Particular Laws, viz. temporal taxes ; regulations
of the mint; contrafting public debts; creating nobles,
and other cafual recompenfes ; reparation of public ex-
pences, both ordinary and extraordinary ; concerning
war ; peace ; ratification of treaties, both political and
commercial; all diplomatic afts and conventions relative
to the laws of nations ; examining and acquitting diffe¬
rent executive departments, and fimilar fubje&s arifing
from the accidental exigencies and circumlfances of the
date ; in which the propofitions, coming directly from
the throne into the houfe of nuncios, are to have prefe¬
rence in difculfion before the private bills.
In regard to the houfe of fenate, it is to confift of
bifhops, palatines, caftellans, and miniilers, under the
prefidency of the king, who {hall have but one vote, and
the calling voice in cafe of parity, which he may give
either perfonally, or by a meffage to the houfe. Its
power and duty {hall be,
1. Every general law that paffes formally through
the houfe of nuncios, is to be fent immediately to this,
which is either accepted, or fufpended till farther na¬
tional deliberation, by a majority of votes, as preferibed
by law. If accepted, it becomes a law in all its force ;
if fufpended, it {hall be refumed at the next diet; and if
it is then agreed to again by the houfe of nuncios, the
fenate muft fubmit to it.
3. Every particular law or flatute of the diet in mat¬
ters above fpecified, as foon as it has been determined
by the houfe of nuncios, and fent up to the fenate, the
votes of both houfes fhall be jointly computed, and the
majority, as deferibed by law, {hall be confidered as a
decree and the will of the nation. Thofe fenators and
mimfters who, from their {hare in executive power, are
accountable to the republic, cannot have an a&ive voice
VoL. XV. Part I.
t 297 ]
POL
Puland.
148
And the
houfe of
fame.
129
The libe*
in the diet, but may be prefent, in order to give necefia-
ry explanations to the ftateS.
Thefe ordinary legifiative diets {hall have their unin¬
terrupted exigence, and be always ready to meet; re¬
newable every two years. The length of fefiions fhall
be determined by the law concerning diets. If conven¬
ed out of ordinary fefiion upon fome urgent occafion,
they {hall only deliberate on the fubjedl which occafion-
ed fuch a call, or on circumllances which may arife out
of it.
No law or ftatute enafted by fuch ordinary diet ca»
be altered or annulled by the fame. The complement
of the diet {hall be compofed of the number of perfons
in both houfes to be determined hereafter.
The law concerning the dietines or primary eleftions,
as eftablilhed by the prefent diet, {hall be regarded as a
molt effential foundation of civil liberty.
The maiority of votes {hall decide every thing, and
j j j o' rum vtito
everywhere; therefore we abolifli, and utterly annihi- aboliflied.
late, liberum veto, all forts of confederacies and confede¬
rate diets, as contrary to the fpirit of the prefent con-
ftitution, as undermining the government, and as being
ruinous to fociety.
Willing to prevent, on one liand, violent and fre¬
quent changes in the national conllitution, yet, confider-
ing on the other, the neceffity of perfecting it, after
experiencing its effe&s on public profperity, we deter-
mine the period of every 25 years for an extraordinary Extraorcfi-
conllitutional diet, to be held purpofely for the revifion "ary ^et
and fuch alterations of the conftitution as may be found [be^onfti^
requifite : which diet {hall be circumfcribed by a fepa- tution.
rate law hereafter.
VII. The moft perfeft government cannot exift or
laft without an effectual executive power. The happi-
nefs of the nation depends on juft laws, but the good
effeCts of laws flow only from their execution. Ex¬
perience has taught us, that the negleCting this effen¬
tial part of government has overwhelmed Poland with
difafters.
Having, therefore, fecured to the free Polifh nation
the right of enaCting laws for themfelves, the fupreme
infpeCtion over the executive power, and the choice of 131
their magiftrates, we entruft to the king and his conn- Powers of
cil the higheft power of executing the laws. This^kmg
council {hall be called Jlra%, or the council of infpec- infpec-C'
t tion.
The duty of fuch executive power {hall be to watch
over the laws, and to fee them ftriClly executed accor¬
ding to their import, even by the means of public force,
Ihould it be neceffary. All departments and magiftra-
cies are bound to obey its direClions. To this power
we leave the right of controling fuch as are refraClory,
or of punilhing fuch as are negligent in the execution
of their refpeClive offices.
This executive power cannot affume the right of ma¬
king laws, or of their interpretation. It is exprefsly
forbidden to contraft public debts ; to alter the repar¬
tition of the national income, as fixed by the diet; to
declare war ; to conclude definitively any treaty, or any
diplomatic a£!; it is only allowed to carry on negocia-
tions with foreign courts, and facilitate temporary oc¬
currences, always with reference to the diet. 13*
The crown of Poland we declare to be eledlive in re- Cr”wn
gard to families, and it is fettled jfo for ever. regard to
Having experienced the fatal effects of interregna, families s
P p periodically
POL r agS 3 POL
Poland periodically fubverting government, and being de{irons tbe law of nations, and particularly in cafe of a neigh- Po’and.
-■—  0f preventing for ever all foreign influence, as well as of bouring war. 2. In cafe of an internal commotion,  v -
infuring to every citizen a perfect tranquillity, we have, menacing with the revolution of the country, or of a
titnJlion.
134 .
Coronation
oath.
133
But here- from p^ent motives, refolved to adopt hereditary fuc-
Uch family ceffion to our throne : therefore we enadt and declare,
till its ex- that, after the expiration of our life, according to the
gracious will of the Almighty, the prefent eledlor of
Saxony {hall reign over, Poland, and in his perfon fhall
the dynafty of future kings of Poland begin. We re-
ferve to the nation, however, the right of cleft lag to
the throne any other houfe or family, after the extinc¬
tion of the firil.
Every king, on his accefllon to the throne, {hall take
a folernn oath to God and the nation, to fupport the
prefent conftitution, to fulfil the pa da convent a, which
will be fettled with the prefent eleftor of Saxony,1 as
appointed to the crown, and which fhall bind him in the
135 fame manner as former ones.
King’s per- The king’s perfon is facred and inviolable ; as no aft
Con faciccl: can procee^ immediately from him, he cannot be in any
manner refponhble to the nation ; he is not an abfolute
monarch, but the father and the head of the people ; his
revenues, as fixed by the pada conventa, fhall be facred-
}y preferved. All public afts, the afts of magiilracies,
, *36 . and the coin of the kingdom, {hall bear his name.
cular'art'" The king, who ought to pofiefs every powrer of do-
ers^ *CVV* ing good, fhall have the right of pardoning thofe that
are condemned to death, except the crimes be againft
the hate. In time of war, he (hall have the fupreme
command of the national forces ; he may appoint the
commanders of the army, however, by the will of the
ftates. It {hall be his province to patentee officers in
the army, and other dignitaries, confonant to the regu¬
lations hereafter to be expreffed, to appoint biffiops,
fenators, and minifters, as members of the executive
137 power.
Member* The king’s council of infpeftion is to confift, l. Of
cf’imcil of t^ic primate, as the head of the clergy, and the prefident
infpedtion. of the commiffion of education, or the firft bifhop in
ordine. 2. Of five minilters, viz. tbe minifter of po¬
lice, minifter of juftice, minifter of war, minifter of fi¬
nances, and minifter for the foreign affairs. 3. Of two
fecretaries to keep the protocols, one for the council,
another for the foreign department ; both, however,
without decifive vote. The hereditary prince coming
of age, and having taken the oath to- preferve the con¬
ftitution, may affift at all feffions of the council, but
{•ball have no vote therein. The marffial of the diet,
being chofen for two years, has alfo a right to fit in
this council, without taking any {hare in its refolves;
for the end only to call together the diet, always exift-
ing, in the following cafe: fhould he deem, from the
emergencies hereunder fpecified, the convocation of the
diet abfolutejy neceffary, and the king refufing to do it,
rhemarifal. the marihal is bound to iifue his circular letters to all nun¬
cios and fenators,_ adducing real motives for fuch meet-
i*g-
The cafes demanding fuch convocation of the diet
are the following : 1. In a preffing neceffity concerning
138
Power* e>f
collifion between magiftratures. 3. In an evident dan¬
ger of general famine. 4. In the orphan ftate of the
country, by demife of the king, or in cafe of the king’s
dangerous illnefs. All the refalutions of the council
of infpeftion are to be examined by the rules above men¬
tioned. The king’s opinion, after that of every mem¬
ber in the council has been heard, {hall decifively pre¬
vail. Every refolution of this council fhall be iffued
under the king’s fignature, counterfigned by one of the
minifters fitting therein ; and thus figned, fhall be obey¬
ed by all executive departments, except in cafes exprefs-
ly exempted by the prefent conftitution.
Should all the members refufe their counterfign to
any refolution, the king is obliged to forego his opi¬
nion ; but if be fhould perfift in it, the marfhal of the
diet may demand the-convocation of the diet; and if
the king will not, the marfhal himfelf fhall fend his cir¬
cular letters as above. Minifters compofing this coun¬
cil cannot be employed at the fame time in any other
commiffion or department.
If it fhould happen that two third's of fecret votes in
both houfes demand the changing of any perfon, either
in the council, or any executive department, the king
is bound to nominate another. Willing that the coun¬
cil of infpeftion fhould be refponfible to the nation for
their aftions, we decree, that when thefe minifters are
denounced and accufed before the diet (by tbe fpecial
committee appointed for examining their proceedings)
of any tranfgreffion of pofitive law, they are anfwerable
with their perfons and fortunes. Such impeachments
being determined by a fimple majority of votes, colleft-
ed jointly from both houfes, fhall be tried immediately
by the comitial tribunal, where the accufed are to re¬
ceive their final judgment and puniffiment, if found guil¬
ty ; or to be honourably acquitted on fufficient proof
of innocence. 13?
In order to form a neeeffary organization ©f the ex-
ecutive power, we eftablifh hereby feparate commiffions, ^ucatjon
connefted with the above council, and fubjefted to obey police, &c,
its ordinations. Thefe commiffions are, r. of educa¬
tion ; 2. of police ; 3. of war ; 4. of treafury. It is
through the medium of thefe four departments that all
the particular orderly commiffions (n), as cftabliflied by
the prefent diet, in every palatinate and diftrift, fhall
depend on, and receive all orders from, the council
of infpeftion, in their refpeftive duties and oscur-
rences. *40
The eighth article regulates the adminiftration of juft- A dm inf-
ice, beginning with a very feniible declaration, that the [ ration of
judicial power is incompatible with the legiflative, andh*
that it cannot be adminiftered by the king. It there¬
fore conftitutes primary courts of juft ice for each pala¬
tinate or diftrift, compofed of judges chofen at the die-
tine ; and appoints higher tribunals, erefted one in each
of the three provinces into which the kingdom is di¬
vided, with which appeals may be lodged from the pri¬
mary
(d) Orderly commiffions are newly inftituted 5 each palatinate and diftrift choofes a certain number of commif-
faries ; their office lefts two years ; their principal duty is to maintain police and good order in their diftrift ; to
put into execution decrees and regulations of fupreme departments ; to colle61 taxes ; to keep caffi ; to make fuch
payments as affigned by the commiffion of finances ; to proteft citizens from the military oppreffion ; to furnhh
recruits, b#Sdes many other duties of internal management.
Poland.
141
Regency
to certain
ccaUuns.
POL l 299 1 POL
It appoints like wife for the trial of per- forts to certain civil reftrictions until the next generation j-
and, laftly, all thofe againft whom may be objefted a y
decree in contumaciam in a civil caufe j are not eligible.
During the bufinefs of election, the prefident who
opened the meeting, with the reft of the committee,
except thofe who are afleflbrs, fhall prepare inftnidtions
for procedure j and in regard to the propolitions fent
by the king and the council of infpection, thefe in- l44
ftrudtions (hall be worded thus: “ Our nuncios {lialllnaru^oni
vote affirmative to the article iVy” or, “ Our nuncios to theiiuu-
141
The elec¬
tion and
duties of
fltmeios.
Ferfont e-
lieible and
not eli¬
gible.
ittary esmts.
fons accufcd of crimes againft the ftate, one fupreme ge
neral tribunal for all claffes, called a comitial tribunal
or court, competed of perfons chofen at the opening
of every diet. The ninth article provides a regency
during the king’s minority, in cafe of his fettled alie¬
nation of reafon, or upon the emergency of his being
made a prifoner of war. This regency was to be com¬
peted of the council of infpe&ion, with the queen at
their head, or, irt her abfence, the primate of the king- ^ .... C10s
dom. The tenth article enjoins, that the education of ill all vote negative to the article TV,” in cafe it is found >
the king’s fons (hall be entrufted to the king with the
council, and a tutor appointed by the dates ; and the
eleventh'regulates the army in iuch a manner, as to
prevent it from being employed to overturn the confti-
tution.
The regulation of the dietines contains nothing that
can be interefting to a Britifh reader, except what re¬
lates to the election and duties of nuncios or reprefen-
tatives to the general diet. And here it is enafted,
that perfons having a right to vote are all nobles of the
eque ft rian order ; i.e. 1. All hereditary proprietors of
landed property, or pofteffed of eftates by adjudication
for a debt, paying territorial tax to government: fons
alfo of inch proprietors during the life of their parents,
before the ex-divifion of patrimony. 2. Brothers inhe¬
riting eftates before they have (hared their fucceffion.
3. All mortgages who pay 100 florins (50 (hillings) of
territorial tax per year from their poffeffions. 4. All
life-holders of lands paying territorial tax to the fame
amount. 5. All nobles in the anny poflefted of fuch
qualifying eftates have a vote in their refpedtive diftricis
in time of peace, and properly furloughed by their
commanders. 6. Legal pofleihon is underftood to be
qualifying when it lias been formerly acquired and actu¬
ally enjoyed for twelve calendar months previou'fiy.
Perfons who have no right to vote are, 1. Thofe of
the equeftrian order that are not actually poffefled of a
property, as deferibed in the foregoing article. 2. Such
as hold royal, ecclefiaftical, or noble lands, even with
right of inheritance, but on condition of fome duty or
payment to their principals, confequently dependent
thereon. 3. Gentry poftefting eftates on feudal tenure,
Called ordynackie, as being bound to certain perfonal ter-
vice thereby. 4. All renters of eftates that have no other
qualifying property. 5. Thofe that have not accomplifiied
18 years of age. 6. Qrimine not ait, and thofe that are
under a decree paffed in default, even in the fifft inftance,
for having difobeyed any judicial court. . _
Every perfon of the equeftrian order that pays terri- will not bear a comparifon with that under which Bri-th''
torial tax to government for his freehold, let it be ever tons have the happinefs to live ; but it is furely infmtte-
fo final!, is eligible to all elective offices in his reCpeftirC +w —ornv,>™mPnt
Polard.
diftridt.
Gentlemen actually fervlng in the army, even pofieffed
of landed hereditary eftate, muft have ferved fix com-
plete years before they are eligible to the office of a
nuncio only. But this condition is difpenfed with in
favour of thofe that have filled before fome public
function.
Whoever is not petfonally prefent at the dietine;
whoever has not completed 23 years of age ; whoever
has not been in any public function, nor paffed the
biennial office of a commiffary in the orderly comif.-ffion ;
thofe that are not exempted by law from obligations of
/carta belle.tvs, which fubjects all newly-nobilitatcd per*
contrary to the opinion of the dietinc : and fhould any
amendment or addition be deemed neceffary and agreed
on, it may be inferted in the inftrudtkms at the end of
the relative propofition.
At the meeting of the dietines, aftdr the diet has
fat, the nuncios are bound to appear before their
conftituents, and to bring their report of the whole I4^
proceedings of that aifembly ; fi.rft, refpefting the aCls Who are
of legillature ; next, with refpeft to the particular pro-account-
jedfs of their palatinate or diftritl recommended to them ^
by the inftru&ions. ftituent*.
It is at thefe dietines that nuncios, after they have
rendered to their eonftitifents a clear account of their
proceedings and of the diet, may be either confirmed
or changed, and new ones elected in their ftead till the
general election for the following ordinary diet.
New nuncios are chofen, 1. In the room of the de-
ceafed. 2. In the room of thofe that are become fena-
tors or minifters of ftate. 3. In cafe of relignation.
4. In the room of fuch as are difqualified by the diet*.
?. When any of the affembly defires a new election, to
fubftitute another nuncio in the room of one exprefsly
pointed out { which requeft muft be made in writing,
figned by 12 members befides, and be delivered to the
marthal of the dietirte. In this laft cafe, the mar Aral is
to read the name of the nuncio objected to, and to make
the following propofition : “ Shall the nuncio N be
confirmed in his funftion ? or, Shall there be a new elec¬
tion made in his ftead ?” The opinion of the meeting
being taken by a divifion, the majority fhall decide the
queltion, and be declared by the marihal. If the ma¬
jority approves the conduct of the nuncio1, the marfhal
and the affeftors (hall certify this confirmation on the
diploma ; and in cafe of difapprobation, the marfhal
fhall declare the vacancy, and begin the form of a new
eleclion. ^
Such are the outlines of the Polifh conftitution efta-This co:t-
blifned by the king and the confederates in 1791. ItfHtution,
grj. though fu»
ior to
ly fuperior to that motley form of government which, protected ' *
for a century pate, has rendered Poland a perpetual againft by
feene of war, tumult, tyranny, and rebellion. Many of'ome Cor-
the corrupt nobles, however, perceiving that it would nTt no^eSs
curb their ambition, deprive them of the bale means
which they had long enjoyed of gratifying their avarice
by fetting the crown to fale, and render it impeffible
for them to continue with impunity their tyrannical op-
predion of the peafants, protefted againft it, and with¬
drew from the confederates. This was nothing more
than what might have been expedit'd, or than what the
king and hiS friends undoubtedly did expect*. But the
malcontents were not fatished with a limple proteft ;
they preferred their chmplaints to the emprefs of Rate ...
P p 2 fob
Po’and.
And op-
pofed by
the Ruf-
&ans.
* New An¬
nual Regi-
pr> 179a.
I4S
The naticn
rifes to
maintain it4
independ¬
ence.
Spirit of
the nobi-
iity.
POL [ 300 ] POL
fia, who, ready on all occafions, and on the li ghted
pretence, to invade Poland, poured her armies into the
republic, and furrounding the king and the diet with
ferocious foldiers, compelled them, by the mod furious
and indecent menaces, to undo their glorious labour of
love, and to reftore the conftitution as fettled after the
partition treaty.
Of the progrefs of the Ruffians in this work of dark-
nefs, our readers will be pleafed with the following
manly and indignant narrative, taken from a periodical
work * of acknowledged merit.
“ It was on the 21ft of April 1792, that the diet
received the firft notification from the king, of the in¬
imical and unjuft intentions of Ruffia. He informed
them that, without the fhadow of pretence, this avow¬
ed enemy of the rights of mankind had determined to
invade the territory of the republic with an army of
60,000 men. This formidable banditti, commanded
by generals Soltikow, Michelfon, and Kofakowlki, was
afterwards to be fupported by a corps of 20,000, and
by the troops then adting in Moldavia, amounting to
70,000. The king, however, profefied that he was
not difeouraged, and declared his readinefs to put him-
felf at the head of the national troops, and to termi¬
nate his exiftence ih a glorious contell for the liberties
of his country. Then, and not before, the diet de¬
creed the organifation of the army, and its augmenta¬
tion to 100,000. The king and the council of infpec-
tion were invefted with unlimited authority in every
thing that regarded the defence of the kingdom. Ma¬
gazines were ordered to be conftrudted when it was
too late, and quarters to be provided for the army.
“ The diet and the nation rofe as one man to main¬
tain their independence. AD private animofities were
obliterated, all private interefts were facrificed; the
greateft encouragements were held forth to volunteers
to enroll themfelves under the national ftandard, and it
was unanimoufiy decreed by the diet, that all private
lofies fhould be compenfated out of the public treafury.
“ On the 18th of May, the Ruffian ambaflador deli¬
vered a declaration, which was worthy of fuch a caufe.
It was a tiflue of falfehood and hypocrify. It aflerted,
that this wanton invalion, which was evidently againft
the fenfe of almoft every individual Polander, was meant
entirely for the good of the republic. It cenfured the
precipitancy with which the new conftitution was adopt¬
ed, and aferibed the ready confent of the diet to the
influence of the Warfaw mob. It reprefented the con-
llitution as a violation of the principles on which the
Polifli republic was founded—complained of the licen-
tioufnefs with which the facred name of the tmprejs was
treated in fome fpeeches of the members; and con¬
cluded by profeffing, that on thefe accounts, and in be¬
half of the emigrant Poles, her imperial majefty had
ordered her troops to enter the territories of the re¬
public.
“ At the moment this declaration was delivered to the
diet, the Ruffian troops, accompanied by Counts Po-
tocki, Rzewulki, Branicki, and a few Polifli ap'oftates,
appeared upon the frontiers, and entered the territories of
the republic in feveral columns, before the clofe of the
month. 1. he fpirit manifefted by the nobility was truly
honourable. Some of them delivered in their plate to the
mint. Prince Radzvil engaged voluntarily to furnifh
10,000 ftand of arms, and another a train of artillery. The
courage of the new and haftily embodied foldiers corre- Poland,
fponded with the patriotifm of their nobles. Prince Po- ——y"—^
niatowiki, nephew to the king, was appointed commander
in chief; and though his force was greatly inferior to the
enemy, it mull be confefied that he made a noble (land.
On the 24th of May, the enemy’s Coflacks were re-
pulfed, and purfued by the patroles of the republic
to the very entrenchments. On the 26th, about one
o’clock, the piquets of the republic difeovered a large
body of Hon Cofiacks approaching the outpofts; and
a fquadron of cavalry, commanded by Lieutenant Kwaf-
niewlki, fupported by Lieutenant Golejowflci with two
fquadrons more, in all about 300, marched out to
meet them. They attacked the Coflacks with fuccefs,
but purfued them with more valour than prudence to
the fide of a wood, where they found themfelves drawn
into an ambufeade, and furrounded by 2000 horfe, twro
battalions of chafl'eurs, and fix pieces of cannon. The
intrepid Poles bravely fought their way through the
Ruffian line, and killed upwards of 200 of the enemy.
The Poles in this engagement loft 100 men and twro
officers; one of whom, Lieutenant Kwafniewiki, was
wounded and made prifoner. The remainder of the
detachment reached their quarters in fafety.
“ Perhaps the hiftory of man can fcarcely furnifli an OonduA of
inftance of perfidy, meannefs, and duplicity, equal to^6 coutt
that which was manifefted by Prufiia on this occafion. ^cr^n'
By the treaty of defenfive alliance, folemnly contradl-
ed between the republic of Poland and the king of Pruf-
fia, and ratified on the 23d of April 1790, it is ex-
prefsly ilipulated, ‘ That the contracting parties (hall
do all in their pewrer to guarantee and preferve to each
other reciprocally the whole of the territories which
they refpedtivcly poflefs • That, in cafe of menace or
invafion from any foreign power, they fhall affift each
other with their ivhole force, if neceflary —and by
the fixth article, it is further ftipulated, ‘ that if any
foreign power whatever (hall prefume to interfere in
the internal affairs of Poland, his Pruffian majefty fhall
confider this as a cafe falling within the meaning of the
alliance, and fhall aflift the republic according to the
tenor of the ’ fourth article,” that is, with his whole
force. What then is the pretext for abandoning this
treaty ? It is, that the emprefs of Ruffia has Jhown a de¬
cided oppojttion to the order of things ejiahlffhed in Poland
on the third of May 1791, and is provoked by Poland
prefuming to put herfef into a poffure to defend it.—It is
known, however, by the moft authentic documents, that
nothing was effedted on the third of May 1791, to
which Pruffia had not previoufly affented, and which
(he did not afterwards fandtion ; and that Pruffia, ac¬
cording to the affertion of her own king, did not inti¬
mate a fingle doubt refpedting the revolution till one
month (and according to the Prufiian minifter till fix
months) after it had taken place ; in fhort, to ufe the
monarch’s own words as fully explanatory of his double
politics, “ not till the general tranquillity of Europe per¬
mitted him to explain himfelf.” Inftead, therefore,
of affilting Poland, Pruffia infultingly recommended to,
Poland to retrace her freps; in which cafe, flie faid that
(he would be ready to attempt an accommodation in her fa¬
vour. This attempt was never made, and probably never
intencad ; for the emprefs purfued her meafures.
The duchy of Lithuania was the great feene of adtion
in the beginning of the war j but the Ruffians had made
little
P. land,
ijr
War with
Sluifia.
POL
[ 301 ]
POL
little progrefs before the middle of the month of June.
On the 10th of that month, General Judycki, who com¬
manded a detachment of the Polifh troops, between
Mire and Swierzna, was attacked by the Ruffians; but,
after a combat of fome hours, he obliged them to re¬
tire with the lofs of 500 men dead on the field.—The
general was defirous of profiting by this advantage, by
purfuing the enemy, but was prevented by a moft vio¬
lent fall of rain. On the fucceeding day, the Ruffians
rallied again to the attack ; and it then too fatally ap¬
peared, that the Poles were too young and undifciplined
to contend with an inferior force againft experienced
troops and able generals. By a mafterly manoeuvre,
the Ruffians contrived to furround their antagoniils,
at a moment wken the Polifh general fuppofed that he
had obliged the enemy to retreat; and though the field
was contefted with the utmoft valour by the troops of
the republic, they were at length compelled to give
way, and to retire towards Niefwiefz.
On the 14th another engagement took place near
JLubar, on the banks of the river Sluez, between a de¬
tachment of the Ruffian grand army and a party of
Polifh cavalry, difpatched by Prince Jofeph Poniatow-
fki, to intercept the enemy. The patriotic bravery of
the Poles was victorious in this eonteft ; but upon re-
connoitering the force of the enemy, the prince found
himfelf incapable of making a fuccefsful ftand againft
fuch fuperior numbers. He therefore gave orders to
itrike the camp at Lubar, and commenced a precipi¬
tate retreat. During their march, the Polifh rear was
harafled by a body of 4000 Ruffians, till arriving at
Borufkowee, the wooden bridge unfortunately - gave
way, under the weight of the cavalry. The enemy,
in the mean time, brought their artillery to play upon-
the rear of the fugitives, who loft upwards of 250
men. The Polifh army next directed its courfe toward
Zielime, where meeting, on the 17th, with a reinforce¬
ment from Zaflow, it halted to give battle to the ene¬
my. The Ruffians were upwards of 17,000 ftrong,
with 24 pieces of camion, and the force of the repub¬
lic much inferior. After a furious conteft from feven
in the morning till five in the afternoon, the Ruffians
were at length obliged to retreat, and leave the field
of battle in pofTeffion of the patriots. The Ruffians
were computed to have loft 4000 men in this engage¬
ment, and the Poles about 1100.
Notwithftanding thefe exertions, the Poles were ob¬
liged gradually to retire before their numerous and dif-
ciplined enemies. Niefwez, Wilna, Minfk, and feveraf
other places of lefs confequence, fell into their hands
one after another. On a truce being propofed to the
Ruffian general Kochowfki, the propofai w'as haughtily
rejefted; while the defertion of vice brigadier Rud-
nicki and fome others, who preferred difhonour to per-
fonal danger, proclaimed a tottering caufe. The pro¬
grefs of the armies of Catharine was marked with de-
vaftation and cruelty, while, fuch was the averfion of
the people both to the caufe and the manner of con¬
ducting it, that, as they approached, the country all-
around became a wildernefs, and fcarcely a human be¬
ing was to be feen.
In the mean time, a feries of little defeats, to which
the inexperience of the commanders, and the intempe¬
rate valour of new raifed troops, appear to have greatly
contributed, ferved at once to diitrefs and to difpirit
Poland.
ija
thefe defenders of their country. Prince Poniatowfki
continued to retreat, and on the 17th of July, his rear
being attacked by a very fuperior force, it fuffered a
confiderable lofs, though the {kill and courage of Ge¬
neral Kofciufko enabled him to make a moft refpec-
table defence. On the 18th, a general engagement
took place between the twTo armies. The Ruffian line
extended oppofite Dubienka, along the river Bog, as
far as Opalin. The principal column, confifting of
14,000 men, wras chiefly direfted againft the divifion
of General Kofciuflto, which conflfted of 5000 men
only. After a moft vigorous refiftance, in which the
Ruffians loft upwards of 4000 men, and the troops of
the republic only fome hundreds, the latter was com¬
pelled to give wray before the fuperior numbers of the
enemy, and to retire further into the country.
This unequal conteft was at laft prematurely term!-The king
nated. The king, whofe benevolent intentions were,
perhaps, overpowered by his mental imbecillity, and
whofe age and infirmities, probably, rendered him un¬
equal to the difficulties and dangers which muft attend
a protrafted war, inftead of putting himfelf, according
to his firft refolve, at the head of his army, determined,
at once, to furrender at diferetion. On the 23d of
July, he fummoned a council of all the deputies at
that moment in Warfawr. He laid before them the laft'
difpatches from the emprefs, which infifted upon total
and unreferved fubmiffion. Pie pointed out the dan¬
ger of a difmemberment of the republic, fliould they
delay to throw themfelves upon the clemency of the
emprefs, and to intreat her proteftion. He mention¬
ed the fatal union of Auftria and Pruffia with Ruffia;
and the difgraceful fupinenefs manifefted by every other
court in Europe.
Four citizens, the intrepid and patriotic Malachow- ,
Iki, the princes Sapieha, Radzvil, and Sultan, vehement¬
ly protefted againft thefe daftardly proceedings; and the
following evening a company of gentlemen from the
different provinces affembled for the fame purpofe.
The affembly waited immediately on thefe four diftin-
guilhed patriots, and returned them their acknowledge¬
ments for the fpirit and firmnefs w7ith which they had1
refitted the ufurpations of defpotifm. The fubmiffion
of the king to the defigns of Ruffia wras no fooner
made know n, than Poland was bereft of all her beft
and moil refpecftable citizens. Malachowfki as mar-
fhal of the diet, and Prince Sapieha grand marfhal of
Lithuania, entered ftrong proteffs on the journals of the
diet againff thefe hoftile proceedings, and declared fo-
lemnly that the diet legally affembled in 1788 was not
diffolved. j c ?
On the fecond of Auguft a confederation was form- Oonfedera*
ed at Warfaw, of which the grand apoftate, Potocki, r;,'n at
was chofen Marfhall. The a<fts of this confederation
were evidently the defpotie dictates of Ruffia, and were t i.eJ
calculated only to reltore the ancient abufes, and to tores the
place the countiy under the aggravated oppreffion of afo mer cor-
foreign yoke.
It is remarkable, that at the very moment when Po¬
land was furrendering its liberties to its defpotic inva¬
ders, the generous fympathy of Great Britain was evin¬
ced by a liberal fubfeription, fupported' by all the moft
refpeitable charafters in the nation, of every party and
of every left, for the purpofe of affilting the king and
the republic to maintain their independence. Though
thsr
llitution.
Poland.
The em-
prefs fei-
*es upon
part of the
Folifh ter¬
ritory.
f55
PepU rable
ttate of the
country.
. T56
A:r, cli¬
mate, &c.
of Poland.
V O L [ 30
die benevolent defign was fruftrated, the faft remains
on record as a noble tellimony of the fpirlt of Britons
in the caufe of freedom* of the indignation which tills
every Britifh heart at the commiffion of injuftice, and
of the liberality with which they are difpofed to ailiit
thofe who fufter from die opprefiion of tyrants.
Not iatisiied with reftoring the old wretched contli-
tution, the emprefs of Ruffia feized upon part of the
territory which, at the lait partition, (lie and her coad¬
jutors had left to the republic ; and her ambaiTador en¬
tering into the diet with a crowd of armed ruffians, com¬
pelled the king and that afl'embly to grant the form of
legality to her ufurpations. The nation, however, did
not fubmit. General Kofciulko kept together a few
retainers, whom he was foon enabled to augment to the
number of an army ; and feizing on the perfon of the
king, he has ever fince waged againil Ruffia a war, of
which, it mult be confelfed, the objeft is doubtful. His
enemies accufe him of cberifhing in the republic the
principles of the French Jacobins ; and fome late occur¬
rences give a countenance to the accufation. Yet it is
known he protelfed at firft that his aim reached no far¬
ther than to reltore the conftitution of 1791 ; and if
public report may be credited, an infurre&ion has lately
taken place in Great Poland, or South Pruffia, in fa¬
vour of that conltitution. If other Poles have been dri¬
ven to democracy, they have only, with the common
weaknefs of human nature, run from one extreme to
another ; and in flying from the tyranny of their inva¬
ders, have fallen into the horrors of anarchy. That
Kofciulko will fucceed againll the powerful em¬
pire of Ruffia, there is not the fmalleft probability;
and if there were, the court of Berlin, to complete
its character, has withdrawn from the moil honourable
alliance in which it was ever engaged, and feems to
have employed the fublidy which it received from Great
Britain for the maintenance of that alliance, to co-ope¬
rate with the emprefs in annihilating the kingdom and
republic of Poland. What will be the ultimate fate of
that unhappy country, and its amiable fovereign, it is
impoffible to fay; but appearances at prefent indicate a
diviflon of the whole territory among the three hoftile
powers who formerly robbed it of fome of its moll va¬
luable provinces ; and when that divifion is made, the
virtuous Staniflaus may be removed to a better world
by the dagger, by the bowl, by the gripe of a Hant, or
by a red-hot fpit !
i he air of this kingdom is cold in the north, but
temperate in the other parts both in fummer and win¬
ter, and the weather in both more fettled than in many
otner countries. The face of the country is for the
moil part level, and the lulls are but few. The Cra-
pack or Carpathian mountains fepnrate it from Hungary
011 the fouth. The foil is very fruitful both in corn and
padurage, hemp and flax. Such is the luxuriance of
the palcures in Podolia, that it is faid one can hardly
lee tlie cattle that are grazing in the meadows. Vail
.quantities of com are yearly lent down the Viftuia to
pantzic, from ail parts of Poland, and bought up chief-
• r^ri t^e ^utch. The eaftem part of the country
VuI1 of woods, forefts, lakes, marfhes, and rivers;
■or the lad at which, the moll ceniiderable in Poland
are, the Viilula, Nieper, Niefter, Duna, Bog, Warta,
and Me md. The metals found in this country are
rum and lead, with fome tin, gold, and fdver ; but
There are no mines ol the twcr lait wrought at pre»
2 ] POL
fent.^ The other products of Poland arc mod forts of
precious Hones, ochre of all kinds, fine rock-cryflal; v—•»
Mufcovy glafs, talc, alum, faltpetre, amber, pitcoal*
quickfilver, Ipar, fal-gem,. lapis calaminaris, and vitriol.
In LeiTer Poland are lalt-mines, which are the chief
riches of the country, and bring moil money into the
exchequer. In the woods, which coniiit moftly of oak,
beech, pine, and fir-trees, bdides the more common
wild beads, are elks, wild afles, wild oxen or uri, lynxes*
wild horfes, wild fheep with one horn, ‘bifpns, hysenas,
wild goats, and buffaloes. In the mfeadows and fenny
ground is gathered a kind of manna ; and the kermes-
berries produced in this country are ufed both in dying
and medicine.
x he inhabitants confid of nobles, citizens, and pea* Different
fants. The fird poffeis great privileges, which thev en-cLffes of
joy partly by the indulgence of their kings, and partly illhablUnt?»
by ancient cudom and prefcription. Some of them
have the title of prince, count, or baron ; but no fupe*
riority or pre-eminence on that account over the red,
which is only to be obtained by fome public pod or
dignity. They have the power of life and death over
their vaffals; pay no taxes; are fubjedt to none but
the king ; have a right to all mines and falt-works on
their eltates ; to all offices and employments, civil, mi¬
litary, and ecclefiadic; cannot be cited or tried out
of the kingdom ; may choofe whom they will for their
king, and lay him under what redraints they pleafe by
the Pa<da Conventa ; and none but they and the burgh¬
ers of fome particular towns can pur chafe lands* In
ffiort, they are almod entirely independent, enjoying
many other privileges and prerogatives befides thofe we
have fpecified; but if they engage in trade, they forfeit
their nobility'. #
The Poliflr tongue is a diaka of the Sclavonic : (fee Language,
Philology, n° 222.). It is neither copious nor hanno-
nious. Many of the words, as they are written, have not a
fingle vowel in them ; but the High Dutch and Latin
are underdood and fpoken pretty commonly, though
incorreaiy. The language in Lithuania differs much
from that of the other provinces. True learning, and
the itudy of the arts and fciences, have been little at¬
tended to in Poland, till of late they began to be re¬
garded with a more favourable eye, and to be not only
patronized, but cultivated by feveral of the nobles and
others, both laymen and eeclefiaftics.
There are two archbifhops in the kingdom, viz, \rcWu-
thofe of Gnefna and Laopol, and about a dozen bi-^10Pr C,»
diops. The archbilhop of Gnefna is always a cardi-&c*
nal, and primate of the kingdom. The prevailing reli¬
gion is Popery, but there are great numbers of Luthe¬
rans, Calvinids, and Greeks, who are called Diffidents,
and by the laws of the kingdom were intitled to tole¬
ration ; but were much oppreffed till very lately. The
Jews are indulged with great privileges, and are very
numerous in Poland ; and in Lithuania, it is laid there
are a multitude of Mahometan Tartars. We may judge
of the numbers of Jews in this country by the produce
of their annual poll-tax, which amounts to near 57,000
rixdollars, ' lio
I here are few or no manufactures in the king- Manuiac®
dom, if we except fome linen and woollen clothestu^e,’•
and hardwares ;• and' the whole trade is confined to
the city ol Dantzic, and other towns on the Vidula
or Baltic. ^
Before the prefent troubles the king’s revenue was Revenue.
5 all
i6»
)rder of
:night-
tood.
163
POL
[ 303 3
POL
all clear to tiimfelf; for he paid no troops, not even his
own o-uards; but all the forces, as well as the officers
of {late, were paid by the republic. The public reve¬
nues avofe chiefly from the crown-lands, the filt-mines
in the palatinate of Cracow, from the rents of hdanen-
burg, Dirfhau, and Regenhus, from the government of
Cracow, and diftriA of Niepolomiez, and from ancient
tolls and cuftoms, particularly thofe of Elbing and Dant-
Ztc. From what fources thofe revenues now arife, it is
difficult to fay; but Pruffia has got poffeffion of the
moft lucrative cuftoms.
The order of the White Eagle was inflituted by Au-
guftus II. in the year 1 705. Its enlign is a crofs of
gold enamelled with red, and appendant to a blue rib¬
bon. The motto, Pro fide, rr%e, et lege. _
The Handing forces "of Poland are divided into the
crown-army, and that of Lithuania, confifting of 1101 fe
and foot, and amounting to between 20,000 and
30,000 men. Thefe troops are moftly cantoned on the
crown-lands, and in Poland are paid by a capitation
or poll-tax j but in Lithuania other taxes are levied
for this purpofe. Moft of the foot are Germans. On
any fudden and imminent danger, the whole body of
the nobility, with their vaflals, are obliged to appear
in the field on horfeback; and the cities and towns fur-
nifh a certain number of foot-foldiers, with carriages,
and military ftores : but for want of proper arms, pro-
vifions, fubordination, and dllcipline, and by being at
liberty after a few weeks to return home, this body has
proved but of little advantage to the republic. Dant-
zic is the only place in the Polifh dominions that de-
ferves the name of a fortrefs, and it is now in the pof-
feilion of Pruffia. Foreign auxiliaries are not to be
brought into the kingdom, nor the national troops to
march out of it, without the confent of the ftates.
to Magdalen college in Oxford, where, by the inftruc-
tions of the celebrated Lineacre and Latimer, he made
conftderable progrefs in learning. In 1 5 1 5 he took the
degree of bachelor of arts, and was admitted to deacon’s
orders fome time after : in 1517, he was made prebeu-
dary of Salifbury, and in 1519 dean of Wimborne and
dean of Exeter. We are not furprifed at this young
nobleman’s early preferments, when we conftder him as
the kinfman of Henry VIII. and that he was bred to
the church by the king’s, fpecial command.
Being now about the age of 19, he was fent, ac¬
cording to the fafhion of the times, to finifh his ftudies
at Padua in Italy, where he refided fome time in great
fplendor, having a handfome penfion from the king.
He returned to England in 1525, where he was moft;
gracioufiy received at court, and univerfally admired
for his talents and addrefs ; but preferring ftudy and
fequeftration to the pleafures of a court, he retired to
the Carthuftan convent at Shene, where he had conti¬
nued about two years, when the pious king began to
divulge his fcruples of confcience concerning his mar¬
riage with Catharine of Spain. Pole forefaw that this
affair would neceffarily involve him in difficulties ; he
therefore determined to quit the kingdom, and accord¬
ingly obtained leave to vifit Paris. Having thus avoid¬
ed the ftdrm for the prefent, he returned once more to
his convent at Shene ; but his tranquillity was again
interrupted by the king’s refolution to fhake off the
pope’s fupremacy, of which Pole’s approbation was
thought xndifpenfably neceffary. How he managed in
this affair, is not very clear, plovvever, he obtained
leave to reviftt Italy, and his penlion was continued for
fome time.
The king, having now divorced Queen Catharine,
married Anne Bokyn, and being refolved to throw off
Such was the military eftablifhment of Poland be- the papal yoke, ordered Dr Richard Sampfon to write
T<f4
Jhatader
f die
ecgle.
fore the partition, treaty. What it has been ftnee, and
is at prefent, we cannot pofttively fay.
The Poles are perlonable men, and have good com¬
plexions. They are efteemed a brave, honeft people,
without diffimulation, and exceedingly hofpitable.^ They
clothe themfelves in furs in winter, and over all they
throw a fhort cloak. No people keep grander equi¬
pages than the gentry. They look upon themfelves as
fo many fovereign princes; and have their guards, bands
of mufic, and keep open houfes: but the lower fort of
people are poor abje£t wretches, in the loweft ftate of
llavery. The exefeifes of the gentry are hunting, ri¬
ding, dancing, vaulting. See. They refide moftly up¬
on their eftates in the country ; and maintain them¬
felves and families by agriculture, breeding of bees,
and grazing.
POLAR, in general, fomething relating to the poles
of the world, or poles of the artificial globes
Poi.Ir Regions, thofe parts of the" world which He great hafte; and the fecond time, becaufe it was done
near the north and fouth poles. See the article Pole.
POLARITY, the quality of a thing confidered as
having poles, or a tendency to turn itielf into one
certain pofture ; but chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the
magnet.
POLE (Reginald), cardinal, and archbifhop of Can¬
terbury, a younger fon of Sir Rich. Pole, Lord Mon¬
tague, was horn at Stoveilon caftle, in Staffordfhire, in
the year 1500. At feven years of age he was fent to a
Carthufian monaftery atSb.enc, near Richmond in Surry;
and thence, when he was about 12 years old, removed
in the night. This delicacy in a cardinal is truly won¬
derful : but the intrigues of the French party feem to
have been the real eaufe of his mifearriage; they ftarted
many objections to Pole, and by that means gained timts
to procure a majority againft him. Cardinal Maria de
Monte obtained the triple crown; and Pole, having kif-
fed his flipper, retired to the convent of Magazune
near Verona, where he continued till the death of Ed¬
ward VI. in the year 1553. aeeeffion of queen
Mary, Pole was fent legate to England, where he was
received by her rnajefty with great veneration, and con-
iiufted
P.lc.
a book in juftificatton of his proceedings, which he fent
to Pole for his opinion. To this Pole, fecure in the
pope’s prote&ion, wrote a fcurrilous anfwer, entitled
Pro Unitate Ecdefiraftica, and fent it to the king ; who
was fo offended with the contents, that he withdrew
his penfion, ftripped him of all his preferments, and
procured an a£t of attainder to be paffed againft him.
In the mean time, Pole was created a cardinal, and fent
nuncio to different parts of Europe'. King Henry made
feveral attempts to have him fecured and brought to
England, but without effeft. At length the pope fix¬
ed him as legate at Viterbo, where he continued till
the year 1543, when he was appointed legate at the
council of Trent, and was afterwards employed by the
pope as his chief councilor.
Pope Paul III. dying in 1549, Pole was twice elect¬
ed his fucceffov, and, we are told, twice refufed the pa¬
pal dignity: firft, becaufe the eleftion was made in too
POL
Pole, ducted to the archbifhop’s palace at Lambeth, poor
^ Cranmer being at that time prifoner in the. Tower. He
immediately appeared in the Houfe of Lords, where he
made a long fpeech; which being reported to the com¬
mons by their fpeaker, both thefe obfequious houfes
concurred in an humble fupplication to be reconciled to
the fee of Rome. They prefented it on their knees to
her majefty, who interceded with the cardinal, and he
gracioufly condefcended to give them abfolution. This
bufinefs being over, the legate made his public entry in¬
to London, and immediately fet about the extirpation
of herefy. The day after the execution of Cranmer,
■which he is faid, though we believe falfely, to have ad-
vifed, he was confecrated archbifhop of Canterbury. In
the fame year, 1556, he was elefted charicellor of the
univerfity of Oxford, and foon after of Cambridge ;
both which he vifked, by his commiffioners. He died
of a double quartan ague in the year 1558, about 16
hours after the death of the queen ; and was buried in
the cathedral of Canterbury.
As to his charafter, the Romifh writers afcribe to
him every virtue under heaven : even Bifhop Burnet is
extremely lavifh in his praife, and attributes the cruel¬
ties of Mary’s reign to the advice of Gardiner. In this
Mr Hume agrees with the bifhop, and reprefents Pole
as the advocate of toleration. By every impartial ac¬
count, he feemstohave been a man of mild manners, and
of real worth, though undoubtedly a zealous member of
the church of Rome.—He wrote, Pro imitate ecclefiafti-
ca, De ejufdem potejiate, A treatife on Juftification, and
various other trails.
Mr Philips publilhed a very well written, though a
very partial account, of Pole’s life, to which Glocefter
Ridley replied. This laft work, which is entitled a
Review of Mr Philips's Life of Reginald Pole, was pub-
lifhed in 1766. It is a complete confutation of the for¬
mer, and is a very learned and temperate vindication of
the do£trines of the Reformation.
Pole, in aftronomy, that point in the heavens round
-which the whole fphere feems to turn. It is alfo ufed
fer a point dire&ly perpendicular to the centre of any
circle’s plane, and diftant from it by the length of a ra¬
dius.
Pole, in geography, one of the points on which the
terraqueous globe turns ; each of them being 90 de¬
grees diftant from the equator, and, in confequence of
their fituation, the inclination of the earth’s axis, and
its parallelifm during the annual motion of our globe
round the fun, having only one day and one night
throughout the year.
It is remarkable, that though the north in Hebrew,.
Greek, Latin, and French, derives its name from gloom,
1 obfcurity, and darknefs, the poles enjoy more light than
en'o ^niifch*^ other part of the world. The ancients believed
light; C t^ie north to be covered with thick darknefs ; Strabo
tells us, that Homer, by the word <r°foc, which properly
ftgnifies obfcurity or darknefs, meant the north ; and thus
Tibullus, fpeaking of the north, fays,
Illic et denfa tellus abfconditur umbra*
Paneg. ad Miffel.
The Arabians call the northern ocean the dark fea; the
Latins gave the name of slqui/o to the north wind, be-
caufe aquilus fignifies black ; and the French call it la
life, from bis “ black. ’ According to the ancients, the
6
r 304 i
POL
Cimmerians lived in darknefs, becaufe they were placed Pol*
near the north. But all this is mere prejudice; for there  v—W
are no places in the world that enjoy light longer than
the arffic and antardfic poles \ and this is accounted
for by confidering the nature of twilight. In the tor-And why,
rid zone, and under the line, night immediately follows *
the fetting of the fun, without any fenftble twilight;
whereas the twilight begins and continues increafmg in
proportion as places are diftant from the equator or ap¬
proach the pole. To this long twilight we muft add
the aurora borealis, which appears in the northern re¬
gions, Greenland, &c. in clear nights, at the beginning
of the new moon, calling a light equal to that of full
moon. See Galfendi in the life of Peyrefc, book iii. and
La Perere in his Account of Greenland. There is alfo
long moonlight at the poles during winter. See As¬
tronomy, n° 373. But though there is really more
light in the polar regions than elfewhere, yet owing to
the obliquity with which the rays of the fun fall upon
them, and the great length of winter night, the cold is
fo intenfe, that thofe parts of the globe which lie near
the poles have never been fully explored, though the at¬
tempt has been repeatedly made by the moll celebrated
navigators. Indeed their attempts have chiefly been
confined to the northern regions ; for with regard to
the fouth pole, there is not the fame incitement to at¬
tempt it. The great object for which navigators have
ventured themfelves in thefe frozen feas, was to find out
a more quick and more ready paflage to the Eaft In¬
dies* ; and this hath been attempted three feveral ways: * ^ce Cool^
one by coafting along the northern parts of Europe and ^j3 95 *
Afia, called the north-eafl pajfage; another, by failing00 a’
round the northern part of the American continent,
called the north-weft paflage ; and the third, by failing
dire&ly over the pole itfelf.
We have already given a fhbrt account of feveral un-
fuccefsful attempts which have been made from Eng¬
land to difeover the firft two of thefe. See North-
Wejl Pajfage, znA NoRTH-EaJl Pajfage. But before we
proceed to the third, we lhall make a few further obfer-
vations on them, and mention the attempts of fome
other nations. ^
During the laft century, various navigators, Dutch-Attempt*1
men particularly, attempted to find out the north-eajl ^ find
pajfage, with great fortitude and perfeverance. They
always found it impoflible, however, to furmount the fage,
obftacles which nature had thrown in the way. Sub-
fequent attempts are thought by many to have demon-
ftratcti - . . impoflibility of ever failing eallward along
the northern coaft of Afia j and this impoffibility is a<>
counted for by the increafe of cold in proportion to the
extent of land. See America, n° 3—5. This is in¬
deed the cafe in temperate climates ; but much more fo
in thofe frozen regions .where the influence of the fun,
even in fummer, is but fmall. Hence, as the continent
of “Afia extends a vail way from weft to eaft, and has
befides the continent of Europe joined to it on the weft,
it follows, that about the middle part of that tra<5l of
land the cold Ihould be greater than anywhere elfe. 4
Experience has determined this to be faA ; and it now Why it i*
appears, that about the middle part of the northern
coaft of Alia the ice never thaws; neither have even long the
the hardy Ruffians and Siberians themfelves been able north-eafl
to overcome the difficulties they met with in that partco^ ^
of their voyage. In order to make this the more plain Alla*
and
Pole.
# See
Cook’s
Voyage of
Morzo-
vieff, &c.
P ° L [
and the following accounts more intelligible, we (hall
oblerve, that from the north-weftern extremity of Eu¬
rope, called the North Cape, to the north-eaftern extre¬
mity of Afia, called the Promontory of the Tfchufki*, is
a fpace including about 160 degrees of longitude, ’v'rz.
Vifcovenes, from t0 20o call from Ferro : the port of Archan-
j°8,°9 311 gel b6s ‘n about 57 degrees ead longitude, Nova Zem-
bla between 70 and 95 ; which lafl: is alfo the fituation
of the mouth of the great river Oby. Still farther eaft-
ward are the mouths of the rivers Jenifey in 100° ; Pi-
alida in 105°; Chatanga in 1240; Lena, which has
many mouths, between 1340 and 1420; Indigirka in
162^ ; and the Kovyma in 1750. The colddt place in
all this trad, therefore, ought to be that between the
mouths of the Jenifey and the Chatanga; and indeed
here the unfurmountable difficulty has always been, as
will appear from the following accounts of the voyages
made by the Ruffians with a view to difeover the north-
c call paflage.
In 1734, lieutenant Morzovieff failed from Archangel
towards the river Oby, but could fcarce advance 20 de¬
grees of longitude during that feafon. The next dim¬
mer he paffed through the ftraits of Weygatz into the
fea of Kara ; but did not double the promontory which
feparates the fea of Kara from the bay or mouth of
Oby. In 1738, the lieutenants Malgyin and Shura-
koff doubled that promontory with great difficulty, and
entered the bay of Oby. Several unfuccefsful attempts
were made to pafs from the bay of Oby to the Jentfey;
which was at laft effeded, in 1738, by two veffels com¬
manded by lieutenants Offzin and Koikeleff. The fame
year the pilot Feodor Menin failed eaftwards from the
Jenifey to the mouth of the Piafida : but here he was
Hopped by the ice ; and finding it impoffible to force a
paflage, he returned to the Jenifey.
In July <7 3 5, lieutenant Prontfhiftcheff failed down
the river Lena, in order to pafs by fea to the mouth of
the Jenifey. The weftern mouths of the Lena were fo
choaked up with ice, that he was obliged to pafs thro’
the moll eallerly one ; and was prevented by contrary
winds from getting out till the 13th of Auguft. Ha¬
ving fleered north-weft along the iflands which lie ficat-
tered before the mouths of the Lena, he found himfelf
in lat. 70. 4.; yet even here he faw pieces of ice from
24 to ('O feet in height, and in no place was there a
free channel left of greater breadth than 100 or 200
yards. His veflel being much damaged, he entered the
mouth of the Olenek, a fmall river near the weftern
mouth of the Lena ; and here he continued till the
enfuing feafon, when he got out in the beginning of
Auguft. But before he could reach the mouth of the
Chatanga, he was fo entirely furrounded and hemmed
in with ice, that it was with the utmoft difficulty he
could get loofe. Obferving then a large field of ice
ft retching into the fea, he was obliged to fail up the
Chatanga. Getting free once more, he proceeded north¬
ward, doubled the cape called Taimura, and reached the
bay of that name, lying in about 1 1 50 eaft from Ferro ;
from thence he attempted to proceed weftward along
the coaft. Near the ftiore were feveral fmall iflands,
between which and the ftiore the ice was immoveably
fixed. He then dire&ed his courfe towards the fea, in
order to pafs round the chain of iflands. At firft he
found the fea more free to the north of thefe iflands,
but obferved much ice lying between them. At laft he
Vol. XV. Part I.
Pole.
6
Of Pront-
fhiftcheff-
305 . 3 _ POL
arrived at what he took to be the laft of the iflands,
lying in lat. 77. 25. Between this ifland and the fhore, y"——'
as well as on the other fide of the ifland which lay moft
to the north, the ice was firm and immoveable. He
attempted, however, to fleer {till more to the north;
and having advanced about fix miles, he was prevented
by a thick fog from proceeding : this fog being dif-
perfed, he faw nothing everywhere but ice, which at
laft drove him eaftward, and with much danger and dif¬
ficulty he got to the mouth of the Olenek on the 29th
of Auguft. >j
Another attempt to pafs by fea from the Lena to the Of Chari-
Jenifey was made in 1739 by Chariton Laptieff, but1?11 bap-
with no better fuccefs than that juft mentioned. This^**"
voyager relates, that between the rivers Piafida and Tai¬
mura, a promontory ftretches into the fea, which he
could not double, the fea being entirely frozen up be¬
fore he could pafs round. g
Befides the Ruffians, it is certain that fome Englifh Mr Coxe’i
and Dutch vefiels have pafied the ifland of Nova Zem-oNervar-
bla into the fea of Kara : “ But (fays Mr Coxe in histions’
Account of the Ruffian voyages) no veflel of any na¬
tion has ever pafied round that cape which extends to
the north of the Piafida, and is laid down in the Ruffian
charts in about 78° lat. We have already feen that no
Ruffian veflel has ever got from the Piafida to the Cha¬
tanga, or from the Chatanga to the Piafida 5 and yet
fome authors have pofitively aflerted that this promon¬
tory has been failed round. In order therefore to elude
the Ruffian accounts, which clearly aflert the contrary,
it is pretended that Gmelin and Muller have purpofely
concealed fome parts of the Ruffian journals, and have
impofed on the world by a mifreprefentation of fafts.
But without entering into anydifpute upon this head,
I can venture to affirm, that no fufficient proof has
been as yet advanced in fupport of this affertion ; and
therefore, until fome pofitive information {hall be pro¬
duced, we cannot deny plain fails, or give the prefe¬
rence to hearfay evidence over circumftantial and well
attefted accounts.” ^
The other part of this north-eaft paflage, vi%. from Of the ra¬
the Lena, to Kamfchatka, though fufficiently difficult y'gatl0n
and dangerous, is yet prailicable ; as having been once ^
performed, if we may believe the accounts of the Ruf-Kamkhat»
fians. According to fome authors indeed, fays Mr Coxe, ka.
this navigation has been open a century and an half;
and feveral vefiels at different times have paffed round
the north-eaftern extremity of Afia. But if we confult
the Ruffian accounts, we (hall find that frequent expe¬
ditions have been unqueftionably made from the Lena
to the Kovyma, but that the voyage from the Kovyma
round Tfchutfkoi Nofs into the Eaftern Ocean has been
performed but once. According to Mr Muller, this
formidable cape was doubled in the year (648. The
material incidents of this remarkable voyage are as
follow. IO
“ In 1648 feven kotches, or veffels, failed from the v,, y ite of
mouth of the river Kovyma, in order to penetrate into DdhnefF,
the Eaftern Ocean. Of thefe, four w'ere never more l!0ff
heard of: the remaining three were commanded by Si-' *
mon Deftmeff, Geraiim Ankudlnoff, and Fedot Alex-
eeff. Deftmeff and Ankudinoff quarrelled before their
departure concerning the divifion of profits and honours
to be acquired by their voyage ; which, however, was
not fo ealily accomplilhed as they had imagined. Yet
Q^q Defhneff
POL [ 306 ] POL
Pole. DefhnefFJn liis memorials'makes no mention of obllruc-
tions from the ice, nor probably did he meet with any ;
for he takes notice that the fea is not every year fo free
from ice as it was at that time. The veffels failed from
the Kovyma on the 20th of June, and in September
they reached the promontory of the Tfchutfki, where
AnkudinofPs velfel was wrecked, and the crew diftri-
buted among the other two. Soon after this the two
veffels loft fight of each other, and never joined again.
Defiineff was driven about by tempeftuous winds till
Oftober, when he was fhipwrecked confiderably to the
fouth of the Anadyr. Having at laft reached that ri¬
ver, he formed a fcheme of returning by the fame way
that he had come ; but never made the attempt. As
for Alexeeff, after being alfo ftiipwrecked, he had died
of the fcurvy, together with Ankudinoff; part of the
crew were killed by the favages, and a few efcaped to
Kamfehatka, where they fettled.”
* See From Captain* Cook’s voyage towards the north-
Cook’s eaftern parts of Afia, it appears, that it is poffible
fh/co-vtries, gouk]e promontory of Tfchutiki without any
joo. great difficulty : and it now appears, that the conti¬
nents of Afia and America are feparated from one an¬
other but by a narrow ftrait, which is free from ice ;
but, to the northwards, that experienced navigator was
everywhere ftopped by ice in the month of Auguft, fo
that he could neither trace the American continent far¬
ther than to the latitude of 70°, nor reach the mouth
of the river Kovyma on the Afiatic continent; though
it is probable that this might have been done at another
time when the fituation of the ice was altered either by
tI winds or currents.
Irfur- On the whole, therefore, it appears that the infur-
,a^-e mountable obftacle in the north-eaft paffage lies between
in th’ * ^ie r^vers Piafida and Chatanga; and unlefs there be in
north.eaft that fpace a connection between the Afiatic and Ame-
paflage. rican continents, there is not in any other part. Ice,
however, is as effectual an obftruCtion as land : and
though the voyage were to be made by accident for
once, it never could be efteemed a paffage calculated
for the purpofes of trade, or any other beneficial pur-
pofe whatever.
Of the With regard to the north-weft paffage, the fame dif-
north weft ficulties occur as in the other. Captain Cook’s voyage
paiTige. ^as now a{fure(l us> jf there is any ftrait which di¬
vides the continent of America into two, it muft lie in
a higher latitude than 70°, and confequently be perpe¬
tually frozen up. If a north-weft paflage can be found
then, it muft be by failing round the whdle American
continent, inftead of feeking a paffage through it, which
feme have fuppofed to exift in the bottom of Baffin’s
Bay. But the extent of the American continent to
the northward is yet unknown ; and there is a poffibi-
lity of its being joined to that part of Afia between the
Piafida and Chatanga, which has never yet been circum-
* Sefr^ navigated* It remains therefore to confider, whether
Cook s there is any poffibility of attaining the wifhed for paf-
ii°11. lage 1 ailing direCtly north, between the eaftern and
I3 weftern continents.
Barring- Of the practicability of this method, the Honourable
mem s'inU ^a^nes Farrington is very confident, as appears by fe-
favour of 'vera^ traCts which he publifhed in the years 1775 and
a foflibility 177^> in confequence of the unfuccefsful attempts made
of reaching by Captain Phipps, now Lord Mulgrave. See Norvh-
the pole, faji faffage, p, 108. col. 1. top of the page.—In thefe
traCts he mftanccs a great number of navigators who PoSf.
have reached very high northern latitudes; nay, forne ——v—"
who have been at the pole itfelf, or gone beyond it.  
Thefe inftances are, 1. One Captain Thomas Robertfou
affured our author, that lie had been in latitude th-J,
that the fea was open, and he was certain that he cTuid
have reached the latitude of 83®.—2. From the ttfti-
mony of Captain Cheyne, who gave anfwers to certain
queries drawn up by Mr Dalrymple concerning the po¬
lar feas, it appears that he had been in the latitude of
82°.—3. One Mr Watt informed our author, that when
he was 1 7 years of age, at that time making his firft
voyage with Captain M‘Callam, a bold and flcilful na¬
vigator, who commanded a Scotch whale-fifhing fhip, as
during the time that the whales are fuppofed to copu¬
late no fiffiing can be carried on, the captain refolved
to employ that interval in attempting to reach the north
pole. He accordingly proceeded without the leaft ob¬
ftruCtion to 83J, when the fea was not only open to
the northward, but they had feen no ice for the laft
three degrees ; but while he ft ill advanced, the mate
complained that the compafs was not fteady, and the
captain was obliged with reluCtance to give over hiV
attempt.—4. Dr Campbell, the continuator of Harris’s
voyages, informed Mr Barrington, that Dr Dallie, ana-
tire of Holland, being in his youth aboard a Dutch
ffiip of war which at that time was ufually fent to fu-
perintend the Greenland fifhery, the captain determined,
like the Scotchman above-mentioned, to make an attempt
to reach the pole during the interval between the firft
and fecond filheries. He penetrated, according to the
beft of Dr Campbell’s recolleClion, as far as 88°; when
the weather was warm, the fea free from ice, and rolling
like the bay of Bifcay. Dallie now preffed the captain
to proceed : but he anfwered, that he had already gone
too far, and fhould be blamed in Holland for negleCting
his ftation ; upon which account he would fuffer no
journal to be kept, but returned as foon as poffible to
Spitfbergen.—5. In the year 1662-3, Mx Oldenburg,
then fecretary of the Royal Society, was ordered to re-
gifter a paper, entitled “ Several inquiries concerning
Greenland, anfwered by Mr Gray, who had vifited thefe
parts.” The 19th of thefe queries is the following:
How near hath any one been known to approach the
pole ?—The anfwer is, “ I once met upon the>coaft of
Greenland a Hollander that fwore he had been half a
degree from the pole, fhowing me his journal, which
was alfo attefted by his mate ; where they had feen no
ice or land, but all water.”—6. In Captain Wood’s ac¬
count of a voyage in queft of the north-eaft paffage,
we have the following account of a Dutch fiiip which
reached the latitude of 89 ’. “ Captain Goulden, who
had made above 30 voyages to Greenland, did relate to
his majefty, that being at Greenland fome 20 years be¬
fore, he was in company with two Hollanders to the
eaftward of Edge’s ifland; and that the whales not ap¬
pearing on the ftiore, the Flollanders were determined to
go farther northward; and in a fortnight’s time return¬
ed, and gave it out that they had failed into the lati¬
tude Sp'-1, and that they did not meet with any ice, but
a free and open fea, and that there run a very hollow
grown fea like that of the Bay of Bifcay. Mr Gould¬
en being not fatisfied with the bare relation, they pro¬
duced him four journals out of the two (hips, which
teftified the fame, and that they all agreed within four
minutes.’*
POL
Me- minutes/’-"?. In the Philofophlcal Tmnfaftions for
—v jgyc we have the following paffage : “ For it is well
known to all that fail northward, that moll of the north¬
ern coafts are frozen up for many leagues, though in the
open fea it is not fo, no nor under the pot- djef , unlefs by
accident.” In which paffage the having reached the
pole is alluded to as a known fa£t, and as fuch Hated to
the Royal Society.—8. Mr Miller, in his Gardener’s
Dictionary, mentions the voyage of one Captain John-
fon, who reached 88 degrees of latitude. Mr Barring¬
ton was at pains to find a full account of this voyage ;
but met only with the following paffage in Buffon’s
Natural Hiftory, which he takes to be a confirmation
of it. “ I have been allured by perfons of credit, that
an Englifh captain, whofe name was Monfon, inllead of
feeking a paffage to China between the northern coun¬
tries, had direfted his courfe to the pole, and had ap¬
proached it within two degrees, where there was an
open fea, without any ice.” Here he thinks that Mr
Buffon has millaken Johnfon for Monfon'.—9. A map
of the northern hemifphere, publilhed at Berlin (under
the direction of the Academy of Sciences and Belles
Letters), places a Ihip at the pole, as having arrived
there according to the Dutch accounts.—io. Moxon,
hydrographer to Charles II. gives an account of a Dutch
fhip having been two degrees beyond the pole, which
was much relied on by Wood. Fhis veflel found the
weather as warm there as at Amllerdam.
Befides thefe, there are a great number of other tef-
timonies of Ihips which have reached the lat. of 81, 82,
83, 84(A), &c. ; from all which our author concludes,
that if the voyage is attempted at a proper time of the
year, there would not be any great difficulty of reaching
the pole. Thofe vail pieces of ice which commonly
obllruft the navigators, he thinks, proceed from the
mouths of the great Afiatic rivers which run northward
into the frozen ocean, and are driven ealtward and weft-
ward by the currents. But though we Ihould fuppofe
them to come directly from the pole, Hill our author
thinks that this affords an undeniable proof that the
pole itfelf is free from ice ; becaufe, when the pieces
leave it, and come to the fouthward, it is impoffible
that they can at the fame time accumulate at the pole.
C 3°7 1
POL
The extreme cold of the winter air on the continents i’ela.
of Alia and America has afforded room for fufpicion, ^ f
that at the pole itfelf, and for feveral degrees to the why^we
fouthward of it, the fea mull be frozen to a vail depth cannot lup¬
in one folid cake of ice ; but this Mr Barrington refutes ^ the
from feveral confiderations. In the firft place, he fays, aIj ^
that on fuch a fuppofition, by the continual intenfity . oie ro
of the cold, and the accumulation of fnow and frozen frozen,
vapour, this cake of ice mull have been increafing in
thicknefs fince the creation, or at leaft fince the deluge ;
fo that now it mull be equal in height to the highell
mountains in the world, and be vifible at a great diftance,
Befides, the pieces broken off from the fides of fuch an
immenfe mountain muft be much thicker than any ice
that is met with in the northern ocean ; none of which is
above two yards in height above the furface of the wa¬
ter, thofe immenfe pieces called ice-mountains being al¬
ways formed on land.
Again, the fyllem of nature is fo formed, that all parts
of the earth are expofed for the fame length of time, or
nearly fo, throughout the year to the rays of the fun.
But, by reafon of the fpheroidal figure of the terraque¬
ous globe, the poles and polar regions enjoy the fun
fomewhat longer than others ; and hence the Dutch
who wintered in Nova Zembla in 1672 faw the fun a
fortnight fooner than they ought to have done by aftro-
nomical calculations. By reafon of this flatnefs about
the poles, too, the fun not only Urines for a greater fpace
of time on thefe inhofpitable regions, but with lefs ob¬
liquity in the fummer-time, and hence the efteel of his
rays muft'be the greater. Now Mr Barrington confiders
it as an abfurd fuppofition, that this glorious luminary
ftrould ftrine for fix months on a cake of barren ice where
there is neither animal nor vegetable.. He fays that the
polar feas are affigned by nature as the habitation of the
whales, the largeft animals in the creation ; but if the
greateft part of the polar feas are for ever covered with
an impenetrable cake of ice, thefe huge animals will be
confined within very narrow bounds; for they cannot
fubfiil without frequently coming to the top of the
water to breathe.
Laftly, the quantity of water frozen by different de- ~ _
grees of cold is by no means directly in proportion to ic£formeci
Oq 2 the i* not al¬
ways in
■ ——  7—   proportion
to the de-
(a) See M, Bauche's Obfervatwns on the North or Ice Sea, where he gives an account of various attemptsgree of
made to reach the pole, from which he is convinced that the fea is there open, and that the thing is practicable, cold.
M. de Pages, in his Trave/s, Vol. III. informs us, that he wifhed to take a. voyage to the north feas, for the
purpofe of bringing under one view the various obltacles from the ice, which have impeded the refearches of
navigators in thofe feas ; and for this purpofe he was prepared to continue his voyage to as high a latitude as
poffible, and that he might be able to fay whether any land actually exifts north from the coaft of Greenland.
He failed without any encouragement from his court (Iranee) on the 10th of April 1776 fiom the Rexel, in
a Dutch veffel bound to Spitfbergen. On the 16th of May fhe was a little way north of 81°, the higheft lati¬
tude fhe reached.
“ Being now (fays the author) lefs than r8o leagues from the pole, the idea of fo fmall a diftance ferved
effectually to awaken my curiofity. Had I been able to infpire my fellow-voyagers with fentiments limilar to
my own, the winds and currents which at this moment carried us fall' towards tne pole, a region hitherto deemed
inacceffible to the eye of mortals, would have been fainted with acclamations of joy. 1 his quarter, however, is
not the moft eligible for fuch an enterprize : here the fea lying in the vicinity of thofe banks of ice, fo frequent
a little farther to the weft, is much too confined. Neverthelefs; when I confider the very changeable nature
of the fhoals under whatever form, even in their mbft crowded and compaCt Hate ; their conftant changes' and
concuflions which break and detach them from one another, and the various expedients that may be employed
for freeing the fhip from confinement, as well as for obviating impending danger—I am far from viewing a voy¬
age to the pole as a chimerical idea,”
t
Volt.
16
fvlr ircrf-
f.er’s a-gu*
jnent-i a-
gainfi: the
pnllibility
r>f rea-ch
JBg the
pole.
POL [
the inf enfity of the cold, hut likewiie to the duration
of it. Thus, large bodies of water are never frozen in
any temperature of fhort duration, though fhallow bo¬
dies often are. Our author obferves, that as much of
a given mafs of water was frozen in five hours of a tem¬
perature 12° below the freezing point, as was frozen in
one hour of the temperature 501' below it ; and that
long duration of the temperature between 20 and 32
with regard to the congelation of water, equivalent
is. o .  , _   
to intenfity of cold fuch as is marked o and below o in
Fahrenheit, but of fhort duration. See Cold and Con¬
gelation.
On the other hand, Mr Forfier, in his Obfervations,
takes the contrary fide of the queflion with no little
vehemence. “ I know (fays he) that M. de Buffon,
Lomonofof, and Crantz, were of opinion, that the ice
found in the ocean is formed near the lands only from
the frefh water and ice carried down into the fea by the
many rivers in Siberia, Hudfon’s Bay, See. ; and there¬
fore, when we fell in with fuch quantities of ice in De¬
cember 1772, I expefted we fhould foon meet with the
land from whence thefe ice maffes had been detached.
But being difappointed in the difeovery of this land,
though we penetrated beyond the 67° twice, and once
beyond 71°, fouth latitude, and having befides fome
other doubts concerning the exiflence of the pretended
fouthern continent, I thought it neceflary to inquire
what reafons chiefly induced the above authors to form
the opinion that the ice floating in the ocean muft he
formed near land, or that an auftral land is abfolutely
requifite for that purpofe ; and having looked for their
arguments, I find they amount chiefly to this: ‘ That
the ice floating in the ocean is all frefh 1 that fait water
docs not freeze at all; or if it does, it contains briny
particles. They infer from thence, that the ice in the
ocean cannot be formed in the fea far from any land:
there mult therefore exifl: auftral lands ; becaufe, in or¬
der to form an idea of the original of the great iee-mafles
agreeably to what is obferved in the northern hemifphere,
they find that the firft point for fixing the high ice-
iflands is the land ; and, fecondly, that the great quan¬
tity of flat ice is brought down the rivers.’ I have im¬
partially and carefully confidered and examined thefe
arguments, and compared every circumftance with what
we faw in the high fouthern latitude, and with other
known fadts ; and will here infert the refult of all my
inquiries on this fubjedf.
“ Firft, they obferve the ice floating in the ocean to
yield, by melting, frefh water : which I believe to be
true. However, hitherto it has by no means been ge¬
nerally allowed to be frefh for Crantz fays exprefsly,
that 4 the flat pieces (forming what they call the ice¬
fields J are fait, becaufe they were congealed from fea-
water.’ The ise taken up by us for watering the fhip
was of all kinds, and neverthelefs we found it conftantly
frefh : Which proves, either that the principle of ana-
logy cannot be applied indifcriminately in both hemi-
fpheres ; and that one thing may be true in the northern
308 ] POL
hemifphere which is quite othenvife in the fouthern,
from reafons not yet known or difeovered by us ; or we ”
muft think that Crantz and others are miflaken, who
fuppofe the ice floating in the ocean to be fait.
44 The next remark is, That fait water does not freeze
at all; or if it does, it contains briny particles. M. de
BufFon tells us, ‘ that the fea between Nova Zembla
and Spitzbergen, under the 79° north latitude, does not
freeze, as it is there confiderably broad : and that it
is not to be apprehended to find the fea frozen not even
under the pole itfelf; for indeed there is no example of
having ever found a fea wholly frozen over, and at a
confiderable diftance from the fhores; that the only in-
ftance of a fea entirely frozen is that of the Black Sea,
which is narrow and not very fait, and receives a great
many rivers coming from northern regions, and bringing-
down ice: that this fea therefore fometimes freezes to fuch
a degree, that its whole furface is congealed to a confider*
able thicknefs ; and, if the hiftorians are to be credited,
was frozen, in the reign of the emperor Conftantine
Copronymus, 30 ells thick, not including 20 ells of fnow
which was lying on the ice. This fa£t, continues M. de
Buffon, feems to be exaggerated: but it is true, how¬
ever, that it freezes almoft every winter; whilft the
high feas which are 1000 leagues nearer towards the
pole do not freeze; which can have no other caufe
than the difference in faltnefs, and the little quantity of
ice carried out by rivers, if compared to the enormous
quantity of ice which the rivers convey into the Black
Sea.’ M. de Buffon is not miftaken when lie mentions
that the Black Sea frequently freezes. Strabo informs
us, that the people near the Bofphorus Cimmerius pafs-
this fea in carts from Panticapaeum to Phanagorea; and
that Neoptolemus, a general of Mithridates Eupator,,
won a battle with his cavalry on the ice on the very
fpot where he gained a naval vidtory in the fummer.
Marcellinus Comes relates, that under the confulfhip of
Vincentius and Fravita, in the year 401 after Chrift, the
whole furface of the Pontus was covered with ice, and
that the ice in fpring was carried through the Propontis,
during 30 days, like mountains.. Zonaras mentions the fea
between Conftantinople and Scutari frozen to fuch a de¬
gree in the reign of Conftantine Copronymus, that even
loaded carts paffed over it. The prince Demetrius Cante-
mir obferves, that in the year 1620-1 there happened fo
intenfe a froft, that the people walked over the ice from
Conftantinople to Ilkodar. All thefe inftances confirm
M. de Buffon’s affertion. But as this great natural
hiftorian fays that the Black Sea is the only inftance
of a Tea being entirely frozen (b), I muft beg leave to
diffent from him ; for it is equally well attelled that the
Baltic is fometimes entirely frozen, according to Cafpar
Schutz’s account. In the year 1426, the winter was
fo fevere,. that people travelled over the ice acrofs the
Baltic from Dantzic to Lubeck ; and the fea was like-
wife paffable from Denmark to Mecklenburgh : and in
the year 1459 the whole Baltic was entirely frozen, fo-
that peribns travelled, both on foot and on horfeback.
Vole.
i t ■!] * e }rear 860 the Mediterranean was covered with ice, fo that people travelled in carts and horfes acrofs
the Ionian bea to Venice ; (Hermamnus Contradus ap. Pijior. Script, t. ii. p. 236.) And in 1234 the Mediter¬
ranean was again thus frozen, that the Venetian merchants travelled over the ice with their merchandife to what
place they choie j Matth. Pam, p. 78,
P O L
[ 309 1
POL
Pole, over let from Denmark to the \ enedrck Hanf-towns
—V  called Lubeck, Mfmar, Rojlock, and SlrvlfuriJ, wh ch
had never happened before ; people kkewife traveHed
acrofs the Baltic over Ice from Reval m 1.0
Denmark and to Sweden, and back again, without the
leaft danger (c). But, according to Saemund Frode,
even the great German Ocean betwoen Denmark and
Norway was frozen in the year 1048, fo that the wolves
frequently ran over the Ice from one country to the
other. The great northern ocean is likewde molt cer¬
tainly fometimes frozen to a great diftance from any
land : for Muller relates, that in the year 1715 a Coi-
fack called Markoff", with fome other perfons, was lent
by the Ruffian government to explore the north lea;
but finding it next to impoffible to make any progrels
during fummer on account of the vaft quantities ol ice
commonly filling this ocean, he at laft determined to
try the experiment during winter. He therefore took
feveral fledges drawn according to the cuitom ot the
country by dogs, which commonly go about 80 or 100
verfts per day, 105 of which make a degree ; and cm
. March the i^th, old ftyle, with this caravan of nine
perfons, he left the (hores of Siberia at the mouth of the
river Yana, under the 710 of north latitude, and pro-
ceeded for feven days together northward, io that he
had reached at leaft the 770 or 78° north latitude, when
he was Hopped by the ice, which there began to appear
in the fliape of prodigious mountains. Fie climbed up
to the top of fome of thefe ice-mountains: but feeing
from thence no land, nor any thing except ice as ar
as the eye could reach, and having befides no more food
for his dogs left, he thought it very neceffary to return ;
which he with great difficulty performed, on April the
cid, as feveral of the dogs, which had penffied for want,
were employed to fupport thofe that remained alive.
Thefe fails, I believe, will convince the unprejudiced
reader, that there are other feas befides the Black Sea
which really do freeze in winter, and that the ice earned
down the rivers could not at leaft freeze the German
Ocean between Norway and Denmark, became the
rivers there are fo fmall, and bear a very mconfiderable
proportion to the immenfe ocean, which, according to
experiments made by Mr Wilke, is very fait though
near the land, in the Swedilh harbour of Landiciona.
“ Now, if fix or fever, degrees of latitude, containing _
from 560 to 420 fea-miles, are not to be reckoned a
great diftance from the land, I do not know in what
manner to argue, becaufe no diftance wh'atfoever will
be reckoned far from any land. Nay, if the Coflack
Markoff, being mounted on one of the higheft ice-
mountains, may be allowed to fee at leaft to the diftance
of 20 leagues, the extent alluded to above muft them
be increafed to 480 Enghfh fea-miles ; winch cei tainly
is very confiderable, and makes it more than probable
that the ocean is frozen in winter, in high northern lati¬
tudes, even as far as the pole. Befides, it invalidates
the argument which thefe gentlemen wiih to infer from-
thence, that the ocean does not freeze in high latitudes, efpe-
c'tally where there is a confukrably broad fea ; for we have
fhown inftances to the contrary.
“ But M. de Buffon fpeaks of ice earned down the
rivers into the northern ocean, and forming there thefi*
immenfe quantities of ice. ‘ And in cafe, fays he, we
would fuppofe, againft all probability, that at the pole
it could be fo cold as to congeal the furface of the lea,,
it would remain equally incompreheniible how theie
enormous floating ice-maffes could be formed, if t icy
had not laud for a point to fix on, and from whence
they are fevered by the heat of the fun. The two fhip*
which the India Company fent in 1739 upom the dd-
covery of the auftral lands, found, ice in 47° or 48
fouth latitude, but at no great diftance from land ; which
they difeovered, without being able to approach it.
This ice, therefore, muft have come from the interior
parts of the lands near the fouth pole; and we mull
eoniefture, that it follows the courfi* of feveral large
rivers, wallring thefe unknown lauds, in the lame man¬
ner as the rivers Oby, the Yenifea, and the other great
rivers which fall into the northern fea, carry the ice-
maffes, which flop up the ftraits of Waigats for the
greater part of the year, and render the Tartarian fea
macceffible upon this courfe.’ Before we can allow the
analogy between the rivers Oby, Yenifea, and tne reft
which fall into the northern ocean, and thofe coming
from the interior parts of the auftral lands, let us com¬
pare the fituatkm of both countries, fuppofing the
auftral lands really to exift. The Oby, Yemfea, and'
the reft of the Siberian rivers, falling down into the
northern;
Pole;
fc) In 1296 the Baltic was frozen from Gothland to Sweden; fW auSm, MmU, Dm*, in W.JlphnU
*"306^*!; was? during fourteen weeks, covered with Ice between all the Danilhand Swedilh Mauds.
tee faf i roS for' foolpalfengers and horfemen over the lee on the Baltic during fix weeks.
(id. ibid.) rr. r , Vandal l.x. c. 40.) The whole fea was co¬
in 1423 the ice bore riding from Pruffia to Lubec. (C ■ , . . 12 c.I
veredwith ice from Mecklenburg toDenmaik.f' ticett. “ j £ 261.) Tanta erat hyems, ut concreto
^ iffrl CCc"merces ad ulttem'xhylen jlM) etOrcades veheren.ur e
6,™a.^t°ta P^ and D^ar^ ^
that the people travelled over the ice on root, witn iitcig^
LttS or fea between Norway and Denmark was frozen; that from Q*flo> Norway, they
could travel on it to Jutland. (Stre/ow Chron, ffuthdand, p. 14 ■}
Pols
ry
Of the
freezing
®f fait-
water.
POL , [ 31
northern ocean, have their foarces m 48" and 50° north
latitude, where the climate is mild and capable of £iro-
•ducing corn of all kinds. All the rivers of this great
continent increafing, thefe great rivers have kkewife their
fources in mild and temperate climates, and the main
direction of their courfe is from fouth to north ; and
the coaft of the northern ocean, .not reckoning its fmu*
ofities, runs in general weft and eaft. The fmall rivers
which are formed in high latitudes have, properly fpeak-
ing, no fources, no fprings, but carry off only the wa¬
ters generated by the melting of fnow in fpring, and by
the fall of rain in the fhort fummer, and are for the
greateft part dry in autumn. And the reafon of this
phenomenon is obvious, after confidering the conftitu-
tion of the earth in thofe high northern climates. At
Yakut lie, in about 62° north latitude, the foil is eter¬
nally frozen, even in the height of fummer, at the depth
of three feet from the furface. In the years 1685 and
1686, an attempt was made to dig a well; and a man,
bv gi eat and indefatigable labour, continued during two
fummer-feafons, and fucceeded fo far in this laborious
tafL, that he at laft reached the depth of qi feet; but
the whole earth at this depth was frozen, and he met
with no water ; which forced him to defift from fo fruit-
Jefs an attempt. And it is eafy to infer from hence
how impoffible it is that fprings fhould be formed in the
. womb of an eternally frozen foil.
“ The argument, therefore, is now reduced to this,
■ That fait -water does not freeze at all; or, if it does, the
ice contains briny particles. But we have already
produced numberlefs inftances, that the fea does
freeze ; nay, Crantz allows, that the flat pieces of ice
are fait becaufe they-were congealed from fea-water. We
beg leave to add a few decifive fads relative to the free-
zmg of the fea. barentz obferves in the year 1596,
September the 16th, the fea froze two fingers thick’
and next night the ice was as thick again. This hap¬
pened in the midft of September ; what efFedl then
niuft the imenfe froft of a night in January not pro¬
duce ? When Captain James wintered in Charleton’s
Me, the .fea froze in the middle of December 1631.
It remains, therefore, only to examine, whether the*
ice formed in the fea muft neceffarily contain briny
particles. And here I find myfelf in a very difagree-
able dilemma; for during the mtenfe froft of the win¬
ter in 1776, two fets of experiments were made on the
reezing of fea-water, and publilhed, contradidling one
another almoft in every material point. The one by
Mr Edward Nairne F. R. S. an ingenious and accurate
o feiver ; the other by Dr Higgins, who reads lec¬
tures on chemiftry and natural philofophy, and confe-
quently muft be fuppofed to be well acquainted with
Me fubjedt. I will therefore ftill venture to confider
tne queftion as undecided by thefe experiments, and
content myfelf with making a few obfervations on
, : bl,lt Pjevioufly I beg leave to make this gene¬
ral remark, that thofe who are well acquainted with
mechanics, chemiftry, natural philofophy, and the va¬
rious arts which require a nice obfervation of minute
•cn cumftances, need not be informed, that an experi¬
ment or machine fucceeds often very well when made
o] ' POL
nnon a fmaller fcale, but will not anfwer if undertaken Poll*
at lar£e » and> ’Vlte verfa, machines and experiments v—
executed upon a fmall fcale will not produce the effedt
which- they certainly have when made in a more enlar¬
ged manner. A few years ago an experiment made
on the dyeing of fcarlet, did not fucceed when under-
taken on a fmall fcale, whereas it produced the defired
effedt when tried at a dyer’s houfe with the large ap¬
paratus ; and it evidently confirms the above aflertion,
which I think I have a right to apply to the freezing
of falt-water. It is therefore probable, that the ice
formed m the ocean at large, in, a higher latitude, and
xn a more mtenfe degree of cold, whereof we have no
idea here, may become folid, and free from any briny
particles, though a few experiments made by Dr
Higgins, in his houfe, on the freezing of falt-water,
produced only a loofe fpongy ice filled with briny par-
‘ The ice formed of fea-water by Mr Nairne wasRefulfof
ye7nlaid> 3^ inches long, and 2 inches in diameter; Nairn'*
It follows from thence, that the wafhing the outfide of exl’eri' '
this ice xn frefh water, could not affedt the infide of a mtnfS °R
hard piece of ice. This ice when melted yielded frefh iedt
water, which was fpecifically lighter than water which
was a mixture of rain and fnovv-water, and next in
hghtnels to diftiiled water. Had the ice thus obtain¬
ed not been frefh, the reliduum of the fea-water, af¬
ter this ice had been taken out, could not have been
fpecifically heavier than fea-water, which, however,
was the cafe in Mr Nairne’s experiment. It feems,
therefore, in my opinion, evident from hence, that
fall-water does freeze, and has no other briny par¬
ticles than what adhere to its outfide. All this per-
tedtly agrees with the curious faft related by Mr A-
danion (d), who had brought to France two bottles of
■ "water, taken up in different parts of the ocean, in
older to examine it, and to compare its faltnefs, when
more at leifure; but both the bottles containing the
alt-water were burft by being frozen, and the water
Fpiw • mdtIn& the k'e Proved perfectly frefh.
ns fact is fo fairly ftated, and fo very natural, that
X cannot conceive it is neceffary to fuppofe, with¬
out the leaft foundation for it, that the bottles -were chan¬
ged, or that Mr Adanfon does not mention the circumjlance
by -which the fea-water -w is thus altered upon its being dif-
folved: for as he exprefsly obferves the bottles to have
been burft, it is obvious that the concentrated briny
parts ran out, and were entirely drained from the ice,
which was formed of the frefh water only.
“V1C lce formed by Dr Higgins from fea-water,
conjijled of thin lamina, adhering 10 each other -weakly.
Dr Higgins took out the frozen ice from the veffels
wherein he expofed the fea-water, and continued to do
fo till the remaining concentrated fea-water began to
foim cryftals of fea-falt. Both thefe experiments, there¬
fore, by no means prove what the Doftor intended to
infci fiom thence; for it was wrong to take out fuch
K t, which only conjijied of. th n lamina, adhering to each
oioer -weakly. Had he waited with patience, he would
have obtained a hard ice as well as Mr Nairne, which,
by a more perfect congelation, would have excluded
the
this fub-
*i>) Second Supplement to the Probability of reaching the North Pole, p. u9.
P O- L
[ 311 3
POL
v«\e the b’-inv narticlcs intercepted between the thin lamina, of feveral yards in thicknefs, which grow more and
. * If 1 111.   „ „ .—. ., jCL »• T-v-fr +• 1-a i x r o VCt 1 tl Ht'P T (tT*TTl PM 1 H —
Pole*
adhering to each other weakly ; and would have Qpnne£t-
ed the lamina;, by others formed by frefh water. The
Dodtor found afterwards, it is true, thicker and fome-
what more folid ice ; but the fea-water had already been
fo much concentrated by repeated congelations, that it
is no wonder the ice formed in it became at lalt brack-
xfh : it fliould feem, then, that no conclufive arguments
can be drawn from thefe experiments.
“ There are two other objections againft the for¬
mation of the ice in the great ocean. The ory? is taken
from the immenfe bulk and fize of the ice maffes form¬
ed in the ocean, which is the deepejl mafs of water we
know of. But it has been experimentally proved, that in
the midft of fummer, in the latitudes of 55°, 55p 26 , and
64° fouth, at 100 fathoms depth, the thermometer Hood
at 340, 34°4 and 320 ; and that in all inftances, the dif¬
ference between the temperature at top and 100 fa¬
thoms depth never exceeded four degrees of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer, or that the temperature of the air
did not differ five degrees from that of the ocean at
100 fathom deep. If we now add to this, that be-
vond the 710 fouth the temperature of the air and
ocean muff be ftill colder, and that the rigours of an an-
tarCtic winter are certainly more than fufficient to cool
the ocean to 28c,4, which is requifxte for congealing
the aqueous particles in it; if we moreover confider,
that thefe fevere frofts are continued during iix or eight
months of the year, we may eafily conceive that there
is time enough to congeal large and extenlive maffes of
ice. But it is likewife certain, that there is more than
one way by which thofe immenfe ice maffes are formed.
We fuppofe very juftiy, that the ocean, does freeze, ha¬
ving produced fo many inftances of it; we allow like¬
wife, that the ice thus formed in a calm, perhaps does
not exceed three or four yards in thicknefs; a ftorm
probably often breaks fuch an ice-field, which Crantz
allows to be 200 leagues one way and 80 the other;
the prefiure of the broken fragments againft one ano¬
ther frequently fets one upon the other piece, and they
freeze in that manner together; feveral fuch double
pieces, thrown by another preffure upon one another,
form at laft large maffes of miles extent, and of 20,
40, 60, and more fathoms thicknefs, or of a great
bulk or height. Martens, in his defcription of Spitz-
bergen, remarks, that the pieces of ice caufe fo great
a noife by their (hock, that the navigators in thofe re¬
gions can only with difficulty hear the words of thofe
that fpeak ; and as the ice-pieces are thrown one upon
another, ice-mwuntains are formed by it. And I ob-
ferved very frequently, in the years 1772 and 1773,
when we were among the ice, maffes which had the
moft evident marks of fuch a formation, being compo-
fed of ftrata of fome feet in thicknefs. This is in fome
meafure confirmed by the ftate in which the Coffack
Markoff found the ice at the diftance of 420 miles north
from the Siberian eoafts. The high maffes were not
found formed, as is fufpefted in the Second Jupplement to
the probability of reaching the north pole, p. J 43-145, near
the land, under the high cliffs, but far out at Tea; and
when thefe ice mountains were climbed by Markoff,
nothing but ice, and no veftiges of land, appeared as
far as the eye could reach. The high climates near
the poles are like wife fubjeft to heavy falls of fnow,
more compaft, and by thaws and rain are formed in¬
to folid ice, which increafe the ftupendous fize of the
floating ice mountains.
“ The fecond objection againft the freezing of the
ocean into fuch ice as is found floating in it, is taken
from the opacity of ice formed in fait water ; became
the largeft maffes are commonly tranfparent like cry-
ftal, with a fine blue tint, caufed by the refledtion of
the fea. This argument is very fpecious, and might
be deemed unanfwerable by thofe who are not ufed to
cold winters and their effedts. But whofoever ha*
fpent feveral winters in countries which are fubjedt to
intenfe frofts, will find nothing extraordinary or diffi¬
cult in this argument : for it is a wrell-known fact in
cold countries, that the ice which covers their lakes ,
and rivers is often opaque, efpecially when the froft
fets in, accompanied by a fall of fnow; for, in thofe
inftances, the ice looks, before it hardens, like a dough
or pafte, and when congealed it is opaque and white ;
however, in fpring, a rain and the thaw, follow'ed by
frofty nights, change the opacity and colour of the ice,
and make it quite tranfparent and colourlefs like a cry-
ftal : but, in cafe the thaw continues, and it ceafeS
entirely to freeze, the fame tranfparent ice becomes
foft and porous, and turns again entirely opaque. This
I believe may be applicable to the ice feen by us in
the ocean. The field-ice wras commonly opaque ; fome
of the large maffes, probably drenched by rain, and' fro¬
zen again, were tranfparent and pellucid ; but the fmall
fragments of loofe ice, formed by the decay of the large
maffes, and foaked by long-continued rains, we found to
be porous, foft, and opaque.
“ It is likewife urged as an argument againft the
formation of ice in the ocean, that it always requires
land, in order to have a point upon which it may be
fixed. Firft, I obferve, that in Mr Nairne’s experi¬
ments, the ice was generated on the furface, and was
feen (hooting cryftals downwards: which evidently
evinces, in my opinion, that ice is there formed or ge¬
nerated where the intenfeft cold is; as the air fooner
cools the furface than the depth of the ocean, the ice
(hoots naturally downwards, and cools the ocean more
and more, by which it is prepared for further conge¬
lation. I fuppofe, however, that this happens always
during calms, which are not uncommon in high lati¬
tudes, as we experienced in the late expedition. Nor
does land feem abfolutely neceffary in order to fix the
ice ; for this may be done with as much eafe and pro¬
priety to the large ice mountains which remain undif-
folved floating in the ocean in high latitudes*; or it may,
perhaps, not be improper to fuppofe, that the whole
polar region, from 8oJ and upwards, in the fouthern
hemifphere, remains a folid ice for feveral years toge¬
ther, to which yearly a new circle of ice is added, and
of which, however, part is broken off by the winds
and the return of the mild feafon. Wherever the ice
floats in large maffes, and fometimes in compaft bo¬
dies formed of an infinite number of fmall pieces, there
it is by no means difficult to freeze the whole into one
piece; for amongft the ice the wind has not a power
of railing high and great waves. This circumftance
was not entirely unknown to the ancients ; and it is
probable they acquired this information from the natives-
7 ®i
POL £ 3
' Pole. -oF ancient Gaul, and from the Britons and other nor-
  them nations, who fometimes undertook long voyages.
The northern ocean was called by the ancients the fro¬
zen, the deaJ, the fazy, and immoveable fea : fometimes
they gave it the name mare cranium, the concrete fea,
and morimarufa, the dead fea. And, what is very re¬
markable, in all the northern cold countries the frolt
fometimes is fo inteufe, that all the waters become fud-
denly coagulated into a kind, of paile or dough, and
thus at once congeal.”
Ohferva- On this reafoning of Mr Forfter’s, however, we mull
tions on obfewe, that it cannot poffibly invalidate any faft which
Mr Forf- jyjj. Barrington has advanced. The bell concerted and
foiling' mo^ P^aufible theory in the world mull yield to expe-
b' rience ; for this is in faft what mull judge all theories.
Now, from what we have already related, it is demon-
ftrated, that in the fpace between the mouths of the
rivers Pialida and Chatanga more ice mull be formed,
and more intenfe colds generated, than in any other
part of the world ; confequently, for a confiderable
fpace both on the call and well fide of that, the fea
mull be more full of ice than anywhere elfe. Now,
between thefe two rivers there is the promontory of
Taimura, which runs out to the latitude of 78"', or near
it, and which of necellity mull obllruft the difperlion
of the ice ; and that it actually does fo is in fome de¬
gree probable, becaufe in one of the Ruffian voyages
above-mentioned the eaftern mouth of the Lena was
quite free, when the weltern ones were entirely choaked
up with ice. Now the mouth of the Yana lies feveral
degrees to the eaftward of the Lena: confequently,
when the ice comes eallward from the Cape of Taimura,
it mull nccelfarily fill all that fea to the latitude of 78°
and upwards; but the Colfack Markoff, if he pro¬
ceeded diredlly north, could not be farther than the
promontory of Taimura, and confequently Hill enve¬
loped among the ioe. Befides, we are certain, that the
fea in 78 is not at all frozen into a folid cake in fome
places, fince Lord Mulgrave, in 1773, reached 8i°.
Mr Forller’s argument, therefore, either proves nothing,
or it proves too much. If it proves, that about the
middle of the eallern continent the cold is fo intenfe
that a fufficient quantity of ice is formed to obllrudl
the navigation for feveral hundred miles round, this
proves nothing ; becaufe we knew before that this mull
f)e the cafe : But if it proves, that the fea mull.be un-
navigable by reafon of ice all round the globe at 78°
N. L. this is too much ; becaufe we certainly know,
that in 1773 Lord Mulgrave reached the latitude of 8i°.
However, though it fhould be allowed that the fea
is quite clear all the way to the pole, it mull be a
very great uncertainty whether any fhip could by that
way reach the Fall Indies ; becaufe we know that it
mull lail down between the continents of Afia and
America, through that llrait whofe mouth mull often
be blocked up with ice driving eallward along the con¬
tinent of Afia.
The fouth pole is Hill more inacceffible than the north
pole ; for the ice is found in much lower fouthern than
northern latitudes. Upon this fubject M. Pages fpeaks
thus: “ Having in former voyages (fays he) vifited
many parts of the terraqueous globe in different lati¬
tudes, I had opportunities of acquiring a confiderable
knowledge of climate in the torrid as well as in the tem¬
perate divifions of the earth. In a fubfequent voyage
ti ] POL
I made, it my bufinefs to be equally well informed re- Po?i
fpe<5ting the reputed inhofpitable genius of the South I!
Seas ; and upon my return from that expedition I en- Po‘em0,
tertained not the fmallell doubt that there exifts a pe-
culiar and perpetual rigour in the fouthern hcmifphere.’
(See his Travels round the World, v. iii. tranflated from
the French, and printed at London, 1792, for Murray.)
This fuperior degree of cold has by many been fuppofed
to proceed from a greater quantity of land about the
fouth than the north pole * ; and the notion of a vail * See A-
continent in thefe regions prevailed almoll univerfidly, merica,
infomuch that many have Ibught for it, but hitherto m!|Qf~~-5,
vain. See the articles Cook’sDifioveries, n° 38—49. and^oifeeveriss *
n° 68. and 69. SovTH-Sea, and Terra Aujlralis. a0 38, &c,'
Magnetic Pole. See Magnet, Magnetism, § 4.
p. 432. and p. 441. and Variation.
North Pole. See Pole.
Pole-Axe, a fort of hatchet nearly refembling a
battle-axe, having an handle about 15 inches in length,
and being furniffied with a lharp point or claw, bending
downwards from the back of its head ; the blade where¬
of is formed like that of any other hatchet. It is prin¬
cipally employed in fea-fights to cut away and deltroy
the rigging of any adverfary who endeavours to board.
Pole-axes are alfo faid to have been fuccefsfully ufed
on fome occafions in boarding an enemy, w’hofe fides
were above thofe of the boarder. This is executed by
detaching feveral gangs to enter at different parts of the
ffiip’s length, at which time the pole-axes are forcibly
driven into her fide, one above another, fo as to form
a fort of fcaling-ladders.
Pole Cat. See Mu stela.
Pole Star. See Astronomy, n° 3. 17. and 39.
POLE IN, in Engliffi antiquity, is a fort of ihoe,
fharp or picked at the point. This faffiion took its
rife in the time of king William Rufus ; and the picks
were fo long, that they were tied up to the knees
with filver or golden chains. They were forbidden by
flat. an. 4 Edw. IV. cap. 7. Tunc Jluxus crinium, tunc
luxus vtjlium, tunc ufus calceorum cum arcuutis aculeis
inventus eft. Malmefb, in Will. ii.
POLEMARCHUS was a magiftrate at Athens,
who had under his care all the ftrangers and fojourners
in the city, over whom he had the fame authority that
the archon had over the citizens. It was his duty to Potters
offer a folemn facrifice to EnyaluS (faid to be the fame Grecian
with Mars, though others will have it that he was only dntiquitieh
one of his attendants), and another to Diana, furnamed
Aypvtcc/j in honour of the famous patriot Harmodius.
It was alfo his bufinefs to take care that the children of
thofe that had loll their lives in the fervice of their coun-
try fhould be provided for out of the public treafury.
POLEMICAL, in matters of literature, an apel-
lation given to books of controverfy, efpecially thofe
in divinity.
POLEMO, who fucceeded Xenocrates in the di¬
rection of the academy, was an Athenian of diflin-
guifhed birth, and in the earlier part of his life a
man of loofe morals. The manner in which he was
reclaimed from the purfuit of infamous plealures, and
brought under the difeipline of philofophy, affords a
memorable example of the power of eloquence employed
in the caufe of virtue. His hiftory is thus related by
Dr Enfield 2 “ As he was, one morning about the
rifing of the fun, returning home from the revels of the
8 night,
/
Po’etno
II
PoJei.burg.
P O L [3'
iright, clad in a loofe robe, crowned with garlands,
ftrongly perfumed, and intoxicated with wine, he palled
by the fchool of Xcnocrates, and faw him furrounded
with his difciples. Unable to refill fo fortunate an op¬
portunity of indulging his fportive humour, he rulhed
without ceremony into the fchool, and took his place
among the philofophers. The whole affembly was
aftonilhed at this rude and indecent intrufion, and all
but Xenocrates difcovered figns of refentment. Xeno-
crates, however, preferved the perfeft command of his
countenance ; and with great prefence of mind turned
his difcourfe from the fubjedl on which he was treating
to the topics of temperance and modelly, which he re¬
commended with fuch llrength of argument, and energy
of language, that Polemo was conltrained to yield to
the force of conviction. Inllead of turning the phdo-
fopher and his doCtnne to ridicule, as he at full intended,
he became fenfible of the folly ol his former conduft ;
was heartily alhamed of the contemptible figure which
he had made in fo refpe&able an alfembly ; took his
garland from his head ; concealed his naked arm under
his cloak ; alfumed a fedate and thoughtful afpeCt; and,
in Ihort, refolved from that hour to relinquifh his licen¬
tious pleafures, and devote himfelf to the purfuit ol
wifdom. I hus was this young man, by the powerful
energy of truth and eloquence, in an i nit ant converted
from an infamous libertine to a relpedlable philofopher.
In fuch a hidden change ol character it is difficult to
avoid paffing from one extreme to another. Polemo,
after his reformation, in order to brace up his mind to
the tone of rigid virtue, conllantly pradliled the fevered
nullerity and moll hardy fortitude. From the thirtieth
year of his age to his death he drank nothing but water.
When he fuffered violent pain, he ffiowed no external
fign of anguiffi. In order to preferve his mind undif-
turbed by paffion, he habituated himfelf to fpeak in an
uniform tone of voice, without elevation or depreffion.
The aullerity of his manners was, however, tempered
with urbanity and generolity. He was fond of folitude,
and pafTed much of his time in a garden near his fchool.
He died, at an advanced age, of a confumption. Of
his tenets little is faid by the ancients, becaufe he llrictly
adhered to the doctrine of Plato.”
POLEMONIUM, Greek Valerian, or Jacob's
Ladder : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging
to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 29th order, Campanacea.
The corolla is quinquepartite ; the llamina inferted into
leaks, which clofe the bottom of the corolla; the llig-
irra is trifid : the capfule bilocular fuperior. There are
two fpecies, of which the moll remarkable is the coeru-
ieum, with an empalement longer than the flower. It
grows naturally in fome places of England : however,
its beauty has obtained it a place in the gardens. There
are three varieties; one with a white, another with a
blue, and another with a variegated flower; alfo a kind
with variegated leaves. They are ealily propagated by
feeds ; but that kind with variegated leaves is preferved
by parting its roots, becaufe the plants raifed from feeds
would be apt to degenerate and become plain.
POLEMOSCOPE, in optics, the fame with Opera-
glass. See Dioptrics, p. 37. col. 1. par. 3.
POLENBURG (Cornelius), an excellent painter
of little landfcapes and figures, was born at Utrecht in
1586, and educated under Blomaert, whom he foon
Vol. XV. Part I.
3 ] POL
quitted to travel into Italy ; and lludied for a long time Pokron
in Rome and Florence, where he formed a llyle en-^ _
tirely new, which, though preferable to the Flemifh, is —
unlike any Italian, except in his having adorned his
landfcapes with ruins. There is a varniffied fmoothnefs
and finiffiing in his pictures, that render them always
pleafing, though fimple and too nearly refembling one
another. The Roman cardinals were charmed with
the neatnefs of his works, as was alfo the great duke ;
but could not retain him. He returned to Utrecht,
and pleafed Rubens, who had feveral of his performances.
King Charles I. invited him to London, where he ge¬
nerally painted the figures in Steenwyck’s perfpeftives :
but the king could not prevail on him to fix here ; for
after Haying only four years, and being handfomely re¬
warded by his majefty for feveral pieces which he per¬
formed for him, he returned to Utrecht, and died
there at the age of 74. His works are very fcarce
and valuable.
POLE RON, one of the Banda or nutmeg iflands
in the Eail Indies. This was one of thofe fpice iflands
which put themfelves under the protedlion of the Eng-
lifli, and voluntarily acknowledged James I. king ol
England for their fovereign ; for which reafon the na¬
tives of this and the reft of the iflands were murdered
or driven thence by the Dutch, together with the
Engl flu
POLE SI A, a province of Poland, bounded by Po-
lachio and Proper Lithuania on the north, and by Vol-
hinia on the fouth. It is one of the palatinates of Li¬
thuania, and is commonly called Brefcia, and its capital
is of this name. It is full of forefts and lakes.
POLESINO-de-Rovicjo, a province of Italy, in the
republic of Venice, lying to the north of the river Po ;
and bounded on that iide by the Paduan, on the fouth
by the Ferrarefe, on the eafl by Degado, and on the
weft by the Veronefe. It is 45 miles in length, and
17 in breadth, and is a fertile country. Rovigo is the
capital.
POLETiE were ten magiftrates of Athens, who,
with three that had the management of money allowed
for public {hows, were empowered to let out the tribute-
money and other public revenues, and to fell connfcated
eftates ; all which bargains were ratified by their pre-
iident, or in his name. They were by their office alfo
bound to convidl fuch as had not paid the tribute called
MiJoixx ., and fell them in the market by audlion. The
market where thefe wretches were fold was called
POLIANTHES, the Tuberose : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
10th order, Coronaria. The corolla is funnel-fhaped,
incurvated, and equal; the filaments are inferted into
the throat of the corolla; in the bottom of which the
germen is fituated. There is but one fpecies, confifting
of fome varieties ; all of which being exotics of tender
quality, require aid of artificial heat, under ffielter of
frames and glades, &c. to bring them to flower in per-
fedtion in this countiy. The polianthes, or tuberofe,
hath an oblong, bulb-like, tuberous, white root; crown¬
ed with a few long very narrow leaves ; amidft them an
upright, ftraight, firm Item, three or four feet high,
terminated by a long fpike of large white flowers ar¬
ranged alternately. The varieties are the common tu-
R r berofej
POL [ 3H j POL
Poliantheg. berofe> w;th fmgle flowers,—double-flowered,—dwarf-
ftalked,—variegated-leaved. They all flower here in
June, July, and Auguft: the flowers arc funnel or bell
fhaped ; garnifh the upper part of the ftem in a long
fpike, confifting of from 10 to 20 or more feparate in
alternate arrangements, the lower flowers opening firft,
which are fucceeded by thofe above, in regular order,
making in the whole a moil beautiful appearance, highly
enriched with a moll fragrant odour. The common
Angle-flowered tuberofe is the fort the rood commonly
cultivated, as it generally blows the moll freely, and
poflefies the fined fragrance. The double-flowered
kind alfo highly merits culture, as when it blows fair it
makes a Angularly fine appearance. The dwarf and
the variegated kinds are inferior to the other two, but
may be cultivated for variety.
All the varieties being exotics from warm countries,
although they are made to flower in great perfection in
our gardens by aflidance of hot-beds, they will not
profper in the open ground, and do not increafe freely
in England; fo that a fupply of the roots is imported
hither annually from Genoa, and other parts of Italy,
by mod of the eminent nurfery and feedfmen, and the
Italian warehoufe-keepers ; generally arriving in Febru¬
ary or March, time enough for the enfuing dimmer’s
bloom ; and are fold commonly at the rate of twelve or
fifteen {hillings per hundred, being careful always to
procure as large roots as pofiible, for oh this depends
the fuccefs of having a complete blow. They, requiring
artificial heat to blow them in this country, are planted
in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed, under a deep frame
furniflied with glafs lights ; or placed in a hot-houfe,
where they may be blowed to great perfection with
little trouble. The principal feafon for planting them
is March and April: obferving, however, that in order
10 continue a long fucceffion of the bloom, it is proper
to make two or three different plantiqgs, at about a
month interval; one in March, another in April, and a
third the beginning of May, whereby the blow may be
continued from June until September; obferving, as
above-mentioned, they may be flowered either by aid of
a common dung or bark hot-bed, or in a hot-houfe.
With refpeCl to the propagation of thefe plants, it
is principally by offsets of the roots. The blowing
roots that are brought annually from abroad for fale are
often furniftied with offsets, which ought to be feparated
previous to planting. Thofe alfo that are planted here
in our gardens frequently furnifli offsets fit for feparation
in autumn when the leaves decay: they muff then be
preferved in fand all winter in a dry fheltered place ;
and in the beginning of March, plant them either in
a bed of light dry earth in the full ground ; or, to for¬
ward them as much as poffible, allow them a moderate
hot-bed; and in either method indulge them with a
/belter in cold weather, either of a frame and lights, or
arched with hoops and occafionally matted; but let
them enjoy the full air in all mikl weather, giving alfo
plenty of water in dry weather during the feafon of
their growth in fpring and fummer. Thus let them
grow till their leaves again decay in autumn : then take
them up, clean them from earth, and lay them in
fand till fpring ; at which time fuch roots as are
large enough to blow may be planted and managed as
already directed, and the fmaller roots planted again in
a mirfcry-bed, to have another year’s growth ; after¬
wards plant them for flowering. The Egyptians put Policandr©
the flowers of tuberofe into fweet oil; and by this .11
means give it a moft excellent flavour, fcarce inferior to Po^gnac',<
oil of jafmine, y u -
POLICANDRO, a fmall ifland in the Archipelago,
feated between Milo and Morgo. It has no harbour,
but has a town about three miles from the fhore near a
huge rock. It is a ragged llony ifland, but yields as
much corn as is fufficient for the inhabitants, who con-
fift of about 120 Greek families, all Chriitians. The
only commodity is cotton ; of which they make napkins,
a dozen of which are fold for a crown. E. Long. 35. 25.
N. Eat. 36. 36.
POLICASTRO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Principato ; but
now almoft in ruins, for which reafon the bifliop refides
in another town. E. Long. 15. 46. N. Lat. 40. 26.
POLICY, or Polity, in matters of government.
See Polity.
Poucr of Infurance, or si fur a nee, of fhips, is a con¬
tract or convention, whereby a perfon takes upon him-
felf the rifks of a fea-voyage ; obliging himfelf to make
good the Ioffes and damages that may befal the veffel,
its equipage, tackle, victualling, lading, &c. either from
tempefts, fhipwrecks, pirates, fire, war, reprifals, in part
or in whole ; in confideration of a certain fum of feven,
eight, or ten per cent, more or lefs according to the rifle:
run; which fum is paid down to the affurer by the af-
fui'ee upon his figning the policy. See Insurance.
POLIDORO da Caravaggio, an eminent painter,
born at Caravaggio in the Milanefe in 1492. He went
young to Rome, where he worked as a labourer in
preparing ftucco for the painters; and was fo animated
by feeing them at work in the Vatican, that he folicited
fome of them to teach him the rules of defigning. He
attached himfelf particularly to Maturino, a young Flo¬
rentine ; and a fimilarity in talents and tafte producing
a diiinterefted affeftion, they affociated like brothers,
laboured together, and lived on on^ common purfe, un¬
til the death of Maturino. He underilood and praeffifed
the chiaro-fcuro in a degree fuperior to any in the Ro¬
man fchool; and finiflied an incredible number of pictures
both in frefco and in oil, few of the public buildings at
Rome being without fome of his paintings. Being
obliged to fly from Rome when it was ftormed and pil¬
laged, he retired to Meffina, where he obtained a large
fum of money with great reputation, by painting the
triumphal arches for the reception of Charles V. after
his victory at Tunis: and when he wras prepai'ing to
return to Rome, he was murdered, for the fake of his
riches, by his Sicilian valet with other affaflins, in the
year 1543.
POLIFOLIA. See Andromeda.
POLIGNAC (Melchier de), an excellent French
genius and a cardinal, was born of an ancient and noble
family at Puy, the capital of Velay, in 1662. Fie
was fent by Louis XIV. ambaffador extraordinary to.
Poland, where, on the death of Sobielki, he formed a
projeCt of procuring the eleftion of the prince of Conti.
But failing, he returned home under fome difgrace ;
but when rellored to favour, he was fent to Rome as
auditor of the Rota. He was plenipotentiary during
the congrefs at Utrecht, at which time Clement 1.
created him a cardinal; and upon the acceffionof Louis
.XV. he was appointed to refide at Rome as minifter of
France,
Politenef*.
POL [ 3.
poUfter Trascp. He remained there till the year 1732, and
died in the year 1741. He left behind him a MS.
poem entitled Anti-Lucretiusy feu De Deo et Natura ;
the plan of which he is faid to have formed in Holland
in a converfation with Mr Bayle. This celebrated poem
was firll publifhed in the year 1749, and hag fince been
feveral times printed in other countries beiides France.
He had been received into the French Academy in 1704,
into the Academy of Sciences in 1715, into that of the
Belles Lettres in 1717: and he would have been an or¬
nament to any fociety, having all the accomplilhments
of a man of parts and learning.
POLISHER, or Burnisher, among mechanics,
an inftrument for polilhing and burnifhing things pro¬
per to take a polilh. The gilders ufe an iron-poliiher
to prepare their metals before gilding, and the blood-
ftone to give them the bright polifh after gilding.
The polifhers, among cutlers, are a kind of wooden
wheels made of walnut-tree, about an inch thick, and
of a diameter at pleafure, which are turned round by a
great wheel; upon thefe they fmooth and polifh their
w’ork with emery and putty.
The polifhers for glafs confifl of two pieces of wood;
the one flat, covered with old hat ; the other long
and half-round, faftened on the former, whofe edge
it exceeds on both fldes by fome inches, which ferves
the workmen to take hold of, and to wrork backwards
and forwards by.
The polifhers ufed by fpedtacle-makers are pieces
of wood a foot long, feveti or eight inches broad, and
an inch and a half thick, covered with old beaver hat,
whereon they polifh the {hell and horn frames their fpec-
tacle-glaffes are to be fet in.
POLISHING, in general, the operation of giving
a glofs or luftre to certain fubftances, as metals, glafs,
marble, &c.
The operation of polifh ing optic-glafies, after being
properly ground, is one of the moll difficult points of
the whole procefs. See Telescope.
POLITENESS means elegance of manners or
good breeding : Lord Chefterfield calls it the art of
pleafing. It has alfo been called an artificial good na¬
ture ; and indeed good nature is the foundation of
true politenefs; without which art will make but a
very indifferent figure, and will generally defeat its
own ends. “ Where compliance and affent, caution
* Lr Knox, and candour, fays an elegant effayift*,' arife from a na¬
tural tendernefs of difpofition and foftnefs of nature,
as they fometimes do, they are almoft amiable and
certainly excufable; but as the effects of artifice, they
muff be defpifed. 1 he perfons who poffefs them are,
indeed, often themfelves dupes of their own deceit,
when they imagine others are deluded by it. For ex-
ceffive art always betrays itfelf; and many, who do not
openly take notice of the deceiver, from motives of de¬
licacy and tendernefs for his character, fecretly deride
and warmly refent his ineffeftual fubtilty.”
4 Beautiesef “ True politenefs (fays another author f) is that con-
(iijlory. tinual attention which humanity infpires us with, both to
pleafe others, and to avoid giving them offence. The
furly plain-dealer exclaims loudly -againft this virtue, and
prefers his own fhocking bluntnefs and Gothic freedom.
I he courtier and fawning flatterer, on the contrary, fub-
futute in its place infipkl compliments, cringings, and a
jargon of unmeaning leniences. The one blames polite--
s 1 L 0. L
nefs, becaufe he takes it for a vice ; and the other L Politeaeft.
the occafion of this, becaufe that which he praftifei
is really fo.”
Both thefe characters aft from motives equally ab-
furd, though not equally criminal. The conduft of the
artful flatterer is guided by felf-love, w'hile that of the
plain-dealer is the effeft of ignorance ; for nothing »
more certain, than that tire defire of pleafing is found¬
ed on the mutual wants and the mutual wifhes of man¬
kind ; on the pleafure which we wiih to derive from fo¬
ciety, and the charafter which we wifh to acquire.
Men having difcovered that it was neceffary and agree¬
able to unite for their common intereils, they have made
laws to reprefs the wicked, they have fettled the duties
of focial life, and connefted the idea of refpeftability
with the praftice of thofe duties ; and after having
preferibed the regulations neceffary to their common
fafety, they have endeavoured to render their commerce
with one another agreeable, by eftablifhing the rules of
politenefs and good breeding. Indeed, as an elegant
author already quoted remarks, the philofopher who,
in the auflerity of his virtue, fhould condemn the art of
pleafing as unworthy cultivation, would deferve little
attention from mankind, and might be difmiffed to his
folitary tub, like his brother Diogenes. It is the dic¬
tate of humanity, that we fhould endeavour to render
ourfelves agreeable to thofe in whofe company we are
defiined to travel in the journey of life. It is our in-
terefl, it is the fource of perpetual fatfsfaftion ; it is
one of our moll important duties as men, and particu¬
larly required in the profeffor of Chriflianity.”
It is needlefs to particularize the motives which have
induced men to praftife the agreeable virtues; for,
from whatever fource the defire of pleafing proceeds, it
has always inereafed in proportion to the general civili¬
zation of mankind. In a rude flate of fociety, pleafure
is limited in its fonrees and in its operation. When the
wants of mankind, and the means of attaining them, are
few, perfonal application is neceffary to gratify them, and
it is generally fufficient; by which means an individual
becomes more independent than can poffibly be the cafe
in civilized life, and of courfe lefs difpofed to give or re¬
ceive affiftance. Confined to the folitary wifh of furnifli-
ing means for his own happinefs, he is little intent on the
pleafures of converfation and fociety. His defire of com¬
munication is equal to the extent of his knowledge. But
as foon as the natural wants of life are filled up, we find
unoccupied time, and we labour hard to make it pafs in
an agreeable manner. It is then we perceive the advan¬
tage of poffeffing a rational nature, and the delights of
mutual intercourfe. When we confider fociety in that
ftate of perfeftion which enables a great part of the
members of it to purfue at leifure the pleafures of con¬
verfation, we fhould expeft, both from the eafe of ac¬
quitting ourfelves to the fatisfaftion of our affociates,
and from the advantages arifing from this conduft, that
the art of pleafing might be reduced to a few plain and
fimple rules, and that thefe might be derived from a
flight attention to general manners.
The art of pleafing, in our intercourfe with man¬
kind, is' indeed fo fimple, that it requires nothing more
than the conflant defire to pleafe in all our words and
aftions ; and the praftice of it can neither wound a
man’s felf-love, nor be prejudicial to his infereft in any
poffible lit nation.
R r 2 But
POL [31
But though this be certain, it is doubtlefs lefs attended
to than in reafon it ought to be. Each particular man
is fo zealous to promote his own ends or his own pleafure,
as to fbrget that his neighbour has claims equal to his
own; that every man that enters into company gives
up for the time a great many of his peculiar rights ; and
that he then forms part of an affociation, met together
not for the particular gratification of any one, but for
the purpofe of general fatisfadtion. See Breeding,
Conversation, and Good Manners.
The qualities effential in the art of pleafing, are vir¬
tue, knowledge, and manners. All the virtues which
form a good and refpedtabie charadter in a moral fenfe
are efihntial to the art of pleafing. This muft be an
eftablilhed principle, becaufe it depends on the wants
and mutual relations of fociety. In all affairs of com¬
mon bufinefs, we delight in tranfadling with men in
whom we can place confidence,*and in whom we find
integrity ; but truth is fo naturally pleafing, and the
common affairs of life are fo interwoven with focial in-
tercourfe, that we derive abundantly more fatisfadtion
from an honell character than from fpecious manners.
“ Should you be fufpedted (fays Chefterfield) of in-
juftice, malignity, perfidy, lying, &c. all the parts
and knowledge of the world will never procure you
efteem, friendfhip, and refpedt.”
The firft of virtues in our commerce with the world,
and the chief in giving pleafure to thofe with whom we
affociate, is inviolable fincerity of heart. We can ne¬
ver be too punctual in the moft fcrupulous tendernefs
to our moral character in this refpedt, nor too nicely af¬
fected in preferving our integrity.
The peculiar modes, even of the fafhionable world,
which are founded in diffimulation, and which on this
account have induced feveral to recommend the prac¬
tice, would not prevent a man of the highefl integrity
from being acceptable in the very belt company. Ac¬
knowledged fincerity gives the fame ornament to cha¬
racter that modefly does to manners. It would abun¬
dantly atone for the want of ridiculous ceremony, or
falfe and unmeaning profefiions ; and it would in no re-
fpeCt diminifh the luitre of a noble air, or the perfection
of an elegant addrefs.
If integrity be the foundation of that character which
is moft generally acceptable, or which, in other words,
pofteffes the power of pleafing in the higheft degree,
humanity and modefty are its higheft ornaments.
The whole art of pleafing, as far as the virtues are
concerned, may be derived from the one or othef of
thefe fources. Humanity comprehends the difplay of
every thing amiable to others ; modefty removes or fup-
preffes every thing offenfive in ourfelves.
This modefty, however, is not inconfiftent with firm-
nefs and dignity of character: it arifes rather from
the knowledge of our imperfeCtion compared with a
certain ftandard, than from confcious ignorance of what
we ought to know. We muft therefore diftinguifh be¬
tween this modefty and what the French call mauvaife
honte. The one is the unaffeCted and unaftuming prin¬
ciple which leads us to give preference to the merit of
others, the other is the aukward ftruggling of nature
over her own infirmities. The firft gives an additional
luftre to ever}’’ good quality ; while fome people, from
feeling the pain and inconveniency of the mauvaife
honte, have ruftied into the other extreme, and turned
6 1 POL
impudent, as cowards fometimes grow defperate from Politer tfs.
excels of danger. The medium between thefe two ex- "’v  
tremes marks out the well-bred man ; he feels himlelf
firm and eafy in all companies, is modeft without being
bafhful, and Heady without being impudent.
A man pofiefling the amiable virtues is ftill farther
prepared to pleafe, by having in his own mind a perpe¬
tual fund of fatisfaCtion and entertainment. He is put
to no trouble in concealing thoughts wdfich it would be
difgraceful to avow, and he is not anxious to difplay
virtues which his daily converfation and his conftant
looks render vifible.
The next ingredient in the art of pleafing, is to pof-
fefs a correft and enlightened underftanding, and a fund
of rational knowledge. With virtue and modefty we
muft be able to entertain and inftruCl thofe with whom
we aftbciate.
The faculty of communicating ideas is peculiar to
man, and the pleafure which he derives from the inter¬
change alone is one of the moft important of his blef-
fings. Mankind are formed with numberlefs wants, and
wdth a mutual powrer of affifting each other. It is a beau¬
tiful and happy part of the fame perfect plan, that they
are likewife formed to delight in each other’s company,
and in the mutual interchange of their thoughts. The
different fpecies of communication, in a highly polifhed
age, are as numerous as the different ranks, employments,
and occupations of men; and indeed the knowledge which
men wilh to communicate, takes its tinge from their
peculiar profeffion or occupation.
Thus commercial men delight to talk of their trade,
and of the nature of public bufinefs ; men of pleafure,
who wiih merely to vary or quicken their amufements,
are in converfation light, trifling, and infincere ; and
the literati delight to dwell on new books, learned men,
and important difcoveries in fcience or in arts. But as
the different claffes of men will frequently meet toge¬
ther, all parties muft fo contrive matters, as to combine
the ufeful and agreeable together, fo as to give the
greateft delight at the time, and the Jgreateft pleafure
on refleftion. An attention to thefe principles would
make the man of pleafure and the man of learning meet
together on equal terms, and derive mutual advantage
from their different qualifications. With due attention
to fuch ideas, we proceed to mention the kinds of
knowledge which are moft fitted for converfation.
Thofe who wifh to pleafe fhould particularly endea¬
vour to be informed in thofe points which moft gene¬
rally occur. An accurate or extenfive knowledge on
learned fubjetfts is by no means fufficient: we muft alfo
have an accurate and extenfive knowledge of the com¬
mon occurrences of life.
It is the knowledge of mankind, of governments, of
hiftory, of public charafters, and of the fprings which
put the great and the little aftions of the world in
motion, which give real pleafure and rational inftruc-
tion. The knowledge which we communicate muft;
in fome fhape be interefting to thofe to whom we com¬
municate it ; of that nature, that the deiire of recei¬
ving it may overbalance every kind of difguft, excited
too often on the fcore of envy and felf-love, againft
thofe who happen to poffefs fuperior endowments, and
at the fame time of that importance, as to elevate the
thoughts fomewhat above the actions and the faults of
the narrow circle formed in our own immediate neigh¬
bourhood.
P O I
'olitenefa bourKood. On this account .it is recommended oy an
" -y author who fully knew mankind^ as a maxim of great
importance in the art of pleaiing, to be acquainted with
the private charafter of thofe men who, from their fta-
tion or their aaions, are making a figure in the world.
We naturally wilh to fee fuch men in their retired and
undifguifed moments; and he who can gratify us is high¬
ly acceptable. Hiftory of all kinds, fitly introduced,
and occafionally embellifhed with pleafing anecdotes, is
a chief part of our entertainment in the intercourfe. of
life. This is receiving inftru&ion, without exciting
much envy ; it depends on memory, and memory is one
of thofe talents the pofleffion of which we leaft grudge
to our neighbour. Our knowledge of hiftoiy, at the
fame time, mull not appear in long and tedious details ;
but in apt and well-chofen allufions, calculated to illuf-
trate the particular fubjeft of converfation. But the
knowledge moll neceflary is that of the human heart.
This is acquired by conftant obfervation on the manners
and maxims of the world, connected with that which
pafies in our own minds. I his leads us from the com¬
mon details of conduct, from {lander and defamation,
to the fources and principles of aftion, and enables us
to enter into what may be called the philofophy of con¬
verfation. We may fee both the prafticability of this
kind of difeourfe, and the nature of it, in the following
lines of Horace :
Sermo oritur, non de villis domibufve alienis ;
Nec male necne Lepos faltet : fed quod magis ad nos
Pertinet, & nefeire malum eft, agitamus : utrumne
Divitiis homines, an fint virtute beat! ?
Quidve ad amicitias, ufus re&umne, trahat nos ?
ST quae lit natura boni, fummumque quid ejus ? See.
By this means conftant materials are fupplied for free,
eafy, and fpirited communication. The reftraints which
are impofed on mankind, either from what their own
character may fuffer, or from the apprehenfion of gi¬
ving offence to others, are entirely taken off, and they
have a fufficient quantity of current coin for all the com¬
mon purpofes of life.
In addition to virtue and knowledge, which are the
chief ingredients in the art of pleafing, we have to con-
fider graceful and eafy manners. Lord Chefterfield in¬
deed confiders thefe as the moft effential and important
part ; as if the diamond received its whole value from
the polilh. But though he is unqueftionably miltaken,
there is yet a certain fweetnefs of manners which is
particularly engaging in our commerce with the world.
It is that which conftitutes the chara&er which the
French, under the appellation of i’aimab/e, lo much talk
of, and fo juftly value. This is not fo eafily deferibed
as felt. It is the compound refult of different things;
as complaifance, a flexibility, but not a fervility of man¬
ners, an air of foftnefs in the countenance, gefture, and
expreffion, equally whether you concur or differ with
the perfon you converfe with. This is particularly to
be ftudied when we are obliged to refufe a favour afleed
of us, or to fay what in itfelf cannot be very agreeable
to the perfon to whom we fay it. It is then the ne-
ceffary gilding of a difagreeable pill. But this, which
may be called the fuaviter in modo, would degenerate
and fink into a mean and timid complaifance and paf-
fivenefs, if not fupported by firmnefs and dignity of
character. Hence the Latin fentence, fuaviter in modot
POL
fortiler in ret becomes a ufeful and important maxim in Politenefa.
Genuine eafy manners refult from a conftant atten¬
tion to the relations of perfons, things, time, and places.
Were we to converfe with one greatly our fuperior, we
are to be as eafy and unembarraffed as with our equals ;
but yet every look, word, and aeftion, fhould imply,
without any kind of fervile flattery, the greateft refpedt.
In mixed companies, with our equals, greater eafe and
liberty are allowed ; but they too have their proper li¬
mits. There is a focial refpedt neceffary. Our words,
geftures, and attitudes, have a greater degree of lati¬
tude, though not an unbounded one. That eafinefs
of carriage and behaviour which is exceedingly enga¬
ging, widely differs from negligence and inattention,
and by no means implies that one may do whatever he
pleafes ; it cnly means, that one is not to be ftlff, for¬
mal, and embarraffed, difconcerted and alhamed ; but it
requires great attention to, and a fcrupulous obfervation
of, what the French call Us bienfennees ; a word which
implies “ decorum, good-breeding, and propriety.,,
Whatever we ought to do, is to be done with eafe and
unconcern ; whatever is improper, mull not be done at
all. In mixed companies, alfo, different ages and fexes
are to be differently addreffed. Although we are to
be equally eafy with all, old age particularly requires
to be treated with a degree of deference and regard.
It is a good general rule, to accuftom ourfelves to have
a kind feeling to every thing connedted with man ; and
when this is the cafe, we fhall feldom err in the appli¬
cation. Another important point in the bienfeances is,
not to run our own prefent humour and difpofition in-
difcriminately againft every body, but to obferve and
adopt theirs. And if we cannot command one prefent
humour and difpofition, it is neceflary to Angle out
thofe to converfe with who happen to be in the hu¬
mour the neareft to our own* Peremptorinefs and deci-
fion, efpecially in young people, is contrary to the lien-
feances : they fhould feldom feem to diffent, and always
ufe fome foftening mitigating expreffion.
There is a bienfeance alfo with regard to people of
the loweft degree ; a gentleman obferves it with his
footman, and even indeed with the beggar in the
ftreet. He confiders them as objedfs of compaffion,
not of infult ; he fpeaks to neither in a harlh tone, but
corredts the one coolly, and refufes the other with hu¬
manity.
The following obfervations perhaps contain the fum
of the art of pleafing :
1. A fixed and habitual refolution of endeavouring
to pleafe, is a circumftance which will feldom fail of ef-
fedl, and its effedf will every day become more vifible
as this habit increafes in ftrength.
2. This refolution mull be regulated by a very confi-
derable degree of good fenfe.
3. It is a maxim of almoft general application, that
what pleafes us in another will alfo pleafe others in us.
4. A conftant and habitual attention to the different
difpofitions of mankind, to their ruling paffions, and to
their peculiar or occafional humours, is abfolutely necef¬
fary.
5. A man who would pleafe, muft poffefs a firm,,
equal, and fteady temper. And,
6. An eafy and graceful manner, as diftant from baili-
fulnefs on the one hand as -from impudence on the
other.
[ 3'7 1
F O L [ .1
0^ier. « f{e who thinks himfelf fure of pleafmg (fays
i^'qll'i‘ul- Lord Chefterfield), and he who defpairs of it, are equal-
^ j^r £ure to fail," And he is undoubtedly in the right.
The one, by his afluming vanity, is inattentive to the
means of plealing ; and the other, from fear, is ren¬
dered incapable of employing them.
A variety of excellent rules for acquiring politenefs,
with ftridlures on particular kinds of impolitenefs, may be
found in the Spectator, Rambler, Idler, Lounger, Mirror,
and other periodical works of that kind ; in Knox’s Ef-
fays, and among Swift’s Works ; fee Good Manners.
Chefterfiehls Art of Pleafing, and his Letters, are alfo
worthy of perufal, provided the reader be on his guard
againtt the infmcerity and other vices which thofe books
are calculated to infufe, and provided he always bears in
mind what we have endeavoured to Ihow in this article,
that true politenefs does not confift in fpecious manners
. and a difiimulating addrefs, but that it mult always be
founded on real worth and intrinfic virtue.
POLITIAN (Angelo), was born at Monte Pul-
ciano in Tufcany in '454. He learned the Greek
tongue, of which he became a complete malter, under
Andronicus of ThelTalonica. He is laid to have written
verfes both in Greek and Latin when he was not more
than 12 years of age. He Itudied alfo the Platonic
philofophy under Marfilius Ficinus, and that of Ari-
llotle under Argyropylus. He was one of the molt
learned and polite writers of his time. The full work
which gained him a reputation was a poem on the
tournament of Julian de Medicis. The account he
wrote fome time after of the confpiracy of the Pazzi’s
was very much efteemed. He wrote many other pieces
which have merited approbation; and had he lived
longer, he would have enriched the republic of letters
with many excellent works; but he died at the age
of 40 years. His morals anfwered the homelinefs of
his face rather than the beauty of his genius ; for
Paul Jovius informs us, that “ he was a man of aukward
and perverfe manners, of a countenance by no means
open and liberal, a nofe remarkably large, and fquinting
eyes. Fie was crafty, fatirical, and full of inward ma¬
lice : for his conftant way was, to fneer and ridicule the
productions of other men, and never to allow any criti-
cifm, however juft, upon his own.”
He was, neverthelefs, as all acknowledge, a man
of moft confummate erudition ; and not only fo, but a
very polite and elegant writer. Erafmus, in his Cieero-
nianus, calls him a rare miracle of nature, on account of
his excelling in every kind of writing: his words are
remarkable : “ Fateor Angelum prvrfus angelica fulffe
roente, rarum natura miraculum, ad quodcunque fcrlpti ge¬
nus appliraret animum.” Some of his poems were fo
much admired, that feveral learned men have made it
their bufinefs to comment on them. It has been often
reported that he fpoke of the Bible with great con¬
tempt ; and that, having read it but once, he complain¬
ed he had never fpent his time fo ill. But this is not
probable, for it muft be remembered that he was a
prieft and canon of Florence ; and we learn from one
of his Epiftles that he preached a whole Lent. It
does not indeed follow hence, that he did not think
contemptuoufly of the Bible, becaufe many of his
church, efpecially among the better fort, have not been
very good believers, and he might be one of them : but
it is not likely he would fpeak eut fo'freely. “ 1 could
18 1 p o r,
(as Bayle fays) much more ealily believe the judgment I'alk!?*!,
he is faid to have made ou the Pfalms of David and Polftic<d
the Odes of Pindar : he did not deny that there are Ar'thmetic,
many good and fine things in the Pfalms ; but he pre-
tended that the fame things appear in Pindar with more
brightnefs and fweetnefs.” The two Scaligers have
fpoken highly of Politian : the elder has preferred a
confolatory elegy of his to that which Ovidfent to Li-
via upon the death of Drufus, and fays, he had rather
have been the author of it: the younger calls him an
excellent poet, but thinks the Ityle of his epiftles too
elated and declamatory.
His works have been printed at various times, and in
various places : his epiftles have probably been moft read,
becaufe thefe are things which the generality of people
are beft pleafed with.
POLITICAL, from *•<>*<?• “ a city,” fignifies any
thing that relates to policy or civil government.
Political Arithmetic, is the art of reafoning by
figures upon matters relating to government, fuch as
the revenues, number of people, extent and value of
land, taxes, trade, &c. in any nation.
Thefe calculations are generally made with a view
to afeertain the comparative ftrength, profperity, &c.
of any two or more nations.’ With this view, Sir Wil¬
liam Petty, in his Political Arithmetic, p. 74, &c. com¬
putes the land of Holland and Zealand to be about
1,000,000 acres, and that of France to be 8,000,000 ;
and yet the former is one-third part as rich and ftrong
as the latter. The dripping of Europe he computes
to be about 2,000,000, of which Britain has 500,000;
Holland 900,000; France ioo,oco; Hamburgh, Den¬
mark, Sweden, and Dantzic 250,000; and Spain, Por¬
tugal, Italy, &c. the reft. The exports of France he
computes at L. 5,000,000, of which one-fourth came
to Britain; of Holland L. t8,000,00c, of which
L. 300,000 came to Britain. The money raifed year¬
ly by the king of France was about L. 6,5 00,000 Ster¬
ling; that of all the Dutch provinces L. 3,000,000, of
which 2,100,000 was raifed in Holland and Zealand.
The number of people in England he computed to be fix
millions, and their expences, at L. 7 per annum a head,
L. 42,000,000 ; the rent of land L. 8,000,000 ; and
the interefts, &c. of perfonal eltates as much, the rents
of houfes L. 4,000,000, and the profits of labour
L. 26,000,000. The people of Ireland he reckoned
1,200,000. The corn fpent in England, at 51. a bufhel
for wheat, and 2j. (>d. for barley,amounts toL. 10,000,000
a-year. The navy of England then required 36,000
men to man it, and other trade and firipping 48,000.
In France, to manage the whole (hipping trade, there
were then required only 150c men. The whole people
of France were 13,500,000; and thofe of England,
Scotland, and Ireland, about 9,500,000. In the three
kingdoms are about 20,000 churchmen, and in France
more than 270,000. In the dominions of England
were above 40,000 feamen, and in France not more
than 10,000. In England, Scotland, and Ireland, and
all their dependencies, there was then about 60,000
ton of (hipping, worth about 4,500,000 in money.
The fea-line round England, Scotland, and Ireland, and
the adjacent Hies, is about 3800 miles. In the whole
world he reckoned about 350,000,000 of people ; and
thofe with whom the Engliih and Dutch have any com¬
merce, not more than eighty millions; and the value of
commodities
Politic^
rithmetic.
p O I> C 3'9 3
commodities annually traded for in the whole not above
L 4C coo,cco. That the manufaftures exported from
England amounted to about L. 5,000,000 per annum;
lead, tin, and coals, to L. 500,000 per annum. Ihe
value of the French commodities then brought into
England did not exceed L. i,20C,ooo/er annum ; and
the whole calh of England in current money was then
about L. 6,-oc,-00 Sterling. - ,
With thefe calculations Dr Davenant was diiiatisnea ;
and therefore, from the obfervations of Mr Greg. King,
he advanced others of his own. He reckons the land
of England 39 millions of acres ; the number of people
c millions and a half, increafing 9000 a year, making
allowance for wars, plagues, and other accidents. He
reckons the inhabitants of London 530,000 ; ol other
cities and market-towns in England 870,000 ; and thole
of villages, &c. 4,10c,coo. The yearly rent of land
he reckons L. 10,000,000; of houfes, &c. 2,000,000;
the produce of all kinds of grain m a tolerable year
L.Q,075,oco; the annual rentof corn landsL.2,200,000,
and their net produce L. 9,000,000 ; the rent of pa-
Iture, meadows, woods, forefts, commons, heaths, &c.
L. 17,ooo,oco ; the annual produce by cattle in butter,
cheefe, and milk, about L. 2,500,000; the value of
the wool yearly Ihorn about L. 2,000,000 ; of horles
yearly bred about L. 250,000 ; of the flefh yearly Ipent
as food about L. 3,350,000 ; of the tallow and hides
about L. 600,000; of the hay yearly confumed by
horfes about L. 1,300,000; of the hay confumed by
other cattle L. r,000,000; of the timber yearly felled
for building L. 500,000 ; and of the wood yearly Ipent
in firing, &c. about L. 500,000. The proportion of
the land of England to its inhabitants is now about 7*
acres per head ; the value of the wheat, an ar
ley, necefiary for the fullenance of England, amounts
to at lealf L. 6,000,000 Sterling per annum; of the
woollen manufafture about L. 8,000,000 per annum,
and exports of all kinds of the woollen manufacture
amount to above L. 2,000,000 per annum ; the annual
income of England, on which the whole people fubfiit,
and out of which all taxes are paid, is reckoned to be
about L. 43,000,000, that of France L. 81,00c,000,
and of Holland L. 18,250,000. See Davenant s LJfay
on Trade, in vol. vi. of his works. 1' or calculations re.
fpeaing mortality, fee Major Grant’s ObjervaUonson
the Biffs of Mortality, and our article Bills of Mor-
^ InVol. XLIX. of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions we
have an ellimate of the number of people in England
by Dr Brakenridge, from confidenng the number of
houfes and quantity of bread confumed. On the for¬
mer principle he computes the number of peop e to >e
6,257,418 of all ages, counting in England and Wales
011,310 houfes, and allowing fix perfons to a houfe.
From a furvey of the window-lights after tne )^ar
1750, the number of houfes charged in England and
Wales were 690,000, befides 200,000 cottages that
pay nothing ; the whole number therefore was 890,000,
and the number of people, allowing fix to a home,
5,340,000. On the latter principle, he eflimates the
number of quarters .of wheat confumed at home to be
2,c26,100; and allowing a quarter for three perfons
in a year, or feven ounces a day for each perfon, he
concludes the number of people to be 6,078,300. Ot
this number, according to Dr Halley’s rule, he luppo-
V o L
fes about 2,500,000 men able tp carry arms. The coun* A^'~eat{c
try he fuppofes capable of fupportmg one-half more ^
inhabitants, or 9,000,000 ; for, according to Mr l em- PoUtTt
pieman’s furvey, England contains 49»45° h}uaie m“es, •“■""‘v
that is, 31,648,000 acres, of which 23,300,000 acres
are proper to be cultivated ; and allowing three acres,
well manured, for the maintenance of one perfon, there
will be maintenance in England for 8,43C»OCO people;
to which add the produce of fifhing, and it will enable
the country to fupport 9,000,000. In Ireland, Mr
Templeman reckons I7>5S^»000 acre6> of which Dr
Brakenridge thinks 12,000,000 are capable of cultiva¬
tion ; and allowing four acres to each perfon, and the
number of inhabitants to be only 1,coo,000, Ireland
could maintain 2,000,000 more people than it has
now. In Scotland, containing 1,300,000 people, and
17,728,000 acres of land, of which there are 11,000,coo
good acres, allowing five for each perfon, he iuppofes
there may be provifion for 2,200,0co people, or for
700,000 more than there are at prefent. Hence, he
infers, that were both the Britifh ifles properly cultiva¬
ted, there is a provifion for 6,000,000 inhabitants
beyond the prefent number, Extending his furvey to
the whole globe, he fuppofes the whole furface to be
to the quantity of land as 8 to 3, i. e. as 19 ,019,350
to 74,182,331 fquare miles; out of which, deducting,
one-third for waite-grsund, there will be 49,454,887
fquare miles, or 31,651,127,680 good acres. And fta-
tin<r the whole number of inhabitants on the globe to*
be 400,000,00c, there will be 79 good acres to each
perfon. See Dr Halley’s CflAWwfM/w on the fame fub-
je&, and Dr Price's (for a lift of whofe works fee his
life at the word Price), and King on the National
Belt.
POLITICS, the fir ft part of economy.or ethics,
confifting in the well, governing and regulating the af¬
fairs of a ftate for the maintenance of the public lafety,
order, tranquillity, and morals.
Lord Bacon divides politics into three parts, viz. the
prefervation of the ftate, its happinefs flouri/hing, and
its enlargement. Of the firft two, he informs us, vauous
authors have treated, but the laft lias nsver been nan-
died ;. and he has given a fpecimen of an eflay to iup-
ply the want.
POLITY, or Policy, denotes the peculiar form
and conftitution of the government of any ftate or na¬
tion; or the laws, orders, and regulations, relating
thereto *. Polity differs only from politics, as the * See GW
theory from the p raft ice of any art. temmsnU
Of the nature of our focial duties, both private and
political, we have already fpoken at fome length (fee
Moral Philofophy, Part II. chap. iii. and particularly
left, vii.) ; and we {hall have occafion to take a view of
the origin and nature of the feveral political eftablifh-
ments of Europe, &c* hereafter. (See Civil Societt.)
We {hall only further remark in this place upon the ne-
cefiity of always joining politics and morality together.
This view of the fubjeft is indeed antiquated and negleft-
ed; but the conneftion has always been externally re-
fpefted even by thofe who have feparated them the moft
widely. Politics and. morality, far from {landing in oppo-
fition to. each other, have the moft intimate conneftion,
and exhibit the relation which the part bears to the whole;
that is to fay, that politics are only a part or a branch
of morality. No truth can be more evident than this j -
for
Poll
P O L
X
for as morality is the guide of human life, the principle
Pollentla. orcler> .and tlie univerfal fource of real improvement
li—■' v—an. &enu^ne happinefs to all mankind, every thing re¬
lative to the direction of individuals, or the government
of nations, muft be comprehended within its fphere, and
be fubfervient to its laws. AH the fchemes and pro-
jefts of pretended political wifdom, that deviate from or
violate the rules of this mafter-fcience, turn out in the
iffue often to the detriment of their contrivers, always
to that of the nation ; and it is a palpable and abfurd
error to think of advancing the happinefs of one coun¬
try at the expence of the general good of mankind,
i he experience of ages, and the hiftory of the world,
confirm thefe afl'ertions; from which, and from daily
obfervation, we obtain a convincing proof of the wifdom
ot the good old maxim, both in its application to indi¬
viduals and to nations, that “ honetty is the beft po-
icy. See Baron Dahlberg’s Confidesations on the Con-
neBion between Morality and Politics, read by himfelf to
the Academy of Sciences at Erfurt.
POLL, a word gfed in ancient writings for the head:
hence to poll, is either to vote, or to enter down the
names of thofe perfons who give their votes at an elec¬
tion.
Poll-Evi/. See Farriery, § xxxii.
. P°LL'Moiiey, or Capitation, a tax impofed by autho-
nty ot parliament, on the perfon or head ; either on all
indifferently, or according to fome known mark or di-
itinction, as quality, calling, &c.
_ Thus, by the ftatute i 8 Car. II. every fubieft in the
kingdom was affeffed by the head, or poll, according
to his degree; every duke L. 100, marquis L. 80, ba-
ronet L. 30, knight L. 20, efquire L. 10, &c. and eve¬
ry fingle private perfon i2d.
I his was no new tax, as appears by former a&s of
parliament.
POLLACHIUS, or Pollack. . See Gadus.
POLLARD, or Crocard, the name of a fort of
bale money current in Ireland in the time of Edward I.
See Simon’s Hi/lory of Irijh Coins, p. 15.
POLLEN, the fecundating or fertilizing dull con-
tamed within the anthene or tops of the llamina, and
difperfed upon the female organ when ripe for the pur-
poles of impregnation. See Botany. ^
• This dull, correfponding to the feminal fluid in ani¬
mals, is commonly of a yellow colour; and is very con-
fpmuons 111 the fummits of Line flowers, as the tulip
and Idy. Its particles are very minute, and of extreme
hardnels. Examined by the microfcope, they are ge¬
nerally found to affume fome determinate form, which
olten predominates, not only through all the fpecies of
a particular genus, but alfo through the genera of a na¬
tural family or order. The powder in quellion being
triturated, and otherwife prepared in the llomach of
bees, by whom great quantities are collefted in the
lairy bruflies with which their legs are covered, is fup-
poled by fome authors to produce the fubftance known
by the name of wax ; a fpecies of vegetable oil, ren¬
dered concrete by the prefence of an acid, which mull
be removed before the lubllance can be rendered fluid.
POLLENTIA, a town or colony of Roman citi¬
zens m the Baleans Major. It is now faid to be Al-
cudia, lituated on the north-eall fide of the ifland Ma-
jorca ^ here was another Pollentia of the Picenum,
hkevvife a colony. It is thought to be either the fame
[ 320 ]
POL
with or near to the Urbs Salvia, but is now extindt.
There was a third of Liguria, fituated at the conflu-
encx of the Stura and Tanarus. Suetonius calls it a
municipiurn, and the people Patient,na Piebs. It was
famous for its abundance of black fleeces ; but was af
ter wards, under Arcadius and Honorius, llained with a
deteat rather of the Romans under Stilico than of the
Got ns under Alancus, though palliated by Claudian
the poet; after which Rome was taken and let on fire
It is now called So/enza, a fmall town of Piedmont, not*
tar from Alti. * ’
POLLEX, in anatomy, denotes either the thumb or
great toe, according as manus or pedis is added to it.
rUTEICHIA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gyma order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants •
and m the natural method ranking with thofe that are
ou t u . Of this there is only one fpecies, viz. the
campplru, or whorl-leaved pollichia, a native of the Cape
ot trood Hope, and flowers in September.
• POLLICIPES, the toe-shell, in natural hiftory,
is the name of a genus of Ihells, the characters of which
are thefe : they are multivalve flat fliells, of a triangu¬
lar figure, each being compofed of feveral lamina:, which
end in a lharp point. They Hand upon pedicles, and
aie lurmlhed with a great number of hairs. We have
only one known fpecies of this genus, which is always
round in large clullers. ;
POLLICIS fressio, and Pollicis versio, were
uied at the combats of gladiators as fignals of life or
death to the vanquiihed combatant; or to the vidor to
ipare or take the life of his antagonift. The polluis
prefio, by which the people granted life to the proftrate
gladiator, was no more than a clenching of the fino-ers
of both hands together, and fo holding the two thumbs
upright c ofe together. The poll,as ve fio, which au-
thonled the viftor to kill the other as a coward, was
the bending back of the thumbs. Such is Dacier’s
opinion ; but others fay the pollicis prejfio was when the
people held up one hand with the thumb bent, and the
pohuis verjto when they fhowed the hand with the
thumb railed. Authors, however, are not perfectly
agreed, though the phrafes pollcem premere, and polUcem
w/YfAY, frequently occur in the Latin claffics as indica¬
tions of the people’s will that a gladiator Ihould live or
die.
POLLIO (Cains Afinius), a celebrated Latin poet
and orator, was of confular dignity, and compofed fome
tragedies which were efteemed, but are now loft. He
was the firft who opened at Rome a library for the ufe
of the public. He was the friend of Mark Antony ;
which prevented his complying with the folicitations of
Auguitus, who preffed him to embrace his party. At
length Auguftus having wrote fome verfes againft Poi-
ho, he was urged to anfwer them: on which he Lid,
‘‘ I fhall take care of writing againft a man who has
the power of profenbing us.” He is praifed by Virgil
and Horace, whofe patron he was.
1 here was another Polho, a friend of Auguftus, who
ufed to feed his fifties with human flefti. This cruelty
was difcoveied when one of his fervants broke a glafs
in the prefence ot Auguftus, who had been invited to
a feaft. T he mailer ordered the fervant to be feized, but
he threw himfelf at the feet of the emperor, and begged
him to interfere, and not to fuffer him to be devoured
by fifties. Upon this the caufes of his apprehenfion
were
POL [ 3 POL
p«llu* ion,were cxainmed; and Auguftus, ailonldied at tlie barbari-
I’oii ux. tv of his favourite, caufed the fervant to be dlfmifled,
'—^—' all the filh p®nds to be filled up, and the cryltal glaffes
of Pollio to be broken to pieces.
POLLUTION, in general, fignifies defilement, or
the rendering a perfon or place unclean or unholy.
For the Jewiih pollutions, fee the article Impurity.
The Romanifis hold a church to be polluted by the
effufion of blood or of feed therein : and that it mull
be confecrated anew. And the Indians are fo fuper-
ftitious on this head, that they break all the vefiels
which thcfe of another religion have drank out of, or
even only touched ; and drain all the water out of a
pond in which a {hanger has bathed.
Pollution, in medicine, a difeafe which confifts in
an involuntary emifiion of the feed in time of deep.
This, in different perfons, is very different in degree ;
fome being affedled with it only once in a week, a foi t-
night, three Weeks, or a month, and others being fubjtcf
to it almoff every night. The perions moff fubjedt to
it, are young men of a fanguineous temperament, who
feed high and lead a fedentary life. When this hap¬
pens to a perfon but once in a fortnight or a month, it
is of no great confequence; but when it happens almoft
every night, it greatly injures the health ; the patient
looks pale and fickly ; in fome the eyes become weak
and inflamed, are fometimes affe&ed with violent de-
flu&ions, and are ufually at laft encircled with a livid
appearance of the fliin. This diftemper is to be cured
rather by a change of life than by medicines. When
it has taken its rife from a high diet and a fedentary
life, a coarfer food and the ufe of exercife will generally
cure it. Perfons fubjeft to this difeafe fliould never
take any ftimulating purges, and muff avoid as much as
poflible all violent paflions of the mind: and though ex¬
ercife is recommended in moderation, yet if this be top
violent, it will rather increafe the diforder than contri¬
bute to its cure.
Se/f-PoLivnoN. See Onanism.
POLLUX (Julius), a Greek writer of antiquity,
flourifhed in the reign of the emperor Commodus, and
was born at Naucrates, a town in Egypt. He was edu¬
cated under the fophifts, and made great progrefs in
grammatical and critical learning. He taught rhetoric
at Athens, and became fo famous that he was made pre¬
ceptor of the emperor Commodus. He drew up for
his ufe, and infcribed to him, while his father Marcus
Antoninus was living, an Onomafiicon or Greek Voca¬
bulary, divided into ten books. It is extant, and con¬
tains a vaft variety of fynonymous words and phrafes,
agreeably to the copioufnefs of the Greek tongue,
ranged under the general claffes of things. It was in¬
tended to facilitate the knowledge of the Greek lan¬
guage to the young prince; and it is ftill very ufeful to
all who have a mind to be perfect in it. rI he firft edi¬
tion of it was printed at Venice by Aldus in I $02, and a
Latin verfion was afterwards made and publifhed with
it: but there was no correct and handfome edition of it
till that of Amfterdam, 1706, in folio, by Lederlinus
and Hemfterhufius. Lederlinus went through the firft
feven books, corre&ing the text and verfion, and fub-
joining his own, with the notes of Salmafius, If. Vof-
fims, Valefius, and of Kuhnius, whofe fcholar he had
been, and whom he fucceeded in the profefforfhip of
the oriental languages in the univerfity of Straiburg.
Vol. XV. Parti,
Hemfterhufius continued the fame method through the IVfux.
three laft books: this learned man has fince diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by an excellent edition of Lucian, and other
monuments of folid and profound literature.
Pollux wrote many other things, none of which re¬
main. He lived to the age of 58. Philoftratus and Lu¬
cian have treated him with much contempt and ridicule.
Philoftrat. de vit. Sophijl. lib. ii. and Lucian in Rheto-
rum praceptore.
Pollux. See Castor and Pollux.
Pollux, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond
magnitude in the conftellation Gemini, or the Twins.
See Castor.
Poilvx and Cajlor, a fiery meteor. See Castor
and Pollux.
POLOCSKI, a palatinate in the duchy of Lithua* /
nia, bounded on the north by the palatinate ofWeytep-
flvi, on the fouth by the Dwina, on the north by Mufco-
vy, and on the weft by Livonia. It is a defert country
full of wood, and had formerly its own dukes.
Polocski, a town of Lithuania, and capital of a pa¬
latinate of the fame name, with two caftles to defend it.
It was taken by the Mufcovites in 1563, and retaken
the fame year. It is feated on the river Dwina, 50
miles fouth-weft of Weytepfki, and 80 eaft of Braflaw.
E. Long. 29. o. N. Eat. 56.4.
POLTROON, or Poltron, a coward or daftard,
wanting courage to perform any thing great or noble.
The word is borrowed from the French, who according
to Salmafius, derive it apoUice truncato; becaufe ancient¬
ly thofe who would avoid going to the wars cut off
their thumb. But Menage, with more probability, de¬
rives it from the Italian padrone, and that from poltro
a “ bed becaufc timorous, pufillanimous people take
pleafure in lying a-bed. Others choofe to derive the
word from the Italian poltro a “colt;” becaufe of that
creature’s readinefs to run away.
POLVERINE, the calcined afhes of a plant ; of a
fimilar nature with our pot-aflies or pearl-aflies. It is
brought from the Levant and Syria; and in the glafs-
trade it is always to be preferred to any other allies. '
The barilla, or pot-alhes of Spain, yield more pure fait
than the polverine of the Levant, but the glafs made
with it has always fome blue tinge : that made with
the polverine is perfectly white, which ought always to
be ufed for the fineft cryftal.
POLYADELPHIA (from many, and
brotherhood), many brotherhoods. The name of the 18th
clafs of Linnseus’s fexual fyRem, confiffing of plants
with hermaphrodite flowers, in which feveral ftamina
oij male organs are united by their filaments into three
or more diltin<ft bundles.
POLYiENUS, the name of many famous men re¬
corded in ancient writers. Among them was Julius
Polyamus, of whom we have fome Greek epigrams ex¬
tant in the firft book of the Jlnthologia. The Polya*
nus whom it moft concerns us to know about, is the
author of the eight books of the Stratagems of illuftrjous
Commanders in War. He was probably a Macedo¬
nian, and perhaps a foldier in the early part of his life ;
but of this there is no certainty. He was undoubtedly
a rhetorician and a pleader of caufes ; and appears,
from the dedication of his work to the emperors Anto¬
ninus and Veras, to have lived towards the latter part of
the fecor.d century. The Stratagtmata were publifhed
S s in '
4
POL [32
Polyarv'rla in Greek by Ifaac Cafaubon, with notes, in 1589,
II. 12mo ; but no good edition of them appeared till that
^Polybius. jjey(jenj 16p0j in gvo. The title-page runs thus :
Polyani Stratagematum libri ofto, 'JuJio Vulte'io interpreter
Pancratius Maafvicius recenfuit, Jfaaci Cafuuboni nec non
fuas not as adjecit-
We have in this work the various flratagems of above
300 captains and generals of armies, chiefly Greeks and
barbarians : for the Romans feldom ufed fuch finefles ;
and Polyaenus has fhown further, that he was not well
verfed in Roman affairs. A great number of thefe ftra-
tagems appear to us to be ridiculous or impracticable ;
and neither the generals, nor even common foldiers of
our days, would be found fimple enough to be caught
by them. Few of this order are capable of reading
Polyanus’s Sir itagems ; and if they were, they would
reap little benefit from it. The book is ufeful to fuch
as ftudy the Greek language and antiquity; for many
things will be found in Tt, illuftrating the cuftoms and'
opinions of ancient times. The fixth and feventh books
are imperfect.
Polyaenus compofed other works befldes the Stratage-
mata. Stobceus has produced fome paffages out of a
book De Republica Mace donum ; and Suidas mentions a
piece concerning the Thebans and three books of Ta¬
citus. If death had not prevented, he would have writ¬
ten Memorabilia of the Emperors Antoninus and Verus :
for he makes a promife of this in the preface to his
fixth book of Stratagems. Cafaubon, in the dedication
of Polyasnus to Mornasus, calls him an elegant% acute, and
learned 'writer.
POLYANDRIA (from Ttowe many, and “>'»? a man
or hufband), many hufbands. The name of the 13 th
clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants
with hermaphrodite flowers, which are furniflied with
feveral ftamina, that are inferted into the common recep¬
tacle of the flower.
POLYANTHE A, a colleftion of common-places in
alphabetical order, for the ufe of orators, preachers, &c.
The word is formed from the Greek nohw; much, and
flower ; and has much the fame meaning with an¬
thology or Jlorilege. The firft author of the polyanthea
was Dominic Nanni de Mirabellio, whofe labour has
been improved on by Barth. Arnantius, and Franc. Tor-
fius ; and fince thefe, by Jof. Langius, under the title of
Polyanthea nova, 1613.
POLYANTHUS, in botany. See Primula.
POLYBIUS, a famous Greek hiftorian, was born
at Megalopolis, a city of Arcadia, 205 years before
Chrift ; and was the ion of Lycortas, chief of the re¬
public of the Achseans. He was trained to arms under
the celebrated Philopoemen, and is defcribed by Plutarch
carrying the urn of that great but unfortunate general
in his funeral proceffion. He arofe to confiderable ho¬
nours in fils own country, but was compelled to vilit
Rome with other principal Achaeans, who were detain¬
ed there as pledges for the fubmiffion of their ftate.
t rom hence he became intimate with the fecond Scipio
Africanus, and was prefent with him at the demolition
of Carthage. He faw Corinth alfo plundered by Mum-
mius, and thence palling through the cities of Achaia,
reconciled them to Rome. He extended his travels in¬
to Egypt, France, and Spain, that he might avoid fuch
geographical errors as he has cenfured in others.
It was in Rome that he compofed his excellent hif-
2 ] POL
tory, for the fake of which his travels were undertaken. Polycarp..
This hiftory was divided into 40 books ; but there on- —V"—■«>
ly remains the five firft, with extra&s of fome parts of
the others. It has had feveral editions in Greek and
Latin ; and there is an Englilh tranflation by Mr Hamp¬
ton. He died at the age of 82.
POLYCARP, one of the moft ancient fathers of.
the Chriftian church, was born towards the end of the
reign of Nero, probably at Smyrna ; where he was edu¬
cated at the expence of Califta.^a noble matron diftin-
guiihed by her piety and charity. He was unqueftion-
ably a difciple of St John.the Evangelift, and converfedr
familiarly with other of the apoftles. When of a pro¬
per age, Bucolus ordained him a deacon and catechill of
his church; and upon his death he fucceeded him in the
bifhopric, to which he is faid to have been confecrateci
by St John, who alfo directed his Apocalypfe, among
others, tq him, under the title of the angel of the church
of Smyrna. At length the controverfy about the obfer-
vation of Eafter beginning to grow high between the
eaftern and weftern churches, he went to Rome to dif-
courfe with thofe who were of the oppolite party. The
lee was then poffeffed by Anicetus, with whom he had
many conferences, that were carried on in the moft
peaceable and amicable manner; and though neither of
them could bring the other to embrace his opinion,
they both retained their own fentiments without viola¬
ting that charity which is the great law of their religion.,
Whilft at Rome he particularly oppofed the herefiea
of Marcian and Valentinus. His eonduft on this oc-
cafion is related by Irenaeus; who informs us, that when.
Polycarp paffed Marcian in the ftreet without fpcak¬
ing, Marcian faid, “ Polycarp, own us !” To which he
replied with indignation, “ I own thee to be the firft-.
born of Satan.” Irenseus adds, that when any hereti¬
cal dodlrines were fpoken in his prefence, he would ftop
hi& ears and fay, “ Good God! to what times haft thou
referved me, that I ftiould hear fuch things!” and im¬
mediately left the place. Fie was wont to tell, that
St John, going into a bath at Ephefus, and finding Ce-
rinthus the heretic in it, immediately ftarted back with¬
out bathing, crying out, “ Let us run away, left the
bath ftiould fall upon us while Cerinthus the enemy of
truth is in it.” Polycarp governed the church of Smyr¬
na with apoftolic purity, till he fuffered martyrdom in
the 7th year of Marcus Aurelius; the manner of which
is thus related.
The perfecution waxing hot at Smyrna, and many
having fealed their faith with their blood, the general
cry was, “ Away with the impious ; let Polycarp be
fought for.” Upon which he privately withdrew into a
neighbouring village, where he continued for fome time
praying night and day for the peace of the church. He
was thus employed, when one night he fell into a
trance, and dreamed that his pillow took fire, and was
burnt to allies; which, when he awoke, he told his
friends was a prefage that he Ihould be burnt alive for
the caufe of Chrift. Three days afterwards, in order
to efcape the inceffant fearch for him, he retired into
another village: his enemies, however, were at hand, who
feized upon two youths (one of whom they forced by
ftripes to a confeflkm), by whom they were conduced
to his lodging. He might have faved himfelf by get--
ting into another houfe; but he fubmitted, faying,
“ The will of the Lord be done.” He therefore came
down
3
POL { 3
T*fijycarp. down frOtn his bed-chamber, and fainting bio perLcutofs
~ with a ferene and cheerful countenance, he ordered a
table to be fet with provifiofls, invited them to partake
of them, and only requefted for himfelf one hour for
prayer ; after which he was fet upon an afs, and con¬
ducted towards Smyrna. On the road he met Herod
an irenarch or juftice of the province, and his father,
who were the principal inftigators of the pcrfecution.
Herod took him up into his chariot, and flrenuouf-
ly endeavoured to undermine his conftancy ; but ha¬
ving failed in the attempt, he thruft him out of the
chariot with fo much violence and indignation, that he
bruifed his thigh writh the fall. When at the place of
•execution, there came, as is faid, a voice fiom heaven,
-faying, “ Polycarp, be ftrong, and quit thyfelf like a
man.” Before the tribunal he was urged to fwear by
the genius of Caefar. “ Repent (fays the proconful),
and fay with us, take away the impious.” Whereupon
the martyr looking round at the crowd with a feveie
and angry countenance, beckoned with his hand, and
looking up to heaven, faid with a figh, in a very different
tone from what they meant, “ Take away the impious.”
At laft, confeffmg himfelf to be a Chriftian, the crier
thrice proclaimed his confeffion, and the people fhouted,
“ This is the great doftor of Afia, and the father of the
Chriftians ; this is the deftroyerof our gods, that teaches
men not to do facrifice, or worfhip the deities. When
the fire was prepared, Polycarp requefted not to be
nailed, as ufual, but only tied to the ftake ; and after a
fhort prayer, which he pronounced with a clear and au¬
dible voice, the executioner blew' up the fire, which in-
creafing to a mighty flame, “ Behold a wonder feen
(fays my author) by us who were purpofely referved,
that we might declare it to others; the flames ddpo-
fing themfelves into the refemblance of an arch, bke the
fails of a fiiip fwelled with the wind, gently encircled
the body of the martyr, who flood all the while in the
midft, not like roafted flefh, but like the gold or filver
purified in the furnace, his body fending forth a de-
lightful fragrancy, which, like frankincenfe or feme
other coftly fpices, prefented itfelf to our fenfes. The
infidels, exafperated by the miracle, commanded a fpear-
man to run him through with a fword : wduch he had
no fooner done, but fuch a vaft quantity of blood flow¬
ed from the wound as extinguifhed the fire ; when a
dove was feen to fly from the wound, which fome fup-
pofe to have been his foul, clothed in a vifible fhape at
the time of its departure (a).” The Chriflians endea¬
voured to carry off his body entire, but were not al¬
lowed by the irenarch, who commanded it to be burnt
to alhes. The bones, however, were gathered up, and
decently interred by the Chriftians.
Thus died St Polycarp, the 7th of the kalends of
May, A. C. 167. The amphitheatre on which he fuf-
fered was moflly remaining not many years ago ; and
his tomb, which is in a little chapel in the fide of a
23 ] POL
mountain, on the fouth-eaft of the city, was folemnly Polycar
vifited by the Greeks on his feflival day ; and for the
maintenance and repairing of it, travellers were wont to p0jy
throw a few afpers into an earthen pot that Hands —
crates.
there for the purpofe. He wrote fome homilies and
epiflles, which are now loft, except that to the Philip-
pians, which is a truly pious and Chriflian piece, con¬
taining fhort and ufeful precepts and rules of life, which
St Jerome informs us was even in his time read in the
public affemblies of the Afiatic churches. It is Angu¬
larly ufeful in proving the authenticity of the books of
the New Teftament; for he has feveral paffages and
expreffions from Matthew, Luke, the Afts, St Paul’s
Epiflles to the Philippians, Ephefians, Galatians, Co¬
rinthians, Romans, Theffalonians, Coloffians, ill Timo¬
thy, iff Epiflle of St John, and iff of Peter; and makes
particular mention of St Paul’s Epiflle to the Ephefians.
Indeed his whole Epiflle confifls of phrafes and fenti-
ments taken from the New Teflament (b).
POLYCARPON, in botany: A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 22d or¬
der, Caryophyllei. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there
are five very fmall ovate petals ; the capfule is unilocular
and trivalved.
POLYCHREST, in pharmacy, fignifies a medicine
that ferves for many ufes, or that cures many difeafes.
Sal PoircHREST, a compound fait made of equal
parts of faltpetre and fulphur, deflagrated in a red-hot
crucible.
POLYCNEMUM, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 1 2th or¬
der, Holoracete. The calyx is triphyllous; and there are
five calciform petals, with one feed almoft naked.
POLYCRATES, was a tyrant of Samos, famous
for the good fortune which always attended him. He
became very powerful; and got poffeflxon not only of
the neighbouring Hands, but alfo of fome cities on the
coafl of Afia. He had a fleet of 100 fhips of war, and
was fo univerfally efleemed, that Amafis the king of
Egypt made a treaty of alliance with him. The Egyp¬
tian king was, however, afraid of his continued profpe-,
rity, and advifed him to chequer his enjoyments, by re-
linquifliing fome of his moil favourite objedls. Poly¬
crates, in compliance, threw into the fea a beautiful feal,
the moll valuable of his jewels. The lofs of fo precious
a feal aflli&ed him for fome time ; but foon after he re¬
ceived as a prefent a large fifli, in whofe belly it was
found. Amafis no fooner heard this, than he gave up
all alliance with the tyrant of Samos, and obferved, that
fooner or later his good fortune would vanifh. Some
time after Polycrates vifited Magnefia on the Maeander,
where he had been invited by Orontes the governor.
Here he was fhamefully put to death, merely becaufe
the governar wifhed to terminate his profperity. The
S s 2 daugh-
f A The miraculous part of this account is ridiculed by Hr Middleton in his Free Enquiry and Hefence of it;
but fomething is offered in its favour by Mr Jortin^who obferves, “ the circumftances are Efficient only to create
a paufe and a doubt.” Remarks on Led HiJL vol. i. #
(b) Jortin, vol. i. p. 68. who to the particulars made out by Cotelenus, has added one from Galat. tv. 26.
and another from Hebr. iv. 12, 13.
Polygala.
P O L [ 324 3
Polycrota (Jaughter of Polycrates had difiuadcd her father from the Bj itiili
going to the houfe of Orontes, on account of the bad
__ dreams which fhe had, but in vain.
~ POLYCROTA, in the naval architecture of the an¬
cients, is a word ufed to exprefs fuch of their galleys as
had three, four, five, or more tiers of rowers, feated at
different heights ; they were diftinguifhed by this term
from the monocrotay or thofe which had only Angle rows
cf oars.- The number of rows of rowers in the poly-
crote gtilleys has given occaiion to fome to fuppofe thofe
veffels of fuch a height from the water as is fcarce cre¬
dible. Commentators are not at all agreed upon the
eonftruCtion of thefe veffels.
POLYDAMAS, was a famous athlete, who imita¬
ted Hercules in whatever he did. He killed a lion with
his fift, and it is reported he could flop a chariot with
his hand in its moll rapid ctmrfe. He was one day
with fome of his friends in a cave, when on a fudden a
large piece of rock came tumbling down, and while all
fled away he attempted to receive the falling fragment
in his arms. His prodigious ftrength, however, was in-
fufficient, and he was inilantly crufhed to pieces under
the rock.
POLYDECTES, a fon of Magnes, was king of the
rfland of Seripho's. He received with great kindnefs
Danae and her fon Perfeus, who had been expofed on
the fea by Acrifius. He took great care of the edu¬
cation of Perfeus ; but becoming enamoured of Danae,
he removed her from his kingdom, apprehenfive of his
refentment. He afterwards paid his addreffes to Da¬
nae ; and being rejeCled, he prepared to offer her vio¬
lence. Danae fled to the altar of Minerva for protec¬
tion ; and Diftys, the brother of Polyde&es, who had
hunfelf laved her from the fea-waters, oppofed her ra-
vifher, and armed himfelf in her defence. At this cri¬
tical moment Perfeus arrived; and with Medufa’s head
he turned into ftones Polydectes, with the affociates of
his guilt. The crown of Seriphos was given to Dictys,
who had fhown himfelf fo aftive in the eaufe of inno¬
cence.
POLYDORE Virgil. See Virgil
POLYDORUS, a fon of Priam by Plecuba, or, ac¬
cording to others, by Laothoe, the daughter of Altes,
king of Pedafus. Being young and inexperienced when
Troy was befieged by the Greeks, his father removed
him to the court of Polymneitor, king of Thrace, to
whofe care he entrulled the greatefl part of his treafures,
till his country fhould be freed from foreign invafion.
On the death of Priam, Polymnellor made bimfelf mailer
of the riches which were in his poflefiion ; and to en-
fure them the better, he murdered the young prince,
and threw his body into the fea, where it was found
by Hecuba. According to Virgil, his body was bu¬
ried near the fhore by his aflaffin; and there grew on
his grave a myrtle, whofe boughs dropped blood, when
JEneas going to Italy, attempted to tear them from the
tree.
POLYGALA, milkwort: A genus of the o£lan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 33d or¬
der, Lomentacea. The calyx is pentaphyllous, with two
of its leaflets wing-fhaped and coloured ; the legumen
is obcordate and bilocular. There are 24 fpeeies j of
which the moft .remarkable are,
I, The vulgaris, or common milkwort, is a native of
POL
heaths and dry paflures. The ftalka are PoW,!*
about five or fix inches long, feveral arifmg from the II
fame root ; the leaves are firm, fmooth, entire, and Po^’KamJr*
grow alternate upon the flalks, which are terminated
with fpikes of flowers, moll commonly blue, but often
red or white : the calyx confiils of five leaves, three of
which are fmall and green, two below, and one above
the corolla ; the other two intermediate ones are large,
oval, flat-coloured, veined, and refemble petals, which
at length turn greenilh, and remain a defence to the
feed-veflel; the corolla confifls of three petals folded
together, and forming a tube : the carina is terminated
by a kind of heart-fhaped, concave appendage, fringed
at the extremity. The root of this plant has a bitter
taile, and has been found to poffefs the virtues of the
American rattlefnake-root. It purges without danger,
and is alfo emetic and diuretic ; fometimes operating aU
the three ways at once. A fpoonful of the decodtion
made by boiling an ounce of the herb in a pint of wa¬
ter till one half has exhaled, lias been found ferviceable
in pleurifies and fevers, by promoting a diaphorefis and
expectoration ; and three fpoonfuls of the fame, taken
once an hour, has proved beneficial in the dropfy and
anafarca. It has alfo been found ferviceable in con-
fumptive complaints.
2. The fenega, or feneka, rattlefnake-wort, grows na¬
turally in moft parts of North America. This hath a
perennial root compofed of feveral flelhy fibres, from
which arife three or four branching ftalks which grow
erect, garnifhed with fpear-ftiaped leaves placed alter*
nately. 1 lie flowers are produced in loofe fpikes at the
end of the branches : they are fmall, white, and ftiaped
like thofe of the common fort. It flowers here in Ju¬
ly, but the plants do not produce feeds. The root of
this fpecies operates more powerfully than the laft j
but befides the virtues of a purgative, emetic, and diu¬
retic, it has been recommended as an antidote againft
the poifon of a rattlefnake ; but this opinion is now ex¬
ploded. It ftill, however, maintains its chara&er in fe- •
yeral diforders. Its efficacy, particularly in pleunfies,
is moft fully eflabhfhed in Virginia: formerly near yo
out of 100 died of that dfftemper, but by the happy
ufe of this root hardly three out of the fame number
have been loft.
As the feeds of the rattlefnake-wort fcldom fucceed
even in the countries where the plant is a native, the
bell method of propagating it is to procure the roots
from America, and plant them in a bed of light earth
in a fhcltered fituation, where they will thrive without
any other culture than keeping them free from weeds.
But though the plant will Hand out ordinary winters,
it will be proper' to cover it during that feafon with old
tanner’s bark, or other mulch, to keep out the froll.
POLYGAMIA [’roy-j-; many, and marriage)*
This term, expreffing an intercommunication of fexes, is
applied, by Linnaeus, both to plants and flowers. A
polygamous plant is that which bears both hermaphro¬
dite flowers and male or female, or both.
POLYGAMY, a plurality of wives or hufbands, in
the poffelfion of one man or woman at the fame time.
Polygamy is fo univerfally efteemed unlawful, and
even unnatural, through Europe, and in all Chriftian
countries, that we have generally reafoned upon this
convidlion. Both religion and reafon appear at firft
fight at kaft to condemn it j and with thi& view of the
, fubjedt
3 2
sWfjtmy
Monthly
•view,
*1. by
*74*
f Hirtn't
’I runjlatiun
if bitebubr
Jravds.
? See Hin.
dw, Jlc 9.
POL [
mankind in general reft fatted: but feme bolder
gemuies have taken the oppoiite ftde of the queition ,
have caft oft tlie prejudices of education) and attempted
to (how that polygamy is not unlawful, but that it is
juft and neceffary, and would be a public benefit. Such
writers, to ufe the words of an intelligent critic , re¬
cur to the common fubterfuge, of which every fetter
up 0f Jirange gods, and every conscientious troubler
of the public peace, have artfully availed themfelves
to ftlence the clamour of expoftulation. ‘ Truth !
Truth !* is their general cry : and with this hopeful
pretence, prudence and humility, and every amiable and
tifeful virtue, are left behind ; while conscience ^cc«-
fcierice !) blindly ruflies forward to oppofe order, infult
authority, and overturn the cuftoms ot ages.”
But notwithftanding thefe fair pretences, it will, we
doubt n< *, be eafy to fhow that tnith is not upon their
fide; prudence and delicacy are certainly at open war
with them : for Dr Percival, Phil. Tranl. vol. Ixvi.
part i. p. 163. has very juftly obferved, that the practice
is brutal, deftrudtive to friendfhip and moral fentiment,
inconiiftent with one great end of marriage, the education
of children, and fubveriive of the natural rights of more
than half of the fpecies. Befides, it is injurious to po¬
pulation, and therefore can never be countenanced or
allowed in a well-regulated Hate ; for though the num¬
ber of females in the world may confiderably exceed the
number of males, yet there are more men capable of
propagating their fpecies than women capable of bearing
children ; and it is a well-known faft, that Armenia,
in which a plurality of waves is not allowed, abounds
more with inhabitants than any other province of the
Turkifh empire.
Indeed it appears, that in fome countries where it is
allowed, the inhabitants do not take advantage of it.
“ The Europeans (fays M. Niebuhr d) are miftaken in
thinking the ftate of marriage fo different among the
Muffulmans from what it is with Chriftian nations. I
could not diicern any fuch difference in Arabia. The
women of that country feem to be as free and as happy
as thofe of Europe can poffibly be. Polygamy is per¬
mitted, indeed, among Mahometans, and the delicacy
of our ladies is {hocked at this idea; but the Arabians^
rarely avail J themfelves of the privilege of marrying
four lawful wives, and entertaining at the fame tune any
number of female (laves. None but rich voluptuaries
marry fo many wives, and their conduct is blamed by
all fober men. Men of fenle, indeed, think this pri\i-
lege rather troublefome than convenient. A hufband is
bv law obliged to treat his wives fuitably to their con¬
dition, and to difpenfe his favours among them with
perfect equality : but thefe are duties not a little dif-
agreeable to moft Muffulmans; and fuch modes of luxury
are too expenfive to the Arabians, who are feldom in
eafy circumftances. I muft, however, except one cafe ;
for it fometimes happens that a man marries a number
of wives in the way of commercial {peculation. I know
a Mullah, in a town near the Euphrates, who had mar¬
ried four wives, and was fupported by the profits of
their labour.”
See a curious kind of polygamy- under the article
Nayres. The ancient Britons, too, had a kind of
polygamy among them, 12 women being common to
12 men.
Selden has proved, in his Uxor Heiraica, that plura-
v ] P 0 L
lity of wives was allowed of, not only among the He*
brews, but alfo among all other nations, and in all ages.
It is true, the ancient Romans were more fievere in then*
morals, and never praftifed it, though it was not forbid
among them: and Mark Antony is mentioned as tne
firft who took the liberty of having two wives.
From that time it became pretty frequent in the em¬
pire till the reigns of Theodolius, Honorius, and Area-
dius, who firft prohibited it by exprefs law in 393.
After this the emperor Valentinian, by an edict, per¬
mitted all the fubjefts of the empire, if they pleafed, to
marry feveral wives ; nor does it appear, from the ec-
clefiaftical hiftory of thofe times, that tne bifhops mane
any oppofition to this introduction of polygamy. In
effedt, there are fome even among the Chriftian cafuifts
who do not look on polygamy as in itfelf criminal.
Jurieu obferves, that the prohibition of polygamy is a
pofitive law’’; but from which a man may be exempted
by fovereign neceffity. Baillet adds, that the example
of the patriarchs is a very powerful argument in favour
of poly-gamy: of thefe arguments we fhall (peak heieaftt' •
It has been much difputed among the dodors of the
civil law whether polygamy be adultery. In the Ro¬
man law it is called jiuprum, and puniftied as fuch, that
is, in fome cafes, capitally. But a fmaher puniftuneiit
is more confiftent with the Jewilh law, wherein the pro¬
hibition of adultery is perpetual, but that of polygamy
temporary only. _ .
In Germany, Holland, and Spain, this offence 1$
differently puniihed. By a conftitution of Charles V.
it was a capital crime. By the laws of ancient and.
modern Sweden it is pumlhed with death. In Scotland
it is puniihed as perjury.
In England it is enacted byftatute I Jac. I. cap. XI.
that if any perfon, being married, do afterwards many
again, the former hulband or wife being alive, it is fe¬
lony, but within the benefit of clergy-. The firft wife
in this cafe {hall not be admitted as an evidence againit
her hufband, becaufe Ihe is the true wife; but the fe-
cond may, for ftie is indeed no wife at all; and fo vice
verfi of a fecond hufband. This aft makes an exception
to five cafes, in which fuch fecond marriage, tho’ in the
three firft it is void, is, however, no felony. 1. Where
either party hath been continually- abroad for feven years,
whether the party in England had notice of the other’s
being living or not. 2. Where either of the parties
hath been abfent from the other feven years within this
kingdo%, and the remaining party hath had no notice ot
the other’s being alive within that time. 3. Where
there is a divorce or feparation a menfa et ihoro by ien-
tence in the ecclefiaftical court. 4. Where the firft
marriage is declared abfolutely void by any fuch fentence,
and the parties loofed a vinculo. Or, 5. Where either
of the parties was under the age of confent at the time
of the firft marriage ; for in fuch cafe the firft marriage
was voidable by the dHagreement of either party, which
this fecond marriage very clearly amounts to. But it
at the age of confent the parties had agreed to the
marriage, which completes the contract, and is indeed
the real marriage, and afterwards one of them fhould
marry again, judge Blackftone apprehends that fuch
fecond marriage would be within the reafon and penalties
of the aft.
Bernardus Ochinus, general of the order of Capu-
chius, and afterwards a Proteftant, pubhlhed, about the
middle
P ° L ' [ 3
Polypamy. middle of the l<5th century, Dialogues in favour of Po-
i.„ "■ — lygamy5 which’were anfwered by 1 heodore Beza. And
about the conclufion of the lalt century we had at Lon¬
don an artful treatife publifhed in behalf of a plurality
of wives, under the title of Poly garni a Triumph at rix : the
author whereof affumes the name of Theophilus Aletheus;
but his true name was Lyferus. Lie was a native of
Saxony. It has been anfwered by feveral.
A new argument in favour of polygamy has been
adduced by Mr Bruce, on this principle, that in feme
parts of the world the proportion of female children is
much greater than that of males. “ From a diligent
inquiry (fays he) into the fouth and feripture-part of
Mefopotamia, Armenia, and Syria, from Mouful or
Nineveh to Aleppo and Antioch, I find the proportion
to be fully two women to one man. There is indeed a
fraction over, but it is not a confiderable one. From
Latikea, Laodicea ad mare, down the coaft of Syria
to Sidon, the number is nearly three, or two and three-
fourths, to one man. Through the Holy Land, the
country called Horan, in the lithmus of Suez, and the
parts of the Delta unfrequented by ftrangers, it is fome-
thing lefs than three. But from Suez to the Straits of
Babelmandel, which ccntains the three Arabias, the
proportion is fully four women to one man ; which I
have reafon to believe holds as far as the line, and 30°
"beyond it. The Imam of Sama was not an old man
when I was in Arabia Felix in 1769; but he had 88
children then alive, of whom 14 only were fons. The
prieft of the Nile had 70 and odd children ; of whom,
as I remember, above 50 were daughters.
“ It may be objefted, that Dr Arbuthnot, in quo¬
ting the bills of mortality for 20 years, gave the moil
unexceptionable grounds for his opinion ; and that my
Tingle affertion of what happens in a foreign countiy,
without further foundation, cannot be admitted as
■equivalent teftimony : and I am ready to admit this ob-
■jeftion, as there are no bills of mortality in any of thefe
countries. I fliall therefore fay in what manner I at¬
tained the knowledge which I have jult mentioned.
Whenever I went into a town, village, or inhabited
place, dwelt long in a mountain, or travelled journeys
with any fet of people, I always made it my bufinefs to
■inquire how many children they had, or their fathers,
their next neighbours or acquaintance. I then alked
my landlord at Sidon, fuppofe him a weaver, how many
children he has had ? He tells me how many fons and
how many daughters. The next I afk is a tailor, a
fmith, &c. in fhort every man who is not a ftranger,
from whom I can get the proper information. I fay,
therefore, that a medium of both fexes, arifing from
three or four hundred families, indiferiminately taken,
fhall be the proportion in which one differs from the
other; and this, I am confident, will give the refult to
be three women in 509 of the 90° under every meridian
of the globe.”
Our author corroborates this argument by fuppofing
that Mahomet perceived this. difproportion, and that
upon it he founded his inftitution allowing one man to
have four wives. “ With this view he enacted, or ra- >
ther revived, the law which gave liberty to every indi¬
vidual to marry four wives, each of whom was to be
equal m rank and honour, without any preference but
what the prediledtion of the hufband gave her.”
Having thus eftablifhed, as he fuppofes, the neceffity
26 ] POL
of polygamy in the Daft, Mr Bruce proceeds to confidef Pnlyg
whether there is not feme other reafons why it fliould K~~~*
not be pradlifed in Britain farther than the mere equa¬
lity in numbers of the fexes to one another. This rea¬
fon he finds in the difference between the conftitutions
of the Europeans and eaftern nations. “ Women in
England (fays he) are capable of child-bearing at 14 ;
let the other term be 48, when they bear no more;
34 years therefore an Englifli woman bears children.
At the age of 14 or 15 they are objects of our love;
they are endeared by bearing us children after that
time; and none, I hope, will pretend, that at 48 and
50 an Engliflrwoman is not an agreeable companion.
The Arab, on the other hand, if (lie begins to bear
children at 11, feldom or never has a child after 20.
1 he time, then, of her child-bearing is nine years ; and
four women, taken altogether, have then tl * term of
36. So that the Engliih woman that bears children
for 34 years has only two years lefs than the term en¬
joyed by the four wives whom Mahomet has allowed ;
and if it be granted that an Englifh wife may bear at
50, the terms are equal. But there are other grievous
differences. An Arabian girl, at 11 years old, by her
youth and beauty, is the objeft of man’s defire : being
an infant, however, in underllanding, {he is not a ra¬
tional companion for him. A man marries there, fay
at 20 ; and before he is 30, his wife, improved as a
companion, ceafes to be an objedl of his defires and a
mother of children : fo that all the bell and moll vigo¬
rous of his days are fpent with a woman he cannot
love ; and with her he would be deftined to live 40, or
45 years, without comfort to himfelf by increafe of
family, or utility to the public. The reafons, then,
again!! polygamy, which fubfill in England, do not by
any means fubfift in Arabia; and that being the cafe,
it would be unworthy of the wifdom of God, and an
unevennefs in his ways, which we {hall never fee, to
fubjedl two nations under fuch different circumftances
abfolutely to the fame obfervances.”
To all this argumentation, however, it may be re¬
plied, that whatever we may now fuppofe to be the
conftitution of nature in the warmer parts of the globe,
it certainly was different at the beginning. We sannot
indeed afeertain the exadt poiition of the Garden of
Eden ; but it is with reafon fuppofed not to have been
far from the ancient feat of Babylon. In that country,
therefore, where Mr Bruce contends that four women
are neceffary to the comfort of one man, it pleafed
God to grant only one to the firft man ; and that, too,
when there was more occafion for population than ever
there has been lince, hecaufe the whole earth was to be
peopled from a fingle pair. Matters were not altered
at the flood; for Noah had but one wife. And this
is the very argument ufed by our Saviour himfelf when
fpcaking of divorce without any fufficient caufe, and
then marrying another woman, which is a fpecies of
polygamy.—Again, with refpedt to the alleged multi¬
plicity of females in the eaffern part of the world, it is
by no means probable that the calculations of Mr Bruce
or any other perfon can be admitted in this cafe. Hif-
tory mentions no fuch thing in any nation ; and confi-
dering the vaft deftrudtion among the male part of the
human fpecies more than of the females by war and
other accidents, we may fafely fay, that if four women
children were born for every fingle male, there would
POL
[ 3*7 1
POL
Polygamy in fuch countries be five or fix grown up women for
every man ; a proportion which we may venture to
affirm does not, nor ever did, exift anywhere in the
world. That it was not fo in former times we can
only judge from the particular examples recorded in
hiftory, and thefe are but few. We read in the Greek
hiftory, indeed, of the Jfty daughters of Danaus ; but
thefe were matched by as many fans of another man.
Job had only one wife, yet had /even fons and but three
daughters. Jacob had' two wives, who bore twelve
fons, and only one daughter. Abraham had only one
child by his firft wife, "and that was a fon. By his
fecond wife Keturah he had fix fons ; and confidering
his advanced age at the time he married her, it is by
no means probable that he could have 24 daughteis ;
nay, if, as Mr Bruce tells us, the women in the eaftern
countries bear children only for nine years, it was im-
poffible (he could have fo many. Gideon, who- had
many wives, had no fewer than feventy fons by thefe
wives, and even his concubiye had a fon ; fo that if all
thefe women had produced according to Mr Bruce’s
proportion, of nearly three females to one male, he
mull have had almoft 284 children ; a better family
than any of Mr Bruce’s eaftern acquaintances can pro¬
bably boaft of. .
With regard to this fubjeft, however, it muft be
obferved, that the procreation of male or female chil¬
dren depends in fome degree on the health and vigour
of the parents. It is by no means improbable, there¬
fore, that the eaftern voluptuaries, whofe conftitutions
are debilitated by their exceffes, may have many more
female than male children horn to them. The women
themfelves, by premature enjoyment, udll alfo be in¬
clined to produce females inftead of males ; but neithei.
of thefe circumftances can prove this to be an original
law of nature. Something like this may be gathered
from facred hiftory. Gideon above-mentioned, who
was a hardy and adtive warrior, had many fons. The
fame was the cafe with David, who led an adtive and
laborious life ; while Solomon, who was a voluptuary,
had only one fon, notwithftanding his multitude of
wives.
The moft barefaced defence of polygamy that has ap¬
peared in modern times is by the Rev. Mr Madan, who
publiffied a treatife, artfully vindicating, and ftrongly
recommending it, under the title of 2 helyphtbora ; or,
/I treatife nn Female Ruin, in its Caufes, Ffjecls, Con-
Jtquences, Prevention, and Remedy, &c. Marriage, ac¬
cording to this writer, limply and wholly confifts in
the aft of perfonal union, or a this coitus. Adultery,
he fays, is never ufed in the facred writings but to
denote the defilement of a betrothed or married wo¬
man, and to this fenfe he reftrifts the ufe of the term ,;
fo that a married man, in his - opinion, is no adulterer,
if his commerce with the fex be confined to fingle wo¬
men, who are under no obligations by efpoufals or
marriage to other men : but, on the other hand, the
woman who ihoujd dare to have even but once an in¬
trigue with any other man befides her hulband, (let
him have as many wives as Solomon), would, ipfo
faSo, be an adulterefs, and ought, together with her
gallant, to be puniftved with immediate death. This,
he boldly fays, is the law of God : and on this foun¬
dation he limits the privilege of polygamy to the
maa ;• in fupport of which he refers to the polyga¬
mous conneftions of the patriarchs and faints of the Polygamy.
Old Teftament, and infers the lawfuluefs of their ’
praftice from the bleffings which attended it, and the
laws which were inftituted to regulate and fuperintend
it. He contends for the lawfulnefs of Chriftians ha¬
ving, like the ancient Jews, more wives than one ;
and labours much to reconcile the genius of the evan¬
gelical difpenfation to an arrangement of this fort.
With this view he afferts, that there is not one text in
the New Teftament that even hints at the criminality
of a polygamous conneftion ; and he would infer from
St Paul’s direftion, that bifhops and deacons ftiould
have but one wife, that it was lawful for laymen to
have more. Chrift, he fays, was not the giver of a
new law ; but the bufinefs of marriage, polygamy,
&c. had been fettled before his appearance in the world,
by an authority which could not be revoked. Befides,
this writer not only thinks polygamy lawfuHn a reli¬
gious, but advantageous in a civil, light, and highly po¬
litic in a domeftic view.
In defence of his notion of marriage, which, he fays,
eonfifts in the union of man and woman as one body, the
effefts of which in the fight of God no outward forms or
ceremonies of man’s invention can add to or detiaft from,
he grounds his principal argument on the Hebrew words
made ufe of in Gen. ii. 24. to exprefs the primitive in-
ftitution of marriage, viz. mu-Rn pm, rendered by the
JLXX. *eicr»o\kvQ»a-tlxi ywuixx auhy which trans¬
lation is adopted by the evangelift (Mat, xix. 5.)
with the omiffion only of the fuperfluous prepofition
(rpcf) after the verb. Our tranflation, “ (hall cleave
to his wife,” doth not, he fays, convey the idea of
the Hebrew, which is literally, as Montanus renders
the wrords, “ ftiall be joined or cemented in his woman,
and they (hall become (/. e. by this union) one fifth.’*
But on this criticifm it is well remarked, that both the
Hebrew and Greek terms mean limply and literally at¬
tachment or adherence ; and are evidently made ufe of
in the facred writings to exprefs the whole fcope .of con¬
jugal fidelity and duty, though he would reftrain them
to the grofler part of it.
With refpeft to the Mofaic law, for which Mr Ma¬
dan is a warm advocate, it was certainly a local and
temporary inftitution, adapted to the ends for which
it was appointed, and admirably calculated, in its re¬
lation to marriage, to maintain and perpetuate the fe-
paration of the Jewilh people from the Gentiles. In
attempting to depreciate the outward forms of mar¬
riage, this writer would make his readers believe, that
becaufe none are explicitly deferibed, therefore none
exifted ; and confequently that they are the fuper¬
fluous ordinances of human policy. . But it is evident,
from comparing, Ruth iv. 10, 13. with Tobit vii. 13,
14. and from the cafe of Dinah, related Gen. xxxiv.
that fome forms were deemed effential to an honour¬
able alliance, by the patriarchs and faints under the
Old Teftament, exclufive of the carnal knowledge
of each other’s perfons. It is alfo evident in the
cafe of the woman of Samaria, whofe conneftion with
a man not her hufband is mentioned in John iv. that
fomething befides cohabitation is neeftfary to conftitute
marriage in the fight of God.
Having ftated his notion of marriage, he urges, in
defence of polygamy, that, notwithftanding the fe-
venth commandment, it was allowed by God hi ml elf,
who
POL L 328 ] POL
!‘o1y(Tftniy, wlio marfe laws for the regulation of It, wrought mi-
rac]es In fupport of it by making the barren woman
fruitful, and declared the iffue legitimate to all intents
and purpofes. God’s allowance of polygamy is ar¬
gued from Exod. xxi. re. and particularly from Dent,
xxi, 15. which, he fays, amounts to a demontlration.
This paffage, however, at the utmoft, only prefup-
pofes that the praftice might have exiftence among fo
hard-hearted and fickle a people as the Jews; and
therefore wifely provides againft feme of its more un-
juft and pernicious confequences, fuch as tended to af-
fedd the rights and privileges of heirftiip. Laws en¬
acted to regulate it cannot be fairly urged in proof of
its lawfulnefs on the author’s own hypothefis ; becaufe
laws were alio made to regulate divorce, which Mr
Madan condemns as abfolutely unlawful, except in
cafes of adultery. Befides, it is more probable that
the “ hated wife” had been difmiffed by a bill of di¬
vorcement, than that file was retained by her huf-
band: and moreover, it is not certain but that the two
wives, fo far from living with the fame hufband at the
fame time, might be dead ; for the words may be
rendered thus, “ if there /hould have been to a man two
wives, &c.” The words exprefiing the original infti-
tution of marriage, Gen. ii. 24. compared with Mat.
xix. 4, 5, 8. afford infuperable objections againft Mr
Madan’s doctrine of polygamy.
If we appeal on this fubjeft, from the authority of
Scripture to the writings of the earlieft fathers in the
Chriftian church, there is not to be found the fainteft
trace of any thing refembling a teftimony to the law¬
fulnefs of polygamy ; on the contrary, many paffages
occur, in which the praCtice of it is ftrongly and ex-
^ plicitly condemned.
^Review We fiiall clofe this article with the words of an excellent
vol. 6j» anonymous writer already quoted, and to whofe critique
p. 338. on Mr Madan’s work we ai'e indebted for the above re-
See alfo marks: “ In a word, when we reflect that the primitive
vol. 69. inftitution of marriage limited it to one man and one wo¬
man; that this inftitution was adhered to by Noah and his
fons, amidft the degeneracy of the age in which they
lived, and in fpite of the examples of polygamy which
the accurfed race of Cain had introduced ; when we
confider how very few (comparatively fpeaking) the
examples of this practice were among the faithful;
how much it brought its own punilhment with it ; and
how dubious and equivocal thofe paffages are in which
it appears to have the fanftion of divine approbation ;
when to thefe refleftions we add another, refpe£ting
the limited views and temporary nature of the more
ancient difpenfations and inftitutions of religion—how
often the imperfeftions and even vices of the patriarchs
and people of God, in old time, are recorded, with¬
out any exprefs notification of their criminality—how
much is faid to be commanded, which our reverence
for the holinefs of God and his law will only fuffer us
to fuppofe, were, for wife ends, permitted—how fre¬
quently the meffengers of God adapted themfelves to
the genius of the people to whom they were fent, and
the circumftances of the times in which they lived :—
above all, when we confider the purity, equity, and
benevolence of the Chriftian law ; the explicit decla¬
rations of our Lord, and his apoftle St Paul, refpec-
ting the inftitution of marriage, its defign and limita¬
tion ;—when \ve refleft, too, on the teftimony of the Poiygar#,
moft ancient fathers, who could not poftibly be igno- l'——
rant of the general and common practice of the apo-
ftolic church ; and, finally, when to thefe confidera-
tions we add thofe which are founded on juftice to the
female fex, and all the regulations of domeftic economy
and national policy—we muft wholly condemn the revi-
val of polygamy ; and thus bear our honeft teftimony
againft the leading defign of this dangerous and ilbad-
vifed publication.”
We would advife our readers to read the whole cri-
ticifms on Madan’s book in the Monthly Review, toge¬
ther with their account of the feveral anfvvers to it. The
reverend author of the Thelyphthora has there met with
a moft able antagonift, who traces him through all his
deceitful windings, and expofes the futility and falie-
hood of his arguments with fingular ability. See Month*
ly Rtviewy vol. Ixiii. p. 273, &c.; fee alfo Paley’s Moral
Philofophy, 4to. p. 262.
POLYGARS, are natives of Hindoftan. They in¬
habit almoft impenetrable woods, and are under the ab-
folute direction of their own chieftains. In time of
peace they are ‘profeffionally robbers, but in times of
war are the guardians of the country. The general
name of thefe people is Polygar. Their original infti¬
tution, for they live in diftiiuft clans, is not very weft
underftood. It probably took its rife from the muni¬
cipal regulations relative to the deftru&ion of tygers
and other ferocious beafts. Certain traefts of woodland
were indifputably allotted as rewards to thofe who fhouid
(lay a certain number of thofe animals ; and thofe lands
approximating, probably laid the foundation of the feve¬
ral confederacies of Polygars.
“ The Pollams, or woods, from which is derived the
word Polygar, lying in profufion through all the fouth-
em parts of Hindoftan, the ravages committed in the
open countries by thefe adventurous clans, are both fre¬
quent and deftructive. Cattle and grain are the con-
ftant booty of the Polygars. They not unfrequently
even defpoil travellers of their property, and fometimes
murder, if they meet with oppoiition : yet thefe very
Polygars are the hands into which the aged and infirm,
the wives, children, and treafure, of both Hindoos and
others are entrufted, when the circumjacent country un¬
fortunately happens to be the feat of war. The pro-
teftion they afford is paid for ; but the price is inconfi-
derable, when the helplefs fituation of thofe who fly to
them for fheljter is coniidered, and efpecially when their
own very peculiar character is properly attended to.
The native governments of Hindoftan are under the ne-
ceffity of tolerating this honourable banditti. Many
of them are fo formidable as to be able to bring 15,000
and 20,000 men into the field.
“ The Hindoo code of laws, in fpeaking of robbe¬
ries, hath this remarkable claufe, ‘ The mode of {hares
amongft robbers {hall be this :—If any thief or thieves,
by the command of the magiftrate, and with his af-
fiftance, have committed depredations upon, and
brought away any booty from, another province, the
magiftrate {hall receive a {hare of one fixth part of the
whole. If they received no command or affiftance from
the magiftrate, they {hall give the magiftrate in that
cafe one tenth part far his lhare, and of the remainder
their chief {hall receive four {hares; and whofoever
4 among
P .O L [ 329 ] POL
l^iyg&r* among them is perfeft mafter of his occupation, (hall
li receive three (hares : alfo, whichever of them is remark-
polygno- ^rong ancl (tout, (hall receive two (hares, and the
tus' reft (liall receive each one (hare.* Here, then, we fee
not only a fan£tion, but even an inducement, to fraudu¬
lent practices.—Another lingular inconfiftency among
a people who, in many periods of their hiftory, have
been proverbial for innocency of manners, and for un¬
common honefty in their conduct towards travellers and
Grangers.
“ At the firlt fight, it would appear that the tolera¬
tion of the Polygars, owing to their great numbers,
and to the fecurity of their fortrefies, which are in ge¬
neral impenetrable but to Polygars ; that the govern¬
ment licence, in this manner given to them, to live on
the fpoils of the induftrious—might have originally oc-
cafioned the formal divifion, and encouragement to per-
feverance, which we have juft quoted : but the caufe I
fhould rather fuppofe to lie in the nature of certain go¬
vernments, than to have arifen from any accidental cir-
eumftance afterwards; and I am the more inclined to
this opinion, from the fituation of the northern parts of
Hindoftan, which are, and always have been, uninfefted
fey thefe freebooters.
“ The dominion of the Eaft was, in former days,
mod probably divided and fubdivided into all the vari-
©us branches of the feodal fyftem. The veftiges of it
remain to this hour: rajahs and zemindars are nothing
more than chieftains of a certain degree of confequence
in the empire. If, then, experience has (hown, in other
parts of the world, that clans have always been obferved
to commit the moft pernicious afts of depredation and
hoftility on each other, and that the paramount lord
has feldom been able effeftually to crufh fo general and
ib complicated a fcene of mifchief—may we not reafon-
ably venture to fuppofe, that the Hindoo legifiature
paired this ordinance for the fuppreffion of fuch provin¬
cial warfare, and for the wholefome purpofe of drawing
the people, by unalarming degrees, more immediately
under the controul of the one fovereign authority ? The
conclufion, I own, appears to me fatisfadlory. More¬
over, Polygars cannot but be of modern growth ; for
the law relative to thefts is antecedent to the mention of
Polygars in hiftcry.” Sullivan’s Philojoph'ical Rhapfo-
dies.
POLYGLOTT, among divines and critics, chiefly
denotes a Bible printed in feveral languages. See Bi-
ile and Printing.
POLYGLOTTUS, in ornithology. See Tur-
dus.
POLYGNOTUS, a famous painter of Thafos, flou-
rifhed about 422 years before the Chriftian era, and was
the fon and fcholar of Aglaophon. He adorned one of the
public porticoes of Athens with his paintings, in which he
had reprefented the moft ftriking events of the Trojan
war. The Athenians were fo pleafed with him, that
they offered to reward his labours with whatever he
pleafed to accept; but he declined the offer; and the
Amphiftyonic council, which was compofed of the re-
prefentatives of the principal cities of Greece, ordered
that Polygnotus (hould be maintained, at the public ex¬
pence wherever he went.
Of the talents of Polygnotus much honourable men¬
tion is made by many of the beft authors of antiquity,
*s Ariftotle and Plutarch, Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis,
VOL. XV. Part I.
&c. Paufanias fpeaks of his pi&ures of the events Polypan,
of the Trojan war, and, in his Tenth Book, intro- i'otyg0-
duces a .very long defcription of other piftures by 1
the fame artift, painted alfo from Homer in the temple
at Delphos. The paffage, however, gives but a confu-
fed and imperfeft idea of the painter’s performance.
How much the art is indebted to this ancient mafter,
what grace and foftnefs he gave to the human counte¬
nance, what embellifliments he added to the female fi¬
gure and drefs, are much more happily defcribed by
Pliny. “ Primus mulieres lucida vefte plnxit, capita
earum mitris verficoloribus operuit, plurimumque pic-
turae primus contulit: fiquidem inftituit os adaperire,
dentes oftendere, vultum ab antique rigore variare.”—
The fame author likewife bears honourable teftimony
to the liberal fpirit of this great artift, who refufed any
reward for his ingenious labours in the portico. 
Porticum gratuito, cum partem ejus Mycon mercede
pingeret.” Plin. lib. 35. cap. 8.
POLYGON, in geometry, a figure with many fides,
or whofe perimeter confifts of more than four fides at
leaft ; fuch are the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, &c.
POLYGONUM, Knot-grass : A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12 th or¬
der, Holoracete. There is no calyx ; the corolla is quin-
quepartite, and calycine, or ferving iuftead of a calyx ;
there is one angulated feed. There are 27 fpecies ; but
the moft remarkable are,. 1. The biftorta, biftort, or
greater fnakeweed, hath a thick oblique intorted root,
blackifh without, and red within; a fimple, round,
(lender ftem, near two feet high ; oval leaves, having
decurrent foot-ftalks, and the (talk terminated by thick
(hort fpikes of whitifli-red- flowers. 2. The vivipa-
rum, or fmaller biftort, hath a thickifh root, a fimple
(lender ftem half a foot high, fpear-fhaped leaves,
and the (talks and branches terminated by long fpikes
of whitifn-red flowers. Both thefe perennials flower
in May and June, fucceeded by ripe feeds in Au«
guft. They grow wild in England, &c. the firft in
moift, the other in mountainous, iituations. 3. Ori¬
ental polygonum, commonly called perficaria, hath fi¬
brous roots ; an upright, robuft, ftrong, jointed ftem,
riling eight or ten feet high, dividing at top into fe¬
veral branches; very large oval-lanceolate alternate
leaves, on broad footftalks half furrounding the ftem 9
and all the branches terminated by long, (lender, hang¬
ing fpikes ©f reddifh-purple heptandrous and digynious
flowers, from July till October. 4. Fagopyrum, buck¬
wheat, or brank, rifes with an upright, fmooth, branchy
ftem, from about a foot and a half to a yard high, heart-
fliaped fagittated leaves, and the branches terminated
by clufters of whitifh flowers, fucceeded by large an¬
gular feeds ; excellent for feeding pigeons and moft
forts of poultry.
All thefe plants are hardy, and fucceed in almoft
any foil and fituation ; the two firft are perennial in
root; and the third and fourth are annual, wholly decay
at the end of fummer, or early in winter. The firft two
forts are retained in fome curious gardens for variety;
but their chief merit is for medical purpofes ; they are
powerful aftringents, and are ufed both internally and
externally; efteemed very efficacious in hannorrhagies
and other fluxes; and good to heal fore mouths. The
third fort, Oriental polygonum, or perficaria, is a moft
T t elegant
POL [ 33° J POL
X’clygo- elegant annual f©r the embellifliment of pleafure-
num ground ; affuming a majeftic tree-like growth by its
Poly he- erect luxuriant item, and branchy head ; which being
dron. garnilhed with noble large foliage, and numerous pen-
——y——^ dulous fpikes of flowers, in conitant fucceflion three or
four months, exhibits a very ornamental appearance
from June or July until October, and is fo eafy of cul¬
ture, that from its fcattered feeds in autumn, young
plants rife fpontaneouily in abundance the enfuing
fpring, and (hoot up fo rapidly as to attain fix or
eight feet in height by July, when they generally begin
flowering, and continue till attacked by the froll, when
they totally perifh ; fo that a frefh fupply mull be raifed
from feed annually. The fourth fort (buck-wheat) is
a fort of corn, and is frequently cultivated both by way
of fodder, cutting its ftalks while young and green to
feed cattle, and for its grain to feed pigeons, poultry,
hogs, &c. It flourifhes in any foil and fituation, but
generally thrives bell in a light dry earth ; and the
drielt feafons feldom retard its growth. The firll and
fecund forts are eafily propagated in plenty, by parting
the roots in autumn. The third fort, Oriental poly¬
gonum, being annual, is always propagated from feed
annually, either in the full ground, or by means of hot¬
beds.
Ufes. The root of a kind of biftort, according to
Gmelin, is ufed in Siberia for ordinary food. This fpe-
cies is by Haller called bijlorta foliis ad oram nervo/is,
and by fome other botanifts bijlorta montana minor.
The natives call it mouka ; and fo indolent are they,
that, to fave themfelves the trouble of digging it out
of the earth, they go in fpring and pillage the holes of
the mountain rats, which they find filled with thefe
roots. In our country, biilort is ufed as a medicine. All
the parts of biftort have a rough aullere talte, parti¬
cularly the root, which is one of the llrongell of the
vegetable allringents. It is employed in all kinds of
immoderate haemorrhagies and other fluxes, both inter¬
nally and externally, where aftringency is the only in¬
dication. It is certainly a very powerful llyptic, and
is to be looked on Amply as fuch ; the fudorific, anti-
peftikntiai, and other like virtues afcribed to it, it has
no other claim to than in confequence of its allringen-
cy, and of the antifeptic power which it has in common
with ether vegetable ilyptics. The largeil dofe of the
root in powder is a fingle dram.
POLYGRAPHY, Polygraphia, or Polygraphicey
the art of writing in various unufual manners or ciphers j
as alfo of deciphering the fame. The word is formed
from the Greek, a-oAv, mu2turny and >'£“*?>», Jcripturay
writing.”
The ancients feem to have been very little acquaint¬
ed with this art; nor is there any mark of their having
gone beyond the Lacedaemonian fcytala. Trithemius,
Porta, Vigenere, and father Niceron, have written on
the fubjeft of polygraphy or ciphers. See Cipher.
POLYHYMNIA, in the pagan mythology, one of
the nine mufes, thus named from the Greek words nox^f
“much,” and “memory.” She prefided over
hiilory, or rather rhetoric ; and is reprefented with a
crown ox pearls and a white robe ; her right hand in
aftion as it haranguing, and holding in her left a ca-
duceus or feeptre to (how her power.
1 OL^ HEDRON, in geometry, denotes a body or
fplid comprehended under many fides or planes.
Polyhedron^ in optics^ is a multiplying glafs or
lens, confifling of feveral plane furfaces difpofed into a Polymathy
convex form. See Optics, n® 256. |J
POLYMATHY, denotes the knowledge of many Polyphe-
arts and fciences. The word is derived from the Greek, mus' „
K«xu, multum, and dffco. v '
POLYMNESTOR, was a king of the Thracian
Cherfonefus. He married Ilione, Priam’s eldell daugh¬
ter; and for the fake of the treafure with which he was
entrufted by Priam during the fiegc of Troy, he mur¬
dered Polydorus, (fee Polydorus). The fleet in which
the victorious Greeks returned, together with their Tro¬
jan captives, among whom was Hecuba, flopped on the
coaits of Thrace, where one of the female captives dif-
covered on the Ihore the body of Polydorus, whom Po-
lymneltor had thrown into the fea. The dreadful in¬
telligence was immediately communicated to Hecuba
his mother, who recolle&ing the frightful dreams flie
had the preceding night, did not doubt but Polymne-
ftor was the cruel alfaflin. Refolved to revenge her
fon’s death, Ihe immediately called out Polymndtor, as
if to impart to him fomething of importance. He was
drawn into the fnare; and no fooner was he introduced
into the apartment of the Trojan princefs, than the fe¬
male captives rufhing^upon him, put out his eyes with
their pins, while Plecuba murdered his two children,
who had accompanied him. Euripides informs us, that
the Greeks condemned Polymneftor to be banilhed into
a diftant ifland for his perfidy. Hyginus, however,
relates the whole differently, and tells us, that when
Polydorus was fent to Thrace, Ilione his filter took
him inftead of her fon Deiphilus, who was of the fame
age, being fearful of her hufband’s cruelty. The mo¬
narch, unacquainted with the impofition, looked upon
Polydorus as his owrn fon, and treated Deiphilus as
her brother. After the deftruflion of Troy, the con¬
querors wifhed the houfe and family of Priam to be ex¬
tirpated, and therefore offered Ekctra the daughter of
Agamemnon to Polymneflor, if he would deffroy Ilione
and Polydorus. He accepted the offer, and immedi¬
ately diipatched his own fon Deiphilus, whom he took
for Polydorus. Polydorus, who paffed as the fon of
Polymneftor, confulted the oracle after the murder of
Deiphilus, and being informed that his father was dead,
his mother a captive in the hands of the Greeks, and
his country in ruins, he communicated the anfwer to
Ilione, whom he had always regarded as his mother.
She told him the meafures Ihe had purfued to fave his
life, upon which he avenged the perfidy of Polymneftor
by putting out his eyes.
POLYMNIA, in botany : A genus of the polyga-
mia neeeffaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compojita. The receptacle is paleaceous ;
there is no pappus ; the exterior calyx is tetraphyllous,
or pentaphyllous ; the interior decaphyllous, and com-
pofed of concave leafets.
POLYNICES, the fon of CEdipus by his mother
Jocalta. See Jocasta, (Edipus, and Eteocles.
POLYPE. See Polypus.
POLYPETALOUS, among botanifts, an epithet
applied to. fuch flowers as conliil of feveral petals or
flowrer-leaves.
POLYPHEMUS (fab. liift.), a celebrated Cyclops,
and king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, was the fon of
Neptune and Thoofa the daughter of Phorcys. He is
faid to have been a moniler of great ftrength, very tall,
and
POL E 33
pt>?ypo* iiiid with one eye in tlie middle of the torelieaci. lie
dium. eat human flefh, and kept his flocks on the coafts of
*—^  Sicily, when Ulyfles, at his return from the Trojan war,
was driven there. Ulyifes, together with 12 of his com¬
panions, vifited tlie coal!:, and with them was feized by the
Cyclops, who confined them in his cave, and daily devou¬
red two of them. Ulyffes would have {hared the fate of
the reft, had he not intoxicated the Cyclops, and put out
his eye with a firebrand when he was afleep. Polyphe¬
mus was awakened by the fudden pain, and flopped the
entrance of his cave ; but Ulyfles efcaped, by creeping
between the legs of the rams of the Cyclops, as they
were led out to feed on the mountains. Polyphemus
became enamoured of Galatasa ; but his addrefles were
difregarded, and the nymph fhunned his prefence. The
Cyclops was. Hill more earneft ; and when he faw Gala-
tsea furrender herfelf to the pleafures of Acis, he crufh-
ed his rival with a piece of a broken rock.
POLYPODIUM, in botany ; a genus of the or¬
der of Alices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs
of plants. The fru&ifications are in roundifh points,
fcattered over the inferior dife of the frons or leaf.—
There are 65 fpecies, of which the moft remarkable
is the filix mas, or common male fern. "Phis grows
in great plenty throughout Britain in woods and ftony
uncultivated foils. The greateft part of the root lies
horizontally, and has a great number of appendages
placed clofe to each other in a vertical direftion, while
a number of fmall fibres ftrike downwards. The leaves
are a cubit high, and grow in circular tufts. They
are at firft alternately pinnate, the pinna: increafing in
fize from the bafe towards the middle, and afterwards
gradually decreafing upwards to the fummit of the leaf.
Thefe pinnae are again pinnatifidj or fubdivided almoft
to the nerve into obtufe parallel lobes, crenated on the
edn-es. The ftalks are covered with brown filmy feales.
The fru&ifications are kidney-fhaped, and covered with
a permanent fcaly fhield or involucrum. The capfules
are of a pale brown, furrounded with a faffron-coloured
elaflic ring.
This fern has nearly the fame qualities, and is ufed
for moil of the fame intentions, as the pteris aquilina.
They are both burnt together for the fake of theft
afhes, which are purchafed by the foap and glafs-makers.
In the ifland of jura are exported annually 150 1. worth
of thefe afhes.
Gunner relates, in his Flor. Noveg. that the young
curled leaves, at their firft appearance out of the ground,
are by feme boiled and eaten like afparagus ; and that
the poorer Norwegians cut off thofe fucculent laminar,
like the nails of the finger at the crown of the root,
which are the bafes of the future ftalks, and brew them
into beer, adding thereto a third portion of malt, and
in times of great fcarcity mix the lame in their bread.
The fame author adds, that this fern cut green, and
dried in the open air, affords not only an excellent lit¬
ter for cattle, but, if infufed in hot water, becomes no
contemptible fodder to goats, fheep, and other cattle,
■which will readily eat and fometimes grow fat upon
it: a circumftance well worth the attention of the in¬
habitants of the Highlands and Hebrides, as great
numbers of their cattle, in hard winters, frequently pe-
rifii for want of food.
But the anthelmintic quality of the root of the male
fern is that for which it is chiefly to be valued, and of
]
POL
which an account is given under the article Medicine, Polypi*®*
, 0 mum,
P-343- CO* 2. . . , , ,, u Polypus.
Ihe polypodium oreoptens is only remarkable be- .   
caufe it has been confounded by moll of the Englifh
botanifts with the fpecies which we have now de-
feribed, and the polypodium thelypteris. It has a.
large fcaly root, wrapped and tied together with fmall
ftrong fibres, not to be feparated without difficulty.—
The frudtifications are on the margins both when young
and old, and never run into one another : the lobes are
oval and plain. It is four times as large as the thelyp¬
teris, and grows in dry woods, moors, or hills, and very
feldom near water; all which characters are widely dif¬
ferent from thofe of the fpecies with which it has been
confounded. It is to be found both in England and
Scotland, in the latter place very plentifully. See Lin-
ncean Franfactions, vol. I. p. 181.
POLYPREMUM, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
2 2d\order, Caryophillei. The calyx is tetraphyllous;
the corolla quadrifid and rotaceous, with its lobes ob-
cordate ; the capfule comprefled, emarginated, and bi¬
locular.
POLYPUS, a fpecies of frefh-water infedis, belong¬
ing to the genus of hydra, of the order of zoophytes, and
clafs of vermes. (See Animalcule, n° 24, &c.) The
name of hydra was given them by Linnaeus on account
of the property they have of reproducing themfelves
when cut in pieces, every part foon becoming a perfedl
animal. Dr Hill called them biota, on account of the
ftrong principle of life with which every part of them
is endowed.
Thefe animals were fii ft difeovered by Leeuwenhoek,
who gave fome account of them in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions for 1703 } but their wonderful properties
were not thoroughly known till the year 1740, when
Mr Trembley began to inveftigate them. Previous to
his difeoveries, indeed, Leibnitz and Boerhaave, by rea-
fonings a priori, had concluded that animals might be
found which would propagate by flips like plants ; and
their conjeftures were foon verified by the obfervations
of the gentleman above-mentioned. At firft, however,
Mr Trembley was Uncertain whether he fhould reckon
thefe creatures animals or plants ; and while thus uncer¬
tain, he wrote a letter on the fubject to Mr Bonnet in Ja¬
nuary 1741 ; but in March the fame year he had fatisHed
himfelf that they were real animals. The furprife of Mt
Trembley, and of others, on difeovering the true nature
of thefe animals, was very great. When Mr Reaumur
faw for the firft time two polypes formed from one
which he had divided into two parts, he could hardly
believe his own eyes ; and even after having repeated
the operation an hundred times, he find that the fight
was by no means familiar to him. On the 18th of July
1741, M. Buffon wrote to Martin Folkes, Efq; prefi-
dent of the Royal Society, acquainting him with “ tlie
difeovery of a fmall infect called a polypus, which is
found about tlie common duck-weed; and which, being
cut in two, puts forth from the upper part a tail, and
from the lower end a head, fo as to become two animals
inflead of one. If it be cut into three parts, the middle-
moll alfo puts out from one end a head,and from the other
a tail, fo as to become three diftin<5t'animals, all living
like the firft, and performing the various offices of their
T t 2 fpeciesi,,
POL [ 332 3 POL
Polypus, fpecies.”—In September the fame year, a letter was
■““"v communicated from C. Bentink, Efq; at the Hague,
defcribing the infefts difcovered by Mr Trembley, ad¬
ding, that he himfelf had feen them ; and in November
that year, a letter was read before the Society from
Gronovius at Leyden, giving an account of a water-
infeft, which, fays he, if cut into five or fix pieces, in
a few hours there will be as many animals exactly fimilar
to their parent. Thefe accounts, however, were all
deemed fo extraordinary, that they were not credited,
until profeflbrs Albinus and Mufchenbroeck provided
themfefves with them, and found every thing related
concerning them to be exactly true. In March 1742,
Mr Folkes gave an account of them to the Royal So-
cietyr, from fome obfervations made on feveral polypes
which Mr Trembley had fent from Holland. They
were foon after found in England, and the obfervations
made upon them were pubhihed by feveral perfons ; fo
that no doubt remained concerning the reality of what
had been related concerning them.
The general charaHer of the polype is, that it fixes
itfelf by its bafe ; is gelatinous, linear, naked, contrac¬
tile j and can change its place. The mouth, which is
placed at one end, is furrounded by hair-like feelers.
The young ones grow out from its fides ; but in autumn
it produces eggs from its fides. There are fix varieties.
1. The viridity or green polype, has commonly ten
Ihort arms.
2. The fufca has frequently eight arms feveral times
longer than the body.
3. The grijea is of a yellowilh colour, fmall towards
the bottom, and has long arms, generally about feven
in number.
4. The pollens has generally about fix arms of a mo¬
derate length.
5. The hydatula has a veficular body, and four obfo-
lete arms. It is found in the abdomen of Iheep,
iwine, &c.
6. The Jlentorea has been called the tunnel-Jhapcd, and
has a mouth furrounded with a row of hairs.
7. The focialis is bearded, thick, and wrinkled.
The three firft fpecies are thofe on which the greateft
number of experiments have been made ; and their
lhapes are fo various, that it is by no means eafy to de-
icribe them. They are generally found in ditches.
Whoever has carefijlly examined thefe when the fun is
very powerful, will find many little tranfparent lumps of
the appearance of a jelly, and fize of a pea, and flatted
upon one fide. The fame kind of fubftances are like-
wife to be met with on the under fide of the leaves of
plants which grow in fuch places. Thefe are the po¬
lypes in a quiefcent Hate, and apparently inanimate.
They are generally fixed by one end to fome folid fub-
itance, with a large opening, which is the mouth, at
the other ; having leveral arms fixed round it, projecting
as rays frojn the centre. They are flender, pellucid,
and formed of a tender fubftance like the horns of a fnail,
and capable of contracting themfelves into a very fmall
compajs, or of extending to a confiderable length. The
arms are capable of the fame contraction and expanfion
as the body; and with thefe they lay hold of minute
worms and other infeCts, bringing them to the mouth
and fwallowing them; the indigeitible parts are again
thrown out by the mouth.
The green polype was that firft difcovered by Mr Pol
Trembley; and the firft appearances of fpontaneous  
motion were perceived in its arms, which it can contract,
extend, and twift about in various directions. On the
firft appearance of danger they contratt to fuch a de¬
gree that they appear little bigger than a grain of fand,
of a fine green colour, the arms difappearing entirely.
Soon after he found the grifea, and afterwards the
fufca.
The bodies of the viridk and grifea diminilh almoft
infenfibly from the anterior to the pofterior extremity ;
but the fufca is for the moft part of an equal fize for
two-thirds of its length from the anteriof to the pofte.-
rior extremity, from which it becomes abruptly fmaller,
and then continues of a regular fize to the end. Thefe
three kinds have at leaft fix, and at moft 12 or 13 arms,
though fometimes the grifea is met with having 18 arms.
They can contraCl themfelves till their bodies do not
exceed one-tenth of an inch in length, and they can
flop at any intermediate degree of contraction or ex-
tenfion. They are of various fizes, from half an inch to
an inch and an half long ; their arms are feldom longer
than their bodies, though fome have them an inch, and
fome even eight inches, long. The thicknefs of their
bodies decre^fes as they extend themfelves, and vice
verfa ; and they may be made to contraCt themfelves
either by agitating the water in which they are contain¬
ed, or by touching the animals themfelves.. When
taken out of the water, they all contraCt fo much that
they appear only like a little lump of jelly. The arms
have the fame power of contraction or expanfion that
the body has; and they can contraCt or expand one
arm, or ^any number of arms, independent of the reft ;
and they can likewife bend their bodies or arms in all
pofiible directions. They can-alfo dilate or contraCi
their bodies in various places, and fometimes appear
thick fet with folds, which, when carelefsly viewed*
appear like rings. Their progreffive motion is per¬
formed by that power which they have of contracting
and dilating their bodies. When about to move, they
bend dowu-t^eir head and arms, lay hold by means of
them on fomfc other fubftance to which they defign to
faften themfelves ; then they loofen their tail, and draw
it towards the head; then either fix it in that place,
or ftretching forward their head as before, repeat the
fame operation. They afcend or defcend at pleafure
in this manner upon aquatic plants, or upon the fides of
the veflel in which they are kept; they fometimes hang
by the tail from the furface of the water, or fometimes
by one of the arms ; and they can walk with eafe upon
the furface of the water. On examining the tail with
a microfcope, a fmall part of it will be found to be dry
above the furface of the water, and as it were in a
little concave fpace, of which the tail forms the bottom ;
fo that it feems to be fufpended on the furface of the
water on the fame principle that a fmall pin or needle
is made to fwim. When a polype, therefore, means to
pafs from the fides of the glafs to the furface of the
water, it has only to put that part out of the water by
which it is to be fupported, and to give it time to dry,
which it always does upon thefe occafions; and they
attach themfelves fo firmly by the tail to aquatic plants,
ftones, &c. that they cannot be eafily difengaged;
they often further ftrengthen thefe attachments by
meana
POL
F 333 1
P O L
yolypn*. in<an9 of one or two of their antis, which ferve as hind
i—V— of anchors for fixing them to the adjacent fubftances.
The ftomach of the polype is a kind of bag or gut
into which the mouth opens, and goes from the head
to the tail. This, in a ftrcng light, is vifible to the
naked eye, efpecially if the animal be placed between
the eye and a candle^ for thefe animals are quite tranf-
parent whatever their colour may be. The ftomach,
however, appears to more advantage through a power¬
ful magnifier. Mr Trembley, by cutting one of thefe
animals tranfverfely into three parts, fatisfied himfelf
that they were perforated throughout. Each piece im¬
mediately contraded itfelf, and the perforation was very
vifible through a microfcope. The fkin which inclofes
the ftomach is that of the polype itfelf; fo that tne
whole animal, properly fpeaking, confifts only of one
fkin, in the form of a tube, and opemat both ends. No
veflels of any kind are to be diftinguilhed.
The mouth is fituated at the anterior end in the
middle between the (hooting forth of the arms, and af-
fumes different appearances according to circumftances ;
being fometimes lengthened out in the form of a nipple,
at others appearing truncated ; fometimes the aperture
is quite clofed, at others there is a hollow ; though at
all times a fmall aperture may be difcovered by a power¬
ful magnifier.
The (kin of a polype, when examined with a micro¬
fcope, appears like (hagreen, or as if covered with little
grains* more or lefs feparated from each ether, accord¬
ing to the degree of contra&ion of the body. If the
lips of a polype be cut tranfverfely, and placed fo that
the cut part of the (kin may lie dire&ly before the mi-
crofcope, the (kin throughout its whole thicknefs will
be found to confift of an infinite number of grains, and
the interior part is found to be more fhagreened than
the exterior one; but they are not ftrongly united to
each other, and may be feparated without much trouble.
They even feparate of themfelves, though in no great
numbers, in the moft healthy animals of this kind j
for where they are obferved to feparate in large quan¬
tities, it is a fymptom of a very dangerous diforder. In
the progrefs of this diforder, the furfaee of the polype
becomes gradually more and more rough and unequal,
and no longer well defined or terminated as before.
The grains fall off on all (ides} the body and arms
contract and dilate, and affume a white fnining colour;
and at laft the whole diffolves into an heap of grains,
which is more particularly obferved in the green polype.
By a careful examination we find, that the (kin of the
polype is entirely compofed of grains, cemented by
means of a kind of gummy fubftance ; but it is to the
grains entirely that the polype owes its colour. The
ftrufture of the arms is analogous to that of the body ;
and they appear fhagreened when examined by the mi¬
crofcope, whether they be in a ftate of contraftion or
extenfion ; but if very much contracted, they appear
more (hagreened than the body, though almoft quite
fmooth when in their utmeft ftate of extenfion. In the
green polype the appearance of the arm is continually
varying; and thefe vanatiations are more fenfible
towards the extremity of the arm than at its origin,
but more fcattered in the parts further on. The
extremity is often terminated by a knob, the hairs of
which cannot be obferved without a very powerful mag¬
nifier. They have a remarkable inclination of turning Polype
towards the light; fo that if that part of the glafs on ^
which they are be turned from the light, they will
quickly remove to the other.
That fpecies named the fu/ca has the longeft arms,
and makes ufe of the moft curious manoeuvres to feize
its prey. They are beft viewed in a glafs feven or eight
inches deep, when their arms commonly hang down to
the bottom. When this, or any other kind, is hungry,
it fpreads its arms in a kind of circle to a confiderable
extent, inclofing in this, as in a. net, every infeft which,
has the misfortune to come within the circumference.
(See Animalcule, n° 27.) While the animal is con¬
tracted by feizing its prey, the arms are obftrved to
fwell like the mufcles of the human body when in
aCtion. Though no appearance of eyes can be ob¬
ferved in the polype, they certainly have fome know¬
ledge of the approach of their prey, and (how the
greateft attention to it as foon as it comes near
them. It feizes a wxmm the moment it is touched by
one of the arms ; and in conveying it to the mouth,
it frequently twifts the arm into a fpiral like a cork-
ferew; by which means the infeCt is brought to t.ie
mouth in a much (horLer time than otherwife it would
be; and fo foon are the infeCts on which the polypes
feed killed by them, that M. Fontana thinks they muft
contain the moft powerful kind of poifon ; for the lips
fcarce touch the animal when it expires, though there
cannot be any wound perceived on it when dead. The
worm, when fwallowed, appears fometimes (ingle, fome« •
times double, according to circumftances. When full,
the polype contracts itfelf, hangs down as in a kind of
ftupor, but extends again in proportion as the food is
digefted and the excrementitious part. is difeharged.
The bodies of the infeCts, when fwallowed, are firft ma¬
cerated in the ftomach, then reduced.into fragments,
and driven backward and forward from one end of the
ftomach to the other, and even into the arms, however
fine they may be; wdienee it appears that the arms, as
well as the other parts of this remarkable creature, are
a kind of hollow guts or ftomachs. In order to obferve
this motion, it is beft to feed .the polypes with fuch.
food as will give a lively colour ;; fuch, (or inftance, as
thofe worms which are furniflied with, a red. juice, oome
bits of a fmall black faail being given to a polype, the
fubftance of the (kin was foon diifolved. into a palp con¬
fiding of fmall black fragments; and on. examining
the polype; with a microfcope, it was found that the
particles were driven about in the ftomach, and that
they paffed into the arms, from thence back into the
ftomach, then to the tail;.. from whence tney pafled
again into the arms, and fo on. The grains of whmn
the body of the polype eonfift take their colour from
the food- with which it is nourifhed, and become red or
black as the food happens to afford the one colour or
the other. They are likewife more or Lefs tinged with
thefe colours in proportion to the ftrength of the nutri¬
tive juices ; and it is obfervable that they lofe their co¬
lour if fed with aliments of a colour different from
themfelves. They feed on moft infedts found in freih .
water; and will alfo be fupported with worms, the
larvae of gnats, &c. and even with fnails, large aquatic
infedts, and fifh or fleft, if cut into fmall bits. Some--
times two polypes lay hold of the fame worm, and each
begy*
P © L [ 33*
^Polypi’s, begins to fwallow its own end till tlielr mouths meet
ki“"~v and the worm breaks. But fhould this happen not to
be the cafe, the one polype will fometimetJ devour the
other along with its portion. It appears, however, that
the ftomach of one polype is not fitted for diffolving
the fubftance of another; for the one which is fw;llow-
ed always gets clear again after being imprifoned for an
hour or two.
The manner in which the polypes generate is moft
perceptible in the grifea and fufca, as being confiderably
larger than the viridis. If we examine one of them in
fummer, when the animals are moll active, and prepared
for propagation, fome fmall tubercles will be found pro¬
ceeding from its fides, which conllantly increafe in bulk,
until at lad in two or three days they affume the figure
of fmall polypes. When they fird begin to' fhoot, the
excrefcence becomes pointed, aduming a conical figure,
and deeper colour than the red of the body. In a
fhort time it becomes truncated, and then cylindrical,
after which the arms begin to fhoot from the anterior
end. The tail adheres to the body of the pArent-animal,
but gradually grows fmaller, until at lad it adheres only
by a point, and is then ready to be feparated. When
this is the cafe, both the mother and young ones fix
themfelves to the fides of the glafs, and are feparated
from each other by a hidden jerk. The time requifite
for the formation of the young ofies is very different,
according to the warmth of the weather and the nature
of the food eaten by the mother. Sometimes they are
. fully formed, and ready to drop off, in 24 hours; in
other cafes, when the weather is cold, 15 days have
been requifite for bringing them to perfe&ion.
It is remarkable, that there is a reciprocal communi¬
cation of food betwixt the young and old before they
be feparated. The young ones, as foon as they are fur-
nifhed with arms, catch prey for themfelves, and com¬
municate the digeded food to the old ones, who on the
other hand do the fame to the young ones. Tins was
fully verified by the following experiment : One of the
large polypes of the fufca kind being placed oh a flip
of paper in a little water, the middle of the body of a
young one growing out fi'oin it was cut open ; when
• the fuperior part of that end which remained fixed to
the parent was found to be open alfo. By cutting over
the parent polype on each fide of the fhoot, a fhort cy¬
linder was obtained, open at both ends; which being
viewed through a microfcope, the light was obferved to
come through the young one into the domach of the
old one. On cutting open the cylindrical portidn length-
wife, not only the hole'of communication was obferved,
but one might fee through the end of the young one
alfo. On changing the fituation of the two pieces, the
light was feen through the hole of communication.
This may be feen between the parent polype and its
young ones after feeding them ; for, after the parents
have eaten, the bodies of the young ones fwell as if they
themfelves had been eating.
I lie polypes produce young ones indifcriminately
from all parts of their bodies, and five, for fix young
ones have frequently been produced at once ; nay, Mr
f rembley has obferved nine or ten produced at the fame
time.
Nothing like copulation among thefe creatures was
ever obferved by Mr I-rembley, though for two years
he had thoufands of them under his inibe&ion. To be
]
POL
more certain on this fubjedl, he took two young ones
the moment they came from their parent, and placed
them in feparate glades. Both of them multiplied, not
only themfelves, but alfo their offspring, which were fe¬
parated and watched in the fame manner to the feventh
generation ; they have even the fame power of genera¬
tion while adhering to their parent. In this date the
parent, with its children and grandchildren, exhibits a
iingular appearance, looking like a fhrub thick fet with
branches. '11ms feverai generations fometimes are at¬
tached to one another, and all of them to one parent,
Mr Adams gives a figure of one polype with nineteen
young ones hanging at it; the whole group being about
an inch broad, and an inch and an half in length : the
old polype eat about twelve monoculi per day, and the
young ones about 20 among them.
When a polype is cut tranfverfely or longitudinally
into two or three parts, each part in a fhort time be¬
comes a perfed animal; and fo great is this prolific
power, that a new animal will be produced even from
a fmall portion of the fkin of the old-one. If the young
ones be mutilated while they grow upon the parent, the
parts fo cut off will be reproduced, and the fame pro¬
perty belongs to the parent. A truncated portion will
fend forth young ones before it has acquired a new head
and tail of its own, and fometimes the head of the youn*
one fupplies the place of that which fhould have grown
out of the old one. If we flit a polype longitudinally
through the head to the middle of the body, we fhall
have one formed with two heads ; and by flitting thefe
again in the fame manner we may form one with as ma¬
ny heads as we pleafe.
A flill more lurprifing property of thefe animals is,
that they may be grafted together. If the truncated
portions of a polype be placed end to end, and gently
pufhed together, they will unite into a iingle one. The
two portions are firit joined together by a flender neck,
which gradually fills up and difappears, the food paffing
from the one part into the other; and thus we may
foi-m polypes not only from portions of the fame, but
or different animals ; we may fix the head of one to the
body of another, and the compound animal will grow,
eat, and multiply, as if it had never been divided,. By
pufhing the body of one into the mouth of another, fo
far that their heads may be brought into contact, and
kept there for fome time, they will at lafl unite into one
animal, only having double the number of arms which
it would otherwife have had. The hydra fufca may be
turned infide out like a glove, at the fame time that
it continues to live and a6l as before. The lining of
the ftomach now forms the outer fkin, and the former
epidermis conftitutes the lining of the ftomach. If pre¬
vious to this operation the polype have young ones at¬
tached to it, fuch as are but newly beginning to ve¬
getate turn themfelves infide out, while the larger
ones continue to increafe in fixe till they reach beyond
the mouth of the patent, and are then feparated in the
ufual manner from the body. When thus turned the
polype combines itfelf in many different ways. The
fore part frequently clofes and becomes a fupernumerary
tail. The animal, which was at firft ftraight, now bends
itfelf, fo that the two tails refemble the legs of a pair of
compaffes, which it can open and fhut. The old mouth
is placed as it were at the joint of the compaffes, but
lofes its power of action ; to fupply which, a new one is
formed
Polypuj
POL [335
formed in its neighbourhood ; and in a little time there
is a new fpecies of hydra formed with feveral mouths.
The fides of a polype, which has been cut through
in a longitudinal direction, begin to roll themfelves up,
commonly from one of the extremities, with the out-
fide of the flcin inwards ; but in a little time they un¬
roll themfelves, and the two cut edges join together,
fometimes beginning at one. extremity, and fometimes
approaching throughout their whole length. As foon
as the edges join, they unite fo clofely that no fear can
he perceived. If a polype be partly turned back, the
@pen part clofes, and new mouths are formed in diffe¬
rent places. Every portion of a polype is capable of
devouring infects almoft as foon as it is cut oil: and
the voracity of the whole genus is aftonifhing ; for
Mr Adams obferves, that moil of the infedfs on wmch
they feed bear the fame proportion to the mouth of a
polype that an apple of the fize of a man’s head bears
to his mouth. * ,
The hydra pallens is very rarely met with, and is de-
feribed only by M. Roefel. It is of a pale yellow co¬
lour, growing gradually fmaller from the bottom; the
tail is round or knobbed; the arms are about the length
of the body, of a white colour, generally feven in num¬
ber, and are apparently compofed of a chain of globules.
The young are brought forth from all parts of its
body.
The hydratula is mentioned by many medical writers.
Dr Tyfon, in differing an antelope, found feveral hyda-
tides or films, about the fize of a pigeon’s egg, filled
with water, and of an oval form, faftened to the omen¬
tum ; and fome in the pelvis between the bladder of urine
and refitum. He fufpefited them to be animals for.the
following reafons : 1. Becaufe they were included in a
membrane like a matrix, fo loofely, that by opening it with
the finger or a knife, the internal bladder, containing
the ferum or lympha, feemed nowhere to have any con-
nefition with it, but would very readily dropout, ihll
retaining its liquor without fpilling any. 2. This in¬
ternal bladder had a necK or white body, more opaque
than the reft, and protuberant from it, with an orifice
at its extremity ; by which, as with a mouth, it ex-
haullcd the ferum from the external membrane, and fo
fitpplied its bladder or ftomach. 3. On bringing this
neck near the candle, it moved and fhortened itieli. . It
is found in the abdomen of fheep, fwine, mice, &c. lying
between the peritoneum and the inteftines.
The Jlentorea, or funnel-like polype, is of three co¬
lours, green, blue, and white ; but the laft is the rnoft
common. They do not form clufters, but adhere singly
by the tail to whatever comes in their way : the an¬
terior end is wider than the pofterior; and, being
round, gives the animal fomewhat of a funnel form,
though the circle is interrupted by a kind of flit or gap.
The edge of this gap is furrounded with a great num¬
ber of little fimbrilhe, which by their motions excite a
current of water, that forces into the mouth of the ani¬
mal the fmall bodies that come within its reach. Mr
Trembley fays, that he has- often feen a great number
of animalcules fall into the.mouths of thefe creatures;
fome of which were let out again at an opening which
he could not deferibe. They can falhion their mouths
into fevcral different forms ; and they multiply by di¬
viding neither traufverfely nor longitudinally, but dia-
gonally.
] POL
The facialis is deferibed by Muller under the title of Poiypa»
vorticella. They are found in clufters; and when view- V”*“
ed by a microfcope, appear like a circle furrounded with
crowns or ciliated heads, tied by fmall thm tails to a
common centre, from whence they advance towards the
circumference, and then turn like a wheel, occafioniug
a vortex which brings along with it the food proper for
them.
The anajlatica, or cluttering polypes, form a group
refembling a clutter, or rather an open flower, fupport-
ed by a ftem, which is fixed by its lower extremity to
fome of the aquatic plants or extraneous bodies t hat are
found in the water ; the upper extremity is formed into
eight or nine lateral branches, perfectly fimilar to each
other, which have alfo fubordinate branches, whofe col¬
lective form much reiembles that of a leaf. Every one
of thefe affemblages is compofed of one principal branch
or nerve, which makes the main ftem of the clutter an
angle fomewliat larger than a right one : the fmaller la¬
teral branches proceed from both fides of this nerve, and
thefe are fiaorter the nearer their origin is to the princi¬
pal branch. There is a polype at the extremity, and
others on both fides of the lateral twigs, but at diffe¬
rent diftances from their extremities. They are all ex¬
ceedingly fmall, and bell-fhaped, with a quick motion
about the mouth, though it is impoffible to difeern the
caufe of it. See Animalcule, n0 24, 26, Pulex,
and Vorticella.
The feveral ftrange properties recorded of this ani¬
mal, though very furprifing, are, however, none of them
peculiar to it alone. The Surinam toad is well known
to produce its young, not in the ordinary way, but in
cells upon its back.. Mr Sherwood has very lately dif-
covered the fmall eels in four pafte to be without excep¬
tion full of living young ones. And as to the moft ama¬
zing of all its properties, the reproduction of its parts,
we know the crab and lobfter, if a leg be broken off,
always produce a new one; and Monf. Bonet, Monf.
Lyonet, Monf. de Reaumur, and Mr Folkes, have all
found, by experiment, that feveral earth and water
worms have the fame property, fome of them even
when cut into thirty pieces. The urtica marina, or
iea-nettle, has been alio found to have the fame; and
the fea ftar-fiih, of which the polype is truly a fpecies,
though it had long efcaped the fearches of the natura-
lifts, was always well known by the fifhermen to have
it alfo.
Marine Polypus, is different in form from the frefh*
water polype already deferibed; but is nourifiied, iu-
creafes, and may be propagated, after the fame manner ;
Mr Ellis having often found, in his inquiries, that fmall
pieces cut off from the living parent, in order to view
the feveral parts more accurately, foon gave indications
that they contained net only the principles of life, but
likewife the faculty of increafing and multiplying into a
numerous iffue. It has been lately difeovered and fuf-
ficiently. proved by Peyffonel, Ellis, Juffieu, Reaumur,
Donatq &c., that many of thofie fubftances which had
formerly been confidered by naturalifts as marine vege¬
tables or fea-plants, are in reality animal-produCtions;
and that they are formed by polypes of different fhapes
and fizes, for their habitation, defence, and propagation.
To this clafs may be referred the corals, corallines, ke-
ratophyta, efehara, fponges, and alcyonium : nor is it
improbable, that the more coranafit bodies, known by
5 ~ •:
POL r 33S ] POL
common appellations of Jlar-Jlmes, Irain-jlones, pc-
' tripled fungi, and the like, brought from various parts of
the Eaft and Weft Indies, are of the fame origin. To
this purpofe Mr Ellis obferves, that the ocean, in all the
warmer latitudes near the ftiore, and wherever it is pof-
fibie to obferve, abounds fo much .with animal life, that
no inanimate body can long remain unoccupied by fome
fpecies. In thofe regions, ftiips-bottoms are foon co¬
vered with the habitations of thoufands of animals:
rocks, ftones, and every thing lifelefs, are covered with
them inflantly ; and even the branches of living vege¬
tables that hang into the .water are immediately loaded
with the fpawn of different animals, ihell-fiih of various
, kinds : and fhell-filh themfelves, when they become im¬
potent and old, are the bafts of new colonies of animals,
from vvhofe attacks they can no longer defend them¬
felves. For 3 farther account of this fyflem, fee Coral Polvpw
and Corallines. j|
Poltpus of the Heart, See Medicine, n° 07. q8 Pol>fyn4e«
274, and 290. _ V . ton- j
POLYSARCIA, or Corpulency. See Medicine,
n© 335.
POLYSCHIDES, or sea hunger. See Fucus.
POEYSPERMOUS (from ctoxu and feed),
in botany, is applied to fuch plants as have more than
four feeds fucceeding each flower, without any certain
order or number.
POLYSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word confift-
ing of more than three fyllables; for when a word con-
ftfts of one, two, or three fyllables, it is called a monofyl-
/ah/e, a dijfyllabJe, and trifyllahle.
POLYSYNDETON. See Oratory, ^67.
P O L Y T
Definition. HE doctrine of a plurality of gods or inviftble
X powers fuperior to man.
“ That there exift beings, one or tmany, powerful
above the human race, is a propofttion (fays Lord
■* Sket&es Kames*) univerially admitted as true in aU ages and
tfM H^' 0m<M\S natJo113* 1 boldly .call it univerfal, notwith-
ajr an' ftanding what is reported.ofifome grofs favages ; for re¬
ports that contradict what is acknowledged to be gene¬
ral among men, require more able vouchers than a few
illiterate voyagers. Among many favage tribes, there
are no words but for objects of external fenfe : is it fur-
p riling that fuch people are incapable of exprefling their
religious perceptions, or any perception, of internal fenfe?
The conviftion that men have of fuperior powers, in eve¬
ry country where there are words to exprefs it, is fo
■well vouched, that in fair reafoning it ought to betaken
for granted among the few tribes where language is de-
i ficient.’'
Source of Thefe are judicious obfervations, of which every man
religious will admit the force who has not fome favourite fyftem
traced1 ta t0 build upon the unftable foundation which his Lord-
fhip overturns. Taking it for granted, ttien, that our
conviftion of fuperior powers has long been univerfal,
the important queftien is, From what caufe it proceeds?
The fame ingenious author fliows, -with great ftrength
of reafoning, that the operations of nature and the go¬
vernment of this world, which to us loudly proclaim the
exift ence of a Deity, are not fufficient to account for
the univerfal belief of fuperior beings among favage
tribes. He is therefore of opinion, that this univerfali-
ty of convi&ion can fpring only from the image of Dei¬
ty ftamped upon the mind of every human being, the ig¬
norant equally with the learned. “ Nothing lefs (he
fays) is fufficient; and the original perception which
we have of Deity mull proceed (he thinks) from an
internal fenfe, which may be termed the fenfe of Deity.yy
We have elfewhere expreffed our opinion of that phi-
lofophy which accounts for every phenomenon in human
nature, by attributing it to a particular ipftinft (fee In¬
stinct) ; but to this inftin<ft or fenfe of Deity, con-
iidered as complete evidence, many objections, more
.than ufually powerful, force themfelves upon us. AU
nations, except the Jews, were once polytheifts and ido-
Lters. It therefore his Lordfhip’s hypothefts be ad-
H E I S M,
mitted, either the do&rine of polytheifm muff be true
theology, or this inftindt or fenfe is of fuch a nature as
to have at different periods of the world miffed all man¬
kind. All favage tribes are at prefent polytheifts and
idolaters ; but among favages every inftinft appears in
greater purity and vigour than among people polifhed
by arts and fciences ; and inftinft never miftakes its ob-
je<^* The inftmdt or primary imprefiion of nature,
which gives rife to felf-love, affeftion between thefexes,
love of progeny, &c. has in aU nations, and in every pe¬
riod of time, a precife and determinate objeft which it
inflexibly purfues. How then comes it to pafs, that this
particular inftinct, which if real is furejy of as much im¬
portance as any other, fhould have uniformly led thofe
who had no other guide to purfue improper objects,
to fall into the groffeft errors and the moft pernicious
practices? To no purpofe are we told, that the fenfe of
Deity, like the moral fenfe, makes no capital figure
among favages. There is reafon to believe that the
feeling or perception, which is called the moral fenfe, is
pot wholly inftin&ive ; but whether it be or not, a
fingle inftance cannot be produced in which it multi¬
plies its objects, or makes even a favage exprefs grati¬
tude to a thoufand perfons for benefits which his prince
alone had power to confer.
For thefe, and other reafons which might eafily be
afligned, wre cannot help thinking, that the firft religious
principles mull have been derived from a fource diffe¬
rent as well from internal fenfe as from the deductions of
reafon; from a fource which the majority of mankind
had early forgotten ; and which, when it was hanilhed
from their minds, left nothing behind it to prevent the
very firft principle of religion from being perverted by
various accidents or caufes, or, in fome extraordinary
concurrence of circumftances, from being perhaps en¬
tirely obliterated. This fource of religion every con-
fiftent Theift muft believe to be revelation. Reafon, T(> r5 ,
it is acknowledged, and we (hall afterwards /how (fee tiom^
Religion), could not have introduced favages to the
knowledge of God ; and wre have juft feen, that a fenfe
of Deity is an hypothefis clogged with infuperable dif¬
ficulties. Yet it is undeniable, that all mankind have
believed in fuperior invifible powers : and if reafon and
inltinCl be fet afide, there remains no other origin of
I
P O L Y T
TJre'fm. tWs wivtrfal belief than primeval revelation, corrupted,
w-v  indeed, as it paffed by oral tradition from father to fon,
in the conrfe of many generations* It is no flight flip-
* Sse port to this doftrine, that if there really be a Deity*,
Sketch" nf jt Js highly prefumable that he would reveal himfelf to
the M,jt of tjie men—creatures whom he had formed with fa-
* culties to adore and to worfhip him.. To other ani¬
mals, the knowledge of a Deity is of no importance ;
to man, it is of the firft importance. Were we totally
ignorant of a Deity, this world would appear to us a
mere chaos. Under the government of a wife and be¬
nevolent Deity, chance is excluded ; and every event ap¬
pears to be the refult of eflablifhed laws. Good n^en
fubmit to whatever happens without repining, knowing
that every event is ordered by Divine Providence: they
fubmit with entire refignation ; and fuch refignation is
a fovereign balfam for every misfortune or evil in
life. r . .
Wch Admitting, then, that the knowledge of Deity was
taught pure originally derived from revelation, and that the firft.
theilm. men profeffed pure theifm, it fhall be our bufinefs in the
prefent article to trace the rife and progrefs of polytheifm
and idolatry ; and to afeertain, if _we can, the real opi¬
nions of the Pagan world concerning that multitude of
gods with which they filled heaven, earth, and hell.
In this inquiry, though we fhall have occafion to appeal
to the writings of Moles, we fhall attribute to them no
other authority than what is due to records of the ear-
lieft ages, more ancient and authentic than any others
which are now extant.
Whether we believe, with the author of the book of
Genefis, that all men have defeended from the fame
progenitors ; or adopt the hypothefis oi modern theo-
rifls, that there have been fuccefiive creations of men,
and that the European derives Ins origin from one pan,
the Ajiatic from another, the woolly-headed African
from a third, and the copper-coloured American from a
fourth polytheifm and idolatry will be feen to have
arifen from the fame caufes, and to have advanced near¬
ly in the fame order from one degree of impiety to an¬
other. On either fuppofition, it mult be taken for grant¬
ed, that the original progenitors were inftrudted by their
Creator in the truths of genuine theifm: and there is
no room to doubt, but that thofe truths, fimple and
fublime as they are, would be conveyed pure from fa¬
ther to fon as long as the race lived in one family, and
were not fpread over a large extent of country. If any
credit be due to the records of antiquity, the primeval
inhabitants of this globe lived to fo great an age, that
they mult have increafed to a very large .number long
before the death of the common parent, who would of
courfe be the bond of union to the whole fociety, and
whole dictates, efpecially in what related to the origin
of his being and the exiftence of his Creator, would be
liftened to with the utmoll refpedl by every individual
of his numerous progeny.
Many caufes, however, would confpire to dilfolve this
family, after the death of its ancellor, into feparate and
independent tribes, of which Come would be driven by
violence, or would voluntarily wrander, to a diftancefrorn
the reft. From this difperfion great changes would
take place in the opinions of Come of the tribes refpedt-
ing the objeft of their religious woilhip. A fingle fa¬
mily, or a fmall tribe banrlhed into a defert wildernefs
(fuch as the whole earth mult then have been), would
V ox. XV. Part J[,
H E I S M#. 3.57
find employment for all their time in providing the Pdytheifm.
means of fubfiftence, and in defending themfelves from ^
beafts of prey. In fuch circumftances they would have circum-
little leifure for meditation, and, being conftantly con-fiances
verfant with objefts of fenfe, they would gradually lofe ^
the power of meditating upon the fpiritual nature
that Being by whom their anceftors had taught them
that all things were created. The firft wanderers would
no doubt retain in tolerable purity their original notions
of Deity; and they would certainly endeavour to im-
prefs thofe notiops upon their children : but in cirqum-
ftances infinitely more favourable to fpeculation than
theirs could have been, the human mind dwells not long
upon notions purely intelle6hial. We are fo accuftom-
ed to fenfible ol^eas, and to the ideas of fpace, exten-
fion, and figure, which they are perpetually impreffing
upon the imagination, that w7e find it extremely diffi¬
cult to conceive any being without affigning to him a
form and a place. Hence a learned writer* has fup-*
pofed, that the earlieft generations of men (even thofe *
to whom he contends that frequent revelations were^ 0„ tf}.
vouchfafed) may have been no better than anthropomor- Theory of
phites in their conceptions of the Divine Being. Religion.
Be this as it may, it is not conceivable but that the
members of thofe firft colonies would quickly lofe many
of the arts and much of the fcience which perhaps pre¬
vailed in the parent ftate ; and that, fatigued with the
contemplation of intelkaual objefts, they would relieve
their overftrained faculties, by attributing to the Deity 6
a place of abode, if not a human form. To men to- Firft fteps
tally illiterate, the place fitteft for the habitation of the in the pro.
Deity would undoubtedly appear to be the fun, the8rels*
moft beautiful and glorious objed of which they could
form any idea; an objed, too, from which they could
not but be fenfible that they received the benefits of
light and heat, and which experience muft foon have
taught them to be in a great meafure the fource of ve¬
getation. The great fpirit therefore inhabiting the fun,
which they would confider as the power of light and
heat, was in all probability the firft. objed of idolatrous
adoration. _ 7
From looking upon the fun as the habitation of their The fpirit
God, they would foon proceed to confider it as his of light the
body. Of pure mind entirely feparated from matter,firft g0*1
men in their circumftances could not long retainjdie Pagam 1U*
fainteft notion ; but confcious each of power in him¬
felf, and experiencing the effeds of power in the fun,
they would naturally conceive that luminary to be ani¬
mated as their bodies were animated. They would feel
his influence when above the horizon ; they would fee
him moving from eaft to weft ; they would confider
him when fet as gone to take his repofe: and thofe ex¬
ertions and’ intermiffions of power being analogous to
what they experienced in themfelves, they would look
upon the fun as a real animal. Thus would the Divi¬
nity appear to their untutored minds to be a compound
being like man, partly corporeal and partly fpiritual ;
and as foon as they imbibed fuch notions, though per¬
haps not before, they may be pronounced to have been
abfolute idolaters.
When man had once got into this train, their gods
would multiply upon them with wonderful rapidity.
Darknefs and cold they could not but perceive to be
contrary to light and heat; and not having phildfophy
enough to diftinguilh between mere privations and poii-
U u • _ tivc
«
33s
POLYTHEISM.
Magiamfm. tiYe effe£?s, tiiey would confider darknefs and cold as
'' g'1 ' entities equally real with light and heat; and attribute
The f hit tkefe different and contrary effe&s to different and Con¬
or power of trary powers. Hence the fpirit or power of darknefs
darknefs was in all probability the fecond god in the Pagan ca-
the fccond. jeRC{ar . and as they confidered the power of light as a
benevolent principle, the fource of all that is good, they
muff have looked upon the contrary power of darknefs
as a malevolent fpirit, the fource of all that is evil. This
we know from authentic hiftory to have been the belief
of the Perfran magi, a very ancient fedt, who called their
p good god Taxdan, and alfo Ormuzd, and the evil god
Polytheifm Ahraman. Confidering light as the fymhol, or perhaps
the Per- as the body, of Orntuz.d, they always worfhipped him be-
Ir:a°“ fore the fire, the fource of light, and efpecially before
the fun, the fource of the moft perfedl light ; and fot
the fame reafon fires were kept continually burning on
his altars. T hat they fometimes addreffed prayers to
the evil principle, we are informed by Plutarch in his
life of Themiffocles ; but with what particular rites he
was wcrftu'pped, or where he was fuppofed to refide, is
not fo evident. Certain it is, that his worfhippers held
him in deteifation ; and when they had occafion to
write his name, they always inverted it (uomDjqy)i to
denote the malignity of his nature.
The principles of the magi, though widely diftant
from pure theifm, were much lefs abfurd than thofe of
other idolaters. It does not appear that they ever
■worfhipped their gods by the medium of graven ima¬
ges, or had any other emblems of them than light and
darknefs. Indeed we are told by Diogenes Laertius
and Clemens Alexandrinus, that they condemned all
ffatues and images, allowing fire and water to be the
only proper emblems or reprefentatives of their gods.
* De Lfgi- And we learn from Cicero*, that at their inffigation
bus, lib. ii, Xerxes was faid to have burnt all the temples of Greece,
§10' becaufe the builders of thofe edifices impioufly prefu¬
med to inclofe within walls the gods, to whom all things
ought to be open and free, and whofe proper temple is
the whole world. To thefe authorities we may add
that of all the hiftorians, who agree, that when magia-
nifm was the religion of the court, the Perfian monarchs
made war upon images, and upon every emblem of
idolatry different from their own.
The Magi, however, were but one fe£I, and not the
largeft feft of ancient idolaters. The worfhip of the
fun, as the fource of light and heat, foon introduced
IO into the calendar of divinities the other heavenly bodies,
Sabian the moon, the planets, and the fixed ftars. Men could
polytheifm not but experience great benefit from thofe luminaries
in the abfence of their chief god ; and when they had
proceeded fo far as to admit two divine principles, a
good and an evil, it was natural for minds clouded with
luch prejudices to confider the moon and the ftars as
benevolent intelligences, fent to oppofe the power of
darknefs whilft their fiift and greateft divinity was ab-
fcnt or afleep. It was tbits, as they imagined, that he
maintained (for all held that he did maintain) a con-
ftant fuperiority over the evil principle. Though to
aftronomers the moon is known to be an opake body of
very fmall dimenfions when compared with a planet or
a fixed ftar, to the vulgar eye fhe appears much more
magnificent than either. By thofe early idolaters fhe
was confidered as the divinity fecond ui rank and in
power ; and whilft the fun was worfhipped as the king, Rabfifns;
fhe was adored as the queen, of heaven. y-—
The eartli, confidered as the common mother of all
things; the ocean, whofe waters are never at reft; the air,
the region of ftorms and tempefts, and indeed all the ele¬
ments were gradually added to the number of divinities;
not that mankind in this early age had fo far degene¬
rated fiom the principles of their aneeftors as to wor-
fhip brute matter. If fuch worfhip was ever praftifed,
which to us is hardly conceivable, it was at a later pe¬
riod, when it was confined to the very lowed: of the
vulgar, in nations otherwife highly civilized. The po-
lytheifts, of whom we now treat, conceived every thing
in motion to be animated, and animated by an intelli¬
gence powerful in proportion to the magnitude of the
body moved.
1 his feft of idolaters, which remains in fome parts of
the Eaft to this day, was known by the name of Sabi-
ans, which they pretend to have derived from Sabins
a fon of Seth ; and among the books in which their fa-
cred doftrines are contained, they have one which they
call the book of Seth. We need hardly obferve, that
thefe are fenfelefs and extravagant fables. The name
Sab:an is undoubtedly derived from the Hebrew word
Tfaba, which fignifies “ a hoft or army and this clafs
of polytheifts was fo called, becaufe they worfhipped ’
the hoft of heaventhe Tfaba hefemim, again it
which Mofes fo patheticalb- cautions the people of If-
raeJp*-. . * Dent.
This fpecies of idolatry is thought to have firft pre-c-iv- I9>
vailed in Chaldea, and to have been that fsom which .
Abraham feparated himfelf, when, at the command ofcSdeT
the true God, he “ departed from his country, and " *
from his kindred, and from his father’s houfe.” But
as it nowhere appears that the Chaldeans had fallen into
thefavage ftate before they became polytheifts and ido¬
laters, and as it is certain that they were not favages at
the call of Abraham, their early Sabiifm may be thought
inconfiftent with the account which we have given°of
the. origin of that fpecies of idolatry. If a great and
civilized nation was led to worfhip the hoft of heaven.,
why fhould that worfhip be fuppofed to have arifen a-
mong favages ? Theories, however plaufibE, cannot be
admitted in oppofition to fadls.
Frue : but we beg leave to reply, that our account
of the origin of polytheifm is oppofed by no fadl ; be¬
caufe we have not fuppofed that the worfhip of the hoft
of heaven arofe among favages onby. That favages, be¬
tween whom it is impofiible to imagine any intercourfe
to have had place, have univerfally worfhipped, as their
firft and fupreme divinities, the/un, moon, and^j/v, is
a fad! evinced by every hiftorian and by every travel¬
ler ; and we have fhown how their rude and uncultiva¬
ted ftate naturally leads them to that fpecies of idolatry.
But there may have been circumftances peculiar to the
Chaldeans, which led them likewife to the worfhip of
the heavenly hoft, even in a ftate of high civilization.—
We judge of the philofophy of the ancients by that of
ourfelves, and imagine that the fame refined fyftem of
metaphyfics was cultivated by them as by the follow¬
ers of Defcartes and Lode.' But this is a great mi-
ftake ; for fo grofs were the notions of early antiquity,
that it may be doubted whether there was a fingle man
uninfpired, who had any notion of mind as a being di-
ftin^t-
SaVufrfl'
In Cratyb.
P&fled into
Egypt. &c-
* Lib. i.
cap. 131.
| Lib. ir
cap. <88
{ Lib. i
POLY T
fllnd; and entirely feprated from matter (fee Meta¬
physics, Part III. c, 4). From feveral paffages in the
books of Mofes, we learn, that when iti the firtl ages of
the world the Supreme Being condefcended to manifeft
bis prefence to men, he generally exhibited fome fen-
fible emblem of his power and glory, and declared his
will from the midft of a preternatural fire. It was
thus that he appeared to the Jewifh lawgiver himfelf,
when he fpoke to him from the midil of a burning
bufh ; it was by a pillar of cloud and fire that he led
the Ifraelites from Egypt to the Land of Promife ; and
it was in the midil of fmoke, and fire, and thunder-
ings, that the law was delivered from Mount Sinai.—
That fuch manifeftations of the Divine Prefence would
be occalionally made to the defeendants of Noah who
fettled in Chaldea foon after the deluge, mull appear ex¬
tremely probable to every one who admits the authori¬
ty of the Hebrew Scriptures : and he who queftions that
authority, has no right to make the objection to which
w-e now reply ; becaufe it is only from the book of Ge-
neiis that we know the Chaldeans to have been a civi¬
lized people when they Fell into idolatry. All hillories
agree in reprefenting the inhabitants of Chaldea as at
a very early period corrupted by luxury and funk in
vice. When this happened, we mull fuppofe that the
moral Governor of the univerfe would withdraw from
them thofe occalional manifellations of himfelf, and
leave them to their own inventions. In fuch circum-
ftances, it was not unnatural for a people addi&ed to
the lludy of allronomy, who had been taught to believe
that the Deity frequently appeared to their ancellors
in a flame of fire, to confider the fun as the place of his
permanent refidence, if not as his body. But when ei¬
ther opinion was firmly ellablilhed, polytheifm would
be its inevitable confequence, and the progrefs of Sa-
biifm would, in the moll polillied nation, be fuch as we
have traced it among lavage tribes.
From Chaldea the idolatrous worfhip of the boll of
heaven fpread itfelf over all the Eail, palled into Egypt,
and thence into Greece ; for Plato affirms f, that “ the
firll inhabitants of Greece feemed to him to have wor-
Ihipped no other gods but the fun, moon, earth, liars,
and heavens, as moll barbarous nations (continues be)
Hill do.” That Sabiifm, or the worfhip of the boll of
heaver, was the firll fpecies of idolatry, befides the pro¬
bability of the thing, and the many allufions to it in fa-
cred Scripture, we have the pofitive evidence of the
moll ancient pagan hillcrians of whofe ■writings any part
has been tranfmitted to us. Herodotus*, fpeaking of
the religion of the Perfians, fays,, that “ they worfhip
the fim, moon, and earth, fire, water, and the winds ;
and this adoration they have all along paid from the
beginning.” He tellifies the fame thing of the favage
Africans, of whom he affirms f, that they all worlh.p-
ped the fun and mc-ton, and no other divinity. Diodo¬
rus Siculus, writing of the Egyptians^:, tells us, that
“ the firll men looking up to the world above them,
and terrified and flruck with admiration at the nature
of the univerfe, fuppoled the fun and moon to be the
principal and eternal gods.',, And Sanchoniathon the
H E I S M. _ 339
Phoenician,-a more ancient writer than either of thefe,
informs us, in the fragment of his hiltory prefeived by ... ^ ^
Eufebius, that “ the two firll mortals were iEon and
Protogonus ; and their children were Genus and Ge-
nea, who inhabited Phoenicia ; and when they were
•fcorched with the heat, they lifted up their hands to
the fun, whom they believed to be the Lord of Hea¬
ven, and called him Baal-famen, the fame whom the
Greeks call
Hitherto thofe divinities were worfhipped in perforr,
or, as Dr Prideaux exprefles it, in xhtiv facella, or fa-
cred tabernacles ; for the votaries ol each directed tneir
devotions towards the planet which they fuppofed to
be animated by the particular intelligence whom they
meant to adore. But thefe orbs, by their riling and
fetting, being as much below the horizon as above it,
and their grofsly ignorant worlhippers not fuppofing it
poffible that any intelligence, however divine, could ex- 13
ert its influence but in union with fome body, llatues
or pillars were foon thought of as proper emblems °^vv01fl1ipj
the abfent gods. Sanchoniathon, in the fragment al¬
ready quoted, informs us, that “ Hyjpouranios and his
brother Oufous, Phoenician patriarchs, erefted two pil¬
lars, the one to fire and the other to air or wind, and
worshipped thofe pillars, pouring out to them libations
of the blood of the wild beafts hunted down in the
chace.” As thefe early monuments of idolatry were
called fictt'lvMct, a word evidently derived from the He¬
brew Bethel, the probability is, that they were altars ot
loofe Hones, fuch as that which was built by Jacob $,§ GenefJ,
and from him received the fame name. As his wasch. xxxv.
confecrated to the true God, theirs were confecrated
to the hoH of hiaven ; and the form of confecration
feems to have bt m nothing more than the anointing of
the Hone or pillar with oil (a), in the name of the di¬
vinity whom it was intended to reprefent. When this
ceremony was performed, the ignorant idolaters, who
fancied that their gods could not hear them but when
they were vifible, fuppofed that the intelligences by which
the- fun and planets were animated, took pofleffion, in
fome inexplicable manner, of the confecrated pillars, and
were as well pleafed with the prayers and praifes offer¬
ed up before thofe pillars, as with the devotions which
were addreffed towards the luminaries themfelves.—
Hence Sanchoniathon calls them cnlmated or living
Jlones, {^u^ovf, from the portion of the Divine
Spirit which was believed to refide in them ; and as they
were dedicated to the holt of heaven, they were gene¬
rally erefted on the tops of mountains ; or in countries
which, like Egypt, were low and level, they were ele¬
vated to a great height by the labour of men. I4
It has been fuppofed, that this praftice of raifing the With
pillars on high places proceeded from a defire to make the i.0' ."JY
objects of worfhip confpicuous and magnificent: but we(,|"^-
are Hrongly inclined to believe, that the eicdlors oF '*
dxilrjxia. had fomething farther in view, and that they
thought of nothing lei's than to bring the facred Hone or
pillar as near as poffible to the god whom it reprefent-
ed. Whatever be in this, we know that the pra£lice
itfelf prevailed univerfally through the call ; and that
U u 2 there
(a) Hence the proverb of a fuperftitious man, *,9°v x»^*rov he hljfies or adores every anointed fane >
which Arnobius calls lulricatam laplusm, et ex olivi unguinefiordidatum.—Stillingfleet’s Orlglnes Sacra,
34© P 0 L Y T
Paroong, there wAs nothing which the Jewifh legiflator more
w~”'v ftriftly enjoined his people to deftroy, than the altars,
ftatues, and pillars, eredted for idolatrous worfhip upon
mountains and high places. “ Ye thall utterly deftroy
(fays he) all the places wherein the nations which ye
ihall polfefs ferved their gods, upon the high mountains,
and upon the hills, and under every green tree. And
ye fliall overthrow their altars, and break down their
ih-ui. pillars, and burn their groves with fire
The mention of groves by the Hebrew lawgiver,
brings to our recolle&ion another fpecies of idolatry,
which was perhaps the fecond in order, as men devia¬
ting from the principles of pure theifm were more and
more intangled in the labyrinths of error. The Chal¬
deans, Egyptians, and all the eaftern nations who be¬
lieved in a fuperintending providence, imagined that
the government of this world, the care of particular na¬
tions, and even the fiiperintendence of groves, rivers,
and mountains, in each nation, was committed by the
g°ds to a clafs of fpirits fuperior to the foul of man, but
inferior to thofe heavenly intelligences which animated
the fun, the moon, and the planets. Thefe fpirits were
by the Greeks called demons, and by the Ro¬
mans genii. Timaeus the Locrian, who flouriftied before
^iT'e Antma Plato, fpeaking of the punifhment of. wicked men, faysf,
terUfcr(pt~athefe things hath Nemefis decreed to be executed
T. Gift, " in the fecond period, by the miniftry of vindi&ive ter-
eJitos. reftrial demons, who are overfeers of human affairs; to
which daemons the Supreme God, the ruler over all,
hath committed the government and adminiftration of
this world, which is made up of gods, men, and ani¬
mals.
Concerning the origin of thefe intermediate beings,
fcholars and philofophers have framed various hypothe-
fes. The belief of their exiftence may have been derived
from five different fources.
i. It feems to have been impoflible for the limited
capacities of thofe men, who could not form a notion of
a God divefted of a body and a place, to conceive how
the influence and agency of fuch a being could every
inftant extend-to every point of the univerfe. Hence,
as we have feen, they placed the heavenly regions un¬
der the government of a multitude of heavenly gods, the
fun, the moon, and the JIars. But as the neareft of thofe
divinities was at an immenfe diftance from the earth,
and as the intelligence animating the earth itfelf had
fufficient employment in regulating the general affairs
of the whole globe, a notion infinuated itfelf into the
untutored mind, that thefe fuperior governors of univer-
fal nature found it neceffary, or at leaft expedient, to
employ fubordinate intelligences or damans as minifters
to execute their behefts in the various parts of their
widely extended dominions.
2. Such an univerfal and uninterrupted courfe of ac¬
tion, as was deemed neceffary to adminifter the affairs
of the univerfe, would be judged altogether inconfiftent
with that ftate of indolence, which, efpecially in the eaft,
was held an indifpenfable ingredient in perfedl felicity.
It was this notion, abfurd as it is, which made Epicu¬
rus deny the providence, whilft he admitted the exijlence,
ot gods. And if it had fuch an effedt upon a philofo-
pher who in the moft enlightened ages had many fol-
joweis, we need not fiirely wonder if it made untaught
idolaters imagine that the governor or governors of the
. *5
Origin of
daemon-
Worfhip
H E I g M.
univerfe had devolved a great part of their trouble on D*m m
deputies and minifters. w
3. When men came to refledf on the infinite diftanee
between themfelves and the gods, they would naturally
form a wifh, that there might fomewhere exift a clafs
of intermediate intelligences, whom they might employ
as mediators and interceffors with their far diftant divi¬
nities. But what men earneftly wifti, they very readily
believe. Hence the fuppofed diftance of their gods
would, among untutored barbarians, prove a fruitful
fource of intermediate intelligences, more pure and more
elevated than human fouls.
4. Thefe three opinions may be denominated popu¬
lar ; but that which we are now to ftate, wherever it
may have prevailed, was the offspring of philofophy. 
On this earth we perceive a fcale of beings rifing gradu¬
ally abofe each other in perfection, from mere brute
matter through the various fpecies of foflils, vegetables,
infedts, fifties, birds, and beafts, up to man. But the
diftance between man and God is infinite, and capable
0/ admitting numberlefs orders of intelligences, all fupe¬
rior to the human joul, and each rifing gradually above
the other till they reach that point, wherever it may
be, at which creation flops. Part of this immenfp
chafm the philofophers perceived to be a&ually filled by
the heavenly bodies ; for inphilofophical polytheifm there
was one invifible God fupreme over all thefe: but ftill
there was left an immenfe vacuity between the human
fpecies and the moon, which was known to be the loweft
of the heavenly jiolt ; and this they imagined muft cer¬
tainly be occupied by invifible inhabitants of different
orders and difpofitions, which they called good and evil
damans.
5. There is yet another fource from which the uni¬
verfal belief of good and evil demons may be derived,
with perhaps greater probability than from any or all
of thefe. If the Mofaic account of the creation of the
world, the peopling of the earth, and the difperfion of
mankind, be admitted as true (and a more confiftent ac¬
count has not as yet been given or devifed), fome know¬
ledge of good and evil ange/s muft neceffarily have been
tranfmitted from father to fon by the channel of oral
tiadition. This tradition would be corrupted at the
fame time, and in the fame manner, with others of
greater importance. When the true God was fo far
miftaken as to be confidered, not as the foie governor
of the univerfe, but only as the felf-extant power of
light and good, the Devil would be elevated from the
rank of a rebellious created fpirit to that of the inde¬
pendent power of darknefs and evil ; the angels of
light would be transformed into good demons, and
thofe of darknefs into demons that are evil. This ac¬
count of the origin of daemonology receives no fmall «
fupport from Plato, who derives one branch of it whol¬
ly from tradition. “ With refpeft to thofe demons
(fays he J) who inhabit the fpace between the earth and ! .
the moon, to underftand and declare their generation is
a talk too arduous, for my flender abilities. In this cafe
we muft credit the report of men of other times, who,
according to their own account, were the defeendants.
of the gods, and had, by fome means or other, gained
exaft intelligence of that myftery from their anceftors.
We muft not queftion the veracity of the children of
the gods, even though they Ihould tranfgrefs the bounds
7 ^ of
P O L Y T
Here^ of probability, and produce no evidence to fupport their
-—r— afiertions. We muft, I fay, notwithitanding, give them
credit, becaufe they profefs to give a detail of facts with
which they are intimately acquainted, and the laws of
our country oblige us to believe them.,,
Though thefe daemons were generally invifible, they
were not fuppofed to be pure difembodied fpirits.—
Proclus, in his Commentary upon Plato’s Timseus, tells
us, that “ every daemon fuperior to human fouls con-
.filled of an intellectual mind and an ethereal vehicle.”
Indeed it is very little probable, that thofe who gave a body
and a place to the -Supreme God, (hould have thought
that the inferior orders of his minifters were fpirits entirely
Separated from matter. Plato himfelf divides the clafs of
t yipiniomi. daemons into three orders * ; and whilft he holds their
fouls to be particles or emanations from the divine ef-
fence, he affirms that the bodies of each order of dsemons
are compofed of that particular element in which they
for the moll part refide. “ Thpfe of the firfl and high-
eft order are compofed of pure ether ; thofe of the fe-
cond order conffft of groffer air ; and daemons of the
third or loweft rank have vehicles extracted from the
clement of water. Daemons of the firft and fecond or¬
ders are invifible to mankind. The aquatic daemons,
being invefted with vehicles of groffer itiaterials, are
fometimes vifible and fometimes invifible. When they
do appear, though faintly obfervable by the human eye,
they ftrike the beholder with terror and aftonilhment.”
Daemons of this laft order were fuppofed to have paf-
fions and affeCtions fimilar to thofe of men ; and though
all nature was full of them, they were believed to have
local attachments to mountains, rivers, and.groves,
where their appearances were moft frequent. The rea-
fon of thefe attachments feems to be obvious. Poly-
16 theifm took its rife in countries fcorched by a burn-
in proves, ing fun ; and daemons by their compofition being necef-
and on the farqy fubjeCl in fome degree to the influence of heat
river8.°f and cold’ was natural to fuppofe that they, like men,
would delight in the lhady grove and in the purling
ftream. Hence the earlieft altars of paganifm werc ge¬
nerally built in the midft of groves, or on the banks of
rivers; becaufe it v/as believed that in fuch places were
afiembled multitudes of thofe intelligences, whofe office
it was to regulate the affairs of men, and to carry- the
prayers and oblations of the devout to the far-diftant
refidence of the celeftial gods. Hence too are to be de¬
rived the mountain and river gods, With the dryads and
hamadryads, the fatyrs, ny-mphs, and fawns, which held
a place in the creed of ancient paganifm, and make fo
confpicuous a figure in the Greek and Roman poets.
Thefe different orders of'intelligences, which, though
worfhipped as gods or demigods, were yet believed to
partake of human pafiions and appetites, led the way
Deification to the deification of departed heroes and other eminent
of departed benefaClors of the human race. By the philofophers
heroes, all fouls were believed to be emanations from the divi-
t Wjrbur- nity; but “ gratitude f and admiration, the warmeft
tont Dh. aud moft aClive affeCtions of our nature, concurred to
enlarge the objeCt of religious worfhip, and to make man
regard the inventors of arts and the founders of fociety
as having in them more than a common ray of the di¬
vinity. So that god-like benefits, befpeaking as it were a
god-like mind, the deceafed parent of a people was eaiily
advanced into the rank of a daemon. When the religi¬
ous bias was in fo good a train, natural affeCtion would
H E I S M . 3 4*
have its (hare in promoting this new mode of adoration. ^ ^
Piety to parents would naturally take the read, as it was
fupported by gratitude and admiration, the primum mo¬
bile of the whole fyftem : and in thofe early ages, the
natural father of the tribe often happened to be the po¬
litical father of the people, and the founder of the ftate.
Fondnefs for the offspring would next have its turn;
and a difconfolate father, at the head of a people, would
contrive to footh his grief for the untimely death of a
favourite child, and to gratify his pride under the want
of fuccefjicn, byr paying divine honours to its memoiy.
“ For a father J afflicted with untimely mourning, when l Wifdom f
he had made an image of his child loon taken away,
now honoured him as a godvwho was then a dead man,
and delivered to thofe that were under him ceremonies
and facrifices.” That this was the origin and prqgreis
of the worlhip of departed fouls, we have the authority
of the famous fragment of Sanchoniathon already quot¬
ed, where the various motives for this fpecies of idolatry
are recounted in exprefs words. “ After many gene¬
rations (fays he) came Chryfor ; and he invented many
things ufeful to civil life, for which, after his deceafe,
he was worlhipped as a god. Then fiourifhed Oarawor
and his lifter Ge, who deified and offered facrifices to
their father Hypjijlos, when he had been torn in pieces
by wild bealts. Afterwards Cronos confecrated Math
his fon, and was himfelf confecrated by his fubjeCls.”
In the reign of Cronos flourilhed a perfonage of great
reputation for wifdom, who by the Egyptians was call¬
ed fhoth, by the Phoenicians Taautos, and by the
Greeks Hermes. According to Plutarch, he v/as a
profound politician, and chief counfellor to Ofiris,
then the king, and afterwards the principal divinity, of
Egypt: and we are told by Philo Byblius, the tranfla- Tg
tor of Sanchoniathon, “ that it was this fhoth or Her- K political
mes who firft took the matters of religious worlhip out invention*
the hands of unlkilful men, and brought them into due which in-
method and order.” His pbje£t was to make religiontroduce
ferviceable to the interefts of the ftate. With this view
he appointed Ofiris and other departed princes to be
joined with the liars and worlhipped as gods ; and be¬
ing by Cronos made king of Egypt, he was, after his-
death, worihipped himfelf as a god by the Egyptians.
To this honour, if what is recorded of him be true, he
had indeed a better title than moft princes ; for he is
faid to have been the inventor of letters, arithmetic,
geometry, aftronomy, and hieroglyphics, and was there¬
fore one of the greateft benefadlors of the human race
which any age or country has ever produced.
That the gods of Greece and Rome were derived
from Egypt and Phoenicia, is fo univerfally known, that
it is needlefs to multiply'quotations in order to prove
that the progtefs of polytheifm among the Greeks and
Romans was the fame with that which we have traced
in more ancient nations. The following tranflation,.
however, of the account given by Hefiod of the deifi¬
cation of departed heroes, with which we have been fa¬
voured by a learned and ingenious friend, is fo juft*
and in our opinion fo beautiful, that we cannot deny,
ourfelves the pleafure of giving it to our readers.
“ The gods who dwell on high Olympus’ hill,
Firft fram’d a golden race of men, who liv’d
Under old Saturn’s calm aufpicious fway.
Like gods they liv’dj their hearts devoid of care,
Beyon#L
|j Egyuv hu
n^E^av,
lib. i. verf.
POLY
Beyond the reach of pain and piercing woes ;
Th’ infirmities of age nor felt, nor fear’d.
Their nerves with youthful vigour ftrun^, their days
In jocund mirth they paft, remote from ills. —
Now when this godlike race was lodg’d in earth,
By Jove’s high will to demigods they rofe,
And aiiy daemons, who benign on earth
Converfe—the guides and guardians of mankind.
In darknefs veil’d, they range earth’s utmoft bound,
Difpenfing wealth to mortals. This reward
.From bounteous Jove awaits illuflrious deeds ||.”
T H E I S M.
t _o &c The deification of departed heroes and flatefmen was
' that which in all probability introduced the univerfal
National belief of national and tutelar gods, as well as the pradlice
and tutelar of worfhipping thofe gods through the medium of Jlatues
'$ Bijf-rt,
38.
Hero-wcr
ihip en¬
grafted on
the i lane-
lary,
cut into a human figure. When the founder of a flate
or any other public benefaftor was elevated to the rank
of a god, as he was believed flill to. retain human paf-
fions and affections, it was extremely natural to fuppofe
that he would regard with a favourable eye that nation
for which he had done fo much upon earth; that he
would oppofe its enemies, and proteCf the laws and in-
flitutions which he himfelf had given it. By indul¬
ging the fame train of fentiment, each city, and even
every family of confequence, found Lares and Penates
among their departed anceftors, to whom they paid the
warmefl adoration, and under whofe protection they
believed their private affairs to be placed. As thofe
.national and houfehold gods were believed to be in their
deified ftate clothed with aiiy bodies, fo thofe bodies
were fuppofed to retain the form which their groffer
Bodies had upon earth. The image of a departed friend
might perhaps be formed by the hand of forrowful af-
feCtion, before the ftatue or the fhrine of a deity was
thought of; but when that friend or benefaftor became
the objeCt of religious adoration, it was natural for his
votaries to enliven their devotion by the view of his fi-
militude. Maximus Tyrius tells us <j, that “ there is no
race of men, whether barbarian or Grecian, living on
the fea-coafl or on the continent, wandering in deferts
or living in cities, which hath not confecrated fome
kind of fymbol or other in honour of the gods.” This
is certainly true ; but there is no good evidence that
the firft fymbols of the gods were ifatues of men and
women. Whilil the fun and other heavenly bodies con¬
tinued to be the foie objeCts of religious worfhip, the
fymbols confecrated to them were pillars of a conical or
pyramidal figure ; and if fuch pillars are ever called
graven images by Mofes and other ancient writers, it
was probably on account of the allegoric figures and
eharaSers, or hieroglyphic writing, with which they were
infcribed.
Hitherto we have confidered the fouls of departed
heroes as holding the rank only of demons or demigods;
but they gradually rofe in the fcale of divinities, till
they dethroned the heavenly bodies, and became them-
felves the dii majorum gentium. This revolution was ef¬
fected by the combined operation of the prince and the
prieft ; and the firft ftep taken towards it feems to have
been the complimenting of their heroes and public be-
nefaCtors with the name of that being which was moil
efteemed and worfhipped. “ Thus a king for his be¬
neficence was called the fun^ and a queen for her beau¬
ty the moon. Diodorus relates, that Sol firil reigned
in Egypt, called fo from the luminary of that name in Worfli’p,
the heavens. This will help us to underiland an odd ——v—^
paifage in the fragment of Sanchoniathon, where it is
laid that Cronus hadfeven fans by Rhea, the youngejl of
•whom was a god as foon as born. The meaning pro¬
bably is, that this youngeft fon was called after fome
luminary in the heavens to which they paid divine ho¬
nours ; and thefe honours came in procefs of time to be
transferred to the terreftrial namefake. The fame his¬
torian had before told us, that the fons of Genos, mortals
like their father, were called by the names of the ele¬
ments—light, fire, and fiame, of which they had difeo-
vered the ufe.”
ftAs this adulation advanced into an eftablifhed wor¬
fhip, they turned the compliment the other way, and
called the planet or luminary after the hero, the better
to accuftom the people, even in the aCl of Phnet-wor- tt
Jhip, to this new adoration. Diodorus, in the paiTage Which in
already quoted, having told us, that by the firll inha-time
bitants of Egypt the fun and moon were fuppofed to^ante^*
be the principal and eternal gods, adds, that the. former
was called Osiris, and the latter Isis. This was in¬
deed the general pradice ; for we learn from Macro-
bius, that the Ammonites called the fun Moloch ; the
Syrians Adlid; the Arabs Dionyfus ; the AfTyrians Be¬
las ; the Phoenicians Saturn ; the Carthaginians Her¬
cules ; and the Palmyrians Elegabalus. Again, by the
Phrygians the moon was called Cybele, or the mother
of the gods ; by the Athenians Minerva ; by the Cy¬
prians Venus ; by the Cretans Diana; by the Sicilians
Proferpine ; by others Hecate, Bellona, Vefia, Urania,
Lucina, &c. Philo Byblius explains this pra&ice : “ It
is remarkable (fays he) that the ancient idolaters im-
pofed on the elements, and on thofe parts of nature which
they efleemed gods, the names of their kings : for the
natural gods which they acknowledged were only the
fun, moon, planets, elements, and the like ; they being
now in the humour of having gods of both claffes, the
mortal and the immortal.”
“ As a farther proof that Z»ero-worfhip was thus fu-
perinduced upon the planetary, it is worthy of obferva-
tion, that the firft ftatues confecrated to the greater
hero-gods—thofe who were fuppofed to be fupreme—
were not of a human form, but conical or pyramidal,
like thofe which in the earlieft ages of idolatry were
dedicated to the fun and planets. Thus the fcholiaft
on the Vefpie of Ariftophanes tells us, that the ftatues
of Apollo and Bacchus were conic pillars or obeliiks ;
and Paufanias, that the ftatue of Jupiter Meilichius re-
prefented a pyramid.; that of the Argive Juno did the
lame, as appears from a verfe of Phoronis quoted by
Clemens Alexandrinus J ; and indeed the practice was J Strom. I. j.
univerfal as well amongft the early barbarians as amongft
the Greeks. But it is well known that the ancients
reprefented the fays of light by pillars of a conical or
pyramidal form; and therefore it follows, that when
they ere&ed fuch pillars as reprefentatives of their hero-
gods, thefe latter had fucceeded to the titles, rights, and
honours of the natural and celefiial divinities *.” * IVurbur.
But though it feems to be certain that worfhip Zl/u.
was thus engrafted on the planetary, and that fome oi'fi. ^ook3‘
thofe heroes in procefs of time fupplanted the planets C * *
themfelves, this was fuch a revolution in theology as
could not have been fuddenly effe&ed by the united in¬
fluence of the prince and the prieft. We doubt not
the
P 0 L Y T
Hero- the fad that sol was believed to have reigned m Egypt,
  and was afterwards worfhipped under the name of Op ts ;
sar r but it was furely impoffible to perfuade any nation,
Sevolu-however ftupid or prone to idolatry, that a man, whom
tion in thee, they remember'd difeharging the auties of their fovereign
logy. ?n(l Icp;if]ator, was the identical fun whom they beheld
in the heavens. Ofiris, if there was in Egypt a king
of that name, may have been deified immediately after
bis death, and honoured with that worfhip which was
paid to good dfmo'ns ; but he muff have been dead for
ages before any attempt was made to perfuade the na¬
tion that he was the fupreme God. Even then great
addrefs would be requiiite to make fuch an attempt luc-
eefsful. The prince or priett who entered upon it
would* probably begin with declaring from the oracle,
that the divine intelligence which animates and governs
the fun had defeended to earth and animated the perfon
of their renowned legiflator; and that, after then jaws
were framed, and the other purposes ferved for which
the defeent was made, the fame intelligence had re¬
turned to its original refidence and employment among
the celeftials. The poffibility of this double tranfmi-
gration from heaven to earth and fro inearth to heaven,
would without difficulty be admitted in an age when
the pre-exiftence of fouls was the univerfal belief. Ha¬
ving proceeded thus far in the apotheolis of dead men,
the next ftep taken in order to render it in fome degree
probable that the early founders of ftates, and inventors
of arts, were divine intelligences clothed with human
bodies, was to attribute to one fuch benefaftor of man¬
kind the aftions of many of the fame name. Voffius,
who employed vaft erudition and much time on the fub-
jt£t, has proved, that before the osra of the Trojan
wars mofl kings who were very powerful, or highly re¬
nowned for their IkiU in legiflation, &c. were called
Jove; and when the aftions of aU thefe were attributed
to one Jove of Crete, it would be eafy for the crafty
prieft, Supported by all the power and influence of the
date, to perfuade an ignorant and barbarous people,
that he whofe wifdom and heroic exploits fo far furpafled
thofe of ordinary men muft have been the fupreme God
13 in human form. . . .. ,
Vices of the -pbis ffiort iketch of the progrefs of polytheifm and
jpagan gods jdolat w[\\ enable the reader to account for many cir-
cumftances recorded of the pagan gods of antiquity,
which at firlt view feem very furpniing, and which at
lad brought the whole fydem into contempt among the
philofophers of Athens and Rome. Tire circumdances
to which we allude are the immoral char after sof tliofe
divinities, and the abominable rites with which they
were worffiipped. Jupiter, Apollo, Mura, an t e
whole rabble of them, are deferibed by the poets as ra-
viffiers of women and notorious adulterers. Hermes or
Mercury was a thief, and the god of thieves. enus
was a proditute, and Bacchus a drunkard- The mahee
and revenge of Juno were implacable ; and fo little re¬
gard was any of them fuppofed to pay to the laws of
honour and reftitude, that it was-a common praftice of
the Romans, when befieging a town, to evocate the
tutelar deity, and to tempt him by a reward to betray
ir.LUn, h;s fHends and votariesf- In a word, they were, in
\rMa^lb tlae ianguage ^lC Poet>
lib. iii, c. 9. ** Gods partial, changeful, paffionate, unjud,
“ Whofe attributes were rage, revenge, and lud J.
H E I S M. ^ 343
This was the natural confequence of their origin, fia- WcnTup.,
ving once animated human bodies, and being fuppofed
dill to retain human paffions and appetites, they were Accounted
believed, in their date of deification, to feel the fame for.
fenfual defires which they had felt .upon earth, and to
purfue the fame means for their gratification. As
the men could not well attempt to furpafs the go^s
in purity and virtue, they were eafily perfuaded by art*
ful and profligate priefls, that the mod acceptable wor*
(hip which could be rendered to any particular deity
was to imitate the example of that deity, and to indulge
in the praftices over which he preuded. Hence the
worffiip of Bacchus was performed during the night by
men and women mixing in the dark after intemperate
eating and drinking 1|. Hence too it was the praftice
in Cyprus and fome other countries to facrifice to \ e-
nus * the virginity of young women fome days before
their marriage, in order, as it was pretended, to fecure
their chadity ever afterwards ; and, if Herodotus may be
credited, every woman among the Babylonians was ob¬
liged once in her life to proditute heifelf in tue temple
of the goddefs My lute (Venus), that fire might thence¬
forward be proof againd all temptation. -
The progrefs of polytheifm, as far as we have traced .l’i0Sr«s^
it, has been regular; and after the enormous error of
forfaking the worfhip of the true God was admitted, umVerfal.
every fubfequent dep appears to be natural. It would
be no difficult tafk to prove that it has likewife been
univerfal. Sir William Jones, the learned prefident of
the Adatic Society, has difeovered fuch a driking re-
femblance between the gods of ancient Gieece and thofe
of the pagans of Hindodan J, as puts it beyond a doubt f Afiati.
ithat thofe divinities had the fame origin. The Ganlsa
of the Hindoos he has clearly proved to be the Janus'
of the Greeks and Romans. As the latter was repre-
fented with two and fometimes with four faces, as em¬
blems of prudence and circumfpeftion, the former is
painted with an elephant’s head, the well-known fymbol ^
amono- the Indians of iagacious difeernment. The Sa-jn(jjan
TUR.N° of Greece and Rome appears to have been thelatry.
fame perfonage with the Menu or Satyavrata of
Hindoftan, whofe patronymic name is Vaivaswata, or
child of the fun; which diffidently marks his origin.
Among the Romans there were many Jupiters, of whom
one appears from Etinius to have been nothing more
than the firmament perfonified.
Afpice hoc fublime candens, quern invocant omne%
JpVEM.
But this Jupiter had the fame attributes with the Indiarr
god of the vifible heavens called In dr A or the king, and -
Divespetir or the lord of the fky, whofe coniort is
Sachi, and whofe weapon is vajra or the thunderbolt.
Indra is the regent of winds and fhowers ; and though. •
the call is peculiarly under his care, yet his Olympus
is the north-pole, allegorically reprefented as a mountain
of gold and gems. With all his power he is coniidered
as a fubordinate deity, and far inferior to the Indian
triad Brahma, Vishnou, and Mahadeva or Siva *, * Plata-
who are three forms of one and the fame godhead. CCCCXL
The prefident having traced the refemblance between
the idolatry of Rome and India through many other
gods, obferves, that “ we mult not be furprifed at
finding, on a clofe examination, that the charafters of
all the pagan deities melt, into each other, and at lait
344
Hero-
Worfhip.
POLYTHEISM.
Scandi a-
vian and
Saxon ido¬
latry.
* Plate
CCCCXI
into one or two ; for it feems a well-founded opinion,
that the whole crowd of gods and goddefles in ancient
Rome, and likewife in Hindgftan, mean only the powers
of nature, and principally thofe of the fun, expreffed
in a variety of ways', and by a multitude of fanciful
names.”
Nor is it only in Greece, Rome, Egypt, and India,
that the progrefs of idolatry has been from planetary to
hero-worfnip. From every account which modern tra¬
vellers have given us of the religion of favage nations, it
appears that thofe nations adore, as their firft and
greatell gods, the fun, moon, and liars; and that fuch
of them as have any other divinities have proceeded in
the fame road with the celebrated nations of antiquity,
from the worfhip of the heavenly bodies, to that of ce-
leftial demons, and from celelfial demons to the deifica¬
tion of dead men. It appears likewife that they uni-
verfally believe their hero-gods and demigods to retain
the palfions, appetites, and propenfities of men.
That the Scandinavians and our Saxon anceftors had
the fame notions of the gods with the other pagans
' whofe opinions we have Hated, is evident from their
calling the days of the week by the names of their divi¬
nities, and from the forms of the llatues by which thofe
divinities were reprefented *. i. The idol of the fun,
■ from which Sunday is derived, among the Latins dtts
Solis, was placed in a temple, and adored and facrificed
to; for they believed that the fun did co-operate with
this idol. He was reprefented like a man half naked,
with his face like the fun, holding a burning wheel
with both hands on his breatt, fignifying his courfe
round the world ; and by its fiery gleams, the light and
heat with which he warms and nourilheth all things.—
2. The idol of the moon, from which cometh our Mon¬
day, dies Luna, anciently Moonday, appears llrangely
lingular, being habited in a Ihort coat like a man. Her
holding a moon exprefies what fhe is; but the reafon of
her fhort coat and long-eared cap is loft in oblivion.—
3. Tuifeo, the moil ancient and peculiar god of the
Germans, reprefented in his garment of a (kin according
to their ancient manner of clothing, was next to the
fun and moon, the idol of higheft rank in the calendar
of northern paganifm. To him the third day in the
week was dedicated; and hence is derived the name
Lue/day, anciently "Tuifday, called fti Latin dies Martis,
though it muft be confeifed that Mars does not fo much
jrefemble this divinity as he does Odir or Woden.
4. IVoden was a valiant prince among the Saxons.
His image was prayed to for vi&ory over their enemies ;
which, if they obtained, they ufually facrificed the
prifoners taken in battle to him. Our IVednefday is
derived from him, anciently IVodncfday. The northern
hiftories make him the father of Thor, and Friga to be
his wife.
5. Thor was placed in a large hall, fitting on a bed
■canopied over, with a crown of gold on his head, and
12 ftars over it, holding a feeptre in the right hand,
i o him was attributed' the power over both heaven and
earth ; and that as he was^pleafed or difpleafed he could Brine*
fend thunder, tempefts, plagues, &c. or fair, feafonable
weather, and caufe fertility. From him our Thurfday
derives its name, anciently Thorfday; among the Ro¬
mans dies Jovis, as this idol may be fubftituted for
Jupiter.
6. Friga reprefented both fexes, holding a drawn
fword in the right hand and a bow in the left; denoting
that women as well as men fhould fight in time of need.
She was generally taken for a goddefs ; and was repu¬
ted the giver of peace and plenty, and caufer of love
and amity. Her day of worfhip was called by the
Saxons Frigedeag, now Friday, dies Veneris; but the
habit and weapons of this figure have a refemblance of
Diana rather than Venus.
7. Seater, or Crodo, flood on the prickly back of a
perch. He was thin-vifaged and long-haired, with a
long beard, bare-headed and bare-footed, carrying a pail
of water in his right hand wherein are fruit and flowers,
and holding up a wheel in his left, and his coat tied
with a long girdle. His Handing on the fharp fins of
this fifh iignified to the Saxons, that by worfhipping
him they fhould pafs through all dangers unhurt; by
his girdle flying both ways was fhown the Saxons free¬
dom ; and by the pail with fruit and flowers, was de¬
noted that he would nourifh the earth. From him, or
from the Roman deity Saturn, comes Saturday.
Such were the principal gods of the northern nations :
but thefe people had at the fame time inferior deities,
who were fuppofed to have been tranflated into heaven
for their heroic deeds, and whofe greateil happinefs
confifted in drinking ale out of the fkulls of their ene¬
mies in the hall of IVoden. But the limits preferibed
to the prefent article do not permit us to purfue. this
fubjedt; nor is it neceffary that we fhould purfue it.
The attentive reader of the article Mythology, of
the hiftories given in this work of the various divinities
of paganifm, and of the different nations by whom thofe
divinities w^ere worfhipped, will perceive that the pro¬
grefs of polytheifm and idolatry has been uniform over
the whole earth.
There -is, however, one fpecies of idolatry more
wonderful than any thing that has yet been mentioned,
of which our readers will certainly expedl fome account. 28
It is the worfhip of brutes, reptiles, and ’vegetables, among Brute-
the Egyptians. To the Greeks and Romans, as well^r^,!lP
as to us, that fuperftition appeared fo monftrous, that cians.*’^'”
to enumerate every hypothefis, ancient and modern, by
which philofophers have endeavoured to account for it,
would fwell this article beyond all proportion. Brute-
worfhip prevailed at fo early a period in Egypt, that
the philofophers of antiquity, whofe writings have de-
feended to us, had little or no advantage over the mo¬
derns in purfuing their refearches into its origin ; and
among the modern hypothefes, thofe of M'Jheim and
Warburton appear to us by much the moft probable of
any that we have feen ( b ). The former of thefe learned
writers attributes it wholly to the policy of the prince
and
(b) There is, however, another hypothefis worthy of fome attention, if it were only for the learning and
ingenuity ot its author. The celebrated Cudworth infers, from the writings of Philo and other Platonifts of
the Alexandrian fchool, that the ancient Egyptians held the Platonic doclrine of ideas exifting from eternity,
and conftituting, in one of the per ft) ns of the godhead, the intelligible and archetypal world. (See Platon 1 s.m. )
* Philo,
POLYTHEISM.
Brute*
Worflup.
snd the craft of the prieft. The latter contends, with
much earneftnefs and ingenuity, that it refulted from
the ufe of hieroglyphic writing. We are ftrongly in¬
clined to believe that both thefe caufes contributed to
the production of fo portentous an effeCt; and that the
ufe of hieroglyphics as facred fymbols, after they were
laid afide in civil life, completed that wonderful fuper-
itition which the craft of the prieft and the policy of
the prince had undoubtedly begun.
We learn from Herodotus*, that in his time the
number of ufeful animals in Egypt was fo fmall as
hardly to be fufficient for tillage and the other pur-
Introduced pQpes 0p cjyjj jjpe . ferpents and other noxious
iTticawfew. animals, fuch as the crocodile, wolf, bear, and hippo¬
potamus, abounded in that country. From this fad
f Mofheim very naturally concludesf, that the founders
of fociety and government in Egypt would by every
• art endeavour to increafe the number of ufeful animals
as the number of inhabitants increafcd ; and that with
this view they would make it criminal to kill or even to
hurt fheep, cows, oxen, or goats, &c. whilft they would
wage perpetual war upon the noxious animals and beafts
of prey. Such animals as were affifting to them in the
carrying on of this warfare would be juftly confidered
as in a high degree ufeful to fociety. Hence the moft
grievous punifhments were decreed againft the killing,
or fo much as the wounding, of the ichneumon and ibis ;
becaufe the former was looked upon as the inftinc-
% Lib. 4
C. 65.
29
InUlleB
S\ft- cap.
tive enemy of the crocodile, and the latter of every fpe-
* See Teh- cies of ferpents *. The learned writer, however, ob-
tieumon and ferves, that in Egypt as m other countries, people
would be tempted to facrifice the good of the public to
the gratification of their own appetites, and fometimes
even to the indulgence of a momentary caprice. Hence
he thinks it was found necefi'ary to ftrengthen the au¬
thority of the laws enafted for the prefervation of ufe¬
ful animals by the fan£tions of religion : and he fays,
that with this view the priefts declared that certain
animals were under the immediate proteftion of certain
gods ; that fome of thofe animals had a divine virtue
redding in them; and that they could not be killed
without the moft facrilegious wickednefs, incurring the
higheft indignation of the gods. When once the ido¬
latrous Egyptians were perfuaded that certain animals
were facred to the immortal gods, and had a divine vir¬
tue redding in them, they could not avoid viewing
thofe animals with fome degree of veneration; and the
priefts, taking advantage of the fuperftition of the peo-
Vol. XV. Part I.
pie, appointed for each fpecies of facred animals appro¬
priated rites and ceremonies, which were quickly fol¬
lowed with building fhrines and temples to them, and
approaching them with oblations, and facridces, and
other rites of divine adoration.
To corroborate this hypotheds, he obferves, that,
beddes the animals facred over all Egypt, each pro¬
vince and each city had its particular animal to which
the inhabitants paid their devotions. This arofe from
the univerfal praftice among idolaters of confecrating
to themfelves Lares and Penates ; and as the animals
which were worlhipped over the vdiole kingdom were
conlidered as facred to the Dii majorum gentium^ fo the
animals vrhofe worfhip was conftned to particular cities
or provinces were facred to the Lares of thofe cities
and provinces. Hence there was in Upper Egypt a
city called Lycopolis, becaufe its inhabitants worfhipped
the wolf, whilft the inhabitants of Thebes or Heliopolis
paid their devotions to the eagle, which was probably
looked upon as facred to the fun. Our author, how¬
ever, holds it as a fa£t which will admit of no difpute,
that there was not one noxious animal or beat! of prev
wordupped by the Egyptians till alter the conqueft
of their country by the Perdans. That the eavlieft
gods of Egypt were all benevolent beings, he appeals
to the teftimony of Diodorus Siculus; but he quotes
Herodotus and Plutarch, as agreeing that the latter
Egyptians worthipped an evil principle under the name
of Typhon. This Typhon was the inveterate enemy of*
OJiris, juft as Ahraman was of 0rmused; and therefore
he thinks it in the higheft degree probable that the
Egyptians derived their belief of two felf-exiftent prin¬
ciples, a good and an evil, from their Perdan conque¬
rors, among whom that opinion prevailed from the ear-
lieft ages.
From whatever fource their belief was derived, Ty¬
phon was certainly worfhipped in Egypt, not with a
view of obtaining from him any good, for there was
nothing good in his nature, but in hopes of keeping
him quiet, and averting much evil. As certain animals
had long been facred to all the benevolent deities, it
was natural for a people fo befotted with fuperftition as
the Egyptians to confecrate emblems of the fame kind
to their god Typhon. Hence arofe the worfhip of
ferpents, crocodiles, bears, and other noxious animals and
beafts of prey. It may indeed feem at drft fight very
incondftent to deify fuch animals, after they had been
in the pra<!ftice for ages of worfhipping others for being
X x their
345
Bmte-
Worfhip.
Philo, he obferves, did not himfelf condder thofe ideas as fo many diftind fuljlances and animals, much lefs as
Sods ; but he mentions others who deified the whole of this intelligible fyftem as well as its feveral parts. Hence,
when they paid their devotions to the fenfible fun, they pretended to worfhip only the divine idea or archetype of
that luminary: and hence, thinks our learned author, the ancient Egyptians, by falling down to bulls, and
cows, and crocodiles, meant at drft to worfhip only the divine and eternal ideas of thofe animals. He allows,
indeed, that as few could entertain any thoughts at all of thofe eternal ideas, there were fcaicely any who could
perfuade themfelves that the intelligible fyfem had fo much reality in it as the fenfble things. of natuie ; and hence
he thinks the devotion wdiich was originallyr paid to the divine ideas had afterwards no higher object; than the
brutes and vegetables of which thofe ideas were the eternal patterns.
This hypotheds is ingenious, but not fatisfaftory. There is no evidence that the myfterious doftrine of
Plato concerning ideas had anywhere been thought of for ages after brute-worfhip was eftablifhed in Egypt. Ot
the ftate of Egyptian theology at that early period, Philo, and the other philofephers of the Alexandrian
fchool, had no better means of forming a judgment than wre have ; and tliey laboured under many Grecian pie-
judices, which muft have prevented them from judging with our impartiality.
i
P O L Y T
their deftroyers ; but it k to be remembered, that long
before the deification of crocodiles, &c. the real oiigin
of brute worfhip was totally forgotten by the people, if
they were ever acquainted with it, I he crafty pi left
who wifhes to introduce a gainful fuperftition, mult at
firil employ feme plaufible reafoh to delude the multi¬
tude ; but after the fupenflition has been long and
firmly eftabliihed, it is obvioufly his bufinefs to keep
its origin out of fight.
Such is Mofheim’s account of the origin and pro-
grefs of that fpecies of idolatry which was peculiar to
Egypt; and with refpeft to the ri/e of brute worfhip,
it appears perfeftly fatisfactory. But the Egyptians
worfhipped feveral ipecies of vegetables; and it furely
could be no part of the policy of wife legislators to pre-
ferve them from deftru&ion, as vegetables are ufeful only
as they contribute to animal fubfiftence. We are there¬
fore obliged to call in the aid of Warbuiton’s hypo-
t heiis to account for this branch of Egyptian fuperfti-
& T>iv. Leg
book 4th,
fedt 4th
30
Continued
by the
mean* of
bierogly
j hic wri-
img, a:.d
lion.
That learned and ingenious author having proved*,
with great clearnefs and ftrength of argument, that hie¬
roglyphic writing was prior to the invention of alpha¬
betic charadters ; and having traced that kind of wri¬
ting from fuch rude pictures, as thofe which were in ufe
among the Me* ions, through all the different fpecies
of what he cab's euriologic, tropical, fymbolic hiero¬
glyphics (fee Hieroglyphics)—ihows, by many quota¬
tions from ancient authors, that the Egyptian priefts
wrapt up their theology in the fymbolic hieroglyphics,
after alphabetic characters had baniflied frDm the tranf-
aftions of civil life a mode of communicating informa¬
tion neceffarily fo obfeure. Thefe fymbols were the fi¬
gures of animals and vegetables, denoting, from fome
Imaginary analogy, certain attributes of their divinities ;
and when the vulgar, forgetting this analogy, ceafed to
underftand them as a fpecies of writing, and were yet
taught to confider them as facred, they could not well
view them in any other light than as emblems of the
divinities whom they adored. But if rude fculptures
upon done could be emblematical of the divinities, it
was furely not unnatural to infer, that the living animals
and vegetables which thofe fculptures reprefented mull
lie emblems of the fame divinities more ftriking and
more facred. Hence the learned author thinks arofe
that wonderful fuperflition peculiar to the Egyptians,
which made them worlhip not only animals and vege¬
tables, but alfo a thoufand chimeras of their own crea¬
tion ; fuch as figures with human bodies and the heads
or feet of brutes, or with brutal bodies and the heads
and feet of men.
Thefe two hypothefes combined together appear to
us to account fufficiently for the idolatry of Egypt,
monftrous as it was. We are perfuaded, that with re-
fpedt to the origin of brute-worfhip, Moiheim is in the
right (c) ; and it was a very eafy ilep for people in fo
H E I S M.
good training to proceed upon the crutches of hierogly. Emte-
phics to the worfhip of plants and thofe chimeras, Woifh'p.
which, as they never had a real exillence in nature, v '"*w
could not have been thought of as emblems of the di¬
vinity, had they not been ufed in that fymbolic writing
which Warburton fo ably and ingenioufiy explains.
To this account of the oi igin of brute-worfhip we
are fully aware that objections will occur. From a
learned friend, who perufed the article in manufeript,
we have been favoured with one which, as it is exceed-
ingly plaufible, we fhall endeavour to obviate. “ Brute-
worlhip was not peculiar to Egypt. The Hindoos, it
is well known, have a religious veneration for the cow
and the alligator ; but there is no evidence that in In¬
dia the number of ufeful animals was ever fo fmall as to
make the interference of the prince and the priefl ne-
ceffary for their prefervation ; neither does it appear
tfiat the Hindoos adopted from any other people the
worfhip of a felf-exiftent principle of evil.” Such is the
objection. To which we reply, 31
That there is every reafon to believe that brute-
worfhip was introduced into India by a colony of E-
gyptians at a very remote period. That between thefe |n(pa.
two nations there was an early intercourfe, is univerfal-
ly allowed : and though-the learned prefident of the A-
fiatic Society has laboured to prove, that the Egyptians
derived all that wifdom for which they were famed, as
well as the rudiments of their religious fyflem, from the
natives of Hindoflan, he does not appear to us to have
laboured with fuccefs. To examine Ids arguments at
length would fwell this article beyond its due propor¬
tion ; and we have noticed fome of them elfewhere (fee
Philology, n° 33 and 39.) At prefent we fliall only
obferve, that Sefoftris undoubtedly made an inroad into
India, and conquered part of the country, whilft we
nowhere read of the Hindoos having at any time con¬
quered the kingdom of Egypt. Now, though the v'c-
tors have fometimes adopted the religion of the van-
quifhed, the contrary has happened fo much more fre¬
quently, and is in itfelf a procefs fo much more natu¬
ral, that this fingle circumftance affords a flrong pre-
fumption that the Egyptian monarch would rather im-
pofe his gods upon the Hindoos than adopt theirs and
carry them with him to Egypt. Brute-worfhtp might
likewife be introduced into Hindoftan by thofe vaft co¬
lonies of Egyptians who took refuge in that country
from the tyranny and oppreflion of the fhepherd kings.
That fuch colonies did fettle on fome occalion or other
in India, feems undeniable from monuments ilill remain¬
ing in that country of forms which could hardly have
occurred to a native of Afia, though they are very na¬
tural as the workmanfhip of Africans. But we need
not reafon in this manner. We have feen a manufeript
letter from Mr Burt, a learned furgeon in Bengal, and
a member of the Aliatic Society, which puts it beyond a
doubt that great numbers of Egyptians had at a very
early
(c) To prove that it was merely to preferve and increafe the breed of ufeful animals in Egypt, tat the
prince and the prieft firjl taught the people to confider fuch animals as facred, he argues thus. rlxc ;ta
effe, non ex eo tantum liquet, quod paulo ante obfervavi, nullas beilias univerfo Aigyptiorum populo .acras
friiffe, pneter eas, quse manifeftam regioni utilitatem comparant; fed inde quoque apparet, quod longe major
ratio habita fuit femellarum inter animalia, quam marium. Boves diis immolare licebat, vaccas nuLo modo.
Canes feeminas contumulabantur, non item mares.-” Lege Herodqt, Hijlor. lib. ii. cap. 41. & cap. 67.
P O L Y T
Thfogony. early period not only fettled in Hindoftan, but alfo
  brought with them writings relating to die hdtory of
their country. As the fhepherd-kmgs were enemies to
the arts and to literature, it is probable that this fettle-
ment took place on their conqueft of Egypt. Mr
Burt’s words are: “ Mr Wilford, lieutenant of engi¬
neers, has extra died moil wonderful difeoveries from the
Shanfcrit records ; fuch as the origin and hiftory of the
Egyptian pyramids, and even the account of the ex¬
pence in their building.” Upon our hypothefis there
is nothing incredible in this account; upon the li^po-
thefis of Sir William Jones, it is not eafy to be con¬
ceived how the hiilory of Egyptian pyramids could have
found a place in the Shanfcrit records.
We may admit that the Hindoos have never adopted
from the Perfians or Egyptians the worihip of an inde¬
pendent principle of evil, and yet difpofe of the other
part of the objeftion with very little difficulty. It will
be feen by and bye, that the bramins believe a kind of
triad of hypohales in the divine nature, of which one is
viewed as the tieflroyer, and known by feveral names,
fuch as Siva and If war a. When brute-worffiip was in¬
troduced into Hindoftan, it was not unnatural to con-
iider the alligator as emblematical oi If warn; and hence
in all probability it is that the Hindoos believe that a
man cannot depart more happily from this world than
by falling into the Ganges, and being devoured by one
of thofe facred animals. Upon the whole, the brute-
worftiip of the Hindoos, inftead of militating againft
our account of that monftrous fuperftition as it prevail¬
ed in Egypt, feems to lend no fmall fupport to that ac¬
count, as there was unqueftionably an early intercom fe
between the two nations, and as colonies of Egyptians
fettled in India. To him who is not fatisfed with our
reafoning on this fubjedl, we beg leave to recommend
an attentive perufal of Maurice’s Indian Antiquities,
where he will find many fafts brought together, which
tend to prove that Egypt has a juft claim 10 a higher
, 5a antiquity than India.
Poiytheifts Having thus traced the rife and progrefs of poly-
ncknow- an(i idolatry as they prevailed in the moll cele-
f\mgreniene brated nations of antiquity, we now proceed to inquire
God, into the real opinions of thofe nations concerning the
nature of the gods whom they adored. And here it is
evident from the writings of Homer, Hdiod, and the
other poets, who were the principal theologians among
the Greeks and Romans, that though heaven, earth,
hell, and all the elements, were filled with divinities,
there was yet one who, whether called Jove, OJiris, 0> -
muz,d) or by any other title, was confidered as fupreme
over ail the reft. “ Whence each of the gods was ge-
* Lib* 2. nerated (fays Herodotus*), or whether they have all
exifted from eternity, and what are their forms, is a
thing that was not known till very lately ; for Hefiod
and Hcmer were, as I fuppofe, not above four hundred
years my feniors ; and thele were they who introduced
H E I S M. 347
the theogony among the Greeks, and gave the gods hio^onyr
their feveral names.” Now Hefiodf, towards the be-^ fjfr
ginning of his theogony, exprefsly invokes his mule to —tJ!U
celebrate in fuitable numbers the generation of the im¬
mortal gods who had fprung trom-the earth, the daik 33
night, the ftarry heavens, and the fait fea. He calls thr
on her likewife to fay, “ in what manner the gods, theother ^
earth, the rivers, ocean, liars, and firmament, were ge-n;t;ei, Wtrc
nerated, and what divine intelligences had fprung from ^eneratea j
them of benevolent difpofitions towards mankind..
From this invocation, it is evident that the poet did
not confider the gods of Greece as feit-exillent beings 1.
neither could he look upon them as creatures ; for of
creation the ancient Greeks had no conception (fee
Metaphysics, n^bq.); but he confidered them as
emanations coeval with the earth and heavens, from
fome fuperior principles ; and by the divine intelligen¬
ces fprung from them, there cannot be a doubt but that
he underftood benevolent daemons. The firft principles
of all things, according to the fame Hefiod, were Chaos,
and Tartarus, and Love; of which only the laft being
active, mull undoubtedly have been conceived by this
father of Grecian polytheifm to be the greateft and on¬
ly felf-exifting god. ’ ri his we fay mull undoubtedly
have been Hefiod’s belief, unlefs byr Ta'tarus we acre
underftand a felf-exiftent principle of evn ; and in that
calc his creed will be the fame with that of the ancient
Perfians, who, as we have feen, believed in the felf-ex-
iftence as well of Ahraman as of Ormu-zd.
Hefiod is fuppofed to have taken his theology from
Orpheus ; and it is evident that his doftrine concerning
the generation of the gods is the fame with that taught
in certain verfes* ufually attributed to Orpheus, in* ArgmauK
which Love and Chaos are thus brought together.rac iy. ed.
“ We will fir ft fing (fays the poet) apleafant and de- -‘u
lightful fong concerning the ancient Chaos, how the
heavens, earth, and feas, were formed out of it; as alio
concerning that all-wile Love, the oldeft and lelr-pei-
fedl principle, which aftively produced all thefe things,
feparating one from another.” In the original palfage.
Love is faid not only to be *o\v,u»hs- of much wfdom or
fagacitx, and therefore a real intelligent fubftance ; but
alfo to be ^ ei<T^'JTaTri and cculohync the oldeji and feij-per-
ftft, and therefore a being of fuperior order to the
other divinities who were generated together with the
elements over which they were conceived to prefide.
With the theology oi Homer our readers or all de-
feriptions are fo well acquainted, that we need not iwell
the article with quotations, to prove that the lather ot
epic poetry held fove to be the father of gods and men.
But the doftrine of the poets wras the creed of the vul¬
gar Greeks and Romans; and therefore we may con¬
clude, that thofe nations, though they worfhipped gods
and lords innumerable, admitted but one, or at the
moft tv/o(d), felf-exiftent principles the one good and
the other evil. It does not indeed appear, that in the
X x 2 fyftem
(d) Plutarch is commonly fuppofed, and we think juftly fuppofed, to have been a believer m two fdf-
exillent principles, a good and an evil. His own opinion, whatever it was, he declares (dc Ifu.e et Qfv-ide)
to have been moll ancient and univerfal, and derived from theologers and lawgivers by poets and philofo-
phers. “ Though the firft author of it be unknown, yet (fays he) it hath been lo irm y x ic/ei
that traces of it are to be found in the facrifices and myftenes both of the barbarians and the
There is a confufed mixture of good and evil in every thing, and nothing is produced by nature/are. vv nere-
348
l> O L Y T
Theogony. fyftem of vulgaf paganifm the fubordinate gods were
*—7  accountable to their chief for any part of their con-
Thou^h du£f, except when they tranfgrelfed the limits of the
each was provinces affigned them. Venus might conduit the
by the vul- amours of heaven and earth in whatever manner (lie
gar confi- pleafcd ; Minerva might communicate or with-hold
unaccount wif^om from any individual with or without reafon ;
able in his and we find, that in Homer’s battles the gods were
own pro- permitted to feparate into parties, and to fupport the
Yiiice. Greeks or Trojans according as they favoured the one
or the other nation. Jove indeed fometimes called
them to order; but his interference was thought par¬
tial, and an inftance of tyrannical force rather than of
juft authority. The vulgar Greeks, therefore, although
they admitted but one, or at moft two, felf-exiftent
principles, did not confider the inferior divinities as me¬
diators between them and the fupreme, but as gods to
whom their worlhip was on certain occafions to be ul-
35 timately directed.
tht^liUo- ,^'^e creed °f ^ie philofophers feems to have been
fophers and different. Such of them as were theifts, and believed
in the adminiftration of Providence, admitted of but one
God, to whom worfhip was ultimately due ; and they
adored the fubordinate divinities as his children and mi-
nifters, by whom the courfe of Providence was carried
on. With refpedl to the origin of thofe divinities,
Timtsus. Plato is very explicit; where he tells us*, that “ when
all the gods, both thofe who move viiibly round the
heavens, and thofe who appear to us as often as they
pleafe, were generated, that God, who made the whole
univerfe, fpoke to them after this manner: Ye gods of
gods, of whom I myfelf am father, attend.” Cicero
teaches the very fame do&rine with Plato concerning
f Tufc. the godsf; and Maximus Tyrius, who feems to have
hby. underffood the genius of polytheifm as thoroughly as
iV’m'zb’o- anY man> gives us the following clear account of that
rum,pa£im. fyftem as received by the philofophers.
i Lijfert. i, “I will now more plainly declare my fenfej; by this
fimilitude : Imagine a great and powerful kingdom or
principality, in which all agree freely and with one
confent to direct their actions according to the will and
command of one fupreme king, the oldeft and the belt;
and then fuppofe the bounds and limits of this empire
not to be the river Halys, nor the Helleipont, nor the
H E I S M.
Meotian lake, nor the Ihores of the ocean ; but heaven Theogony.
above, and the earth beneath. Here then let that great » ■L(.
king fit immoveable, preferibing to all his fubjedts laws,
in the obfervance of which conlift their fafety and hap-
pinefs: the partakers of his empire being many, both
vifible and invifible gods; fome of which that are near-
eft, and immediately attending on him, are in the high-
eft regal dignity, feafting as it were at the fame table;
others again are their minifters and attendants ; and a
third fort are inferior to them both : and thus you fee
how the order and chain of this government defeends
down by fteps and degrees from the fupreme God to
the earth and men.” In this paffage we have a plain
acknowledgment of one fupreme God, the fovereign of
the univerfe, and of three inferior orders of gods, who •
were his minifters in the government of the world ;
and it is worthy of obfervation, that the fame writer
calls thefe intelligences 0*™? Bwu voctfac y.«« godsy the
fans and friends of God. JEffe likewife affirms, that all
ranks of men, and all nations on earth, whether barba¬
rous or civilized, held the fame opinions refpe&ing one
fupreme Numen and the generation of the other gods.
“ If there were a meeting (fays he*) called of all*
thefe feveral profeffions, a painter, a ftatuary, a poet,
and a philofopher, and all of them were required to de¬
clare their fenfe concerning the God; do you think that
the painter would fay one thing, the ftatuary another,
the poet a third, and the philofopher a fourth ? No ;
nor the Scythian neither, nor the Greek, nor the Hy¬
perborean. In other things we find men fpeaking very
difcordantly, all men as it were differing from all. But
amidft this war, contention, and difeord, you may find
everywhere, throughout the whole world, one uniform
law and opinion, that there is one God, the king
and father of all, and many gods, the sons of
God, who reign with God. Thefe things both the
Greek and barbarian affirm, both the inhabitants of the
continent and of the fea-coaft, both the wife and the
unwife.” ^
This account of philofophical polytheifm receives no Indian Bra*
fmall fupport from the Afiatic Refearches of Sir Wil-mins*
liam Jones. “ It muft always be remembered (fays
that accomplifhed fcholar), that the learned Indians, as
they are inftructed by their own books, acknowledge
only
fore it is not one only difpenfer of things, who, as it were, out of feveral veffels diftributeth thefe feveral
liquors of good and evil, mingling them together, and daftiing them as he pleafes; but there are two diftinft
and contrary powers or principles in the world, one of them always leading, as it were, to the right hand,
but the other tugging the contraiy way. For if nothing can be made without a caufe, and that which is
good cannot be the caufe of evil, there muft needs be a diilindt principle in nature for the production of
evil as well as good.”
’Ihat this is palpable manicheifm (fee Manicheism), appears to us fo very evident, as to admit of no
debate. It appeared in the fame light to the learned Cudworth ; but that author labours to prove that Plu¬
tarch miftook the fenie of Pythagoras, Empedocles, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and Plato, when he attributed
to them the fame opinions which were held by himfelf. Mofheim, on the other hand, has put it beyond
a doubt, that whatever was Plutarch’s belief refpefting the origin of evil and the exiftence of two indepen¬
dent principles, it was taken implicitly from the writings of Plato. But the pious chancellor of Gottingen, actu¬
ated by the fame motives with Cudworth, wifhes to perfuade his readers, that by Plato and Plutarch nothing
active was underftood by their evil principle but only that tendency to confufum, which was then deemed infepar-
able from matter. But that fomething more was meant feems undeniable; for immediately after the words
which we have quoted, Plutarch proceeds to affirm that the wifeft men declare Qiov( eivcu fvo KaSanp avhh^vovc, that
there are two gods, as it were of contrary trades or crafts, of which one is the author of all good and the Other of
all evil. See Mofheim. ed. Cudworth. Syjlem. IntelktU lib. i. cap. 4. 4 13.
P O L Y T H
Theogony. only one fupremc Being, whom they cull Brahme or
the great one, in the neuter gender. They beheve_
Plate hIs effence to be infinitely removed from the compre-
CGCCXI. henflon Gf any mind but his own; and they fuppofe
him to manifeft his power by the operation of his di¬
vine fpirit, whom they name Vishnou theand
Ne'ra'yan or moving on the waters, both m the maicu-
line gender; whence he is often denominated iht JirJt
male. When they confider the divine power as exerted m
creating or giving exiftence to that which exifted not be¬
fore, they call the deity Brahma'; when they vrew
him in the light of dejlroyer, or rather changer oj forms,
they give him a thoufand names, of which bivA, Is-
wara, and Mahadeva, are the moft common ; and
when they confider him as the preferver of created
things, they give him the name of Vishnou. As the
foul of the world, or the pervading mind, fo finely de¬
ferred by Virgil, we fee Jove reprefented by feveral
Roman poets ; and with great fubhmity by Lucan in
the well known fpeech of Cato concerning the Ammo-
nian oracle. ‘ Jupiter is wherever we look, wherever we
move.’ This is precifely the Indian idea of V i s h n o u:
for fince the power of preferving created things by a
fuperintending providence belongs eminently to the go. -
head, they hold that power to exifl tranfcendantly in
the prejerving member of the triad, whom they lup-
pofe to be everywhere always, not in fubitance,
but in fpirit and jenergy” This fupreme god Brah¬
me, in his triple form, is the only felfexiftent divinity
acknowledged by the philofophical Hindoos. 1 ne
other divinities Genesa, Indra, Cuvera, &c. are
all looked upon either as his creatures or. his children ;
and of courfe are worihipped only with inferior adoia-
57 tion. . r .
Why the was Up0n this principle of the generation or the
phitofo- crod and of thcir a&ing as minifters to the fupreme
that all the philofophers of Greece, who were
inferior di- not atheltts, worfhipped many divinities, though they
vinities. either openly condemned or fecretly defpifed the. tradi¬
tions of the poets refpefting the amours and villames
of Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, and the reft of the tribe.
It was the fame principle fincerely admitted, and not
an ill-timed jeft, as has been abfurdly fuppofed, that
made Socrates, after he had fwallowed the poifon, re-
queft his friend to offer a votive cock for him to Li-
But a theogony was not peculiar to the Greeks, Ro¬
mans, and the Hindoos ; it made part of every fyftem
of polytheffm. Even the Egyptians themfelves, the
groffeft of all idolaters, believed in one felf-exirtmg God,
from whom all their other divinities defeended by
ration. This appears probable from the writings of Ho-
rus Apollo, Jamblicus, Porphyry, and many other an¬
cient authors ; but if the infcription on the gates of the
temple of Neith in Sals, as we have it. from Plutarch
and Proclus, be genuine, it will admit of no doubt.
This famous infcription, according to the laft. of thefe
writers, was to this purpofe: “ I am whatever is, what-
E I S M. 349
ever fhall be, and whatever hath been. My veil no Theogony
man hath removed. The offspring which I brought
forth was the fun (e)”
The Perfian magi, as we have feen, believed m two
felf-exiftent principles, a good and an evil: but if Dio¬
genes Laertius deferves to be credited, they held that
fire, earth, and water, which they called gods, were ge¬
nerated of thefe two. It was obferved in the begin¬
ning of this article, that the firft objeft of idolatrous
worfhip was probably the fun, and that this fpecies or
idolatry took its rife in Chaldea or Perfia. But when
it became the practice of eaftern monarchs to conceal
themfelves wholly from their people, the cuftom, as
implying dignity, was fuppofed to prevail as well in
heaven as on earth ; and Zoroafter, the reformer of
the Perfian theology, taught*, that “ Ormu/.d was as* Plutars.,
far removed from the fun as the fun is removed from the
earth.” According to this modification of magiamfm, J
the fun was one of the generated gods, and held the
office of prime minifter or vicegerent to the mviiible
fountain of light and good. Still, however, a felf-ex-
iftent principle of evil was admitted ; but though e
could not be deftroyed or annihilated by any power, it
was believed that he would at laft be completely van-
quifhed by Ormuzd and his minifters, and rendered
thenceforward incapable of producing any mifehief.
From this fliort view of polytheifm, as we find it de¬
lineated by the beft writers of antiqnity, we think our-
felves warranted to conclude, that the whole pagan
world believed in but one, or at moft twoi self-exist¬
ent gods, from whom they conceived all the other
LN 1 OULJdj A A wALA *tx*v*** j
divinities to have defeended in a manner analogous to
human generation. It appears, however, that the vul¬
gar pagans confidered each divinity as fupreme and un¬
accountable within his own province, and therefore in-
titled to worfhip, which refted ultimately in himfelf. 3g
The philofophers, on the other hand, feem to have Vulgar po-
viewedthe inferior gods as accountable for every part [ytheilts
of their conduct to Wm who was their fire and i0_ve"pabk than
reiern, and to have paid to them only that inferior kind rhe philo-
of devotion which the church of Rome pays to departed fophers.
faints. The vulgar pagans were funk in the groffeft
ignorance, from which ftatefmen, priefts, and poets, ex¬
erted their utmoft influence to keep them from emer-
ging ; for it was a maxim which, however abfurd,
was univerfally received, that “ there were many things
true in religion *, which it was not convenient for the * Varro
vulgar to know ; and fome things which, though fidie, ^
it was yet expedient that they ftould believe.. 1 he Civ. Dei.
polytheifm and idolatry of the vulgar, therefore, was
their misfortune rather than their fault. But the
philofophers were wholly “ without excufe * ; be- * Rom. i.
caufe that when they knew God, they glorified himjo.^. z^
not as God, neither were thankful, but became vain m
their imaginations, and their foohlh heart was darken¬
ed. Profeffing themfelves wife, they became fools, and
worfhipped and ferved the creature more than the Cre¬
ator, who is God hleffed for ever.”
c, „ Tov EUOV Vfruva ovhit 'Ov zyu y,Ctf7r«V fTE/.OV,
(E) Tuovla, koci roc rcc ytyovorcc denied by Molheim, and doubted by Jablonfltu
The antiquity of this infcnption is admitted by L » , pUltlnn nf the Intellectual hyflem, and
The reader who wiffies to know their arguments may confult Molheim s edition oi the Mcllettuu oyj , ^
Jablonfki’s Pantheon JEgyptiorum,
Isolytri
chum.
POL [ 3
’ ( POLYTRICHUM, in botany ; A genus of the or¬
der of mufci, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The anthera >3 operculated, and placed upon
a very fmall apophyfis or articulation ; the calyptra vil¬
lous ; the liar of the female xs on a diflindl individual.
I here are three fpecies ; the moll remarkable of which
is the commune, or great golden maiden-hair, fre¬
quently to be met with in the bogs and wet places
of this country'. It grows in patches, the ftalks'eredl,
generally fxngle and unbranched, from three inches to
a foot, or even a yard high. The leaves are nume¬
rous, Hilt, lanceolate, acute, growing round the llalk
without order, and, if viewed with a microfcope, ap¬
pear to have their edges linelyr ferrated. They are of
a bright green when young and frelh, but reddilh when
dried or in decay : the filaments, or peduncles, are of a
finning red, or orange colour, from two to four inches
long, arifing fingly from the top of the flalks, and fur-
rounded at their bafe with a cylindrical tubular vagi¬
na, or perichsetium. The anthera, or capfule, is qua¬
drangular, green at firfl, afterwards yellow, and red
when ripe, having an annular pedellal, or apophyfis, at
its bafe. I he operculum is flat, with a projedling point
m the centre ; and underneath is a whitilh circular
-membrane, placed in the middle of the capfule’s ori¬
fice, and fullained there byr numerous arched threads,
or cilia, connected by one end to the circumference of
this membrane, and by the other fallened to the ring
ol the anthera. The pollen, or, as others term it, the
feed, is freed from the anthera or capfule through the
[pace between the cilia. The calyptra is twofold, an
internal and external one ; both which at firfl entirely
cover and hang over the anthera. The internal one is
conical, membranaceous, and fmooth ; the external one
is compofed only^bf tawny hairs, conne&ed into a fort
of mat, lacerated at the bafe, and ferving like a roof
of thatch to defend the other. Befides the llalks be¬
fore defcribed, there are commonly fome ethers near at
hand, which are deftitute both of filaments and cap-
fules, but are terminated with a kind of rofaceous cup,
either of a bright red or yellowifh colour, compofed of
leaves of different fizes, the ©utermoft broad, the in-
nermoll lanceolate, growing gradually more and more
fine and flender to the centre. This cup is looked upon
by Linnaeus as the female flower of this mofs ; but
Haller is of opinion, that it is only the gem or origin of
a new llalk, which frequently rifes from its centre, and
this again becomes fometimes proliferous. I here are
two varieties of this mofs : the full lias much Ihorter
ftalks than the preceding, and often branched ; the
leaves lliffer, ere£l, and more crowded ; in other re-
fpe&s the fame. The other has a {talk fcarcely more
than half an inch high, terminated with a duller of li¬
near, eredt, rigid leaves, for the moll part entire on the
edges, and tipped each with a white hair. The fila¬
ment is about an inch high, and the capfule quadrangular.
1 he^ female flower, or gem, is of a bright red colour.
1 he firlt kind, when it grows long enough for the
purpofe, is fometimes ufed in England and Holland to
make brooms or brulhes. Of the female fort the Lap¬
landers, when obliged to fieep in defert places, fre¬
quently make a Ipeedy and convenient bed. Their
manner of doing it is curious : Where this mofs grows
thick together, they mark out, with a kaife, a piece of
;o 1 p o m
ground, about two yards fquare, or of the fize of a
common blanket; then beginning at one corner, they
gently lever the turf from the ground, and as the roots
of tiie mofs are clofely interwoven and matted too-e-
ther, they by degrees Itrip off the whole circumfcribed
tinf in one entire piece ; afterwards they mark and
chaw up another piece, exactly correfponding with the
hilt ; then, lhaking them both with their hands, they
lay one upon the ground, with the mofs uppermofl,
mltead of a matrafs, and the other over it, with the
mofs downwards, inllead of a rug ; and between them
both take a comfortable nap, free from fleas and burrs,
and without fear of contagious diilempers. It is pro¬
bable they might take the hint of making fuch a bed
11 om the bear, a cohabitant of their country, which
prepares his winter-quarters with a large colleftion of
m°fs‘ See Musci> P- 473- and Plate
V-'Vw'yAivl.
or Polyzenus. See Polyienus.
1 OIA jvO, a pnellefs of Apollo’s temple in Lem¬
nos. She was likevvife nurfe to queen Hyplipyle. It
was by her advice that the Lemnian women murdered
afi their hulbands. i here was another Polyxo, a
native of Argos, who married TIepolemus fon of Her¬
cules. She followed him to Rhodes after the murder
of his uncle Licymnius ; and when he departed for the
lojan war with the reft of the 'Greek princes, Ihe be-
. came the foie miftrefs of the kingdom. After the Tro¬
jan war, Helen fled from Peloponnefus to Rhodes,
where Polyxo reigned. Polyxo detained her; and to
punifh her as being the caufe of a war in which TIepo¬
lemus had perilhed, file ordered her to be hanged on a
tree by her female fervants, difguifed in the habit of
Furies.
POM^CE^E, {pomum “ an apple,”) the name of
the 36th order in Linnasus’s Fragments of a Natural
Method, the genera of which have a pulpy efculent fruit
of the apple, berry, and cherry kind. 'See Botany,
Sedl. vi. p. 465.
POMATUM, an unguent generally ufed in drefling
the hair. It is alfo ufed as a medicine. See Phar¬
macy, n° 636, &c.
POMEGRANATE. See Punica.
1 OMERANIA, a province of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, with the'title of a duchy. It
is bounded on the north byr the Baltic Sea, on the call
by Pruflia and Poland, on the fouth by the marquifate
or Brandenburg, and on the weft by the duchy of
Mecklenburg; and is about 250 miles in length, and
in fome places 75 miles and in others 50 in breadth.
It is watered by feveral rivers, the moll conflderable of
which are the Oder, the Pene, the Rega, the Perfant,
the Wipper, the Stolp, the Lupo, and the Lobo. The
air is cold; but the foil abounds in paftures, and pro¬
duces corn, of which a great deal is exported. It is a
flat country; containing many lakes, woods, and fo-
refts, and has xeveral good harbours. It is divided into
the Hither and Farther Pomerania, and the territories
of the kings of Sweden and Pfuftia in this duchy are
divided by the river Pene.
POME I1 (Peter), an able druggift at Paris, was
born in 1658. He colledled at a great expence from
all countries drugs of every kind, and rendered himfelf
celebrated by his book entitled Hijloire Generalc dcs
Droguci^
IVjlyx.isnii
II
Pomet.
//.; A A,
Plate CCCCXl.
,j£
\jri>rr / vv.
F O li Y T H E I S M .
IxiJ IA JV (' O O S .
P O M T 35' 1
|.OTf,« Dn?tuu wliU » the moft complete book on the fub-
II left that has yet been printed. He gave demonftra-
rommer. Jtions „|th refpeft to his drugs m the king s garden,
culiia ?nd a catalogue of all the drugs contained in his work,
’    wIth a Uft of all the rarities of his cabinet, which he
propofed to publifh by fubfcription ; but was prevented
by his death, which happened in 1699, upon the very
day when the patent for a penfion granted him by
Louis XIV. was made out.
POMFRET (John), an Enghfli poet, fon ot the
redor of Luton in Bedfordfhire, was bom in 1667,
and educated at Cambridge; after which he took or¬
ders, and was prefented to the living of Maiden in
Bedfordfhire. About 1703 he went to London tor
jnftitution to a larger and very confiderable living ; but
was flopped fome time by Compton, then bifhop of Lon¬
don, on account of thefe four lines of his poem, entitled
the Choice :
« And as I near approach’d the verge of life,
Some kind relation (for I’d have no wife)
Should take upon him all my wordly care,
While I did for a better Hate prepare.”
The parenthefes in tbefe lines were fo malicioufly repre-
fented, that the good bifhop was made to believe
that Pomfret preferred a miftrefs to a wife. But he
was foon convinced that this reprefentation was the
mere effect of malice, as Pomfret at that time was ac¬
tually married. The oppofition, however, which his
flanderers had made to him had its effeft ; for, be¬
ing by this obliged to flay in London longer than he
intended, be catched the fmallpox, and died of it,
aged 35. , . • ,
He publiftied a volume of his poems in 1699, with a
very modeft and fenfible preface. Two pieces of his
were pubhfhed after his death by bis friend I hiLlethes ,
one intitled Reafon, and written in 1700, when tnc
difputes about the Trinity ran high ; the other Dies
No'o'iff'ima, or the “ Laff Epiphany,” a Pindaric ode.
His verfification is not unmufical ; but tlieie is not the
force in his writings which is neceffary to conffitute
a poet. A diffehtirig teacher of his name, and who
publiflied fome rlrimes upon fpmtual fubjefts, occa-
iioned fanaticifm to be imputed to him; but his friend
Philakthes has juflly cleared him from the imputation.
Pomfret had a very itrong mixture of devotion in him,
but no fanaticifm.
“ The Choice (fays Dr Johnfon) exhibits a fyftem
of life adapted to common notions, and equal to com¬
mon expe£lations ; fuch a flats as affords plenty and
tranquillity, without exclufion of intellectual pleafures.
Perhaps no compofition in our Engage has been 01-
tener perufed than Pomfret’s Choice. In his^ other
poems there is an eafy volubility ; the pleafure of fmooth
metre is afforded to the ear, and the mind is not ep-
■preffed with ponderous, .or intangled with intricate, fen-
timent. He pleafes many ; and he who pleafes many
muff have merit.”
POMME > or Pommette', in heraldry, is a crofs
with one or more balls or knobs at each of the ends.
POMMEL, or Pummel, in the manege, a piece
cf brafs or other matter at the top and in the middle
of the faddle-bow.
EO.MM E RCU L LI A, in botany : A genus of the
P O M
monogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs ofP°marh*n
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
4th order, Gramina, The calyx is bivalved, and fha- y j •
ped like a top ; the valvula quadrifid, and bearded on
the back. The corolla has two unequal valves; the
filaments three, w ith long pointed anthers:; the ftyle
fimple. The whole flower forms itfelf into a fharp
point, and the corolla ferves as a covering to the feed,
which is long, clear, and fmooth. There is only one
fpecies, viz. the Dianthoides.
POMCERIUM, in Roman antiquity, was, accord¬
ing to Livy, that fpace of ground, both within and
without the walls, which the augurs, at the firft build¬
ing of cities, folemnly confecrated, and on which no
edifices were allowed to be raifed. Plutarch gives this
account of the ceremony of drawing the pomcerium :
“ They dug a trench, and threw into it the firft-fruits
of all things, either good by cuflom, or neceffary by na¬
ture ; and every man taking a fmall turf of earth of the
country from whence he came, they caff them in pro-
mifeuoufly. Then making this trench their centre,
they deferibed the city in a circle round it. After this,
the" founder yoking a bull and a cow together, plough¬
ed a deep furrow, with a brazen plougbfhare, round
the bounds. The attendants took care that all the clods
fell inwards, i. e. toward the city'. This furrow they
called pomcerium, and built the wall upon it.”—Plu¬
tarch, in this account, is to be under flood as fpeaking
of Rome.
PoMOERWM Proferre, fignifies to extend or enlarge a
city, which could not be done by any, but thofe who-
had taken away fome part of an enemy’s country in
war. But this qualification was fometimes difpenfed
with. Pomcerium is quaji pone mania, “ behind the
walls.”
POMONA, in fabulous hiflory, the tutelar deity of
orchards and fruit-trees. See Vertumhus.
POMPEII (anc. geog.), a town of Campania near
Herculaneum, nod deftroyed along with it by the great
eruption of Vefuvius in the time of Titus. See Her¬
culaneum. It is about 15 miles from Naples, and
fix or feven from Portici—So much has been faid and
written on the difeovery of this place, as makes it un-
neceffary for us to fay much : we fliall therefore only
give a ihort extrail on the fubjeil from an anonymous
work lately publifhed, apparently of confiderable merit.
“ On entering the city (fays our author |j), the firft |( Conpam*
objeil is a pretty fquare, with arcades, after the pre-f'w Sketch
fent manner of Italy. This was, as it is imagined, the
quarter of the foldiers ; numbers of military'’ weapons a*vith Dl}
being found here. quiftions on
“ A narrow, but long ftreet, with feveral fhops on each National
fide, is now perfedtly cleanfed from its rubhifh, and in Advantages*
good prefervation. Each houfe has a court. In fome
of them are paintings al frefco, principally in chiaro-
feuro ; .and their colours not in the leaft injured by time.
The few colours which the ancients knew were extraft-
ed only ffom minerals; and this may be a fufficient rea¬
fon for their frefhnds. The ftreet is paved with irre¬
gular ftones of a foot and half or two feet long, like
the Appian way.
“ In difeovering this city, it was at firft doubted
whether it were ailuaily Pompeii: but the name in-
feribed over the gateway put it beyond all doubt. The
fkeletons
POM
Pompey fkeletons found were innumerable, It is faid that many
p had fpades in their hands, endeavouring, probably at
tins. " to clear away the torrent of allies with which they
C.I, y—» were deluged. Indeed the fatisfaftion which is felt at
the view of ancient habitations, is much allayed by ine¬
vitable refle&ions on this frightful fcene of defolation,
though at the diltance of fo many centuries.
“ An ancient villa is alio feen entire at a little di-
ftance from Pompeii. The houfe is really elegant and
fpacious, but only two ftories high. The pavement of
the chambers is compofed of teflfelated marble, and,
when poliihed, difplays the defign perfedtly well.—
There is fome at the mufeum of Portici brought from
this place, which the eye would really miftake for paint¬
ing. Under the houfe is a fine triangular cellar, of
which each part is too feet long, well filled with am-
phone. The' ikeletons of 29 perfons were found here,
fuppofed to have fled to it for fafety. Each houfe is
filled with allies : they have almoil penetrated through
every crevice ; and it is incredible how fuch a volume of
them could have been thrown out by Vefuvius with fuf-
ficient force to have reached fo far.” See Swinburne’s
Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. 2. p. 98, &c. ; Lady
Miller’s Letters, or De La Lande; Captain Suther¬
land’s Tour up the Straits, from Gibraltar to Conjlanti-
nople, p. 75. &c. ; Dr Smith’s Sketch of a Tour on the
Continent, in 1786 and 1787, vol. 2. p. 118, &c. ;
and Watkins’s Tour through Swijferland, Italy, See.
POMPEY the Great, (Cneius Pompeius Mag¬
nus), the renowned rival of Julius Csefar. Being de¬
feated by him at the battle of Pharfalia, owing to the
.defection of his cavalry, he fled to Egypt by fea, where
lie was bafely aflaflinated by order of Theodotus,
prime minifter to Ptolemy the Younger, then a minor,
5 See Heme. 48 B. C *.
POMPEYS (Cneius and Sextus), his fons, com¬
manded a powerful army when they loft their illuftrious
father. Julius Casfar purfued them into Spain, and de¬
feated them at the battle of Munda, in which Cneius
was flain, 45 B. C. Sextus made himfelf mailer of
Sicily ; but being defeated in the celebrated naval en¬
gagement at A&ium by Auguftus and Lepidus, he
fled to Alia with only 7 fliips, the remains of his fleet,
which confifted of more than 350 ; and from thence,
unable to continue the war, he was obliged to retire
to Leibos, where renewing the war by railing an army,
and feizing on fome confiderable cities, Marcus Titius,
in the intereft of Marc Antony, gave him battle, de¬
feated him, took him prifoner, and bafely put him to
death, 35 B. C. See Rome.
PoMFEr’s-Pi/lar. See Alexandria, p. 393.
POMPILUS, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Cory-
phoena.
POMPONATIUS (Peter), an eminent Italian phi-
lofopher,was born at Mantua in 1462. lie was of fofmall
a ftature, that he was little better than a dwarf; yet he
pofiefled an exalted genius, and was confidered as one of
the greateft philofophers of the age in which he lived. He
taught philofophy, firft at Padua and afterwards at Bo¬
logna, with the higheft reputation. He had frequent dif-
putations with the celebrated Achillini, whofe puzzling
objections would have confounded him, had it not been
for his ikill in parrying them by fome joke. His book
. Immortahtate Idnima, pubhihed in 1516, made a
great noife. He maintained, that the immortality of
[ 3*2 1
PON
Pond.
the foul could not be proved by philofophical reafons; Pomponiu-
but folemnly declared his belief of it as an article of
faith. This precaution did not, however, fave him ;
many adverfaries rofe up againft him, who did not
fcruple to treat him as an atheift ; and the monks pro¬
cured his book, although he wrote feveral apologies for
it, to be burnt at Venice. His book upon Incanta¬
tions was alfo thought very dangerous. He ihows in
it, that he believed nothing of magic and forcery ; and
he lays a prodigious ftrefs on occult virtues in certain
men, by which they produced miraculous effe&s. He
gives a great many examples of this; but his adverfaries
do not admit them to be true, or free from magic.—
Paul Jovius fays, that he died in 1525, in his grand
clima£teric. He was three times married ; and had but
one daughter, to whom he left a large fum of money.
He ufed to apply himfelf to the folution of difficulties
fo very intenfely, that he frequently forgot to eat,
drink, fleep, and perform the ordinary fun&ions of na-
ture: nay, it made him almoft diftrafted, and a laugh-
ing-ftock to every one, as he himfelf tells us.
POMPONIUS mela. See Mela.
POMUM, an Apple ; a fpecies of feed-veflel, com¬
pofed of a fucculent flefhy pulp ; in the middle of which
is generally found a membranous capfule, with a num¬
ber of cells, or cavities, for containing the feeds. Seed-
veflels of this kind have no external opening or valve.
At the end oppofite to the foot-ftalk is frequently a
fmall cavity, called by the gardeners the eye of the fruit,
and by botanifts umbilicus, the “ navel,” from its fan¬
cied refemblance to the navel in animals. Gourd, cu¬
cumber, melon, pomegranate, pear, and apple, furnifh
inftances of the fruit or feed-veflel in queftion.
POND, or FisH-Pond. See Fisu-Ponds.
Pond, is a fmall pool or lake of water from whence
no ftream iflues. In the TranfaQions of the Society in-
Jlituted at London for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu-
fallures, and Commerce, vol. viii. and printed in the year
j790> there is a flrort account of a machine for drain¬
ing ponds without difturbihg the mud. It was com¬
municated to the fociety, together with a drawing and
model of the machine, by Lieutenant-colonel Danfey.
T. he model was made from the defeription of a machine
ufed by a gentleman near Taunton for many years be¬
fore, for fupplying a cafcade in his pleafure-grounds 
The colonel’s regiment was then lying atWindfor; and
thinking that the invention might be ufeful to fup-
ply the grand cafcade at Virginia-water, he made the
model, and prefented it to the king, who was graciouf-
ly pleafed to approve of it. In confequence of which,
by his majefty’s defire, a penftoek on that principle was
conftrufted from the model at one of the ponds in the
neighbourhood.—The colonel thinks the machine may
be ufeful in the hands of men of fcience, and applicable
to filk, cotton, and other mills, where a fteady and uni¬
form velocity of water is wanted ; which might be re¬
gulated at pleafure, occafioning no current to difturb
the mud or fifli, as the ftream conftantly runs from the
furface. He fays he has often made the experiment by
the model in a tub of water.
Of this machine we have given an engraving, taken
from the above-mentioned Tranfaftions ; and we ftiall
now add the defeription which accompanies the plate
in that work.
In figure 1. A is the pipe, loaded with a rim oflead, Plate
0fceccxiu
PON
t 353 1
PON
Fend' of fuch weight as ferves to fink it below the fui face ot
f! the water. °B is the difeharging pipe, laid through the
ponS- bank HI. C is the joint on which the pipe A turns
its form, which is ihown fig. 2. I) is the ball or float,
which, fwimming on the furface of the pond, prevents
the pipe A from defeending deeper than the length of
the chain by which they are connefted. E is a chain
winding on the windlafs F, and ferving to vaife the tube
A above the furface of the water, when the machinery
is riot in ufe. G is a ftage. HI is the bank, reprefent-
ed as if cut through at I, to fhow the tube B lying
within it. K is a poft to receive the tube A when
lowered, and to prevent its finking in the mud. In
figure 2. A is a caft cylinder, with a plate or check, B,
which is fattened to the timber of the tube on one fide,
but not on the other, rs the part of the cylinder C turns
in the hollow of the wooden tube when it is immerged.
A piece of ttrong foie leather is put infide the brafs-
plate B, to prevent leaking.
PoND-Weed, in botany. SeePorAMOGETON.
PONDICHERRY, is a large town of Afia, in the
Poniard
mg vefiels which pafs from China to Formofa, or from
Formofa to China. PontefracS
As thefe iflands are only fand-banks or rocks, the ,1
inhabitants are obliged to import every neceflary c " b'fe;
neither (hrubs nor butties are feen upon them ; all their
ornament confifts of one folitary tree. The harbour is
good, and fheltered from every wind; it has from 20
to 25 feet depth of water. Although it is an uncul¬
tivated and uninhabited ifland, it is abfolutely neceflary
for the prefervation of Formofa, which has no port ca¬
pable of receiving veffels that draw above eight feet of
water.
PONIARD, a little pointed dagger, Very {harp
edged ; borne in the hand, or at the girdle, or hid in
the pocket. The word is formed from the French
poignord, and that from pGigv.ee, “ handful.”—The po¬
niard was anciently in very great ufe ; but it is now in
a good mcafure fet afide, except among affaffins.—
Sword and poniard were the ancient arms of duelifts ;
and are faid to continue ftill fo among the Spa¬
niards. The praftice of fword and poniard ftill make a
peninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of part of the exercife taught by the matters of defence.
Coromandel. Its fituation is low, and the (hips anchor PONS, a town of France, in Saintonge, very famous
in the time of the Huguenots. It is feated on a hill,
about a mile and a half from it ; nor can the boats or
canoes come nearer it than a muflcet-lhot, on account of
the breakers, fo that the blacks come in flat-bottomed
boats to carry the men and merchandifes to the fleet.
The fort is 200 paces from the fea, and very irregu¬
lar ; built with bricks, and covered with fine platter, re-
fembling white marble. The huts of the blacks lie
here and there, and the walls are of bamboos mixed with
the branches of trees. The French are greatly addift.
ed to women, from whom they catch difeafes that ren¬
der them pale, livid, and meagre, with a frightful af-
pe£L However, feveral of the French are married to
a fort of Portuguefe women, who are of a mixed breed,
being a kind of Mulattoes. The country about it is
barren, and confequently moft of their provifions are
brought from other places. Their trade coniitts of
cotton-cloth, filks, pepper, faltpetre, and other mer¬
chandifes that are brought from Bengal. With re¬
gard to the religion of the natives, the moft numerous
are the Gentoos ; but there are Mahometans or Moors
who hold a great many ridiculous opinions. The Gen¬
toos are of different fedts, and that of the Brahmins are
priefts. The cuftom of women burning tliemfelves with
the bodies of their dead hufbands was very common,
but of late much difcountenanced; The flaves or fer-
vants are very numerous, and their chief food is rice.
This place was taken, and the fortifications demolifhed,
by Colonel Coote; it was reftored to the French by
the peace of 1763 ; and wras retaken in the beginning
©f the prefent war with the French republic. It is
60 miles fouth of Fort St George. E. Long. 79. 58.
N. Lat. 11. 42.
PONDICO, an ifland of the Archipelago, lying on
the gulph of Ziton, near the coatt of Negropont. It
is fmall and uninhabited, as well as two others that lie
near it.
PONG-hou IJlesy in the province ©f Fo-kien in
China, form an archipelago between the port of Emouy
and the ifland of Formofa. A Chinefe garrifon is kept
here, with one of thofe mandarines who are called lite¬
rati, whole principal employment is to watch the trad-
Vol. XV. Part I.
near the river Suigne, 10 miles from Saintes. W. Long,
o. 30. N. Lat. 45. 36.
PONT-du-gard, is a bridge of France, in Lower
Languedoc, built over the river Gnrdon, which ferved
for an aqueduft. It is a very remarkable and a moft
magnificent work, and was railed by the ancient Romans*
It coniifts of three bridges, one above another ; the up-
permoft of which was the aqueduttt, to convey water
to the city of Nifmes, which is eight miles to the fouth*
They are altogether 192 feet high, and the uppermoft
580 feet long. They are conllruCled between two rocks.
E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 43. 58.
PONTEDERIA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
fixth order, Enfita. The corolla is monopetalous, fex-
fid, bilabiate ; there are three ftamina inferted into the
top, and three into the tube of the corolla ; the cap-
fule is bilocular.
PONTEFRACT, or Pomfret, a town of the
Weft Riding of Yorkfhire in England, fituated on the
river Are. It is faid to take its name from a broken
bridge, which is fuppofed to have been laid anciently
over that marfliy fpot called the Wajh. Here are the
ruins of a noble old cattle, where Richard II. was
barbaroufly murdered, and two of Edward Yds uncles*
The collegiate chapel of St Clement, which had a
dean, three prebendaries, &c. is ftill diflingui{liable
in it. This town has a good market, and fairs for
horfes, fheep, and other cattle. It is a corporation,
governed by a mayor, recorder, aldermen, and bur-
geffes, and gives title of earl to the family of Fermor.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 200 1. was left by
George Talbot, earl of Shrewlbury, to be lent for ever,
at 5 1. a time, on proper fecurity, for three years, to
the poor artificers of the town; and Thomas Went¬
worth, Efq; anceftor to the marquis of Rocking¬
ham, left 200 L to the charity-fchool. A branch. of
the great Roman military way called Erminjireet, which
palfed from Lincoln to York, may be traced betwixt
y y this
1
PON I 354 1 PON
Pont ifcx town and Doncafter. The adjacent country yields
« il plenty of limeftone, together with liquorice and Ikirrets.
t ^ont• W. Long. 1.5. N. Lat. 53. 42.
v PONTIFEX, Pontiff, or High-prlejt, a perfon
who has the fuperintendance and di reft ion of divine
worfhip, as the offering of facrifices and other religious
folemnities. The Romans had a college of pontiffs
and over thefe a fovereign pontiff, or pontifex maxi-
mus, inilituted by Numa, whofe funftion it was to
prefcribe tlx; ceremonies each god was to be worfhip-
ped withal, compofe the rituals, direft the veftals, and
for a good while to perform the bufinefs of augury,
till, on fame fuperftitious occafion, he was prohibited
intermeddling therewith. The office of the college of
pontiffs was to affill the high-prieft in giving judgment
jn all caufes relating to religion, inquiring into the
lives and manners of the inferior priefts, and pimifh-
ing them if they faw occafxon, &c. The Jews too had
their pontiffs; and among the Romanifts, the pope is
ftill ftyled the fovereign pontijf.
PONTIFICATE, is ufed for the flate or dignity
of a pontiff or high-prieft ; but more particularly in
modern writers for the reign of a pope.
PONTIUS (Pilate.) See Pilate.
PONTON, or Pontoon, in war, a kind of flat
bottomed boat, whofe carcafe of wrood is lined within
and without with tin : they ferve to lay bridges over
rivers for the artillery and army to march over. The
French pontoons, and thofe of moft other powers, are
made of copper on the outfide: though thefe coil more
at firft, yet they laft much longer than thofe of tin ;
and when worn out, the copper fells nearly for as
much as it coft at firft; but when ours are rendered
ufelefs, they felLfor nothing. Our pontoons are 21
feet long, five feet broad, and depth within two feet 1.5
inches.
Pontoon-Carriage, is made with two wheels only,
and two long fide-pieces, whofe fore-ends are fapport-
ed by a limber ; and ferves to carry the pontoon, boards,
erofs-timbers, anchors, and every other thing neceffary
for making a bridge.
PoNTOoN-Bridge, is made of pontoons flipped into
the water, and placed about five or fix feet afunder;
each faftened with an anchor, when the river has a
ftrong current ; or to a ftrong rope that goes acrofs the
river, running through the rings of the pontoons. Each
boat has an anchor, cable, baulks, and chefts. The
baulks are about five or fix inches iquare, and 21 feet
long. The ehefts are boards joined together by wooden
bars, about three feet broad and 12 feet long. The
baulks are laid acrofs the pontoons at fome diftance
from one another, and the chefts upon them joined
clofe; which makes a bridge in a very fhort time, ca¬
pable of fupporting any weight.
PONT St Esprit, is a town of France, in Langue-
doc, in the diocefe of Ufez. It is feated on the river
Rhone, over which is one of the fineft bridges in France,
it is 840 yards long, and confifts of 26 arches. Each
pier is pierced with an aperture, in order to facilitate Pontu#.
the paflage of the water where the river is high. The •'V*"—*,
town is large, but the ftreets are narrow and ill-built.
It formerly contained feveral churches and convents. It
is 17 miles fouth of Viviers, and 55 north-eaft of Mont¬
pelier. E. Long. 4. 46. N. Lat. 44. 13.
PONTUS, the name of an ancient kingdom of Afia,
originally a part of Cappadocia; bounded on the eaft
by Colchis, on the weft by the river Halys, on the
north by the Euxine Sea, and on the fouth by Arme¬
nia Minor. Some derive the name of Pontus from the Etymolog*
neighbouring fea, commonly called by the Latins Pontus of the ^
Euxinus ; others from an ancient king named Pontus, name,
who imparted his name both to the country and the
fea; but Bochart deduces it from the Phoenician word
botno, fi'gnifying a filberd, as if that nut abounded re¬
markably in this place. But this derivation feems to
be very far fetched ; and the common opinion that the
country derived its name from the fea, feems by far the:
moft probable. The kingdom was divided into three
parts; the firft, named Pontus Galatkus, extending from
the river Halys to the Thermodon ; the fecond, named’
Pontus Polemonaicus, extended from the Thermodon to
the borders of Pontus Cappadocicus ; and this laft extend¬
ed from Pontus Polemonaicus to Colchis, having Ar¬
menia Minor and the upper ftream of the Euphrates
for its font hern boundary.
It is commonly believed, that the firft inhabitants of
Pontus were defcended from Tubal; but in procefs of
time mixed with- Cappadocians, Paphlagonians, and
other foreign nations, befides many Greek colonies ,
which fettled in thofe parts, and maintained their liberty
till the time of Mithridates the Great and Pharnaces.
The firft king of this country whom we find'mentioned ^rt3®azCp
in hiftory is Artabazes, who had the crown beftowedthe firfb
on him by Darius (a) Hyftafpes. The next was Rhodo- king,
bates, who reigned in the time of Darius Nothus. After
him came Mithridates, who, refufing to pay the ufual
tribute to the Perfians, was defeated by Artaxerxes
Mnemon ; but a peace was foon after concluded by the
mediation of Tiftaphernes. Befides this, we hear no¬
thing of him farther than that he was treacheroufly taken
prifoner by Clearchus afterwards tyrant of Heraclea,
and obliged to pay a large fum for his ranfom. ^
Mithridates I. was fucceeded by Ariobarzanes, who Mithri-
being appointed by Artaxerxes governor of Lydia, dates L
Ionia, and Phrygia, employed the forces that were un¬
der his care in the extending of his own dominions, and
fubduing thofe of his natural prince. The king of
Perlia fent one Autophrodates againft him; but Ario¬
barzanes, having with great promifes prevailed on Age-
filaus and Timothaeus the Athenian to come to his af-
fiftance, obliged Autophrodates to retire. He then
rewarded Agefilaus with a great fum of money, and
beftowed on Timothseus the cities of Seftos and Abydos*
which he had lately taken from the Perlians. He ufed
his utmoft endeavours to reconcile the Lacedemonians
and Thebans; hut not being able to bring the latter
*
(A) This country, together with the adjacent provinces, was in different periods under the dominion of the
Affynans, Medes, and Perfians; the laft of whom divided Cappadocia into fatrapies or governments, and be-
flowed that divifion which was afterwards called Pontus on one of the anceftors of Mithridates. This regulation
was effected in the reign gf Darius the fon of Hyftafpes,, and has been regarded as the date of the kingdom.
PON [ 355 1 p 0 N
to any reafonabk terms, he affiHe* the Lacedemonians country S that he ntotdd in like manner evacuate Pa- Perm..
• t nr e A tVipniann Ainwed lO
4
Ariobar-
zanes
•'fhakes off
the Mace¬
donian
•yoke.
fharnacesl.
differs with
’the Ro-
aaant.
6
Concludes
a mod dif¬
ad van cage.
eus peace.
with vaft fums of money. The Athenians fhowed fo
much refpea for this prince, that they not only made
him free of their city, but granted both him and his
children whatever they aflted of them. He was mur¬
dered in the 28th year of his reign by one Mithridates,
whom authors fuppofe to have been his fon.. 1 his
happened at the time that Alexander the Great invaded
Alia, fo that Pontus for a time fell under the power of
the Macedonians. _ _
In the reign of Antigonus, Mithridates the ion oi
Ariobarzanes (hook off the Macedonian yoke ; the par¬
ticulars of which event are related as follow. Antigo¬
nus having dreamed that he had a field in which_ gold
grew after the manner of corn, and that Mithridates
•cut it down and carried it into Pontus, began to be very
jealous of him, and ordered him to be put to death
privately. But Mithridates, having got notice of the
•king’s intention, withdrew into Paphlagonia, attenaed
only by fix horfemen. Here, being joined by many
others, he poffeffed himfelf of Qiniatum, a ftiong hold
fituated near mount Olgafys ; from whence, as his anny
continually increafed, he made an irruption into Cap¬
padocia ; and having driven the commanders of Anti¬
gonus from that part which borders upon Pontus, he
entered his paternal kingdom, which, in fpite of the
utmoft efforts of Antigonus, he held for the fpace 01
26 years, and tranfmitted to his pofterity.
Under the reigns of Mithridates III* Ariobarzanes II.
and Mithridates IV. the immediate fucceffors of Mithri¬
dates II. nothing remarkable happened. But Mithri¬
dates V. made w’ar on the inhabitants oi Sinope, a city
-on the coaft of Paphlagonia. He made himfelf mailer
of all the adjacent places ; but finding the whole pemn-
fula, on which Sinope itfelf Hood, well fortified and gar-
rifoned, not only by the inhabitants, but by their allies
the Rhodians, he abandoned the enterprife. He after¬
wards proved a great friend to the Rhodians, and af-
fifted them with money to repair the Ioffes they had
fuftained by an earthquake. He entered alfo into a
ftria alliance with Antiochus the Great, who married
one of his daughters named Laodice.
After the death of Mithridates V. his fon Pharnaces I.
attacking the city of Sinope, unexpeftedly took it by
•itorm. On this the Rhodians fent ambaffadors to Rome,
complaining of the behaviour of the king of Pontus;
but Pharnaces was fo far from being intimidated by
their threats, that he invaded the territories of Eumenes
their great ally. The latter fent ambaffadors to Rome,
and entered into an alliance with Anarathes king of
Cappadocia. Pharnaces, in his turn, fent ambaffadors
to Rome, complaining of Eumenes and Anarathes;
upon which fome Romans were fent into Afia to inquire
into the ftate of matters. Thefe found Eumenes and
his affociates willing to accommodate the difference, but
Pharnaces in a quite oppofite dilpofition, W'hich they
accordingly reported at Rome.
In the mean time a war- was commenced between
Eumenes and Pharnaces; but the latter, being difap-
pointed of affiftance from Seleucus king of Syria, whom
the Romans would not allow to join him, was at lalt
forced to fue for peace ; which was granted him upon
the following conditions: lhat he ffiould forthwith
withdraw his forces from Galatia, and difannul all en¬
gagements and alliances with the inhabitants of that
phlagonia, and fend back fuch as he hau from thence
carried into flavery; that he fhould reftore to Ariarathes
all the places which he had taken during the war, the
hoffages of both kings, all their prifoners without ran-
fom, and moreover ffiould deliver up to them fuch of
their fubje&s as from the firft breaking out of the war
had fled to him ; that he fhould return to Morzias, a
petty king in thefe parts, and to Anarathes, 900 ta¬
lents which he had feized in the war, and pay down. 300
more to Eumenes as a fine for invading his dominions
without provocation. Mithridates, king of Armenia,
having in this war joined Pharnaces, was, by the articles
of the treaty, obliged to pay 300 talents to Ariarathes
for having affifted his enemy contrary to an alliance at
that time fubfifting between them. Soon after Pharnaces
died, and left the kingdom to his fon Mithridates VI.
more weakened by this peace than by the moll dcfliuc-
tive war. • 1 , r> w
The new king entered into an alliance with the Ro- Mls l0Il
mans, and proved fuch a faithful friend, that he was
rewarded by the fenate with Phrygia Major, and ho- w;th the
noured with the title of the friend and ally of the people Romans,
of Rome. After a long and profperous reign, he was
murdered by fome of his intimate acquaintance, and
was fucceeded by his fon Mithridates VII. furnamed
the Great. 8
The new prince, though not exceeding 13 years of Mithrida-
age, began his reign with moft inhuman afts of cruelty
to his mother and neareft relations.. His father, by l.lis cruel
laft will, had appointed him and his mother joint heirs prince,
to the kingdom; but he, claiming the whole, threw
her into prifon, where fhe foon died through the hard
ufage flie met with. Thofe to whom the care of his
education was committed, obferving him to be of a
cruel and unruly temper, made various attempts on his
life, but could never effeft their defign, as the king
was always on his guard, and armed, in that tender age-,
again ft all kind of treachery, without ftiowing the leall
diffidence. . ,. rifrf 9
In his youth Mithridates took care to inure himieli His extra.
to hardffiips, palling whole months in the open air,
employed in the exercife of hunting, and often taking 1
his reft amidft the frozen fnow. When he came of age,
he married his lifter named Laodice, by whom he had a
fon named Pharnaces. After this he took a journey
through many different kingdoms of Alia, having no¬
thing lefs in view than the whole continent. He learned
their different languages, of which he is faid to have
fpoken 22 ; took an" eftimate of their ftrength; and
above all viewed narrowly their ftrong holds and forti¬
fied towns. In this journey he fpent three years ; du¬
ring which time, a report being fpread abroad that he
was dead, his wife Laodice had a criminal converfation
w ith one of the lords of her court, and had a fon by
him. When her hulband returned, ffie prefented him
with a poifoned bowl; but Mithridates had accuftomed
himfelf to take poifon from his infancy, fo that it had
row no other effed than to haften the deftrudion of his
wife, which very foon took place, together with all
thofe who had been any way acceffory to her dilloyalty
and incontinence. <
The king now began to put in execution his fcheme*
of conqueft. However, he certainly took the wuong
method by attacking firft thofe nations which were im-
y y 2 mediately
*
PON
Pont as.
10
Conquers
lever al
countries.
II
mediately under the protedUon of Rome, and thus at
once provoking that powerful people to fall upon him.
He began with Paphlagonia, which the Romans had
declared a free Hate. This country he eafily reduced,
and divided between himfelf and Nicomedes king of
Bithynia, at that time his ally. The Romans remon-
ftrated ; but Mithridates, inftead of paying any regard
to their remonftrances, invaded Galatia, which was im¬
mediately under their prote&ion. This he alfo reduced,
and then turned his eyes on Cappadocia. But as the
kingdom of Cappadocia was at that time held by An'a-
rathes, who was a great favourite of the Romans, and
married to the fifter of Mithridates, the latter hired an
aflaflin to difpatch Ariarathes, after which lie thought
he might fucceed better in his defigns. After the death
Cappadocia ^narathesf Cappadocia was invaded by Nicomedes
to he mur- king of Bithynia, who drove out the fon, and married
dered. the widow of Ariarathes. This gave Mithridates a
plaufible pretence for invading Cappadocia; which he
inftantly did, and drove Nicomedcs quite out of the
country. Thus Mithridates gained confiderable repu¬
tation, not only as a warrior, but as a juft and good-
natured prince ; for as it was not known that he had any
hand in the murder of Ariarathes, every one imagined
that he had undertaken the war againft Nicomedes,
merely to revenge the quarrel of his nephew, and to re-
itore him to his right. To keep up the farce a little
longer, Mithridates actually withdrew his troops out of
the country, and left the young prince mailer of the
kingdom. In a Ihort time, however, he began to prefs
the young king of Cappadocia to rccal the affaflin Gor¬
dius, who had murdered his father: but this the king
«f Cappadocia refufed with indignation ; and Mithri¬
dates, being determined on a quarrel at all events, took
the field with an army of 80,000 foot, 10,coo horfe,
and 600 chariots armed with feythes. With this force
he imagined he Ihould carry all before him : but finding
the king of Cappadocia ready to oppofe him with a
force no way inferior to his own, he had recourfe to
AfTaflinates treachery ; and inviting his nephew to a conference,
his own r.e-flabbed him, in the fight of both armies, with a dagger
gkew. which he had concealed in the plaits of his garment.
This barbarous and unexpedled piece of treachery had
fuch an effeft on tfie Cappadocians that they threw
down their arms, and fuffered Mithridates, without op-
pofition, to feize upon all their ftrong holds. He re-
figned the kingdom, however, to his fon, a child of
eight years of age. The care of the young prince, and
of the whole kingdom, he committed to Gordius; but
the Cappadocians, difdaining to be ruled by fuch a
fcandalous affaffin, placed on the throne the brother of
Ariarathes, who had kept himfelf concealed in fome part
Alia. His reign, however, was of ihort duration ;
he being foon after driven out by Mithridates, and
the Cappadocians again reduced. The unhappy prince
died of grief; and in him ended the family of Pharnaces,
who had ruled Cappadocia from the time of Cyrus
13 the Great.
kingof'S- hmg °f Bithyriia’ bcinS greatly
thynia at- afraid of Mithiidates, and fuppofing tht^t lu» ‘>wr; dumi-
tempts to 1110118 would next fall a prey to the ambitions conqueror,
deceive the fuborned a youth of a comely and majeftic afpeft to
womans, pretend that he was a third fon of Ariarathes, to go to
r 555 1
O N
PortWb
greateft kindnefs, and Laodice the wife of Nicomedes
even confirmed the deceit by her oath. But in the
mean time Mithridates having got intelligence of the ,
plot, fertt notice of it by Gordius to the Romans, fb expofed by
that the impofture was foon known at Rome alfo. The Mithada,*
confequence of this was, that the fenate commandedtC8*
Mithridates to relinquilh Cappadocia, and Nicomedes
that part of Paphlagonia which he polfelfed ; declaring
both thefe countries free. The Cappadocians protefted
that they could not live without a king; upon which
they were allowed to choofe one of their own nation.
Mithridates ufed all his intereft in favour of Gordius.;
but he being excluded by the Romans, one Ariobarzanes
was chofen by the majority of votes.
To enforce this election, Sylla was fentrinto Cappa-Ariobar-
docia. He had the character of an arnballad or, but the z.:inas’ ^ct*
real intent of his coming was to difappoint the ambitious rh^neof*
defigns of Mithridates. With an handful of forces he Cappadocri
defeated a numerous army of Cappadocians and Arme-by the Ro*
nians commanded by Gordius, and fettled Ariobarzanes lnans> blJt
on the throne. But no fooner was Sylla gone than by Mithrf*
Mithridates ftirred up Tigranes king of Armenia againft datts,
Ariobarzanes, who* without making any refiftance, fled
to Rome, and Tigranes reftored the kingdom to Aria-
* rathes the fon of Mithridates. At the fame time died
the king of Bithynia; upon which Mithridates imme¬
diately invaded that country, and drove out Nicomedos
the natural fon of the late king. But the expelled prince,
having fled to Rome, and being affifted by that power¬
ful republic, the king of Pontus was foon obliged to
abandon Bithynia and Cappadocia. jg
The Romans now being exceedingly jealous of the en-
power and ambition of Mithridates, refolved to humble Sia£es ,n *
him at all events. For this purpofe they fent ambaf-
ladors to tne kings of Bithynia and Cappadocia, de- mans,
firing them to make frequent inroads into the neigh¬
bouring territories of Mithridates, and behave there as
they pleafed; alluring them of powerful afliftance in
cafe they Ihould have occafion. Ariobarzanes could nat
by any means be induced to provoke fo powerful a
neighbour ; but Nicomedes being induced, partly by
promifes and partly by menaces, to comply, entered
Pontus, where he laid walle whole provinces with fire
and fword. Mithridates complained to the Roman le¬
gates : but they replied, that he himfeif had been the
fiidl aggrefibr; that Nicomedes had only paid him in
his own coin, and that they would not allow him to X7
hurt their friend and ally. Upon this Mithridates, ' >efeats Av
entering Cappadocia with a numerous army, pnt to flight riobarzanes
the united forces of Ariobarzanes and Altinius the Ro-
man legate ; thus making himfelf once rhore mailer GfniUS
this kingdom. In. the mean time he fent ambalfadora
to Rome, complaining of the proceedings of Nicomedes :
but his ambaifadors met with a very indifferent recep¬
tion ; being enjoined to tell their mailer, that he mult
either reftore the kingdom of Cappadocia to Ariobar¬
zanes, and make peace with Nicomedes, or be accounted
an enemy of the Roman people. With this anfvrcr they
were commanded to depart the city that very day, and
Uild that no more ambaffadors could be admitted till
fuch time as their commands were obeyed.
In the mean time both parties prepared for war.
The Roman legates in Afia drew together all the forces
Rome, and demand the kingdom of Cappadocia as his they could multcr in Bithynia, Cappadocia, Paphlago-
juft right. He was received by the fenate with -the aia, and Galatia; and, being joined by Caftius governor
o£
PON
Pimm, of A fin, took the field againft Ml thr [dates In the year
-—-— 89 B. C, They divided their army into feveral fmall
bodies ; Calhus encamped on the confines of Bithynia
and Galatia ; ManiuS Aquilius with his body poifeffed
himfelf of the avenues leading from Pont 119 into Lithy
[ 357 1
PON
contributing large fams towards the defraying fhe ry..
peaces of the war ; by which means he became poffefied
of fuch treafures as enabled him to keep feveral nume¬
rous armies in the field for five years without levying
any taxes on his iubjefts. As many Roman citizens
Porittw.
il 01 rne avenues icaumg ; --- j t 1 • ii ,.1 -j ± 1 j
Quintus Oppius fecimed tire entrance into Cappa- were difperfed in the provinces which Mithndates liad
P «VA«« a»ut P Pom'- fubdued. he conlidered thefe as lo mr m ipies who wouid
And ico¬
rn rdes and
Ma: iu’. A-
quilius
*9
O ^ei-runs
Alia Mi¬
nor.
10
?uts Aqt
lius to
4each.
ma , ^ — - — - - .
docia; and the admirals Minueius Rufus and C. Popi-
iius lay with a fleet of 30® Byzantium, to pre¬
sent tiie enemy from entering the Euxine fea. Each
of the generals had under his command an army oi.
40,000 men j befides a body of 50,000 loot and fcoco
horfe brought to their afiiftance by Nicomedes.
Qn the other liand, Mithridates having invited feveral
of the neighbouring nations to join him, collected an
army of 250,000 foot, 50,000 horfe, 130 chariots
armed with feythes; befides 300 fliips and 100 galleys.
Part of this force lie detached againft. Nicomedes; and
utterly defeated liim, though much Superior in number,
as he was taking poffefiion of an advantageous poll by
order of Caihus. Another part he detached agamit
Manias Aquilius, whom he alio defeated with the infs
of r0,000 killed on the fpot, and 3000 taken prifoners ;
on winch the other Roman generals abanuoned then
polls, the fleet alfo difperfed, and moil of the Ihips ware
either taken or funk by the admirals of Mithridates.
The king of Pontus now refolving to improve the
opportunity', and drive the Romans entirely out of A-
fia, over-ran all Phrygia, Myfia, Aiia Proper, Cana,
Lycia, Pamphyha, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia, with all
the reft of the countries which had either belonged to or
iided with the Romans, as far as Ionia. He was re¬
ceived everywhere with the greateH demonflrations of
joy ; the inhabitants flocking to him in white garments,
and calling him their father, deliverer, their god, and
the great and foie lord of all Aiia. What gained
him the affections of the people was his kind ufage to
the prifoners he had taken in the two engagements
above-mentioned •; for he not only fent them all home
without ranfom, but furnifhed them with plenty of pro-
vifions, and money fufficient to defray their expences by
the wayu Ambaffadors flocked to him from all parts ;
and among others, from Raodicea on the Lycus, to
whom the king promifed his protection, piowded they
delivered up to him Q. Oppius governor of Pamphylia,
who had fled thither for proteftion. This requefl was
readily complied with ; Oppius was lent to him in
chains, with lictors walking before him in deriiion of
the Roman pride and oilentation. Mithridates was
overjoyed to fee a Roman general and proconful m Ins
power ; and his joy was ioon after increafed by the ar¬
rival of Manius Aquilius, whom the Leftians, revolting
from the Romans, font to liim in fetteie, together with
many' other Romans of diilmction who had taken fliel-
ter among them. As he had been the chief author of
the war, Mkhridates led him about with him wherever
be went, either bound on an affi, or on foot coupled
with one Baitarnes a public malefactor, compelling him
to proclaim to the crowds who came to fee him, that he
i- was Manias Aquilius the Roman legate. When he
came to Pergamus, he caufed him firit to be publicly
whipped, then to be put on the rack, and laflly melted
gold to be poured down his throat.
Mithridates being now looked upon as invincible, all
the free cities of Alia received him as their fovereign,
it
fubdued, he confidered thefe as io mr u ' ipies who would
not fail to fend an account of his proceedings to Rome
for which reafon he refolved to cut them ail off at once Cniefl-jr^
by a general maffacre j which barbarous policy, it
laid, had never been heard of till his time, but has been mans iu
fince practifed by other nations. He difpatebed private Alia,
letters to all the governors and magiilrate's cf the cities
where the Romans refided, enjoining them on pain of
death, and the entire deltrudtion of their country, to
caufe all the Italian race, women and children not ex¬
cepted, to be murdered on the 3018 day from the Gate
of his letters, and to let their bocks lie urtburied in the
open fields. One moidty of their goods was to be for¬
feited to the king, and the other bellowed as a reward
on the affaffins. Whatever fiave murdered his mailer
was to receive his liberty, and one half of the debt was
to be remitted to the debtor that fhould kill his credi¬
tor. Whoever concealed an. Italian, under any pretence
whatever, was to be pumfhed with immediate death*
On the fatal day, all the gates of the cities being fhut,
and the avenues kept with foldiers, the king’s orders
were proclaimed, which, caufed an univerfal horror, not
only among the unhappy' viftims themfelves, but among,
thole who,had any feelings of humanity, at feeing them-
felves obliged either to betray and murder their inno¬
cent guefts, friends, and relations, or to become liable
to a cruel death. However, as moll of the Aiiatics
bore a mortal hatred to the Romans, and were more¬
over animated by the promife of an ample reward, the
orders were without delay put in execution. The in¬
habitants of Ephefus, where Mithridates then refided,
dragged Rich as had taken fanfluary in the temple of
Diana from the very llatue of the goddefs, and put
them to the fword. ThePergamenians difeharged Ihowers
of darts upon them as they embraced the llatues in the
temple of Efculapius. At Adramyttium in Myfia ma¬
ny were murdered in the water, while they were at¬
tempting, with their children on their backs, to fwim
over to the illand of Lelbos. The Caunians, who not
long before had been delivered from the yoke of the
Rhodians, and reilored to their ancient privileges, ex¬
celled all the reft in cruelty : for, as if they had apofta-
tifed from human nature, they took pleafure in tor¬
menting and butchering the innocent children before
their mothers eyes; feme of them running diftradled,
and others dying with grief at a fight which nature
could net bear. The TVallians were the only people on
the continent who would not have the cruelty to imbrue
their hands in the blood of the innocent Italians.
However, as the king’s orders were peremptory, they
hired one Theephilus a Paphlagonian to difpatch the
few Romano that lived among them. He, having fhut
them all up together in the temple of Concord, firft cut¬
off their hands as they embraced the ftatues of the gods,
and then hacked them in pieces. Many Romans were
faved on the floating iflands of Lydia called Calamma,
where they concealed themfelves till fuch time as they
found an opportunity of efcaping out of Aiia. Never-
theldi*
PON r 35S ] PON-
Pontus. thelefs, according1 to Plutarch and Dion, 150,000 Ro- gether with the kingdom of Thrace, driving the Ro-
man citizens weie maffacred on that day ; but, accord- mans everywhere before him. The generals whom he
ing to others, only 80,000. fent into other quarters were no lefs fuccefsful j fo that
Mithridates having now got rid of thofe whom he Mithridates had, according to Aulus Gellius, 25 diffe-
was in dread of on the continent, embarked great part rent nations who paid him homage. The fame author
Pontnf.
Reduces
•the iiland
«f Cos,
of his forces in order to reduce the iflands of the Ar
chipelago. At Gcs he was gladly received, and had de¬
livered up to him the young Alexander, fon of Alexan¬
der king of Egypt, who being driven out of that coun¬
try, was killed by Chareas a fea-captain as he was re¬
tiring in a fmall velfel to Cyprus. With the young
prince, they put into the king’s hands vafl: fums of mo¬
ney, with all the golden veffels and jewels, to an im-
menfe value, which his grandmother Cleopatra had been
amafiing for many years. To the young prince Mith¬
ridates gave an education fuitable for a king’s fon, but
kept the treafures to himfelf. Here likewife he found
800 talents in ready money, which, at the firft breaking
out of the war, had been depolited by the Jews of A-
^ fia, and were defigned for the temple of Jcrufalem.
Uut fails in From Cos Mithridates fteered his courfe for Rhodes,
his at- where at that time all the Romans who had efcaped
tempt upon^ke mafiacre above-mentioned found a fandluary, and,
Rhodes. amongft others, L. Caffius the proconful. The Rho¬
dians, however, being very expert in maritime affairs,
Mithridates did not think proper to venture an engage¬
ment. As the enemy’s fleet advanced, therefore, he
retired; but fix of the Rhodian fhips coming up with
25 of his, a fharp aftion enfued, in which the Rhodians
funk two of the king’s fliips, and put the reft to flight.
In this encounter, though Mithridates had never feen a
fea-fight before, he behaved with great intrepidity"; but
one of the fhips of his own fquadron falling foul of that
which carried him, he was very near being taken pri-
foner. From this time forth he abhorred the flea, and
took an averfion to all the Chians, becaufe the pilot of
that fhip was a Chian. However, he again appeared
before the ifland; but was forced anew to leave it
with difgrace, and to give over all thoughts of redu-
44 cing
3siis gene Mithridates now retired into Afia, with a defign to
ail Gree^6 ^ett^e ^ie government of the countries which he
had conquered, committing the care of the war to his
generals. Archelaus, his generaliffimo, was fent into
Greece with an army of 120,000 men; where, by
•treachery, he made himfelf mafterof Athens,, and either
put to the fword or fent to Mithridates all thofe who
favoured or were fufp.etted to favour the Romans. From
Athens he difpatched parties to reduce the neighbour¬
ing caftles and the ifland of J3rios, which they did ac¬
cordingly ; but Orobius, a Roman general, hearing
that the enemy kept no guards, but pafied their time
in carouiing and debauchery, fell upon them unexpect¬
edly', and cut off the whole pat ty, except Apellicon the
.commander.
In the mean time, Metrophanes, another t>f the king’s
generals, entering Euboea, laid -wafte the whole country,
exerting his rage chiefly againft the cities of Demetrias
and Magnefia, which refufed to open their gates to him.
But as he was failing off with a great booty, Bryttius,
the praetor or governor of Macedonia, coming up with
him, funk fome of his fhips,, and took others, putting all
the prifoners to the fword. Mithridates, upon the news
of this lofs, fent his fon Ariarathes with a powerful ar¬
my to invade Macedonia ; which he foon reduced, to
adds, that he was (killed in every one of their various lan¬
guages, fo that he could eonverfe with the natives without
•an interpreter. Among thefe nations we find the Rho-
xani, now the Ruffians or Mufcovites, whom Deiphon-
tus, one of the king’s generals, brought under fubjec-
tion, after having flain in an engagement 50,000 of the
barbarians.
All this time the Romans had been too much taken
•up with their own domeftic quarrels to take fuch effec¬
tual meafures as they otherwife would have done for
checking the progrefs of Mithridates. But at laft, ha- Sylla'ifoac
ving received certain advice that the king defigned toa?ainlt
invade Italy, and that he had even been folicited to
fo by fome of the revolted Italians, they fent againft
him Lucius Sylla, who had already given fufficient
proofs of his courage, conduit, and experience in war.
He had with him only five legions and a few cohorts.
With this inconfiderable force he landed in Attica, and
iu a fhort time made himfelf mafter of the capital; Ar¬
chelaus not daring, or, according to others, through
treachery, not caring, to engage him. As Sylla had but
a few frigates, he fent Lucullus to the ifland of Rhodes,
with orders to the Rhodians to join him with their fleet.
The undertaking was very" dangerous, as the king’s fleet
in a manner covered the fea. However, Lucullus, def-
fpiling all danger, ventured out, and failed, without
meeting with any perverfe accident, to Syria, Egypt,
Libya, and Cyprus; from whence he returned with
fuch fupplies of fhips and experienced mariners, as ena¬
bled Sylla, after their conjunction with the Rhodians,
to a£t offenfively by fea alfo. Archelaus now difpatch¬
ed meffengers to Taxiles, who commanded in Thrace
and Macedon, defiring him to join him with all his
forces ; which the other readily did, and between both
muftered an army of 120,000 men. Sylla met them who to-
near Cheronasa with only 15,000 foot and 1500 horfe; tally de¬
but gave them a moft dreadful overthrow, no fewer than<eats .
110,000 of the Afiatics being flaughtered, while the 10
Romans loft only 12 men.
This fuccefs having raifed envy and jealoufy againft
Sylla in Rome, the fenate fent Lucius Valerius Flaccus,
the conful of that year, with two legions into Alia, in
appearance to attack Mithridates on that fide, but with
private inftruftions to fall upon Sylla himfelf, if they
found him difaffe&ed to the fenate. As Flaccus was F’arcus and
a naan of no experience in war, C. Fimbria, a fena-Fmrbria
tor of great repute among the foldiery, was appointed ^ent *nt®
to attend him with the charafter of legate and lieute-A^a*
nant-general. Sylla was at that time in Boeotia ; but,
hearing what had happened at Rome, he marched with
all expedition into Theflaly, with a defign to meet
Fiaccus, who, he expected, was to land in that province.
But no fooner had he left Boeotia, than the country
was over-run by an army of Aliatics, under the com¬
mand of Dorylaus the king’s chief favourite. On this
advice Sylla returned into Boeotia, where he gained two
fignal victories, which put an end to the war in Greece.
In the firft of thefe Dorylaus loft 150,000 of his men Sylla*gain*
according to fome, or 200,000 according to others ■; two other
and in the next all the reft. In this laft engagement vi&oric* is
so,000
Greece.
Por.tut.
PON [ 359 3 PON
20,000 were driven into a river, where they all perifh- to Pergamus, where his father refided.
^ ed ; an equal number were purfued into a marfh, and
entirely cut off ,• the reft were killed in the heat of
battle, the Romans giving n'o quarter to men who had
9 . • r 11  o ViavVicimnQ man-
' treated their fellow-citizens after fuch a barbarous man¬
ner in Afia. Plutarch tells us, that the marfhes were
dyed with blood; that the courfe of the river was flop¬
ped by the dead bodies; and that even in his time,
that is, near 200 years after, a great number of bows,
helmets, coats of mail, and fwords, were found buried
in the mud. Archelaus, who had joined Dorylaus with
a body of 10,000 men a few days before the battle,
lay three days Itripped among the flain till he found a
But Fimbnaj PantM<
purfuing him night and day without intermifiion, en- ‘1
tered Pergamus fword in hand ; and hearing that both
Mithridates and his fon had fled from thence a few
hours before, he c#ntinued his purfuit, and would have
taken the king himfelf, had he not entered Pitane with
a confiderable body of horfe. The place was clofely
invefted by Fimbria ; but as he had no Ihips to block
it up by fea alfo, he fent a meflenger to Lucullus, who
commanded the Roman navy in Afia, intreating him,
as he tendered the welfare of the republic, to make
what hafte he could to Pitane, and aflift him in taking
the moft inveterate enemy the Romans had. But Lu- Who is fuf**
lay three days itnppea among me 1 jam uii uc luunu a . —, ' " r > . . ^ feredbv'
fall veflel which carried him to Euboea, where he ga- culto, preferring the gratiheation of a private pique to ,J,
 J c.   Ud drarrleJ npvpr xvnm able the good of his country, retuied to come: and thus
a9
Fimbria
puts Flac-
cus to
death.
thered what forces he could, but was never again able
to appear in the field. Indeed Livy tells us, that Ar¬
chelaus betrayed the king’s Caufe; and Aurelius Victor,
that the king’s fleet was intercepted by Sylla through
the treachery of Archelaus : adding, that there was a
good underftanding between the two commanders, as was
plain from Sylla’s beftowing upon Archelaus 10,000
acres of land near the city of Chalcis in Euboea. Stra¬
bo alfo informs us, that Arcbelaus was afterwards
greatly efteemed and carefled by Sylla and the fenate ;
but Sylla himfelf in his commentaries, and Dio, endea¬
vour to clear Archelaus from all fufpicion of treachery.
4 In the mean time, Sylla having given up Boeotia to
be plundered by his foldiers, marched into I heffaly,
where he took up his winter-quarters, caufed^ hia old
{hips to be refitted and feveral new ones built, in order
to pafs over into Aiia in the beginning of the fpring,
that he might drive from thence not only Mithridates,
but his rival Flaccus alfo, whom the fenate, out of op-
pofition to him, had appointed governor of that pro¬
vince. But before he arrived, fome differences having
arifen between Flaccus and Fimbria, the latter was by
the conful deprived of his command. Upon this Fim¬
bria, having gained over the foldiery to his fide, made
war on the conful, took him prifoner, put him to death,
and affumed the command of all the Roman forces in
Afia. In this ftation he behaved with the greateft
cruelty, infomuch that his name became more odious
than even that of Mithridates itfelf. This hatred the
king of Pontus endeavoured to improve to his own ad¬
vantage ; and therefore commanded his fon, by name
alfo Mithridatesy to join Taxiles, Diophantes, and Me¬
nander, three of his moft experienced commanders, to
return at the head of a numerous army into Afia ; not
doubting but the inhabitants, thu* haraffed by Fim¬
bria, would ftiake off the Roman yoke when they faw
fuch a powerful army in the field ready to protect them.
But Fimbria, diftrulling the Afiatics, marched out to
meet the enemy, and offered them battle before they
Defiats the entered the province. As the king’s army was greatly
force* of fuperior to the Romans in number, the latter luffer-
Mithrida- ecj greatly in the engagement, but held out till night
te* parted them, when they withdrew to the oppofite fide
of a river, which was at a fmall diftance from the field
of battle. Here they defigned to intrench themfelves :
but in the mean rime a violent ftorm arifing, Fimbria
laid hold of that opportunity to repafs the river and
furprife the enemy : of whom he made fuch havock as
they lay in their tents, that only the commanders and
fome few troops of horfe efcaped. Among thefe was
fieges the the king’s fon; who, attended by a few horfe, got fafe
fang;
tes,
. 31
And be¬
lli e good of his country, refufed to come : and thus al- tQ
lowed the fleet of Mithridates to carry him in fafety to
Mitylene.
So«n after the king’s departure, Fimbria took Pitane
by ftorm, and reduced moft of the cities of Afia, parti¬
cularly Troy, which he alfo took by ftorm in eleven days,
and put moft of the inhabitants to the fword, becaufe
they had fent an embaffy to Sylla, offering to fub-
mit to him rather than to Fimbria.—To add to the
misfortunes of Mithridates, his- fleet was entirely de¬
feated in two engagements by Fueullus ; fo that he be¬
gan to be weary of the war, and therefore defired Ar¬
chelaus to conclude a peace upon as honourable terms 33
as he could. The king himfelf had afterwards alfo a Peace ccm«r
conference with Sylla, and a peace was concluded include J
85 B. C. on the following terms, viz. That Mithrida¬
tes fliould reliriquifll all his conquefts, and content him¬
felf with his paternal dominions, which were confined
within the limits of Pontus : that he fhould immediate¬
ly refign Bithynia to Nicomedes, and Cappadocia to
Ariobarzanes, and releafe without ranfom all the prifo-
ners he had taken during the war : that he fhould pay
to the Romans 2000, or as others will have it 3000, ta¬
lents, and deliver up to Sylla 80 ftiips with all their
arms and ammunition, and 500 archers; and laftly, that
he fhould not moleft fuch cities or perfons as had du¬
ring the war revolted from him and fided with the Ro¬
mans.
Sylla, having thus concluded the war with great glo¬
ry to himfelf and advantage to the republic, turned his
army againft Fimbria ; but the latter, finding himfelf in
no condition to oppofe his rival by force, had recourfe
to treachery, and attempted to get Sylla murdered.
The plot mifcarried, and Fimbria put an end to his own
life ; upon which Sylla, having now an uncontrouled
power in Afia, declared the Chians, Rhodians, Fyci-
ans, Magnefians, and Trojans, free, and friends of the
people of Rome, byway of reward for their having fided
with the Romans: but on the other cities he laid heavy
fines ; condemning-them in one year to pay 20,000 ta¬
lents, and quartering hisfoldiers in the houfes of thofewho
had fhown difaffettion to the Romans. Each private
man was to receive of his landlord 16 drachmas a-day,
and each officer 50; and befides, both were to be fup-
plied with provifions, not only for themfelves, but for
fuch of their friends as they thought proper to invite.
By thefe impofitions moft of the people of Afia were
reduced to beggary ; efpecially the inhabitants of Ephe-
fus, who had above all others fhown their hatred to the
Romans. Sylla then, having colle'&ed immenfe trea-
fure, fet fail for Italy; leaving belujid him Luculkis
with
PON [ 360 ] PON
Pontus. w,‘tk the chara&er of qu*Jlort and Muraena with that
W- v »- prator.
The two legions which Fimbria had commanded were
given to Muraena, becaufe Sylla fufpe&cd them of an
inclination to the fa&ion of Marius, whofe party he was
^4 going to crufn at Rome.
Mithrila- Mithridates in the mean time no "Cooner returned into
te'« reduce* Rontus, than he fet about the reduction of thofe nations
the nations kad revolted from him during the war. He be-
revolted U San w^h the Colchi ; who immediately fuhmitted, up-
from him. on condition that Mithridates would give his for. for a
king over them. This was complied with; but the old
king had thenceforward a iealoufy of his fon, and there¬
fore firft imprifoned and then put him to death. Soon
after this, the king having made great preparations un¬
der pretence of reducing the Bofphori, a warlike nation
who had revolted from him, the Romans began to be
jealous. Their jealoufy was further increafed by Arche-
laus, who lied to them, and affured them that the pre-
parations of Mithridates were not at all defigned againil
The Ro- the Bofphori. On hearing this, Murtena invaded Pen¬
mans in- tus without any farther provocation. The king put
vade his bjm jn mind of the articles of peace concluded with
without6* Sylla: but Muraena replied that he knew of no fuch
provoca- articles; for Sylla had fet nothing down in writing, but
ftion, contented himfeif with the execution of what had been
agreed upon. Having given this anfwer, the Roman
general began to lay wade and plunder the country,
without fpaiing even the treafures or temples confecra-
ted to the gods. Having put all to fire and fword on
the frontiers of Pcntus towards Cappadocia, he paffed
the river Halys, and on that fide pofielTed himielf of
400 villages without eppofition ; for Mithridates was
. unwilling to commit any hoftilities before the return of
an ambaffador whom he had fent to Rome to complain
of the conduct of Murasna. At laft the ambafiador re¬
turned, and with him one Callidius ; who, in public af-
feinbly, commanded Murasna to forbear moleding a friend
and ally of the Roman people ; but afterwards, calling
him afide, he had a private conference with him, in
which it is fuppofed, as he brought no decree of the
fenate, that he encouraged him to purfue the war.
Whatever might be in this, it is certain that Muraena
dill continued to pra&ife the fame hodilities, and even
made an attempt on Sinope, where the king redded and
the royal treafures were kept. But as the town was
^ well fortified, he was forced to retire with fome lofs.
But are In the mean time Mithridates himfeif taking the field,
defeated, appeared at the head of a powerful army, drove the
Romans out of their camp, and forced them with great
daughter to fave themfelves over the mountains into
Phrygia; which fudden victory again induced many ci¬
ties to join Mithrklates, and gave him an opportunity
once more of driving the Romans out of Cappadocia.
In the mean time, Sylla, being created dictator at
Rome, fent a meffenger to Muraena, charging him in
his name not to moled Mithridates, whom he had ho¬
noured with the title of a friend and ally of Rome.
Mur*na did not think proper to difregard this meflage;
and therefore immediately abandoned all the places he
had feized, and Mithridates again renounced Cappado¬
cia, giving his own fon as an hoftage of his fidelity.
Being then at leifure to purfue his other plans, Mithri- ■
dates fell upon the Bofphori; and, having foon fubdued
ihem, appointed Machares one of his fons king of the
country. But leading his army from thence againft the Pootaj,
Achsans, a people bordering on the Colchi, and origi- ——^
nally defeended from the Greeks, who returning from
Troy had miftaken their way into Greece and fettled
there, lie was defeated with the lofs of three-fourths of
his men. On his return to Pontus, however, he recruit- F.n^ipe*
ed his army, and made vafl preparations to invade them in a new
anew ; but in the mean time, hearing of Sylla’s death,war Wltk
he came to the imprudent refolution of entering into a^*6 ^
fecond war with the Romans. Having therefore indu¬
ced his fon-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia, to invade
Cappadocia, he himfeif entered Paphlagonia at the head
of x 20,000 foot difeiplined after the Roman manner,
16,000 horfe, and 100 chariots armed with feythes.
This country readily fubmitted; after which the king
marched into Bithynia, which alfo fubmitted without
oppofition ; the province of Afia followed the example
of the reft; for thefe countries being oppreffed with ex¬
orbitant taxes, looked upon him as their deliverer. In
entering the cities of Afia, he caufed M. Marius or Va-
rius, whom Sertorius had fent him out of Spain to dif-
cipline his troops, walk before him with the enfigns of
confular dignity as if he- was the chief magiftrate ; the
king following as one of his attendants. He made fe-
veral cities free ; but at the fame time acquainted the
inhabitants, that they wrere indebted to Sertorius for
their liberty ; and thus, by the connivance of that ge¬
neral, many cities revolted from the Rbmans without
knowing that they had done fo. But in the mean time
Julius C re far, being at that time at Rhodes, whither he
had gone to ftudy oratory, and hearing what havock
the king’s officers made in the adjacent countries, he
collected what troops he could, and falling unexpe&ed-
ly upon them, drove them quite out of the province of
Afia. . .
The Roman fenate, now finding a war unavoidable, Lucuiim’
appointed LucuIIus to manage it. The other confuland Cotta
Cotta, having folicited an employment in this war, was1"6.111 agaiEfi
fent with a fleet to guard the Propontis and defend Bi-f‘im'
thynia. LucuIIus having raifed one legion in Italy,
pafted over with it into Alia, where he was joined by
four others, two of wrhich, as they had ferved under
Fimbria, proved at firft very mutinous and refraftory ;
nor were the other two much better, having beenimmerfed
in the Afiatic luxuries. The difeiplining of thele troops
took up a confiderable time, which was prejudieral to
the Roman affairs ; for almoft all the Afiatics were
ready to revolt, and Mithridates was making tiie great-
eft preparations. One of his armies was ordered to
march into Cappadocia, under the command of X)io-
phantus Matharus, in order to oppofe LucuIIus if he
Ihould attempt to enter Pontus on that fide ; another,
commanded by Mithridates in perfon, confifted of
150,000 foot, x 24300 horfe, and xoo chariots armed
with feythes ; a third army, commanded by Marius and
Eumachus, two generals of great experience in war,
was encamped in the neighbourhood of Heracka in
Poatus.
The beginning of the war proved favourable to Mi- vi thridaMs
thridates. Cotta being defired by Lucullus to keep his3t
fleet within the harbour, as being inferior to that offuccefsM,
Mithridates, refolved to take the firft opportunity of *
fighting the king by land, not doubting pi an eafy vic¬
tory. Having for this purpofe collefted all the forces
he could. Cotta c&ipatghed his legate, P. Ruliliut, with
4 %
PON
[ ]
PON
40
But is re
<iuted to
Poiittsf. a conuderable body to obferve the motions of the ene-
my. This commander being met by Marius and Eu-
machus, an engagement enfued, in which the Romans
were defeated, and the greateft part of them, together
with their commander, cut in pieces. The fame mif-
fortune befel feveral other officers of diitindtion fent
out to oppofe Mithridates; who, being elated with
fuccefs, ordered his admiral to fail into the very har¬
bour, and fire the Roman fleet. This was according¬
ly performed without the leall oppofition from Cotta ;
and 60 ffiips were taken, funk, or burnt, on that occa-
fion.
Thefe vi&ories having increafed the rebellious difpo-
fltion of the Afiatics, made Lucullus haften his march in
order to flop the progrefs of the enemy. But finding
the king’s army much more numerous than he expect¬
ed, he thought proper to decline an engagement. How¬
ever, feveral Ikirmifhes happened, in which the Romans
had always fo much the advantage, that they became
impatient for a general engagement. But Lucullus did
not at this time choofe to run fo great a riik; and there¬
fore Mithridates, feeing he could not force the Romans
to a battle, decamped in the night-time, and by day¬
break reached Cyzieum, a moil important city, and
greatly attached to the Romans. Lucullus purfued
him ; and, falling on his rear, killed 10,000, and took
13,000 prifoners. After this, the Roman general, by a
manoeuvre, gained an important pafs, which enabled
great to cut off all communication between the army of
hsLULUl Mithridates and the neighbouring country. The king,
feeing himfelf thus in danger of famine, redoubled his
efforts to gain the city ; but finding that he could
not batter down the walls, he reiolved to undermine
them. In this alfo he was unfuccefsful; the befieged
funk countermines, and had very near taken the king
himfelf in one of his own ntines. In the mean time,
winter coming on, the army of Mithridates was fo di-
fireffed for want of provifions, that many died of hun¬
ger, while the furvivors were forced to feed on the flefh
of their dead companions. The famine was followed
by a plague ; which deftroyed fuch numbers, that Mith-
ridates was obliged to think of a retreat; and even this
was become very dangerous. However, he laid hold of
the opportunity when Lucullus Went away to befiege
a neighbouring caftle, and fent off the greateft part of
his cavalry in the night ; ordering them -Hot to halt till
they were but of the reach of the enemy. But Lucul¬
lus having got intelligence of their march, fuddenly re¬
numbers of turned, and purfued them fo elofe, that he came up
™ with them as they w'ere paffing a fiver, took 600 hoffe,
all their beafts of burden, 15,000 men, and put the reft
to the fword. On his return he fell in with Ari-
ftonicus the king’s admiral, whom he took, juft as
he was ready to fail with a large fum of money de-
figned to bribe the Roman army. In the mean time
Mithridates, finding himfelf reduced to the lall extre¬
mity, embarked in the night-time with the greateft part
of the forces, while Marius and Eumachusi with
30,000 men, made the belt of their way to Lampfacus.
But being clofely purfued by the Romans, they were
overtaken at the river iEfopue, which at that time was
not fordable, by,reafon of its having been fwelled by
heavy rains. Twenty thoufand were killed on the fpot;
nor could a fingle man have efcaped, had not the
Afiatics fcattered great quantities of gold and filver in
Von. XV, Part I.
41
Who cuts
off grear
the way, that the rftarch of the Romans might be rd- rontm. ^
tarded by their flopping to gather it up. Lucullus on , <
his return entered Cyzicum afnidft the acclamations
of the citizens ; who afterwards inftituted public fports
in honour of him, which they called Lucul/ea. The
city was declared free, and all the privileges, exemp¬
tions, and immunities, bellowed upon the citizens which
wefe enjoyed by the inhabitants of Rome itfelf. 4*
From Cyzicum, Lucullus marched along the coaft of Lucu^u9
the Helkfpont till he came to Troas ; where he equip-
ped his fleet, and put to fea in qlieft of Marius, Akx-fory at fcai,
ander, and Dionyfius, three of the king’s generals, who
had a fleet of 50 Ihips, with 10,000 land-forces on
board. Lucullus came up with them near the ifland of
Lemnos, took 3 2 of their Ihips, and put a great num¬
ber of their land-forces to the fword. The day after
the engagement the three generals were difcovered in a
cave where they had concealed themfelves, and dragged
from thence to Lucullus; who, after having feverely
upbraided Marius for fighting againft his country, cau-
fed him to be put to death. Alexander and Diony¬
fius were referred for the triumph ; but the latter poi-
foned hi^nfelf to avoid that difgrace. Lircullus then
fteered his courfe for Bithynia, on receiving intelligence
that Mithridates had appeared with his fleet on thofe
coafts : but the king having notice of his approach,
made what hafte he could to gain Pontus, and arrived,
at Heracka on board a pirate named Se/emus ; with
whom he was obliged to trull himfelf, his fleet being
difperfed by a -violent ftorm, and the Ihip that carried
him call away-. 43
In the mean time Mithridates was no kfs unfortu-Far her
nate by land than by fea. Triarius, one of the °®cers^y^ySa<!^
of Lucullus, reduced the cities df Apamea, Prufa, Pru-
fias, and Nicsea. From thence he marched with all ex¬
pedition to Nicomedia, where the king himfelf was, and
near which place Gotta lay encamped. But before the
two armies could be joined, Mithridates efcaped, firft
to Heracka, which was betrayed to him, and frftm
thence to Sinope. Nor was Lucullus himfelf all this
time inadtive. Having reduced all Paphlagonia and
Bithynia, he marched through Cappadocia, and joined
Gotta and Triarius at Nicomedia, with a defign to in¬
vade Pontus; but hearing that Heracka was in the
hands of Mithridates, he difpatched Cotta to reduce
that city. Triarius was ordered witli the fleet to the
Helkfpont and Propontis, to intercept the king’s fleet,
which was daily expedled from Spain with fuppiies from
Sertorius. Lucullus himfelf, with the main ftrength of
the army, purfued his march into Pontus. Plis army
was greatly haraffed, 'efpecially in the narrow pafles be¬
tween Cappadocia and Pontus, by flying parties of the
enemy. But the greateft inconvenience was the want
of provifions, as the king’s troops had laid walle all the
country round; infomueh that Lucullus having loft al-
moft all his beafts of burden, was obliged to take along
with the army 30,000 Galatian's, each of them carrying
a Pack of corn on his back. At laft, however, he gain¬
ed the plains of Pontus ; where provifions were fo plen¬
tiful, that an ox was fold for a drachma, and everything
elfe in proportion.
The Roman general having now carried the war into
the enemy’s country, divided his forces, and at the fame
time invefted a very ftrong town named Amjus ; ano¬
ther called Eut>aiorict, built by Mithridates, and made
Z z the
PON
t 362 }
PON
Pontu*.
44
The <.rmy
cf Michri-
dafe- muti-
nie-, whic'i
obliges the
king to iiy
into Arme-
T>i».
the place of his refidence ; and another, named Thcm'tf' at Pharnacia, difpatched an eunuch, named JSaz-hus or
^ BauhultSy witiv orders to put them all to death, lelt
they fliould. fall into the hands of the enemy; which
was accordingly done..
After the flight of Mithndates^ the Romans no lon¬
ger met with any oppofition the king’s governors
flocking from; all. parts to put themfelves under the pro¬
tection of the, conqueror. Among thefewas the grand¬
father of Strabo the geographer, whom the king had
difobliged by putting to death his couiin-german Ti-
bias, and his fon Theophilus. He was a man of fuch
credit, that it was no fooner heard that he had aban¬
doned the king’s party, than 15 other commanders de¬
livered up to jLucullus the places with which they had
been intrufted ; and about the fame time Triarius fali-i
ing in with the king’s fleet near the ifland of Tenedos,
obtained a complete victory, having either taken or
funk 6 j of the enemy’s veflels.
All this time Gotta had been -employed without fuc-
cefs in befieging Heraclea, which he could never have,
reduced without the affiftance of Triarius. That'
commander, having defeated the fleet, foon reduced
the town to fuch diltrefs, that a third part of the gar-
rifon died of hunger ; upon which the governor, Co-
nacorix, privately agreed with Triarius to deliver one
of the gates to him. This was accordingly done ; and .
the Romans, entering, made a terrible flaughter of the
hefplefs inhabitants. But in the mean time Cotta,
provoked at feeing himfelf deprived both of all fliare
of the booty, and the honour of reducing a place be¬
fore which he had fat fo long, fell upon his country¬
men as they were bulled in plundering; which would
have occafioned a great deal of bloodlhed, had not
Triarius promifed to divide the booty equally. Co-
nacorix, in order to conceal his treachery, after march¬
ing out of Heraclea, feized on. two forts belonging to
the Romans ; and Triarius being fent to, recover them,
Cotta, in his abience, plundered the city anew, rifled
the temples which the other had fpared:, put all the
citizens he could meet with to the fword, and having
carried off every thing valuable, at laft fet fire to the
city in feveral places, by which means it was foon re¬
duced to allies. Cotta then, having no farther occa-
fion for his troops, difmifled the auxiliaries, refigned
his legions to Lucullus, and put to fea himfelf in order
to return to Rome. But he had fcarce got out of
the harbour, when part of his fliips, being overloaded
with the fpoils of the city, funk ; and the others were
by a violent north wind dalhed againft the fhore,
which occanoned the lofs of a great part of the booty.
However, on his return to Rome, he was highly ap¬
plauded by the fenate, and honoured with the title of
Pon thus,
Lucullus, having now reduced Pontus, marched a-
gainlt the Chaldeans, Tibarenians, and inhabitants of
Armenia Minor ; who voluntarily fubmitted to him,
and put him in poffeffion of all their ftrong holds.
From Armenia, he returned before Amifus, which
ftill held out; Callimachus, governor of the place, ha¬
ving harafl'ed the Romans to fuch a degree by engines
of his own contriving, that they had given over their’
affaults, and contented themfelves with blocking it up
by land, though the garnfon was at the fame time
plentifully fupplied with provifions by fea. Lucullus,
on his arrival, fummoued the city to fur render, offer-
6 •' mg
cyra, fituated on the banks of the Thermodoon. Eu-
patoria was foon taken, but Themifcyra made a vigo¬
rous refiffance. The townfmen galled the Romans to
fuch a degree, that, not daring to approach the walls
openly, they contented themfelves with undermining
them : but in this too they met with no fmall difficul¬
ty ; for the enemy countermined, and often engaged
-them, under ground, letting into the mines bears and
other wild beafts, with fwarms of bees, which obliged
them to abandon their works. However, the town was
at lafl obliged to furrender for want of provifions. As
for Amifus, Lucullus himfelf fat down befotx it: but
finding it llrongly fortified and garrifoned with the
flower of the king’s troops, the Roman general thought
proper to reduce it by famine ; and on this occafion his
countrymen firft complained of him as protracting the
war for his own advantage.
In the mean time" Mithridates having recruited his
fhattered army, advanced to Cabirae, a city not far di-
ffant from Amifus. Lucullus, leaving part of the army
to continue the fiege, marched at the he'ad of the reft
to oppofe Mithridates. But the king having drawn his
cavalry into a general engagement, defeated them with
confiderable lofs, and drove them back to the moun¬
tains, through the paffes of which Lucullus had lately
parched to attack him. This check obliged the Ro¬
man general to retire to a riling ground near the city
of Cabirae, where the enemy could not force him to an
engagement. Here provifions beginning to grow fcarce,
Lucullus fent out ftrong parties from his army into Cap¬
padocia, the only place from whence he could have fup-
plies. One of thefe parties entirely defeated Taxiles
and Diophantes, two of the king’s generals, who had
been ftationed there to prevent Lucullus from having
any communication with the country. The king, up¬
on the news of this defeat, refolved to break up his
camp and retire, not queftioning but that Lucullus
would attack him as foon as his forces returned. This
refolution he no fooner imparted to his nobles, than
they began privately to fend away their moft valuable
goods ; which being found out by the foldiers, they
took it in fuch bad part that no intelligence had been
given them, that they plundered their baggage, and put
' thofe who had the care of it to the fword. After this
they betook themfelves to flight, crowding out of the
gates in the utmoft confulion. The king haftened to
flop their flight ; but nobody ffiowing him the leaft re-
fpedf, he was carried away by the crowd, and in great
danger of being trampled to death. Having with diffi¬
culty made his efcape, he retired with a fmall retinue,
firft to Cabirae, and then to his fon-in law Tigranes
king of Armenia. Lucullus difpatched the beft part
of his cavalry to purfue the fugitives; while he himfelf,
with the reft, invelled the camp of Mithridates, where
thofe remained who could not fly with the reft.. The
camp was eafily taken ; hut moft of the foldiers made
their efcape, while the Romans, contrary to their gene¬
ral’s orders, were bufied in plundering. Lucullus then
purfued hard alter the king ; who,, being overtaken by
a company of Galatians, caufed a mule loaded with
part of his treafures to be driven, in among them, by
which means he made his efcape while they quarrelled
about the booty. Mithridates, remembering in his
ftight, that he had left his fillers, wives, and concubines
IVmtujr
Pont*5-
45
Tigrane*
pon r 363
ing the inhabitant- very honouraMe terms ; but, being
refufed, he made a general aflault at the time when he
knew that Callimachus ufed to draw off great part of
his troops to give them Come refpite. The Romans
applying their fcaling ladders, got over the wall be-
fore Callimachus could come to the affiftance of thofe
whom he had left to guard it ; however, by fetting
the city on fire, he found means in that confufion to
make his efcape. Lucullus commanded his men to ufe
their utmolt endeavours to fave the city ; but they be¬
ing intent only upon plundering, regarded nothing
but the furniture. At laft the fire was extinguilhed
' by a violent fhower ; and Lucullus, having with much
ado reftrained his foldiers from committing any farther
excefles, repaired the city in feme meafure before he
left it, and fuffered the inhabitants to enjoy their pof-
'feffions in peace.
hut-uc. Nothing was now wanting but the captivity of Mi-
•defeared by thridates himfelf to put a final period to the war ; and
Lucullus, therefore Lucullus demanded him from his fon-in-law,
Tigranels. But though that prince could not be pre-
'vailed to fee Mithvidates on account of his mifeon-
duft, he could as little be induced to deliver him up
to his enemies. After this refufal, however, lie for
the firft time condefccnded to fee his father-in-law,
after he had refided a year and eight months in his
dominions. In a private conference held by the two
kings, it was agreed, that Tigranes fhould march a-
■gairift the Romans, and Mithridates with 10,000 horle
return into Pontus, where he fhould make what levies
he could, and rejoin Tigranes, before Lucullus, who
was then employed in the fiege of binope, could enter
Armenia. But, in the mean time, Sinope having fur-
rendered, Lucullus with all pofiible expedition marched
againft Tigranes, and, having drawn him into a general
engagement, gave him an entire defeat, as is related un¬
der the article Armenia.
Mithridates was marching to his affiftance, when he
met his fon-in-law flying with a fmall retinue to fiiel-
ter himfelf in feme remote corner of the kingdom.
"But revives tie encouraged him to raife new forces ; not doubting
to try a: o- that another campaign would repair ail tormer
Ioffes, provided he would commit to his management
every thing relating to the war. a o this I igranes
agreeing, as he thought him more fit to deal wkh the
Romans than himfelf, orders were iffued out for raffing
& new army, and all the Armenians able to bear arms
fummoned to meet at the place of the general rendez¬
vous. Out of thefe Mithridates chofe 70,00c foot
and 35,000 horfe; and having trained them up during
the winter, after the Roman difeiphne, in the begin¬
ning of the fpring he left part of them with 1 igranes,
and marched himfelf with the reft into Pontus, where
he recovered many important places, and overcame in a
pitched battle M. Fabius, whom Lucullus had appoint¬
ed governor of that province. Being flufhed with this
fuecefs, as foon as the wounds he received in the en-
PON
Pontn*.
ther cam
paign
gagement fuffered him to move, he purfued 1‘ abius, and
befieged him in the city of Cabira, whither he had
retired ; but in the mean time Triarius, who was march¬
ing out of Alia to join Lucullus, hearing what diftrefs
the Romans were in, haftened to their relief, and ap¬
pearing unexpe&edly on the neighbouring hill, ftruck
inch terror into the enemy, that they railed the fiege,
and made the heft of their way into Cappadocia. Tri¬
arius purfued them, and got fo near them as to be
parted only by a river. Here he halted, with a defign
to pafs the river after he had allowed his men feme
reft ; for they were tired out with long marches. But
Mithridates was before-hand with him, and crofting
the river on a bridge, where he had placed a ftrong 47
guard, attacked the Romans with great refolution be- Mithridate*
fore they had time to refrefti themfelves. The battle
was bloody, and the event doubtful, till the bridge
breaking down with the weight of the multitude that
paffed, the king’s troops who had engaged, relying
chiefly on their numbers, began to lofe courage, feeing
they could receive no further afliftance ; and the Ro¬
mans charging them with frefh vigour, they betook
themfelves to a precipitate flight. After this engage¬
ment, as winter came on, both armies were glad to re¬
tire to their winter-quarters.
During the winter, Mithridates raifed new forces ;
and having received confiderable fupplies from Tigranes,
took the field early in the fpring, in hopes of driving
the Romans quite out of Pontus, before Lucullus, who
had work enough on his hands in Armenia, could come
to their afiffhnee. With this view he marched ftraight
againft Triarius and Sornatius, to whom Lucullus had
committed the care and defence of that province ; and
finding them encamped near the city of Gaziurfa, prof¬
fered them battle; which they declining, he fent a
ftrong detachment to befiege a caftle where the Ro¬
mans had left all their baggage, hoping they would
rather venture an engagement to relieve the place, than
lofe till they had got with fo much toil and labour du¬
ring the war: neither was he difappointed in his hopes;
for though Triarius was for keeping clofe in his camp
till the arrival of Lucullus, whom he daily expetted,
having acquainted him with the danger, the foldiers
hearing that the caftle was befieged, declared in a tu¬
multuous manner, that if he did not lead them they
would ma-ch to the relief of the place without his 4S
leave. Triarius being thus forced by his own men to defeats
fight, drew out his forces againft the king, whofe army I fiaiius*
was three times his number; but while they were upon
the point of engaging, both armies were by a violent
florin forced to retire to their refpeeftive camps ; but
Triarius receiving that very day intelligence of the
approach of Lucullus, and fearing he would fnatch
the vaftory out of his hands, refolved to make a bold
pulh, and next morning by break of day attack the
king in his camp. If he conquered, the glory he
thought would be entirely his own ; if he were over-
corn , the enemy could reap no great advantage from
h;s vidlory, Lucullus being at hand with a powerful
army. The king, in that furprife, putting himfelf at
the head of a few troops of his guards, fuftained the
brunt of the Romans, till the reft of his army drawing
up came to his relief, and attacked the enemy with
fuch fury, that the Roman foot were forced to give way,
and were driven into a mo. ais, where they were furround-
ed, and great numbers of them cut in pieces.
The'r horfe were likewife put to flight, and purfued
with great flaughter, till a Roman centflrion in the
king’s fervice, pitying his countrymen, attempted to
kill him. The king’s life was faved by his breaft-
plate ; but as he received a deep wound in the thigh,
he was obliged to give over the purfuit himfelf, and
thofe that were about him caufed the retreat to be
Z z 2 founded,
PON
U 34 ]
PON
Pectus, founded, which, as it was unexpected, occafioned a great
 confufion in the whole army. The centurion was im¬
mediately cut in pieces ; but the Roman horfe in the
mean time getting the ftart of the enemy, found means
to make their efcape. Above 7000 of the Romans
were killed in that battle ; and among them 150 centu¬
rions and 24 tribunes, the greateft number of officers
4q that had been loft in any engagement to that day.
All the £o-Mithridates being cured of his wound, that he might
mans in the not for future be expofed to fuch dangers, caufed
Mirhrl-0 ^ie Romans that ferved in his army to be formed
date- mafia- into one body, as if they were to be fent out on a par-
cred. ty, and then ordered them to retire to their tents, where
they were all to a man cut in pieces.
The king, however elated with fuccefs, yet would
not engage Lucullus ; but with long marches haftened
into Armenia Minor, and encamped upon a hill near the
town of Talura, expeCting Tigranes, who was advan¬
cing with a ftrong army to join him. Lucullus, in pur-
fuit of Mithridates, marched over the field of battle,
leaving thofe unburied who had fallen in the engage¬
ment, which al'enated the minds of the foldiery fj-om
him, and they began to be very mutinous ; being ftir-
red up by Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had turn¬
ed out of his command for his vile behaviour, notwith-
Itanding he was nearly related to him, Lucullus having
married his fifter. The difcontent that prevailed in
the army came to fuch a height, that Lucullus was ob¬
liged to lie ftill in his camp all that fummer; the fol-
diers declaring in a mutinous manner, that they would
not follow him any longer, nor ferve under a general
who refufed to fliare the booty with them.
Thefe complaints, and the general difcontent that
reigned in the army, obliged the fenate to recal Lu¬
cullus, and appoint Manius Acilius Glabrio, conful of
that year, in his room. Glabrio arriving in Bithynia,
gave notice by public criers to all the cities, that the
fenate had difcharged Lucullus and his army, and con-
fifcated his goods, for protradling the war and refilling
to comply with their injundtions. Hereupon Lucullus
was abandoned by the greater part of his army, and
forced to retire into Galatia, not being in a condition
to make head againft the joint forces of the two kings;
who, laying hold of that opportunity, recovered the beft
part of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Armenia
Minor: for though Glabrio had haftened into Pontus,
as if he had intended to engage the enemy and rob
Lucullus of the victory, yet, upon the firft news of the
approach of the two kings, he thought fit to retire and
51 leave the country open on all fides to the enemy.
Pompey When this was heard at Rome, a law was enacted
ff nt agamft t}iere by (y Manilius, a tribune of the people, where¬
by the management of the war againft Mithridates and
Tigranes was committed to Pompey, and like wife the
provinces of Cilicia, then under Quintus Marcius, and
of Bithynia under Glabrio. By the fame law he was
continued in that unlimited power by fea, with which
he was invefted when he firft fet out againft the pi¬
rates of Cilicia. In virtue of this law, Pompey, who
had juft then ended the war with the Cilician pirates,
took upon him the command of the army, and direc¬
ted all the allies of the Roman people to join him with
all poffible expedition i but before he took the field,
he renewed the alliance which Sylla and Lucullus had
concluded with Phrahates king of Parthia, and then
ii
Mkhri-
5®
laicullus
recalled,
which re¬
trieves the
alfairs of
IVIithri.
dates.
fent friendly proposals to Mithridates; who at firft feem- Pontus.
ed inclined to give ear to them, and accordingly dif-
patched an ambaffador to the Roman army to treat of.
a peace. Pompey required of him to laydown his arms 4-^, rej
if he was in earneft, and deliver up to him all thofe who his propo-
had revolted from the Romans during the war. This de-fals °f
mand was no fooner reported abroad in the king’s camp,Pcace*
but the deferters, who were very numerous in the king’s
army, betaking themfelves to their arms, threatened to
put Mithridates himfelf to death ; and would have oc¬
cafioned a great difturbance, had not the king appealed
the growing tumult, by alluring them, that he had fent
ambaffadors, not to treat of a peace, but only to take,
under pretence of filing for peace, a view of the ene¬
my’s ftrength. He moreover obliged himfelf, by a fo-
lemn oath in the prefence of the whole army, never to
enter into any treaty of friendfhip with the Romans,
nor to deliver up to them fuch as had ever ferved under
him.
Pompey, finding his propofals reje&ed, advanced
againft the king with an army of 30,000 foot and
20,000 horfe, as Plutarch writes, or 30,00a, as we read
in Appian, all chofen troops ; for he dilcharged moft
of thofe who had ferved under Glabrio and Lucul¬
lus. As he entered Galatia, he was met by Lucullus,
who endeavoured to perfuade him to march back, the
war being near finilhed, and even deputies fent by the
republic to fettle the province of Pontus; but not be¬
ing able to prevail with him, after mutual complaints
againft each other, they parted ; and Pompey remo¬
ving his camp, commanded the troops that were with
Lucullus to join him, except 16:^0 whom he left to at¬
tend Lucullus in his triumph. From thence Lucullus
fet out for Rome, where he was received by the fenate
with great marks of efteem, moft men thinking him
highly injured by the authors of the Manilian. law.
Pompey purfued his march into Pontus ; but finding
that he could not by any means draw the king to a
battle, he marched back into Armenia Minor, with a
defign either to reduce that province, or oblige Mi¬
thridates to venture a battle in order to relieve it. Mi¬
thridates followed him at fome diftance ; and entering
Armenia, encamped on a hill over-againft the Romans,
and, by intercepting their convoys, reduced them to
fuch diftrefs, that they were obliged to remove to a
more convenient place, the king cutting off many in
their rear, and haraffing them with frequent attacks,
till he fell into an ambufeade laid by Pompey, whofe
perfonal courage and prudent condiftt on that occafiofi
confirmed the king in his refolution not to hazard a
general engagement. The two armies encamped over-
againft each other; Pompey on one hill, and the king
on another, near the city of Daftira, in the province
of Acifilene, at a frnall diftance from the Euphrates,
which divides Acifilene from Armenia Minor.
Here Pompey, feeing he could neither draw the kingj, befitted
to a battle, npr force his camp, which was pitched on by t*«m.
a fteep and craggy mountain, began to block him upiey,
with a ditch which he carried round the bottom of the
hill where the king wa& encamped ; and meeting with
no oppolition, finiffied his work, and quite cut off the
enemy’s communication with the country. Pompey
was amazed to fee the king thus tamely fuffer himfelf
to be fhut up; and could not help faying. That he was
either a great fool or a great coward : a fool, if he did
not
PON r 165 ] PON
Roman
lines.
55
Is over
Tontus. not apprehend the danger he was in; a coward, if, being
apprifed of it, he did not to the utmoft of his power pre¬
vent it. By this ditch, which was 150 furlongs in cir¬
cuit, and defended by many forts raifed at fmall diilances
from each other, the king was fo clofely befieged, that
he could neither fend out parties to forage, nor receive
the fupplies that came to him from Pontus. He was
thus befieged for the fpace of 45 or 50 days ; and his
army reduced to fuch Itraits, that, having confumed all
their provifions, they were at laft forced to live on
their dead horfes. Hereupon Mithridates refolved at
all events to break throu h the Roman fortifications:
But breaks and accordin ly, havin ' put to the iword all thofe that
through the were {ick or dilabled, that they might not fall into the
enemy’s hands, he attacked in the dead of the night
the Roman guards ; and havin 7 overpowered them with
his numbers, got fafe into the open fields, and continued
his march all ni.;ht towards Armenia Major, where he
was expedted by Tigranes.
Pompey next morning by break of day purfued the
enemy with his whole army ; and having with much
ado overtaken them, found the king encamped on a-
hill, to which there was but one afcent, and that guard¬
ed by a llrong body of foot. The Romans encamped
over-againlt them ; but Pompey, fearing the king
Ihould make his efcape in the night-time, privately de¬
camped, and taking the fame rout the enemy were to
hold in order to gain Armenia, pofiefied hlmfelf of ail
the eminences and defiles through which the king was to
pafs. Mithridates thinking that Pompey was returned
reached by to his former camp, purfued his march, and about the
Pompey, Gf the evening entered a narrow valley, which was
defeated ^ furrounded on all fides by fteep hills. On thefe hills
the Romans lay concealed, expelling the fignal to fall
upon the enemy and attack them on all fides at once,
while they were tired with their march, and fiemingly,
as they had fent out no fcouts, in great fecurity. Pom¬
pey was at firll for putting off the attack till the next
morning, thinking it not fafe to engage in the night¬
time among fuch fteep and craggy mountains ; but was
at laft prevailed upon, by the earneft prayers and in¬
treaties of all the chief officers of the army, to fall up¬
on the enemy that very night. It was therefore agreed,
that in the dead of the night all the trumpets ffiould
at once found the charge, that this fignal fiiould be
followed by an univerfal fhout of the whole army, and
that the foldiers ffiould make what noife they could,
by linking their fpears againll the brafs veffels that
were ufed in the camp. The king’s army at this fud-
den and unexpe&ed noife, which was echoed, again by
the mountains, imagined at firft that the gods them-
felves were come down from heaven to deftroy them ;
and the Romans charging them on all fides with {bow¬
ers of Hones and arrows from the tops of the hills, they,
betook themfelves to a precipitate flight; but finding
all the paffes befetwith llrong bodies of horfe and foot,
were forced to fly back into the valley, where, for
many hours together, they were expofed to. the enemy’s
Ihot, without being able, in that confufion, either to.
attack them or defend themfelves. They attempted in¬
deed to make fome refiftance when the moon role ; but
the Romans running down upon them from the hills,
did not give them time to draw up, and the place was.
fo narrow that they had not room even to make ufe of
their fwords. The king loft on that occafion 10,000
men, according to Appian, but 40,000, according Fonm.
to Eutropius and others. On Pompey’s fide there fell v
between 20 and 30 pi-ivate men, and two centurions.
Mithridates, at the head of 800 horfe, broke through Dillref^ of
the Roman army, and being after this effort abandon-
ed by all the reft, becaufe they were clofely purfued
by the enemy, he travelled all night attended by three
perfons only, viz. his wife, or, as Plutarch calls her,
his concubine, by name Hypficratia, his daughter X)ri-
petine, and an officer. At day-break he fell in with
a body of mercenary horfe, and 3000 foot, who were
marching to join him. By thefe he was efeorted to
the caftle of Sinoria, fituated on the borders of the
two Armeni^s. As great part of his treafures were
lodged here, he rewarded very liberally thofe who ac¬
companied him in his flight; and taking 6000 talents,
withdrew into Armenia. As foon as he entered the
borders, he difpatched ambaffadors to Tigranes, ac¬
quainting him with his arrival; but that prince, who
was then on the point of concluding a feparate peace
with the Romans, clapped his ambaffadors in irons, pre¬
tending that his Ion Tigranes had, at the inftigation of
Mithridates, revolted firll to the Parthians, and then
to the Romans. Mithridates finding himfelf thus aban¬
doned, even by his fon-in-law, left Armenia; and di-
redfting his courfe towards Colchis, which was fubjeft
to him, and not as yet invaded by the Romans, palled
the Euphrates the fourth day, and got fafe into his own
territories.
Pompey fent out feveral parties in purfuit of the
king ; but remained himfelf with the main body of the
army in the field of battle, where he built a city, call¬
ing it from that remarkable vi£lory N'icopolis. This '
city, with the adjoining territory^ he bellowed upon fuch
of his foldiers as were old or difabled ; and many flock¬
ing to it from the neighbouring countries, it became
in a Ihort time a very confiderable place. This battle
was certainly attended with very fatal confequences for 57
Mithridates ; who was forced, his army being entirely *hes .m<’
either cut off or difperfed, to abandon his own domi-to
, n f n T 1 n /-anU irOHl
nions, and fly ior Ihelter to the moil remote parts orthence into
Scythia. Pompey having concluded a peace with Ti- .'ther eouu~
granes, as we have related in the hiftory of Armenia, trks*
and fettled the affairs of that kingdom, began his march-
in purfuit of Mithridates through thofe countries that
lie about mount Caucafus. The barbarous nations
through which he paffed, chiefly the Albanians and
Iberians, attempted to Hop his march, but were foon put
to flight. However, he was obliged, by the exceffive
cold and deep roads, to pafs the winter near the river
Cyrus. Early in the fpring he purfued his march; but
meeting with great oppofition from the Iberians, a
warlike nation, and entirely devoted to Mithridates, he
was employed mod part of the fummer in reducing
them. In the mean time, Mithridates, who had wintered
at Diofcurias, on the illhmus between the Euxine and
Cafpian feas, and had been joined there by fuch of his,
troops as liad made their efcape from the late unfortu¬
nate battle, continued his flight through the countries,
of the Achseans, Zygians, Heniochians, Cercetans,
Mofchi, and Colchians. Of thefe nations fome recei¬
ved him kindly, and even entered into alliance with
him ; through others he was forced to make himfelf a
way with his fword.
Pornpey took the fame rout, direfling his courfe
by
V O N*
r 3G6 1
PON
'“f’ontu
hy (lie ftars, tTpeckilly in the northern parts of Scy¬
thia, and carrying with him even proviijon of water,
to fupply the army in the vail deferts through which
furth-r ecu he marched. He fpent two years in wan ing with
•qaefts, thefe nations, and was often in danger of lofing both
his life and his army: but at lait he overcame them
all ; and believing Mithridates, of whom lie could have
no account, to be dead, he marched back into Arme¬
nia Minor, where he allowed feme reft to his foldiers,
who were quite worn out with the hardfhips they had
endured in that expedition. Having refrefhed his ar¬
my, he marched into Pontus, to reduce fome Itrong-
holds which were Hill garrifoned by the king’s troops.
While he was at Afpis in Pontus, many of the king’s
concubines were brought to him } but he fent th m all
home to their parents, without offering them the lealt
•injury, and thereby gained the alfeftion of the chief
lords of Pontus, whofe daughters they were. The
ilrong caftle of Symphori was delivered up to him by
Stratonix, one of the king’s concubines, upon no o-
■ther terms than that he would fpare her "fon Xiphares,
who was with the king, in cafe he Ihould fall into his
hands. She likewife di(covered to him great treafures
hid under ground, which lie, with great generofity,
bellowed upon her, referving for himfelf only fome
veffels to let off his triumph. Having taken another
fort, called the New Ca/i/e, and to that time looked
upon as impregnable, he found in it great ftore of
•gold, fiber, and other valuable things, which he af¬
terwards confecrated to Jupiter Capitolinus. Here, in
.looking over’the king’s manuferipts, he came to dif-
.cover where the reft of his treafures were concealed,
what troops he could raife and maintain, what fums
were yearly paid him by his fubjects and tributaries,
See. whereby he could make a true eftimate of his
whole power and wealth. Amongft other manuferipts
he found fome books of p/hyfic, wrote by Mithridates
himfelf, which he commanded Lenteas, a learned gram¬
marian, to tranllate into Latin.
Pompey, having thus reduced all Pontus, marched
into Syria, with a deiign to recover that kingdom,
and paffing through Arabia to penetrate as far as the
59 Red Sea. But while he was employed in this expedi-
JVTithri- tion, news was brought him that Mithridates, whom
dates a|>\ he believed dead, bad appeared unexpedledly in Pon-
it *h/headtus t'lc head of a conhderabie army, and furprifed
,<>f a confl- Panticapsum, a famous empory at the mouth of the
derabie ar- Euxine Sea. He had lain all this time concealed in
the territories of a Scythian prince, adjoining to the
Palus Mceotis; but hearing that Pompey had left
Pontus, and was engaged in other wars, he ventured
out of his hiding-place, refolved either to recover his
paternal jungdom, or die in the attempt. He return¬
ed privately into Pontus and managed matters there
fo dexteroufly, that the Roman garrifons knew no¬
thing of his arrival till he appeared with a confider-
;able army in the held. He advanced firff to the cable
of Symphori ; and underltanding that Stratonix had
delivered it up to Pompey, on condition he would
fave the life of her fon in cafe he fhould take him pri-
foner, the king immediately caufed the youth, who was
in his army, to be put to death, and his body to be
left unburied, Stratonix beholding from the walls the
.cruel and unnatural murder, for he was her fon by
Mithridates, and had ferved him with great fidelity.
At the fame time he fent nmbaffadors to Pompey to Pontai.
treat of a peace, offering to pay a yearly tribute to """"v  
the republic, on condition !he reffored to him his king¬
dom. Pompey replied, that he would hearken to no
propofals whatloever, without the king came to treat
with him in perfon, as Tigranes had done. This Mi¬
thridates looked upon as nowife confident with his
dignity ; and therefore laying afide all thoughts of an
accommodation, began to make what preparations he
could for renewing the war.
He fummoned all his fubjccls that were able to bear Recovers ,
aims to meet at an appointed place ; and having cho- feveril
fen out of the whole multitude 60 cohorts, each con- Pute8‘
filling of 100 men, he incorporated them with the re¬
gular troops that were already on foot. Being now in
a condition to a& offenfively, for Pompey had left but;
a fmall number of troops in Pontus he poffeffed him¬
felf of Phanagorium, Cherfonefus, Theodofia, Nym-
phaeum, and feveral other important places. But in the
mean time, Callor, whom Mithridates had appointed
governor of Phanagorium, falling out with Tripho,
one of the king’s favourite eunuchs, kihed him, and
dreading the king’s refentment, ffirred up the inhabi¬
tants to a revolt : by which means Phanagorium was
again loll ; but the callle, which was defended by four
of the king’s fons, Artaphernes, Darius, Xerxes, and
Oxathres, held out for fome time. The king haften-
ed to their relief; but the caftle being fet on fire by
the rebels, they were forced to furrender themfelves to
Caftor before his arrival, Thefe four fons, with one
of the king’s daughters, by name Cleopatra, Caftor
fent to the Romans ; and fortifying Jiimfelf in the
town, perfuaded mod ©f the neighbouring cities,
which were oppreffed with heavy taxes, and llrangely
haraffed by the king’s colledlors, to join in the re¬
bellion, gr
Mithridates finding that lie could neither rely up-His fubje<5bt
on the foldiery, mod of them being forced into the •
fervice, nor on his other fubjedts, who were diffatis-ecl*
fied by reafon of the exorbitant taxes, fent ambaffa-
dors to invite the princes of Scythia to his relief, and
with them his daughters, to be bedowed in marriage
upon fuch as (bowed themfelves mod inclined to aflid
him. But as the ambaffadors he employed on this oc-
cafion were eunuchs, a race of men no lefs abhorred
by the army than favoured by the king, over whom
they had a great afeendant, efpecially in his old age,
the foldiers who were fent to attend them on their
journey, put them all to the fword as foon as they
were out of the king’s reach, and delivered his daugh¬
ters up to the Romans. Mithridates, finding himfelf
thus deprived of his children, betrayed by his army,
and forfaken even by thofe on whom he chiefly relied,
could not yet be induced to fubmit to the Romans,
though Pompey promifed him honourable conditions,
provided he came to treat'with him in perfon. In this
defperate condition, he left no done unturned to dir
up the princes of Afia againd the Romans, efpecially
the Parthians; but finding them awed by the great His extra¬
opinion they all had of Pompey he had recourfe ator<1‘liary
lad to the European Gauls whom he underdood to be*5
at war with the Romans ; and having fent before fome Italy. ^
of his trully friends to "engage them in his favour, ta¬
king leave of his own kingdom, he began his long march,
defigning to pafs through Bofphorus, Cimmenus, Scy¬
thia,
P o
r 367 i
PON
Pontus.
6.3
His fon
Pha naces
revolts.
thia, Panonia, &c. and joining the Gatils, pafs the Alps,
and invade Italy.
This delign was no fooner known in the army., but
the foldiers openly began to complain and mutiny ; ex¬
aggerating the boldnefs of the attempt, the length
of the march, and the unfurmountable difficulties that
mull neceflarily attend fuch a defperate enterprife.
The chief commanders did all that lay in their power
to divert him from it ; reprefenting to him, that if he
was not able to cope with the Romans in his Own king¬
dom., much lefs would he be a match for them in Ita¬
ly or Gaul, where they could daily receive new fup-
plies whereas he would lofe the greateft part of his ar¬
my' in fo long and difficult a march, and the reft per¬
haps in the fail engagement, without any poffibility of
repairing the lofs. Rut all was to no purpole j for they
found him fo unalterably fixed in his refolution, that he
caufed thofe to be put to death who with moft warmth-
remonftrated agarnft it, not fpariiy even his own fon
Exipodras, for dropping fome unguarded expreffions on-
that occafion. Thus they were forced to let him pur-
fue his own meafures, till they found a more proper op¬
portunity to oppofe them, which foon after offered, as
they were encamped at Bofphorus Cimmerrus, on their
march into Scythia.
Here Pharnaces, the king’s favourite fon whom he
had appointed to fucceed him, oblerving the general
difeontent that reigped in the army, began to enter¬
tain thoughts of placing the mown on his own head ;
and not doubting but the foldiery would Hand by him,
if he declared againft the intended expedition into Ita¬
ly, openly protefted among the Roman deferters, who
were a coniiderable part of the army, that if they
would follow him he would return into Pontus. The
Romans, who were well appnftd of the danger that
attended fuch an undertaking, and had moft of all ex¬
claimed againft it, promifed to fupport him to the ut-
moft of their power, and even encouraged him, upon
fome expreffions which he purpofely dropped, to af-
fume the title of king, a title which his father feem-
ed determined to hold till he had deflroyed, by his rafh
and delperate attempts, himfelf, his. friends, and his
army. Pharnaces, finding he could depend on the Ro¬
mans engaged the fame night moft of the chief com¬
manders m his party, and by their means the greater
part of the foldiery. It was agreed, that next morn¬
ing by break of day all thofe who had declared in his
favour fhould appear in arms, and with a loud fhout
proclaim Pharnaces king ; which was done according¬
ly, and the fhout returned even by thofe whom,Phar¬
naces had not thought fit to let into the fecret. Phe
king, who had taken up his quarters in the city, being
awaked by the noife, fent out lome of his domeftics
to know what had happened in the army. Neither
did the officers or foldieis diffemble the matter, but
boldly anfwered, that they had chofen a young king
infttad of an old dotard governed by eunuchs.
Hereupon Mithridates mounting on horfeback, and
attended by his guards, went out to appeafe the tu¬
mult : but his guards torfaking him, and his horfe be¬
ing killed under him, he was obliged to fly back into
the city ; from whence he fent feveral of his atten¬
dants one after another to defire of his fon a fafe eon-
dubt for himfelf and his friends. But as none of the
meffengers returned, fome being fiain, and others tiding
Pontus.
64
with the new king, Mithridates endeavoured to move
his fon to compaffion, by fignifying to him honi the
walls the diftreffed condition lie was reduced to by a
fon whom he had favoured above the reft of his chil¬
dren ; but finding him nowife affefted by his fpeech,
turning to the gods, he befeeched them with many
tears to make his fon know one day by experience the
grief and agony which a father muft feel in feeing his
love and tendernefs requited with fuch ungrateful and
monflrous returns. Having thus fpoke, he thank¬
ed in a very obliging manner thofe who had flood by
him to the laft, and exhorted them to make their fub-
miffion to the new king on the heft terms they c uld
procure ; adding, that as for himfelf, he was detei mi¬
ned not to outlive the rebellion of a fon whom he had
always diitinguilhed with particular marks of paternal
affeftion.
After this,, he withdrew into the apartment of his Mnhn-
wives and concubines, where he firft took ponon him-^^*
felf, and then prefented it to them, and to his favou- leftroy
rite daughters Mithridatis and Niffa, who not long himfeLf.
before had been betrothed to the kings of Egypt and
Cyprus. To the women it proved immediate death ;
but on the king, who from his infancy had inured his
conftitution to poifonous potions, it had fo flow an
operation, that he was forced, through fear of falling
into the rebels hands, to recur to his iword. Neither
did the wound, as he was greatly weakened by the
poifon, prove mortal: fo that the rebels, having in
the mean time ftormed the town, and broke into the
houfe, found the king wallowing in his blood, but
ftill alive, and in his fenfes ; which Pharnaces hearing,
fent fume of thofe that were about him to drefs his
wounds, with a defign to deliver him up to the Ro¬
mans, and thereby ingratiate himfelf with Pompey.—
But, in the mean time, a Gaul, who ferved in the ar- ^ ^ ^ ^
my, by name Bit<etus, or Bit hocus, entering the. king’s' 0‘his ,lfc
room in queft of booty, and being touched with com- ut •>! com¬
paffion in feeing him forfaken by ail his friends, and p^fTiou.
ftruggling on the bare ground with the pangs of death,
drawing his fword, put an end to his prefent agonies,
and prevented the infults which he chiefly apprehend¬
ed' if he fhould fall alive into his Ion’s hands. The
barbarian is faidy when he iirft faw the king, to have
been fo awed with the majefty of his countenance, that,
forgetful of his booty, he fled out of the room ; but
being called back, and earneftly intreated by the dy¬
ing prince to put an end to his mifery, he; fummoned
all his courage to perform, as he did, with a trembling
hand, that office; and immediately retired without
tombing any thing that belonged to the king, though
the hopes of a rich booty was the only motive that had
led him thither.
Pompey, who was at that time engaged in a war
with the Jews, received the firft notice of the death of
Mithridates as he was on his march to JerufaJem. The
meffenger who brought the joyful tidings was fent by
Pharnaces, and appeared unexpectedly, before Pom¬
pey with the branch of a laurel, as was cuftomary on
the like occafions, twilled round the head of his jave- Crt
lin. When he heard what had happened at Pantica- Exceifr.'c-
pseum, he was fo impatient to •irnpa.t it to the foiJR}mans tfr;
diery, that he could not even wait till they had raifed deatW-
him a mount of turf from whence to fpeak to the army,
according to the cuftom of the camp ; but ordered
thoku.
65
Gaul
PON
Ponfus
, 67
SuDmiHive
tl\ofe wKo were by Kim to form a kind of mount with
their faddles, and from thence acquainted the foldiery
that Mithridates had laid violent hands on himfelf, and
his fon Pharnaces was ready to acknowledge the king¬
dom as a gift of the people of Rome, or refign it if
they were unwilling he ihould reign. This news was
received with joyful fhouts of the whole army, and the
day folemnized with feafts and facrifices throughout
the camp, as if in Mithridates alone all the enemies of
the republic had died. Pompey difpatched without
delay a meflenger with letters to the fenate, acquaint¬
ing them with the death of Mithridates, and the fub-
miffion of his fon Pharnaces. When his letters were
read, the fenators were fo overjoyed, that they ap¬
pointed, at the propofal of Cicero, then conful, 12 days
for returning due thanks to the gods, who had deli¬
vered them from fuch an infuiting and powerful enemy;
and the tribunes of the people enailed a law, whereby
Pompey, in confideration of his eminent fervice in the
Mithridatic war, was to wear a crown of laurel, with the
triumphal gown at the Circenfian fports, and a purple
gown at the.fcenical plays.
Pharnaces, when he heard of his father’s death,
caufcd his body to be preferved in brine, propofmg to
prelent it to Pompey, who had promifed to return in¬
to Pontus after the reduilion ofjudsea, and there fettle
matters to his fatisfaftion. And accordingly having
taken the city and temple of Jerufalem, lie fet out
with two legions for Pontus; and being arrived at Si-
Pharnaa'f noPe’ *ie was t^ere met ^7 ambaffadors from Pharna-
tpPonipej; ces\ acquainting him, that their mailer had forbore af-
’ fuming the title of king till his will and pleafuve were
known ; that he put both himfelf and the kingdom
entirely into his hands ; and .that he-was willing to at¬
tend him at what time or place he thought fit to ap¬
point. The fame ambaffadors delivered up to Pompey
thofe who had taken Manius Aquilius the Roman legate,
whom Mithridates had put to a cruel death, all .the
prifoners, holtages, and deferters, whether Romans,
Greeks, or Barbarians, and the body of Mithridates,
with his rich apparel and anus, which were greatly
admired by Pompey and the other Romans. Both fol-
dxers and officers flocked to fee the king’s body ; but
Pompey declined that fight; and, faying that all en¬
mity between that great prince and the people of Rome
was ended with his life, he returned the body to the
ambaffadors, and caufed it to be interred with the ut-
moll pomp and magnificence among his anceltors in
the burying-place of the kings of Pontus, Pompey de¬
fraying all the charges of that ceremony, which was
the moft coftly and pompous that ever had been feen
in thefe parts. W ith the body Pompey reftored his
wearing apparel and armour ; but the fcabbard of his
fword, which coft 400 talents, was flolen by Rublius
a. Roman, and fold to Ariarathes king of Cappado¬
cia ; and his cap or turban, which was a veiy curious
piece of workmanfhip, was privately ; taken by one
Caius, who prefented it to Fauftus the Ton of Sylla, in
vvhofe houfe it was kept, and ffiown for many years
after among the many rarities, which Sylla had broiurht
, out of Aha. b
Pompey bellowed the . kingdom of Bofph orus on
i narnaces, and honoured him with the title of a
friend and aLy of the people of Rome. Pharnaces be-
- T& Jkys acknowledged king of Bofphorus, fent orders
C 5O8 1
•p O N
PoMttfr
to all the gan-hons of Pohtus to fubtnit themfclves,
with the cailles and treafures with which they were en*
trufted, to Pompey, who by that means ainaffed an im-
menfe booty. In the city of Talaura, which Mithri¬
dates ufed to call his wardrobe, he found 2000 cups of
onyx let in gold, wdth fuch ftdre of gold and filver
veffels, of coftly furniture, of faddles, bridles, and
trappings, fet with jewels and precious ftenes, that the
Roman commilfaries fpent 30 days in taking the in*
ventory of the whole. In another caftle he found
three large tables with nine falvers of mafly gold, en¬
riched with precious Hones to an ineftimable va'lue ;
the ftatues of Minerva, Mars, and Apollo, of pure
gold and moft curious workmanfhip ; and a pair of
gaming-tables of two precious Hones, three feet broad,
and four feet long, on which was a moon of gold
weighing 30 pounds, with their men, all of the fame
precious Hone. In a fort fituated among the moun¬
tains, were delivered up to him the king’s ftatue of
niaffy gold, eight cubits high, his throne and feeptre,
and the bed of Darius the fon of Hyftafpes. Moft of
theft treafures had been tranfmitted to him from his
anceftors, chiefly from Darius king of Perlia ; fome
belonged to the Ptolemies of Egypt, and had been
depoflted by Cleopatra, as we have hinted above, in
the hands of the Coaiis, who delivered *them to Mi-
thndates ; and great part of them had been collected by
the king himfelf, who was very fond of rich and llately
furniture.
Pompey having thus got entire poffeffion of Pontus, Who be-
and reduced it to the form of a Rom&n province, flows upon*
marched into AJia properly fo called-; and having win-h!mthe
tered at Ephefus, early in the fpring fet out for Italy,
with a fleet of 7oo (hips. As he brought over hVBarfh“'"5-
army with him, the fenate was under -no fmall appre-
henfion left he ffiould make himfelf abfolute, and rule
v/ithout controul. But he no fooner landed at Brun-
dufium, than he difbanded the -army, without waitin''-
for any decree either of the fenate or people ; what nei¬
ther his friends nor his enemies had believed. His tri¬
umph lafted two whole days; and though he was at¬
tended in his triumphal chariot by 324 captives of di-
ftindtion, among whom were five fons and two daugh¬
ters of Mithndates, yet he would not fuffer any of them
to be put to death, as had been done by others ; but
fent them all back, except fuch as were of royal ex-
tradlion, to their refpe£live countries, and even fupplied
them with money to defray the charges of their journey.
After his triumph he delivered into the treafury 20,000
talents, though, at the difmiffing of the army, he had
divided 16,000 talents among the tribunes and centu¬
rions, 20C0 feftertiums among the quseftors, and had gi¬
ven to each foldier 50 feftertiums.
Pompey had no fooner left Afia, but Pharnaces fell phar^9a
unexpectedly upon the Phanagorenfes, a people offaiisout
Bofphorus, whom Pompey had declared free, becaufe with the
they had revolted the firft of all from Mithridates, and Ronian£*
by their example induced others to abandon the king’s
party. Pharnaces befieged their chief city Phanago-
na, and kept them blocked up till, for want of provi-
fions, they were forced to fally out, and put all to the
iffue* of a battle ; which proving unfuccefsful, they deli¬
vered up themielves and their city to the conqueror.
Some years after, the civil war breaking out between
Caefar and Pompey, he laid hold of that opportunity
$ to
Pant’4*
PON [ 369 1 P ,°,
to «cov« the province, which hi, fadrer had formerly Ca.far courteoufly entertarned the
and having railed a confiderable army, oyer-
t i • T1 * * 1 ^ — a\ m on r\ 4* I a f* k" 1 Cf ^
raifpontus^ Colchis, Bithynia, Armenia, and the king¬
dom of Mofchis, where he plundered, as Strabo ob-
ferves, the temple of the goddefs Leucothea. He took
the ftroncf and important city of Sinope, but could not
reduce Amifus. But, in the mean time, Csefar having
got the better of Pompey and his party, appointed
Cn. Domitius Calvinus governor of Alia, enjoining
him to make war upon Pharnaces with the legions that
were quartered in that province. Domitius immedi¬
ately difpatched ambaffadors to Pharnaces,. command¬
ing him to withdraw his troops from Armenia and Cap¬
padocia. The king returned anfwer, that he was will¬
ing to abandon Cappadocia, but as for the kingdom of
Armenia Minor, it was part of his hereditary domi¬
nions ; and therefore he would not refign it till he had
an opportunity of laying his pretenlions before Cceiar
himfelf, whom he was ready to obey in all things. Here¬
upon Domitius drawing together what forces he could,
marched into Cappadocia, which he recovered without
oppofition, Pharnaees having abandoned it to make a
ft and in Armenia, which lay nearer his ovyn dominions.
Thither Domitius purfued him ; and having overtaken
him near Nicopolis, found his army drawn up in
battle-array, and the king ready to come to an en¬
gagement ; which Domitius not declining, both armies
The king, at the head of a choice body of men,
teats them. fep Up0n the Romans left wing, confifting moftly of
raw and undifciplined Afiatics ; and having without
much ado put them to flight, penetrated to the. centre,
where the thirty-fifth legion, the only one which Do¬
mitius had, after a faint refiftance, gave ground, and,
retiring to the neighbouring mountains, left their allies
to Ihift for themfelves, who were all cut off. Domi¬
tius with the remains of his fcattered army marched
back into Cappadocia ; and from thence, winter draw¬
ing on, into the province of Afia. The king being
puffed up with this viftory, and hearing that Caefar,
with the flower of the Roman forces, was engaged at
the fie^e of Alexandria, appointed one Afander go¬
vernor of Bofphorus, and marched, himfelf into Cap¬
padocia in purfuit of Domitius, with a defign to in¬
vade Afia, and recover all the provinces which had
been once fubdued by his father. Bithynia and Cap¬
padocia readily fubmitted ; but Armenia the Leffer,
which was held by Dejotarus, made fo vigorous a re-
fiftance, that he was forced to give over.the enterpnfe,
left the Romans fnould in the meantime ftrengthen
themfelves in Afia, whither he was in hafte to march,
70
And de-
N
vm  -  ambaffadofs ; and Pontus,
thmmhhe did not propofe to agree to their conditions,
yet, that he might come upon Pharnaces unawares,
he ftiowed himfelf very defirous of entering into a
treaty of peace. But, in the mean time, he puifued
his march with all poffible expedition ; and arriving on
the confines of Pontus, ordered all the troops that
were quartered in the neighbouring provinces to join
him ; for he had brought from Alexandria but one
legion, namely, the fixth, and that confifting of icoo
men only, the reft having been killed at the fiege of
Alexandria. Befides this veteran legion, he found at
the place of general rendezvous three others, but all ot
them very indifferently armed, and worfe difciplined.
With thefe forces, however, fuch as they were, he ad¬
vanced again ft Pharnaces; who being greatly frightened
at his approach, by reafon of the fuccefs that had at¬
tended him in all his expeditions, again diipatched
ambaffadors to him with a crown of gold, offering
him his daughter in marriage, and promifing- to do
whatever he fliould require. The ambaffadors took
care to let him know that their mafter, though highly
obliged to Pompey, yet had never been prevailed upon
to fend him any fupplies during the civil war, which
Dejotarus, king of Armenia the Leffer, whom he had
honoured with his friendfliip, had done. Casfar re¬
turned for anfwer, that he was willing to conclude a
peace with Pharnaces, provided he retired without de¬
lay from Pontus, returned all the captives and hoftages
whether Roman or their allies, and reftored the goods
of the Roman citizens and publicans which he had
feized fince he firft took up arms. He added, that as
to his not fending fupplies to Pompey, they ought ra¬
ther to have concealed fuch an ungrateful proceeding
of their mafter, than alleged it as any merit, fince the
forfaking of one to whom he was indebted for his
crown, befpoke him a man of mean, felfiflr, and unwor¬
thy principles.
Pharnaces, upon the return of hxs ambaftadors, ac¬
quainted Caefar that he agreed to the conditions; but
finding that Caefar’s affairs called him into Italy, he
required a longer term of time for the performance of
what was ftipulated between them, ftarting daily new
difficulties, in hopes that Caffar would in the mean time
be obliged to depart, and leave the affairs of Pontus in
the fame pofture he had found them. Casfar feeing
himfelf difappointed, and put off from day to day, could
not longer brook the king’s deceitful behaviour. Where¬
fore he determined to put himfelf at the head of his
fmall army, and attack the enemy in his camp when he
leaft expected it. And accordingly, marching out m
themfelves in Afia, whither tie was in nane ^ ^ break 0f d in flght Gf the
’ Bur tefore he' reaped king’s anij; and
that province, he was informed that Afander had re¬
volted, in hopes of gaining thereby the good-will of
the Romans, and obtaining of them the kingdom of Bof-
horns for himfelf. At the fame time, he received in¬
ti
Attempts
outwit
Julius Ca;.
far.
telligence that Casfar, having at laft reduced Alexan¬
dria, and fettled the affairs of Egypt and Syria, was
marching into Armenia.
He was not a little difmayed at this news, and
therefore without delay difpatched ambaffadors to .iut
for peace ; hoping that Caefar, who was haftening into
Italy with a defign to pafs over into Africa, would
willingly give ear to any propofals of that nature.—*■
You. XV. Part I.
erous parricide go unpunifhed; broke into the camp at
the head of iooo horfe. The king’s chariots, which
were armed with feythes, caufed feme fmall diforder
among Caefar’s horfe ; but in the mean time the reft of
his army coming up, he put the .enemy to flight, and 7?
obtained a complete victory. This battle was foughthJ.gfn_
near the place where Mithridates had routed with great tirely dt>
flaughter the Roman army under the command of Tri-feated.
arius. Moft of the king’s army were either taken or
cut in pieces ; but Pharnaces himfelf had the good luck
to make his efeape while the Romans were bufy in
plundering the camp. 'I bis victory was fo quickAhat
3 A 32 ^
lor
PON [ o
jfonn *, Csciar m a letter to his friend Aminitms, or Anitius, at
- Xome, expreffed it in three words, thus: “ I came, I
faw, I conquered.” He ever afterwards ufed to call
Porapey a fortunate rather than a orreat commander,
ftnce he had gained his chief glory in the Mithridatic
war, fighting with fo cowardly an enemy. He divided
the rich booty and the fpoils of tire camp among his
foldiers ; and becaufe Mithridates had erefted a trophy
near that place as a monument of his victory over Tria-
rius, which Csfar, as it was confecrated to the gods,
did not think lawful to pull down, he fet up another
over-againft it to tranfmit to pofterity his victory over
Pharnaces. After this victory he recovered and reftored
to the allies of the people of Rome all the places which
Pharnaces, had poffeffed himfelf of during the war, de¬
clared Amifus a free city, and appointed Mithridates
Pergamenus king of Bofphorus in the room of Phar-
naces.
Haying thus fettled the affairs of Pontus, he fet fail
Italy ; leaving IDomitius Calvinus to purfue the
war againll Pharnaces, if he fhouid appear again in the
field. Pharnaces had retired after the battle to Sinope
with 1000 horfe, where he was quickly befieged by
Domitius, to whom he furrendered the town, upon no
other condition than that he fhouid be fuffered to re¬
tire into Bofphorus with the fmall body that attended
him. This Domitius willingly granted ; but caufed all
the king’s horfes to be killed, fince he had afked a fafe-
conduft only for his horfemen. With thefe and a band
of Scythians and Sarmatians he attempted to recover the
kingdom of Bofphorus ; but being met between Theo-
, _ docia and Panticapeum, both which cities he had redu-
Ts killed In Ced, by Afander, who was Hill in poffeffion of the king-
raglrnem! d°m’ 3 (harp engagemcnt enfued, wherein the king’s
^ ‘ ‘ ’ men, as not being ufed to fight on foot, were put to
flight, and Pharnaces himfelf, who remained alone in
the field, was furrounded by the enemy, and cut in
pieces, after having reigned in Bofphorus Cimmerius,
the kingdom which Pompey had bellowed upon him,
according to Appian, fifteen years, according to others,
feventeen.
Upon the death of Pharnaces the kingdom of Pontus
*4 was again reduced to the form of a province, and fo
aeTin made continued to the triumvirate of Marc Antony, who after
a kingdom ^ie battle at Philippi conferred it upon Darius the fon
by Marc of Pharnaces for his fervices during the civil war. He
continued faithful to the Romans; but did nothing
during his reign worth mentioning.
Darius was fucceededin the kingdom by Polemott, like-
wife preferred to that honour by Marc Antony. He was
the fon of Zeno, a famous orator of Laodicea, and greatly
favoured by Antony. From him that part of Pontus
which borders on Cappadocia borrowed the name of
Pdtmoniaius. He attended Marc Antony in his expe¬
dition againfl the Parthians ; and being taken prifoner
in that unfuccefsful battle fought by Statianus, he was
fent by the king of the Medes, an ally of the Parthians,
to conclude a peace with the Romans. In which em-
bafiy he acquitted himfelf fo well, that Antony added
I lie kingdom of Armenia to hiq own dominions. In
the war between Antony and Auguftus he fided with the
former : but after tire battle of Adium lie was received
into favour by the latter ; and being fent by Agrippa
againll Scribonius, who upon the death of Afander had
ufurped the kingdom of Bofphorus, he overcame him,
73
Antony.
70 ] PON
and reduced the kingdom of Colchis, which was be- Pontu#.
llowed upon him by Agrippa, who likewife honoured  *
him with the title of friend and ally of the people of Rome.
He afterwards waged war with the neighbouring barba-
rians refufmg to live in fubjedion to the Romans ; but
was overcome, taken, and put to death, by the Afpun-
gitani, a people bordering, according to Strabo, on the
Palus Mceotis.
Upon his death his fan Polemon II. was by the em¬
peror Caligula railed to the throne of Bofphorus and
Pontus. But the emperor obliged him to exchange the
kingdom of Bofphorus with part of Cilicia ; and Nero,
with his confent, reduced that part of Pontus which he
enjoyed to the form of a province. He fell in love with
Berenice, daughter to Agrippa king of Judiea ; and in
order to marry her embraced the Jewilh religion. But
as Hie foon became tired of his riotous way of living, and
returned to her father ; fo he renounced his new reli¬
gion, and again embraced the fuperllitions of Paganifm.
Polemon dying without iffue, the ancient kingdom off* panelled'
Pontus was parcelled out into feveral parts, and added *ut into
to the provinces of Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia,^6™1 P1'0*
only that part of it which was called Pontus Poiemoniacus vinces'
retaining the dignity of a diflincl and feparate province.
During the civil difeords between Vefpafian and Vitel-
lius, one Anicetus, firll a fiave, afterwards freedman,
to king Polemon, and Mly commander of the royal v
navy, took up arms with a dellgn to refeue the king¬
dom from the Roman bondage ; and being joined by
great multitudes drawn together with the profpeht of
fpoil, over-ran the country, and poffeffed himfelf of
Trapefund, a city founded by the Grecians on the ut-
molt confines of Pontus. Here he cut in pieces a cohort
made up of the inhabitants, but which had been former¬
ly prefented with the privilege of Roman citizens. He
likewife burnt the fleet, and with fcorn and infults
fcoured the fea ; Mucianus having called to Byzantium
moil of the Roman galleys. Hereupon Vefpafian, who
was at that time in Syria, fent Verdins Gemnius into
Pontus with a choice body of auxiliaries from the le¬
gions. He affailing the enemy while they were in dif-
order, and roaming afunder in purfuit of prey, drove
them into their veffels; then with fome galleys chafed
Anicetus into the mouth of the river Chobus, where lie
thought himfelf fafe under tlie protection of Sedochus-
king of the Lazians, whofe alliance he had parchafed
with large fums and rich prefents. Sedochus at firft
refufed to deliver him up to the Romans; but was foon
prevailed upon, partly by threats, partly by prefents, to
furrender both him and all the other fugitives who had
taken fanftuary in his dominions. Thus ended that
fervile war; and the kingdom of Pontus continued to
be a province of the empire till the time of David and
Alexis Comneni, who being driven from Conftantinopfc
by the French and Venetians A. D. 1204, under the
command of Baldwin earl of Flanders, fettled, the one
at Heraclea, the other at Trebifond. The troubles that
arofe among the Latins gave Alexis Comnenus an op¬
portunity of erecting here a new empire, which com¬
prehended great part of Pontus, and was known by the
name of the empire of Trebifond. The Comnem held it
about 250 years, till the time of Mohammed II. who
carried David Comnenus, the laft emperor of Trebifond, ,
prifoner to Conllantinople, A. D. 1462, with all his
family, and fubje&ed hi# empire to that ©f Conffanti-
nople y
PON
I»or typool,„oplc ; in which abjeft ilavcry Trebifond and all Pontus
Ponza. continued ever iince. ,
PONTYPOOL, a town of Monmouthlhire in Png-
land, feated between two hills. It is but a (mail place,^
though noted for its iron-mills, great manufaaure of
japanned mugs, &c. W. Long. 3. 6. N.Lat. 51. 42.
PONZA, or Pontia, is a final! ifland of the 1 uican
Sea, well known to be the place to which many illufln-
ous Romans were fornaerly banilhed. It is fituated on
the coaft of Italy near Terracina, and in the neighbour¬
hood of other fmall iflands or rocks named Patmarole,
Zannone, &c. between the ifland of Ventouenne and
Monte Circello. All thefe iflands were viflted by Sir
William Hamilton in the year 1785 ; and an account of
his journey is given in a letter to Sir J. Banks, which
appeared in the Phil. Tranf. vol. lx*vi. p. 365. Sir
William arrived at Ponza on the 2oth Auguft ; and,
according to his account, it lies about 30 miles from
Ventotienne. On the 21ft he went round it in a boat.
Its length is about live miles, but its breadth is nowhere
above half a mile, and in fome places not more than 500
feet. It is furrounded by a multitude of detached rocks,
fome of them very high, and moll of them compofed
of a compaa lava. There are many irregularly formed
bafaltes, but none in large columns. In fume piace$
they have a reddifh tinge from iron ochie, are veiy
fmall, and irregularly laid over one another. Some
Hand perpendicularly, others obliquely, and fome lie
horizontally. 'flic' rocks themfelves in which thefe
mafles are found are lava of the fame nature w ith the
bafaltes. At firft fight they appear like the rums of
ancient Roman brick or tyle buildings. One rock is
compofed of large fpherical baialts, and in other places
our author found the lava inclined to take the like
fpherical form, though on a much fmaller fcale, feme of
the former bafalts being near two feet in diameter. All
thefe rocks, in our author's opinion, have been detached
by the fea from this ifland, which is entirely compofed
of volcanic matter, lavas, and tufas ol various qualities
and colours, as green, yellow, black, and white. Some
of thefe matters are more compact in their teKtiu e than
others ; and in fome parts great tracts feem to have un¬
dergone fimilar operations, which ilill fubfift at^ a fpot
called the Pifaarelli, on the outfide of the Solxatava,
near Puzzole, and where a hot fulphureous vitriolic
acid vapour converts all which it penetrates, whether
lavas, tufas, volcanic aflies, or putnice-ftones, into a pure
clay, mollly white, or with a tint of red, blue, green,
or yellow. , . r
In one part of this ifland there is a fort of tufa re¬
markably good for the purpofe of building. It is as
bard as Bath-ftone, and nearly of the fame colour, with-
out any mixture of lava or pumice-done, vs Inch iifually
abound in the tufas of Naples, Baia, and Puzzoli.
The ifland of Palmarole which is about four miles
from Ponza, is not much more than a mile in circum¬
ference. It is compofed of the fame volcanic matter,
and probably was once a part of Ponza; and in our
author’s opinion it looks as if the ifland of Zannone,
which lies about the fame diftance from Ponza, was once
likewife a part of the fame ; for many rocks of lava
rife above water in a line betwixt the two laft-mentioned
Hands, and the water there is much more ihallow than
ia the gulf of Terracina.
Zannone is much larger and higher than Palmarole;
37* 1 poo
and that half of it next the continent is conrif fed oi a
lime Hone fimilar to that of the Apennines near it; the
other half is compofed of lavas and tutas, vefembhng in __
every other refpedt the foil of the iflands juft deferibed.
Neither Palmarok nor Zannone are inhabited ; but the_
latter furnifhes abundance of brufhwood for the ufe ot
the inhabitants of Ponza, whole number, including the
garrifon, amounts to near 1700. 1 he uninhaoited
ifland of St Stefano in like manner furniikes wood for •
the people of Ventotienne. It is piobable thau ail
thefe iflands and rocks may in time be levelled by the
a&ion of the fea. Ponza, in its prelent ftate, is the
mere Ikeleton of a volcanic ifland 5 little more than its
hard or vitrified parts remaining, and they i'eem to be
flowly and gradually mouldering away. The governor
of the caftle of Ponza, who had reiided there 53 years,
told our author that the ifland was ftih fubject to earth¬
quakes ; that there had been one violent fhock there
about four years befoie ; but that the moil vio.ent one
he ever felt was on the very day and at the hour that
JLilbou was deftroyed. Two houfes outof three which
were then on the ifland were thrown down. “ 'Ibis
(fays our author) feems to prove that the volcanic mat¬
ter which gave birth to thefe iflands is not exhantted.
j. Plate CCLCXII. is a« plan ot the ifland ot
Ponza as it is given in the Philofophical x ranfactions.
Fig. 2. is a view of the inlide of the haioour ot the
ifland. A in the fame figure is a rock of lava. In
many parts it is formed into regular bafaltes of a reddifh
colour, tinged in all probability with fome ochre. Moil
of the detached rocks of the ifland reftmble this. BB
reprefents a trad of volcanic country, converted by a
hot fulphureous vitriolic acid vapour into a pure clay,
•the ground colour of which is moftly white.—Fig. 3. is
a view from the outfide of the harbour, near the light-
houfe. C is a rock of volcanic matter converted to
pure clay; D is a rock of the fame kind, with ftrata
of pumice-ftone : E is a rock of lava, inclining to take
baialtic forms ; and F is a rock compofed of fphencal
bafaltes.
POOD is a Ruffian weight, equal to 40 Ruffian or
36 Euglifh pounds. _
POOL is properly a refervoir of water fupplied with
fprings, and difeharging the overplus by flukes, defend
ders, weirs, and other caufeways.
Pool, a fea-port tqwn of Dorfetfhire in England.
It is furrounded on alllides by the fea, except on the
north, where there is an entrance through a gate. It
was formerly nothing but a place where a few fifher-
men lived : but in the reign of Henry VI. it was greatly-
enlarged, and the inhabitants had the privilege to wail
it round. It was alfo made a county of itfelf, and fent
two members to parliament. It is governed by a mayor,
a fenior bailiff, four other juftices, and an indeterminate
number of burgeffes. The town conflfts ot a church
and about 600 houfes, with broad paved ftreets; and
has a manufadtory of knit hofe. It is 47 miles weft-
fouth-weft of Winchefter, and no weil-by-iouth of
London. W. Long. 2. o« N. Lat. 50. 42..
POOLE (Matthew), a very learned writer m the
17th century, was born at York in 1624. He was
educated at Emanuel-college, Cambridge, and after¬
wards incorporated in the univeifity ot Oxford. He
fucceeded Dr Anthony Puckney in the redory ot bt
Michael de Quern, in London, about 1648. In 1 °5‘A
s A-' - a k®
Fotk*
11
Pool*.
Prtop,
Poor.
POO
he fet or» foot a project for maintaining youths of great
^ parts at the univerlities, and had the approbation of the
heads of houfes in both of them. He folicited the
affair with fo much vigour, that in a fhort time 9001.
P°r annum was procured for that purpofe ; but this de-
lign was laid aiide at the Reftoration. In 1662 he was
ejedled from his living for nonconformity. He was ten
' ears employed in compofing his Synof.fis Criticorum,
<nc. Beiides this great work he publifhed feveral
other pieces. When Hr Oates’s depofitions concerning
the popifh plot were printed, our author found his name
in the lift of thofe who were to be cut off, on the ac¬
count (as was fuppofed) of what he had written againft
the papifts in his A'u/ity of the JRomijh Faith. So that
he was obliged to retire into Holland, where he died in
I^79» and left behind him the character of a veiy able
critic and cafuift.
POOP, the Item of a fhip ; or the higheft, upper-
moft, and hinder part of a flip’s hull. See Stern.
POOR, in hrw, an appellation given to all thofe who
are in inch a low and mean condition, that they either
are or may become a burden to the parifti.
They who rank pity amongft the original impulfes
of our nature rightly contend, that when it prompts us
to the relief of human mifery, it indicates fufficiently the
Divine intention, and our duty. Indeed, the fame con-
clufion is deducible from the exiftence of the paffion,
whatever account be given of its origin. Whether it
be inItimft, or a habit founded in affociation (fee Pas¬
sion), it is in faft a property of our nature which God
appointed: and the final caufe for which it was appoint¬
ed is to afford to the miferable, in the compaffion of
then fellow-creatures, a remedy for thofe inequalities
and diftreffes to which many are neceffarily expofed
under every poffible rule for the diftribution of proper¬
ty. . I hat the poor have a claim upon the rich, found¬
ed in the law of nature, can be queftioned by no
man who admits the benevolence of the Deity, and con-
£ders his purpofe in creating the world (fee Theolo¬
gy, Parti. Sedt. ii.); and upon this claim the Chrif-
tian Scriptures are more explicit than almoft upon any
other. ^
d he rights of the poor, however, to be relieved by
the rich, as they originate in nature, and are fandtioned
by Chriftianity, are evidently of that kind which is call¬
ed hnperfea (See Moral Philofophy, n° 151.) It is
luiely needlefs to warn our readers in this place, that
imperfect rights are in themfelves as facred, and the
duties refulting from them as obligatory in foro confcien-
tia, as the moft rigid claims of juftice. Every one
knows, that they are called imperfe£i only becaufe the
extent of them in particular inftances cannot be afeer-
tained by poiitive laws, nor the breach of them be pu-
mifhed by tIle civil magiftrate. Hence the apoftle, tho’
he enjoins a weekly contribution to be made for the
poor in the church of Corinth, yet leaves the fum to
be contributed by each individual wholly undetermined.
‘ Now concerning the colledtion for the faints, as I
have given order to the churches of Galatia, even fo do
ye. Upon the firft day of the week let every one of
you lay by him in ftore as God hath profperedhim.” By
which St Paul certainly recommends to eveiy man to
contribute, not a fixed fum, but as much as, from a de¬
liberate companfon of his fortune, with the reafonable
C 372 ]
POO
expences and wpedfations of his family, he finds he can
Ipare for charitable purpofes.
It is well known that thofe weekly contributions
were laid at tne feet of the apoftles, who transferred the
management of the fund thence ariling to deacons eleft-
ed by the people, and ordained by them to fee that the
money was properly diftributed. Hence, under Chri-
itiamty, the maintenance of the poor became chiefly an
ecclefiallical concern ; and when that holy and benevo¬
lent religion was eftablifhed in the Roman empire, a
fourth part of the tithes was in fame countries of Eu¬
rope, and particularly in England, fet apart for that
purpoie. Afterwards, when the tithes of many parifties
were appropriated to the monafteries, thefe focietiea
were the principal refource of the poor, who were far¬
ther relieved by voluntary contributions. Judge Black-
ftone obferves, that till the ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. cap.
26. he finds no compulfory method for providing for
the poor ; but upon the total diffolution of the mona¬
fteries, abundance of ftatutes were made in the reign of
Kmg Henry VIII. Edward VI. and Elizabeth, which
at laft eftabhlhed the
Poor's Rate, or legal affeffment for the fupport of
t e poor. I he fums that had been appropriated for
charitable ufes before the reformation were immenfe,
and the wealth that had been accumulated through a
fucceffion of ages by mendicant orders of religious per-
fons was inconceivably great; nor was it in the power of
any laivs to confine men who were in the pofleffion of
iuch wealth from gratifying thole defires which money
caii fo eafily find means of fupplying. Yet among the
vanous abufes to which this opulence had given rife,
thefe religious orders had never fo far loft fight of their
original inftitution as ever to negledf the poor. Thefs
were indeed provided for by them with an indiferimi-
nate profulion of largeffe, better proportioned to their
own opulence than to the wants of the claimants, who
were too often, without examination, all equally ferved,
whether deferving or undeferving of that bounty which
they claimed.
When the religious houfes, as they were called, were
entirely fuppreffed at the reformation, and the wealth
that belonged to them was diverted into other channels,
the poor, who had been in ufe to receive their fupport
from Ounce, were of courfe left entirely deftitute ; and
this foon became a grievance fo intolerable not only to
the poor themfelves, but to the whole nation, as to
excite a univerfal delire to have it remedied. Accord-
ingly, by the 14 Eliz. cap. 5. power was given to the
juftices to lay a general affeffment; and this hath con¬
tinued ever fince. For by 43 Eliz. cap. 2. the church¬
wardens and overfeers of the poor of every parifti, or
the greater pan of them (with the confent of two juf¬
tices, one of whom is of the quorum, dwelling in or
near the parifti), are empowered to raife weekly, or
otherwife, by taxation of every inhabitant, parfon, vi¬
car, and other, and of every occupier of lands, houfes,
&c. materials for employing the poor, and competent
fums for their relief. Notice ftiall be given in church
of every fuch rate the next Sunday after it is allowed,
which may be infpedled by every inhabitant, paying 1 s.
and copies of it granted on demand, 6d. being paid
for every 24 names ; and a churchwarden or overfeer
refufing, ftiall forfeit 201. to the party aggrieved. The.
rate;
Poor.
poo [ 373 ]
rate is to be levied by diftrefs on thofe wbo vefufe to
pay it; and, by i7 Geo. II. cap. z. cap. 38. appeals
^ If the"juftices find that the inhabitants of any pari(h
are not able to levy among themfelves futhcient fums
for the purpofes fpecified in the ad, they may affefs any
other pariih within the hundred; and if the hundred be
unable to grant necefld7 relief, they may rate and af¬
fefs any pariih within the county. 43 hdiz. cap. 2. _
In order to compel hufbands and parents to maintain
their own families, the law hath provided, that ad per-
fons running away out of their panfhes, and leaving
their families upon the pariih, hall be deemed and -
fer as incorrigible rogues (7 Jac. cap. 4. it a
perfon merely threatens to run away and leave bis wife
and children upon the pariih, he lhall, upon convidion,
before one juftL by confeffion, or oath of one witnefs,
be committed to the houfe of corredion for any time
POO
1788), that within the laid nine years, the poor’s-rates
have increafed one-third, and Ihould they continue in-s
creafing in the fame proportion for 50 or 53 years, they
would amount to the enormous fum of 11,230,000!. a
burden which the country could not pollibly bear. _ It
was therefore, he added, highly neceffary that fometlung
lliould be attempted to prevent this alarming addition,
if not to annihilate the prefent glaring mifcondutl m
the management of the poor.” ^
Such has been the fate of England with regard ta
poor laws. . • , r
In Scotland, the reformation haying been carried tor-
ward with a Hill more violent precipitancy than in Eng¬
land, and the funds of the regular clergy being more
entirely alienated, the cafe of the poor there became
Hill more feemingly defperate, and the clamours were
alfo there coniiderabk at that time. Then alfo it was
that the Scottilh court, imitating as ufual at that time
^. r t'' i j  ]ptfpmnta
Poor.
be committed to the houfe of correftion for any tone -"of ^ feveral feeble attempt,
not exceemng one ,   a - .
the farther maintenance of the poor, there are many fines
and forfeitures payable to their ufe ; as f°r f^ear f
drunkennefs, deilroying the game, &c. . And alf« Pa ta
of waftes, woods, and paftures, may be mcloied for the
growth and prefervation of timber and undeiwood fo
their relief. See IVoRK-Houfe. . , v.
The famous ftatute of the 43d of Elizabeth, which
is the bafis of all the poor-laws in England, was con-
jfracted with a cautious forethought that can peihaps
be equalled by few laws that ever were enaded ;_ and
profpedive reafoning alone were to be relied on in 1 -
ters of leeiflation, it feemed impolfible to amend t. ye
experienc^ has now proved, with a moil demonllrative
certainty, that it is not fo falutary as was undoubtedly
£XThe trfom who compofed that law had before their
eyes fuch a recent proof of the abufe that had been
made of the charitable beneficence of individuals, t
they feem to have been chiefly fohcitous ^ obviate 1-
milar abufes in future ; and to guard agamft that par
tial kind of fedudion, they rather chole to eftabhih a
defpotic power which fiiould be authonfed to wreit
from every individual in the nation whatever fums it
might think proper to call for trnftmg to a few feb
devices which they contrived, for curbmg that pow«
which was virtually armed with force fufficient to fet all
Ihefe afide whene/er it pleafed. The confeqnence has
been, that the fums levied for the relief P ’
which were at firft but fmaU, are novv enormous, and
that the demands are increaf.ng in fuch a rapid manner
as to give rife to the moft ferious and well-grounded
apprehenfwins. In the year .774. Patlmment mfotu-
ted an inquiry into the amount of the y “
England and Wales, and again m 1783- ^" i Ll
ring thefe together, the rife during that Aicrt period
was found to be in England upwards of 850,0001, /
annum, being nearly in the proportion o QRe'
the rate at the firit period. In Wales, ie ^
period of time, the rates were more than doubled. 1
was this a temporary ftart,but a part only a gradua
proerefiion. Mr Wenderdon, in his View of England,
obferves, that “in the year x680 the poor’s-rates pro¬
duced no more than 665,39°h m 1 ^ , .
1,200,000 1. and in 1773 they w.ere Gbmated _ at
3,000,0001.” It is a known faft (fays Mr Beaufoy,
in the debate on Mr Gilbert’s poor bid, Apt- i7
IO iiiuouuvc * vu-. — r' , 1 r v. r .1
that country, but never digefted the fyltem io tho¬
roughly as to form a law that could in any cale be car¬
ried3 into effedt. Many crude laws on this head were
indeed drafted ; but all of them fo evidently inadequate
for the purpofe, that they never were, even in one m-
ftance that we have heard of, attempted at the tune to
be carried into effeft. Indeed it feems to have been
impoffible to carry them into effeft; tor they are all fo
abfurd and contradiftory to each other, that hardly a
Angle claufe of any one of them can be obeyed without
tranfgrefiing others of equal importance.
The laft ftatute which in Scotland was enacted on
this fubjeft bears date September ill 1691, William and
Mary, pari. 1. feff. 7. chap. 21. and it. “ ratifies and
approves all former afts of parliament and proclama¬
tions of council for repreffing of beggars, and maintain¬
ing and employing tire poor.” If this law therefore
were now in force, and it never was repealed, no periou
could with impunity countervail any one of thole ita-
tutes which it ratifies ; but to be convinced how im¬
poffible it is to obferve them all, the attentive reader
needs only to confider thofe laws and proclamations with
refpeft to the following particulars, vi%. ?
X. ‘the per fans appointed to make up the poors roil.
By the aft 1579 this duty is entrufted to the provoft
and bailies within burgh, and the judge conftitute be
the king’s commiffion in paroches to. landwart. by act
1663, it is the heritors of each parifh. By aft 1072^
it is the minifters and elders of each parifh who aie to
make up this lift. By the proclamation of 1692, it is
the heritors, minifters, and elders of every panih. By
that of 1693, it is the magiftrates of royal burghs, and
the heritors of vacant [country] parifhes; in both cafes
without either minifter or elders.. Among this chaos
of contradiftions how is it poffible to aft without trani-
greffing fome law. ,
2. Not lefs contradiftory are the enaftments in regard
to the perfons nuho are to pay, and the mode of appor¬
tioning the fums among them. By aft 1579, the haill
inhabitants of the parochin lhall be taxed and ftented
according to the eftimation of their fubftance, without
exception of perfons. By that of 1663, the one-half is
to be paid by the heritors, and the other half by the te
nants and poffeffors, according to their means and iub-
ftance. By the proclamation of 1692, the one-halt ui
POO
T*oor.
to bo paid by the heritors, the other by the houfeholders
of the* pariih. By that of 1693, burghs royal, the
magiilrates are to {lent themfelves, conform to fuch or¬
der and cuhom ufed and wont in laying on {tents, an¬
nuities, or other public burdens, in the refpedtive burgh,
as may be molt effedtual to reach all the inhabitants;
and the heritors of feveral vacant [landwart] parifhes
to {lent themfelves for the maintenance of the refpe&ive
poor.
3. A ftill greater diverfity takes place in regard to
the application of the fums Jo JievUd. By the act
1570, it would feem that the whole of the money ai-
felfed was to be applied to the ufe of the helplefs poor
alone, and no part of it for the relief of thofe who were
capable of working. By the adt 1663, on the contrary,
the whole of this afleffment is to be applied for the
fupport of thofe only ivijo are able to work. This is
Hill more fpecially provided for by the act where
the poor who are unable to work are to be fupported
by the weekly collections at the kirk doors; and the
ftented affeffments to be applied to the fupport of thofe
in the correction houfes.
It would be tirefome to. enumerate all the contradic¬
tions that thefe lav/s authorife. In regard to the per-
fans who are required to carry thefe a his into execution.
it is at different times the chancellor; magiftrates; com-
miffioners of excife; fheriffs; juitices of the peace; mi-
nifters and elders; the prefbyteries; heritors, minifters,
apd elders; heritors alone; commiffioners nominated by
prefbyteries and appointed by the king ; the lords of
the privy council: in {hort, no two laws can be found
that do not vary from each other in this refpeCt one
way or other.
The fame variations take place with regard to the
building of correCtion-houfes, confinement and punifh-
ment of vagrants, application of their work, awarding
their fervices and thofe of children. In {hurt, there is
not one particular in which thefe laws do not vary from
^md contradiCl each other ; fo that, let any perfon try
to aCt in virtue of any one of them, it is impoffible for
him to avoid going in direCt oppohtion to the enact¬
ments of fome other law which is of equal force with
that he has chofen for his guide. In thefe circum-
flances, it is fo far from being furprifmg that thefe acts
have been fuffered to remain in perpetual defuetude,
that it would have been truly wonderful if this had not
been the cafe. They have, however, been permitted to
remain on the ftatute-book as a difgrace to the times
when they were formed, and as a itumbling-block to
thofe that were to follow. That not one of them is
now in force was lately proved by a learned and public-
fpirited gentleman, to whom his country is on that and
many other accounts deeply indebted. Refuling to pay
the poor’s tax, with which he was afTeffed by the over-
leers of the parifh in which he happened to refide, he
Hood an aCIion in the court of feffion, and prevailed,
upon the broad ground, that there is no law in force in
Scotland by whub an inroi.uNTAFY poor's rate can be
ejlabtijhed in any parif}).
But how, it will be afked by our Englifh readers, are
the poor in Scotland really maintained? We anfwer, by
the private alms of individuals, and by certain funds un¬
der the management of the kirk-Jtjfiom (fee Presby¬
terians). It is the univerfal pra&ice, each Lord’s
day, in every parifh, for fuch of the audience as are in
f 37+ 1
POO
eafy circumflances, to give to the poor fuch an offering
of alms as they {hall deem proper. This offering is gt> ^
nerally dropped into a bafon placed at the church-door,
and under the immediate care of an elder. When the
fervree is begun, the elder removes with the bafon, which
he keeps under his charge till the congregation be dif-.
miffed.. The feffion then meets, and the money is told
over, ns amount marked down in the feflion account
book, and depolited in a box kept for that purpofe.
I his box has ufually a {mail flit in the top, through
which the pieces of money can be dropped without
opening it; and it is clofed with two locks, the key of
one of which is ufually kept by the minifte-r and the
other by the kirk-treafurer, fo that it can never be open¬
ed but in the prefence of thefe two at leaft.
A kirk-feffion, when regularly conllituted, mull al-
ways coniifl of the mmifter, elders, feffion-clerk, awd
kirk-treafurer. None of thefe ever receive any falary
except the feffion-clerk, who is ufually the fchoolmafter
of the pan ih, and has a fmall falary allowed for minu-
ting the tranfachons. 1 he kirk-treafurer is for the
moft part one of the elders; and he is an important
member of this court. Without his intervention no
diftribution of the poor’s funds is deemed legal; nor
can any payments be made, receipt* granted, or money
transferred, but by him ; the minifter and fefEon being
perfonally liable to make good all money that may other-
wife be given away, fhould it ever afterwards be challen¬
ged by any heritor in the pariffi.
The precautions taken for the diftribution of the
poor’s funds are likewife ftmple and excellent, and are
as follow.
No money can be legally iffued from the poor’s funds
even by the treafurer and feffion, unlefs legal proof can
be brought that public intimation has been given from
the pulpit immediately after divine fervice, and before
the congregation has difperfed, that a diitribution of
poor’s money is to be made by the feffion, at fuch a
time and place, fpecifying the fame, and inviting all
who have intereft in the cafe to attend if they {hall in¬
cline. This intimation mull be made a full fortnight
before the time of diitribution ; and as every heritor
(owner of landed property) in the pariih has a right to
vote in the diftribution of the poor’s funds, they may
all, if they fo incline, then ■ attend and exercife that
right: but if none of them ffiould attend, which is
often the cafe, the feffion has then a right to proceed ;
and whatever they {hall thus do, is deemed Itridlly le¬
gal, and is liable to no challenge. But {hould they pro¬
ceed without having given this previous intimation, they
may, if the heritors fhould afterwards challenge it, be
made to repay out of their own pockets every {hilling
they ihall have fo iflued. It fometimes happens, that
young minifters, through heedlefsnefs in this refpeft,
expole themfelves and families to confiderable trouble
and lofs, which by attention might be eafily avoided.
In the fame way, fhouid a minifter and feffion, without
the intervention of a treafurer regularly conftituted,
lend upon bond or otherwife any of the poor’s funds,
and fliould the perfon fo borrowing afterwards fail,
thefe lenders are perfonally liable to make good the
whole, and any heritor in the pariffi who choofes it can
compel him to do fo.
The members of the feffion are alfo liable to pay all
Ioffes, and to account for all fums that it can be in-
8 ftrufted
Poor.
POO r 375
ftruaed they received, if they neglect to keep regular tnous
books, in which every tranfa&ion fhall be entered : Or,
if thefe books have not been reviled and approved oi
by the prefbytery (a) ; but if they fhall have been io re-
vifed, '.hey cannot be challenged for omiffion of forms,
and can only be made to account for errors, or frauds,
or evident dilapidations.
Under this wife and economical fyftem of manage¬
ment, it has been found by the experience of more than
200 years, that in the low parts of the country, where
the parifhes are in general of fuch moderate extent as
to admit of the people of every part of the panlh ge¬
nerally to attend divine fervice every Lord's day, the
ordinary funds have been amply fufficient to fupply ail
the real demands of the poor, and in moft parilhes a
fund has been accumulated from the favings of ordinary
years to help the deficiencies that may arile in years of
uncommon fcarcity. .
Beikles the weekly collections, the extra offerings at
the adminiftration of the Lord’s fupper, the pious do¬
nations of charitable individuals, which are all voluntary,
together with fome fmall fees paid tor the ufe of a mort-
cloth (a black velvet pall) at funerals, which is generally
purchafed with the poor’s money, go to make up this
parochial fund. Nor muft any one believe that the mo¬
ney which comes through the hands of the adminiitia-
tors of the poor’s funds is all that is bellowed upon
the poor m Scotland far from it: there aie a thou-
fand other channels through which the indigent derive
eonfolation and fuppert, all of them tending to produce
the happieft effeCfs upon fociety. A fon feels himfelf
afhamed to think that his parents fhould require the af-
kitance of another to fupport them ; he therefore ftrains
«nVery nerve when in the vigour of life to fpaie a little
uf his earning to render their old age moreyafy than it
might have been ; and fweet to a parent is the bread
that is given by the pious attention of a child. If
t-here are feveral children, they become emulous who
ihall difeover mofl. kindnefs. It is a pious contention
which ferves to unite them the clofer to each other, by
commanding their mutual efteem.
Dire&ly contrary to this is the effeCt of the poor
laws of England, where, in London at leaft, it is not
wncornmon to fee men in good bufinefs negledipg then
aged and difeafed parents for no better reafon than that
the panfh is bound to find them bread. "I hefe laws
have other pernicious confequences ; for they are ob-
•vioufly fubverfive of induftry as well as morality among
the lower orders of the people. “ This is a heavy
charge, but no lefs true than heavy. Fear of want is
the only effeClual motive to induftry with the labouring
poor : remove that fear, and they ceafe to be induftri-
ous. The ruling paffion of thofe who live by bodily
labour, is to fave a pittance for their children, and for
fupporting themfelves in old age. Stimulated by defire
af accomplifhing thofe ends, they are frugal and induf-
1 POP
and the profpeCl of fuccefs is a continual reaft
to them. Now, what worfe can malice invent againft
fuch a man, under colour of friendfliip, than to fecure
bread to him and his children whenever he takes a dif-
like to work ; which effectually deadens his foie ambi¬
tion, and with it his honeft indultry ? Relying on the
certainty of a provifion againft want, he relaxes gra¬
dually till he finks into idlenefs ; idleneis leads to pro¬
fligacy ; profligacy begets difeafes ; and the wretch be¬
comes an objeCf of public charity before he has run
half his courfe. Wifely therefore is it ordered by Pro¬
vidence, that charity fhould in every inftance be volun¬
tary, to prevent the idle and profligate from depending
on it for fupport. During the reign of Elizabeth, when
the monafteries were recently fuppreffed, and all their
revenues fquandered, fome compulfion might be necei-
fary to prevent the poor from ftarving. A temporary
provifion for this purpofe, fo contrived as not to iuper-
fede voluntary charity, but rather to promote it, would
have been a meafure extremely proper. Unlucky it is
for England that fuch a meafure was overlooked ; bi-t
the queen and her parliaments had not the talent of fore-
feeing confequences without the aid of expenenct. A
perpetual tax for the poor was impofed, the moft per¬
nicious tax, fays Lord Kames(n), that ever was impo¬
fed in any country.”
POPA-madre, is a town ©f South America, in
Terra Firma. In this place there is a convent and
chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary, to whofe image
the Spaniards in thofe parts go in pilgrimage, particu¬
larly thofe who have been at fea. It is feated on a high
mountain, 50 miles eaft of Carthagena. W\ Long. 74*
32. N. Lat. 10. 15.
POPtE. See VicrmARius.
POPAYAN, a province of South America, in the;
kingdom of New Granada, between the audience of Pa¬
nama, that of Quito, and the South Sea ; 400 miles in
length, and 300 in breadth. A chain of barren moun¬
tains runs through the country from north to fouth ;
and near the fea the foil is 10 foaked with almoft con¬
tinual rains, that few care to refide there, except for the
fake of the gold that is met with in great plenty 11^the
fands of the rivulets. This bewitching metal brings
many in fearch of it, though it is a great doubt whether
they ever return back alive or not. For this reafon the
favage Americans are ftill matters of a great part oi it,
and continually annoy the Spaniards.
Popavan, the capital town of a province of that
name in South America, with a biihop’s fee, a Spaniih
governor, and where the courts of juftice are held. The
inhabitants are almoft all Creoles. It is 220 miles
north-eaft of Quito. W. Long. 75- 55* ^‘at* 2’ 35*
POPE, a name winch comes from the Greek word
nata, and fignifies Father. _ In the eaft this appellation
is given to all Chiiftian priefts; and in the weft, bi-
ihops were called by it in ancient times: but now for
fThe pfefbytery i» by law appointed auditor of the poor’s accounts of the fevcral parifhes withifi it.
bounds jand^f they find any difficult cafe occur in thedifeharge of tins duty, they may lay ,t before the fjnod
‘“'(Bj'see Sketches of Man, book 11. (ketch 10. where many other arguments equally
all involuntary poor-rates^ and where many ingenious expedients are propofed for gradual y 6
%hey are eftablfflred.
POP [37
pore< many centuries It has been appropriated to the bifliop
0f Rome, whom the Roman Catholics look upon as the
common father of all Chriftians.
Much has been faid, much written, and many warm
difputes have been carried on concerning the pope, and
the power belonging to him, within thefe two or three
laft centuries. We firall here, without entering into
controverfy, lay down diilinftly, from the bell authori¬
ty, what the Roman Catholics really believe concerning
the pope, after having defcribed the manner of his elec¬
tion ; and we fhall give fome other particulars relating
to this fubjeil that ieem to deferve notice, and are in
this country not generally known.
All in communion with the fee of Rome unanimouny
hold, that our Saviour Jefus Chrift conftituted St Peter
the apoftle chief pallor under himfelf, to watch over his
whole flock here on earth, and to preferve the unity of
it; giving him the power requifite for thefe ends. They
alfo believe, that our Saviour ordained, that St Peter
fhould have fucceflbrs with the like charge and power,
to the end of time. Now, as St Peter redded at Rome
for many years, and fuffered martyrdom there, they con-
fider the bilhops of Rome as his fucceflbrs in the dig¬
nity and office of the univerfal pallor of the whole Ca¬
tholic church. There have been fome varieties in the
manner of choofmg the bilhop of Rome in different
ages, as alterations may'be made in difcipline ; but Hill
the clergy of Rome have jullly had the chief part in
that eleblion : and that clergy is now reprefented by,
or in fome manner confills of, the cardinals, who have
for feveral centuries been the foie eledlors of the pope.
Thefe cardinals or principal perfons of the church of
Rome are 70 in number, when the facred college, as it is
ealled, is complete. Of thefe fix are cardinal bilhops,
the bilheps of Ollia, of Porto, Albano, Sabino, Tufcu-
lum or Frafcati, and Praenelle or Paldlrina; which are
the fix fuburbicarian churches; fifty are cardinal priells,
who have all titles from parilh churches in Rome ; and
fourteen are cardinal deacons, who have their titles from
churches in Rome of lefs note, called Diaconias or Deacon-
ries. Thefe cardinals are created by the pope when there
happen to be vacancies 5 and fometimes he names one
or two only at a time ; but commonly he defers the
promotion until there be ten or twelve vacancies or
more ; and then at every fecond fuch promotion the
emperor, the kings of Spain and France, and of Bri¬
tain, when Catholic, are allowed to prefent one each,
to be made cardinal, whom the pope always admits if
there be not fome veiy great and evident objeblion.
Thefe cardinals are commonly promoted from among
fuch clergymen as have borne offices in the Roman
court; fome are aflumed from religious orders ; emi¬
nent eccleliallics of other countries are likewife often
honoured with this dignity, as the archbilhops of To¬
ledo and Vienna are at prefent cardinal priells of Rome.
Sons of fovereign princes have frequently been members
of the facred college; and there ends the direct line of
•the royal family of Stuart. Their diflindtive drefs is
icaiiet, to fignify that they ought to be ready to Ihed
their blood for the faith and church, when the defence
and honour of either require it. They wear a fcarlet
cap and hat : the cap is given to them by the pope if
they are at Rome, and is fent to them if they are ab-
ient; but the hat is never given but by the pope’s own
hand. Thefe cardinals form the pope’s Handing coun-
6 ] POP
cil or conjtftory for the management of the public affaiis Papa,
of church and Hate. They are divided into different —-y—**
congregations for the more eafy difpatch of bufinefs; and
fome of them have the principal offices in the pontifi¬
cal court, as that of cardinal-vicar—penitentiary—charir
cellor—camerlingo or chamberlain—prefeft of the figna- -
ture of jultice—prefeil of memorials—and fecretary of
Hate. Fney have the title given them of eminence and
mojl eminent. But here we confider them principally as
the perfons entrulled with the choice of the pope. See
CARDINAL.
. On the demife of a pope his pontifical feal is imme¬
diately broken by the chamberlain, and all public bufi¬
nefs is interrupted that can be delayed : meflengers are
difpatched to all the Catholic fovereigns to acquaint
them of the event, that they may take what meafures
they think proper ; and that the cardinals in their do¬
minions, if any there be, may haften to the future elec¬
tion if they choofe to attend; whilll the whole atten¬
tion of the facred college is turned to the prefervation
of tranquillity in the city and ftate, and to the neceflary
preparations for the future ele&ion. The cardinal cham¬
berlain has, during the vacancy of the holy fee, great
authority ; he coins money with his own arms on it,
lodges in the pope’s apartments, and is attended by
body-guards. He, and the firil cardinal bifliop, the
firft cardinal prieft, and the firfl: cardinal deacon, have,
during that time, the government almoft entirely in
their hands. The body of the deceafed pope is carried
to St Peter’s, where funeral fervice is performed for
him with great pomp for nine days, and the cardinals
attend there every morning. In the mean time, all ne¬
ceflary preparations for the eledlion are made; and the
place where they aflemble for that purpofe, which is
called the conclave, is fitted up in that part of the Vati¬
can palace which is neareft to St Peter’s church, as this
has long been thought the moll convenient fit nation.
Here is formed by partitions of wood a number of cells
or chambers equal to the number of cardinals, with a
fmall diftance between every two, and a broad gallery
before them. A number is put on every cell, and
fmall papers with correfponding numbers are put into a
box : every cardinal, or fome one for him, draws out
one of thefe papers, which determines in what cell he
is to lodge. The cells are lined with cloth ; and there
is a part of each one feparated for the condavifts or at¬
tendants, of whom two are allowed to each cardinal,
and three to cardinal princes. They are perfons of
fome rank, and generally of great confidence; but they
muff carry in their mafter’s meals, ferve him at table,
and perform all the offices of a menial fervant. Two
phyficians, two furgeons, an apothecary, and fome other
neceflary officers, are chofen for the conclave by the
cardinals.
On the xoth day after the pope’s death, the cardi¬
nals, who are then at Rome, and in a competent ftate
of health, meet in the chapel of St Peter’s, which is
called the Gregorian chapel, where a fennon on the
choice of a pope is preached to them, and mafs is faid
for invoking the grace of the Holy Ghoft. Then the
cardinals proceed to the conclave in proceflion two by
two, and take up their abode. When all is properly
fettled, the conclave is fnut up, having boxed wheels or
places of communication in convenient quarters; there
are alfo ftrong guards placed all around. When any
foreign
POP [3
Foreicrn cardinal arrives after the inclofure, the conclave
is opened for his admiffion. In the beginning every
cardinal figns a paper, containing an obligation, that it
he lhall be raifed to the papal chair he will not alienate
any part of the pontifical dominion; that he will not be
prodigal to his relations; and any other fuch ftipulations
as may have been fettled in former times or framed for
that occafion. # .
We come now to the election itfelf; and that this
may be effedual, two thirds of the cardinals prefent
muft vote for the fame perfon. As this is often not
eafily obtained, they fometimes remain whole months in
the conclave. They meet in the chapel twice every
day for giving their votes ; and the eledion may be
effe&uated by fcrutiny, accejfwn, or acclamation. Scru¬
tiny is the ordinary method ; andconfifts in this: every
cardinal writes his own name on the inner part of a
piece of paper, and this is folded up and fealed ; on a
fecond fold of the fame paper a conclavift writes the
name of the perfon for whom his mailer votes. I his,
accordino- to agreements obferved for fome centuries,
muft be one of the facred college.- On the outer fide
of the paper is written a fentence at random, which the
voter muft well remember. Tvery cardinal, on enter¬
ing into the chapel, goes to the altar and puts his paper
into a large chalice.
When all are convened, two cardinals number the
votes ; and if there are more or lefs than the number of
cardinals prefent, the voting muft be repeated. When
that is not the cafe, the cardinal appointed for the pur-
pofe reads the outer fentence, and the name of the car¬
dinal under it, fo that each voter hearing his own fen¬
tence and the name joined with it, knows that theie is
no miftake. The names of all the ca-rdinals that are
voted for are taken down in writing, with the number
of votes for each ; and when it appears that any one
has two-thirds of the number prefent in his favour the
election is over: but when this does not happen, the
voting papers are all immediately burnt without open-
incr up the inner part. When feveral trials of coming
to&a conclufion by this method of fcrutiny have been
made in vain, recourfe is fometimes had to what is call¬
ed accehon. By it, when a cardinal perceives that one
' or very few votes are wanting to any one for whom he
had not voted at that time, he may fay that he accedes
to the one who has near the number of votes requifite ;
and if his one vote fuffices to make up the two-thirds,
or if he is followed by a fufficient number of acceders or
new voters for the faid cardinal, the ele&ion is accom-
plilhed. Laftly, a pope is fometimes ekfted by accla¬
mation ; and that is, when a cardinal, being pretty fure
that he will be joined by a number fufficient, cries out
in the open chapel, that fuch an one ilrall be pope,
he is fupported properly, the eleftion becomes unani¬
mous; tliofe who would perhaps oppofe it foreleeing
that their oppofition would be fruitlefs, and rather huit-
ful to themfelves. It is to be obferved, that the empe¬
ror of Germany and the kings of France and Spam
claim a right of excluding one cardinal from being pope
at every election. Hence, when the ambaffador at Rome
of any of thefe fovereigns perceives that any cardinal,
difagreeable to his matter, according to the inftru&ions
he has received, is like to be made.pope, he demands
an audience of the conclave, is admitted, and there de
glares his matter’s will, which is always attended to tor
Vol. XV. Part I.
7 ] POP
the common .good. But each of thofe fovereigns is al-
lowed thus to exclude only one at one time ; and they
unwillingly and feldom put this right in execution.
When a pope is chofen in any of the three above-
mentioned ways, the ele&ion is immediately announced
from the balcony in the front of St Peter’s, homage is
paid to the new pontiff, and couriers are fent off with
the news to all parts of Chriftendom. The pope ap¬
points a day for his coronation at St Peter’s, and for
his taking poffeffion of the patriarchal church of St John
Lateran ; all which is performed with great folemmty.
He is addreffed by the expreffion of Hohnf/s, and mojl
holy Father. ft .
Let us now proceed to fee what authority Roman
Catholics attribute to the pope thus chofen. They be¬
lieve, then, that the bifhop or Rome is, undei
fupreme paftor of the whole church ; and as fuch is not
only the firft bifhop in order and dignity, but has alfo
a power and jurifdi&ion over all Chriftians, in order to
preferve unity and purity of faith and moral do&nne,
and to maintain order and regularity in all churches.
Wherefore they hold, that when the pope underttands
that any error has been broached againft faith or man¬
ners, or that any confiderable difference on fuc.i fubje&s
has arifen in any part of Chriftendom, it belongs to him,
after due deliberation and confultation, to iffue out his
paftoral decree, condemning the error, clearing up the
doubt, and declaring what has been delivered down, and
what is to be believed. Some Catholic divines are of
opinion that the pope cannot err, when he thus ad-
dreffes himfelf to all the faithful. on matters of do&rine.
They well know, tnat as a private do&or he may fall
into miftakes as well as any other man ; but they think,
that when he teaches the whole church Providence muft
preferve him from error} and they apprehend, that this
may be deduced from the promifes of Chrift to St Pe¬
ter, and from the writings of the ancient fathers. How¬
ever, this infallibility of the pope, even when he pro¬
nounces in the moft folemn manner, is only an opinion,
and not an article of Roman Catholic faith. Where¬
fore, when he fends for the do&rinal decrees,. the other
biffiops, who are alfe guardians of the faith in an infe¬
rior degree, may, with due refpe&, examine thefe de¬
crees ; and if they fee them agree with what has been
always taught, they either formally fignify their accep¬
tance, or they tacitly acquiefce, which, confidei mg then
duty, is equivalent to a formal approbation. When the
acceptation of the generality of the biffiops has been
obtained, either immediately or after fome mutual cor-
refpondence and explanation, the decrees of the pope
thus accepted come to be the fentence of the whole
church, and are believed to be beyond the poffibility of
error! .
Sometimes it may happen that the difputes and dif¬
ference may be fo great and intricate, tnat to the end
it may be feen more clearly what has really been delivered
down ; and to give all poffible fatisfa&ion, it may appear
proper to convene all the biffiops who can conveniently
attend to one place, to learn from them more di-
ftin&ly what has been taught and held in their refpec-
tive churches. Rom itn Catholics believe that it be¬
longs to the pope to call fuch general councils, and to
prefide in them in perfon or by his legates. They
likewife hold, that when the pope has approved the
decrees of fuclv councils concerning faith or manners,
^ B fuch
IP O P
K>pe. fucTK decrees are then final, and rmifl be received as
—y—■' fuch by all Catholics. In all this they believe, that the
particular afliftance of the Holy Ghoft is with the pa¬
llors of the church, that fo the gates of hell may never
prevail againjl her.
The fee of Rome, according to Roman Catholics, is
the centre of Catholic unity. All their bifhops com¬
municate with the pope, and by his means with one an¬
other, and fo form one body. However dillant their
particular churches may be, they all meet at Rome ei¬
ther in perfon or by their delegates, or at leall by their
letters. And, according to the difeipline of the latter
ages, though they are prefented to the pope for their
office from their refpeftive countries, yet from him they
mull receive their bulls of confecration before they can
take poffeffion of their fees.
In matters of church difeipline, the pope, as chief
pallor, not only ought to take care that the canons
aftually in force be obferved in all churches, but he may
alfo make new canons and regulations when he fees it
neceflary or expedient for the fpiritual benefit of the
faithful, according to times and circumftances. But in
doing this he mull not infringe the ellablilhed rights or
cultoms with injury to any perfon ; which if, through
millake or wrong information, he fhould ever do, the
perfons who think themfelves aggrieved may remon-
11 rate with refpeft and fue for redrefs. He may efta-
blifh new epifcopal fees, where there have been none
before ; and he may alter the limits of former diocefes ;
but in fuch alterations he always of courfe confults the
temporal fovereign, if in communion with him. He
fends pallors to preach the gofpel to all countries where
the Catholic religion is not by law ellablilhed ; and to
him appeals may be made from all parts of Chriltendom
in ecclefiallical caufes of great importance.
The pope may difpenfe with the obfervation of ec-
clefiaflieal canons when there are juft reafons for it, as
may frequently happen; he may alfo difpenfe with vows
when they are made with that exprefs or tacit condi¬
tion ( a ) that he really may difpenfe with them ; he
may alfo on fome occafions declare that obligations
have really ceafed when that is truly the cafe, from a
great alteration of circumftances : But he can never
grant any difpenfation, to the injury of any third per¬
fon, and can never allow any one to do what is unjuft,
or to fay what he knows to be falfe, whatever advan¬
tage might be expedled from it.
The pope is alfo a temporal prince, and poffelTes
■confiderable dominions in the middle part of Italy, be-
lides Avignon, which the French have lately taken from
him, and the duchy'- of Benevento inclofed wdthin the
kingdom of Naples. It is alfo fuppofed that the king¬
doms of Naples and Sicily, and the duchies of Parma
and Placentia, are ftill held of him in fief as they were
before. His predecelfors have acquired thefe polfeffions
at different times and on different occafions, by various
donations concefSons, treaties, and agreements, in like
manner as has happened with regard to the eftablifh-
ment of other fovereignties; and his title to them is
like to that of other potentates to their refpedtive pof-
ieffions. The revenue arifing from this eftate, and
[ 378 1
POP
what he receives for various reafons from Catholic coun¬
tries, which is now much reduced, is employed for the '
fupport of government, in falaries to the officers of his
court, for the education of clergymen, and for the
maintaining of miffionaries in infidel countries. Great
fums are particularly expended for the propagation of
the Chriftian faith in different parts of Afia, efpecially
in Armenia, Syria, and China. Nor is it much to be
wondered at, if the families, of wdiich the fovereign
pontiffs happen to have been born, acquire greater
riches and fplendor from that conneftion. The prince¬
ly families of Barberini, Borghefe, Chigi, Corfini, Al-
bani, are examples of this kind : but regulations have
been made in later times to prevent exceffive nepotifm.
Beyond the limits of his owm temporal dominions the
pope has no temporal power or jurifdidtion, excepting
what any nation may be pleafed to allow' him : when'
any thing of that kind has been granted or brought in
by cuftom, it is evident that it ought not to be taken
aw-ay ralhly nor without juft reafon. But, as chief
pallor of the church, he has no right to any temporal
jurifdi&ion ovjer his flock. As fuch, his pow'er is en¬
tirely' fpiritual, and has no means of coercion originally
or neceffarily connedled with it, but only ecclefiaftical
cenfures. It muft be owned, that the popes, in fome
ages, fometimes imagining that they could do much
good, fometimes by the confent, or even at the defire,
of the fovereigns, and fometimes no doubt out of am¬
bitious views', have interfered a great deal in the tempo¬
ral affairs of the different kingdoms of Europe, which
has frequently given fcandal and done harm to religion.
But it is known to thofe moft verfant in hiftory, that
their faults of this kind have been exaggerated, and
their conduft often mifunderftood or mifreprefented.
However, in this a Roman Catholic is not obliged to
approve wdrat they have done ; nay, without acting
contrary to his religion, he may judge of them freely,
and blame them if he think they deferve it ; only he
wall do it w'ith refpedt and regret. Thus a Roman Ca¬
tholic may either apologife, if he think he can do it,
for the conduct of Innocent III. in depofing king John
of England ; or, without being guilty of any offence
again!! his religion, he may blame the pontiff for w'hat
he did on that occafion; becaufe the power of the pope
to depofe princes, or to abfolve fubjefts from their al¬
legiance, w'as never propofed as an article of faith, or
made a term of communion with the church of Rome.
Some Catholic divines, indeed, efpecially among the Je-
fuits, are univerfally known to have held this extrava¬
gant and dangerous opinion ; but by far the greater
part of them condemn and abhor it as abfurd and im¬
pious : and furely it is but fair and juft to allow them
to know bell what they themfelves believe. And here,
to conclude, we fhall add, that it is very' definable that
Chriftians of all denominations endeavour to underftand
one another better than they' have often done ; and in-
llead of fuppofing imaginary differences, ftrive to remove
real ones, for the general good of mankind, for the glory-
of God, and honour of religion ; and that all vie wfithr
one another to excel in juft and charitable fentiments,
language, and behaviour.
The
Pope.
(•a) Any other man may unqueftionably do the fame when they axe made with that exprefs condition
POP [3
Pftpe. The reader, who wishes to know what can be urged
—~y—~- for and againft the fupremaey of the pope, and who is
fitted by his knowledge of ecclefialtiea! hiftory to un-
derftand the nature of the queftion at iffue, may confult,
on the one hand, the works of Bellarmine, together
with a fmall tract lately publiihed in Engliih, under the
title of The Divine Economy of Chrifi in his K ingdom or
Church ; and on the other, Barrow’s treatife on the
Pope's Supremacy, together with Chillingworth’s Reli¬
gion of Protefants, See,
Pope (Alexander), a celebrated Englifh poet, was
defeended from good families, and born the 8th of
June 1688, at London, where his father was then a
coniiderable merchant. He was taught to read very
early by an aunt; and learned to write without any af-
fiftance, by copying printed books, 1 he family being
of the Romifh religion, he was put, at eight years of
age, under one Taverner, a prieft, who taught him the
rudiments of the Latin and Greek tongues together ;
and foon after was fent to a Popifh feminary at Win-
chefter, from whence he was removed to a fchool at
Hyde-Park Corner. He difeovered early an inclination
to verfifying ; and the tranflations of Ogilby and San-
dys from Virgil and Ovid firft falling in his way, they
were his favourite authors. At twelve he retired with
his parents to Bintield, in WHdior horeil ; and theie
became acquainted with the writings of Spenfer, Wal¬
ler, and Dryden. Dry den ftruck him moil, probably
becaufe the call of that poet was moil congenial with
his own ; and therefore he not only ftudied his works
intenfely, but ever after mentioned him with a kind of
rapturous veneration. He once obtained a fight of him
at a coffee-houfe, but never was known to him : a mis¬
fortune which he laments in thefe fhort but exprefiive
words, Pirgilium tantum vicli.* I hough Pope had been
under more tutors than one, yet it feems they were fo
infufficient for the purpofe of teaching, that he had learn¬
ed very little from them: fo that, being obliged afterwards
to begin all over again, he may jultly be confidered as one
of the a-jhSJayCloi or felf-taiight. At fifteen he had ac¬
quired a readmefs in the two learned languages ; to
which he foon after added the French and Italian. He
had already fcribbled a great deal of poetry in various
ways ; and this year fet about an epic poem called Ac
cander. He long after communicated it to Atterbury,
with a declared intention to burn it ; and that friend
concurred with him : “ Though (adds he) I would
have interceded for the firft page, and put it, with your
leave, among my curiofities.” What the poet himfelf
obferves upon thefe early pieces is agreeable enough ;
and {hows, that though at firft a little intoxicated with
the waters of Helicon, he afterwards ailived to great
fobriety of thinking. “ I confefs (fays he) there was
a time when I was in love with myfelf ; and my frit
productions were the children of belf-love upon Inno¬
cence. I had made an epic poem, and panegyrics on
all the princes; and I thought myfelf the greateft ge¬
nius that ever was. I cannot but regret thefe delight¬
ful vifions of my childhood, which, like the fine colours
we fee when our eyes are (hut, are vanifhed for ever.”
His paftorals, begun in 1704, firft introduced him to
the wits of the time; among which were Wycherly and
Walfh. This laft gentleman proved a iincere friend to
him ; and foon diicerning that his talent lay, not fo
much in itriking out new thoughts of his own, as in
79 1 pot*
improving thofe of other men, and in an eafy verfifica- ^
tion, told him, among other things, that there wag one
way left open for him to excel his predeceiTors in, which
was correctnefs : obferving, that though we had feve-
ral great poets, yet none of them were corredL Pope
took the hint, and turned it to good account; for no
doubt the diftinguifhing harmony of his numbers was
in a great meafure owing to it. The fame year, I7°4>
he wrote the firft part of his Windfor Foreft, though
the whole was not publifhed till 1710. In 1708, he
wrote the Efiay on Criticifm : which produdtion was
juftly efteemed a mafterpiece in its kind, and {bowed
not only the peculiar turn of his talents, but that thofe
talents, young as he was, were ripened into perfeftion.
He was not yet twenty years old ; and yet the matu¬
rity of judgment, the knowledge of the world, and the
penetration into human nature, difplayed in that piece,
were fucli as would have done honour to the greateft
abilities and experience. But whatever may Ife the
merit of the Eftay on Criticifm, it was ftill fu; puffed,
in a poetical view, by the Rape of the Lock, firft com¬
pletely publifiied in 1712. The former excelled in the
didactic way, for which he was peculiarly formed; a clear
head, ftrong fenfe, and a found judgment, being his cha-
rafteriftical qualities ; but it is the creative power of the
imagination that conftitutes what is properly called a
poet; and therefore it is in the Rape of the Lock that
Pope principally appears one, there being more vis
imagine!ndi difplayed in this poem than perhaps in all
his other works put together. In 1713, he gave out
propofals for publilhing a tranflation of Homer’s Iliad,
by fubfeription ; in which all parties concurred fo hear-
tilv, that he acquired a confiderable fortune by it.
The fubfeription amounted to 62001. befides 1200I.
which Lintot the bookfeller gave him for the copy.
Pope’s finances being now in good condition, he pur-
chafed a houfe at Twickenham, whither he removed
with his father and mother in 17x5: where the for¬
mer died about two years after. As he was a Papift,
he could not purchafe, nor put his money to intereft
on real fecurity ; and as he adhered to the caufe of
King James, he made it a point of confcience not to
lend it to the new government ; fo that, though he was
worth near 20,0001. when he laid afide bufmefs, yet, li¬
ving afterwards upon the quick ftock, he left but a {len¬
der fubfiftance to his family. Our poet, however, did not
fail to improve it to the utmoft: he had already acqui¬
red much by his publications, and he was all attention
to acquire more. In 1717, he publifned a colleftion
of all he had printed feparately ; and proceeded to give
a new edition of Shakefpeare ; which, beuig publifhed
in 1721, difeovered that he had confulted his fortune
more than his fame in that undertaking. I he Iliad
being finifhed, he engaged upon the like footing to
undertake the Odyfley. Mr Broome and Mr Fenton
did part of it, and received 500!. of Mr Pope for their
labours. It was publifiied in the fame manner, and on
the fame conditions to Lintot; excepting that, inftead,
of 120c 1. he had but 600I. for the copy. I his work
being finifhed in 1725, he was afterwards employed
with Swift and Arbuthnot in printing fome volumes
of Mifcellanies. About this time he narrowly efcaped
lofing his life, as he was returning home ill a friend s
chariot ; which, on palling a bridge, happened to be
overturned, and thrown with the horfes into the river.
3 B 2 ™
F'lpf.
POP [ 380 ] P~ O P
The glaffes were up, and he was not able to break them :
fo that he had immediately been drowned, if the po-
ftilion had not broke them, and dragged him out to
the bank. A fragment of the glafs, however, cut him
fo defperately, that he ever after loll the ufe of two of
his fingers. In 1727 his 1)unciad appeared in Ireland;
and the year after in England, with notes by Swift,
under the name of Scribltrus. This edition was pre-
fented to the king and queen by Sir Robert Walpole;
who, probably about this time, offered to procure Pope
a peniion, which however he refufed, as he had for¬
merly done a propofal of the fame kind made him by
Lord Halifax. He greatly cultivated the fpirit of in¬
dependency ; and “ Unplac’d, unpenfion’d, no man’s
heir or flave,” was frequently his boalt. He fome-
where obferves, that the-life of an author is a ftate of
warfare : he has fhown himfelf a complete general in
this way of warring. He bore the infults and injuries
of his enemies long ; but at length, in the Dunciad,
made wr abfolutely univerfal flaughter of them: for
even Cibber, who was afterwards advanced to be the
hero of it, could not forbear owning, that nothing was
ever more perfeA and finifhed in its kind than this poem.
In 1 729, by the advice of Lord BoKngbroke, he turn¬
ed his pen to fubjefts of morality ; and accordingly
we find him, with the affiftance of that noble friend,
who furnifhed him with the mateiials, at work this year
upon the Eflay on Man. The following extrabb of a
letter to Swift difcovers the reafon of his Lordlhip’s
advice : “ Bid him (fays Bolingbroke) talk to you of
the work he is about, I hope in good earnelt ; it is a
fine one, and will be, in his hands, an original. His
foie complaint is, that he finds it too eafy in the exe¬
cution. This flatters his lazinefs : it flatters my judge¬
ment ; who always thought, that, univerfal as his ta¬
lents are, this is eminently and peculiarly his, above all
the writers I know, living or dead ; I do not except
Llorace.” Pope tells the dean in the next letter, that
“ the work Lord Bolingbroke fpeaks of with fnch
abundant partiality, is a fyflem of ethics, in the Ho-
ratian way.” In purfuing the fame defign, he wrote
his Ethic Epiftles: the fourth of which, upon Tafte,
giving great offence, as he was fuppofed to ridicule the
duke of Chandos under the character of Timon, is
laid to have put him upon writing fatires, -which he
continued till 1739. He ventured to attack perfons of
the highefl rank, and fet no bounds to his fatirical
rage. A genuine collection of his letters was pub!hir¬
ed in 1737* In i73^> a French tranflation of the
Effay on Man, by the Abbe Refuel, -was printed at
I aris ; and Mr Croufaz, a German profeflor, animad¬
verted upon this fyftem of ethics, which he reprefented as
nothing elfe but a fyflem of naturalifm. Mr Waibui ton,
afterwards bifhop of Gloucefler, wrote a commentary
upon the Effay ; in which he defends it againfl Crou¬
faz, whofe objections he fuppofes owing to the faulti-
nefs of the Abbe Refnel’s tranflation. The poem was
repunhfhed 174°> with the commentary^ Our au¬
thor now added a fourth book to the Dunciad, which
was fir ft printed feparately in 1742 ; but the year af¬
ter, the whole poem came out together, as a fpecimen
ot a more correct edition of his works. He had made
feme progrefs in that defign, but did not live to com¬
plete it. He had all his life long been fubjea to the
head-ach; and that complaint, which he derived from
his mother, was now greatly increafed by a dropfy m
his breaft, under which he expired the 30th of May
1744, in the 56th year of his age. In his will, dated
December 1?. 1743, Mifs Blount, a lady to whom he
was always devoted, was made his heir during her life :
and among other legacies, he bequeathed to Mr War-
burton the property of all fuch of his w-orks, already
printed, as he had wuitten, or fhould write commenta¬
ries upon, and which had not otherwufe been difpofed of
or alienated ; with this condition, that they were pub-
lifhed without future alterations. In difeharge of this
truft, that gentleman gave a complete edition of all Mr
Pope’s w'orks, 1751, in 9 vols, 8vo. A work, enti¬
tled, /hi EJfay on the Writings and Genius of Pope, bv
Mr Warton, 2 vols 8vo, will be read with plcafure by
thofe who defire to knowr more of the perfon, charac¬
ter, and writings of this excellent poet. Lord Orrery’s
account of him is very flattering: “ If wfe may judge
of him by his wwks (fays this noble author), his chief
aim wTas to be efleemed a man of virtue. His letters
are written in that ftyle ; his laft volumes are all of the
moral kind ; he has avoided trifles, and confequently
has efcaped a rock which has proved very injurious to
Swift’s reputation. He has given his imagination full
fcope, and yet has preferved a perpetual guard upon
his condurit. The conftitution of his body and mind
might really incline him to the habits of caution and re-
ferve. The treatment which he met with afterwards,
from an innumerable tribe of adversaries, confirmed this
habit; and made him flower than the dean in pronoun¬
cing his judgment upon perfons and things. His profe-
writings are little lefs harmonious than his verfe ; and
his voice, in common converfation. was fo naturally mu-
fical, that I remember honeft Tom Southern ufed to
call him the little nightingale. His manners were deli¬
cate, eafy, and engaging ; and he treated his friends
with a politenefs that charmed, and a generofity that
was much to his honour. Every guefl was made happy
within his doors ; pleafure dwelt under his roof, and
elegance prefided at his table.”
Yet, from Dr Johnfon’s account of his domeftic ha¬
bits, we have reafon to doubt the latter part of this
character. His parfimony (he informs us) appeared
in very petty matters, fuch as writing his compofitions
on the backs of letters, or in a niggardly reception of
his friends, and a fcantinefs of entertainment—as the
fetting a hngle pint on the table to two friends, when,
having himfelf taken two fmall glafles, he would retire,
laying, I leave you to your wine. He fometimes,
however, the Doritor acknowledges, made a fplendid
dinner ; but this happened feldom. He was very full
of his ^fortune, and frequently ridiculed poverty ; and
he feems to have been of an opinion not very uncom¬
mon in the world, that to want money is to want every
thing. He was almoft equally proud of his connexion
with the great, and often boalled that he obtained their
notice by no meannefs or fervility. This admiration of
the great inefeafed in the advance of life ; yet we muft
acknowledge, that he could derive but little honour
from the notice of Cobham, Burlington, or Boling¬
broke.
By natural deformity, or accidental diftortion, his
vital functions were fo much difordered, that his life
was a long difeafe ; and from this caufe arofe many of
Ins peculiarities and weakneiles. He flood couflantly
POP [3s
p^pe. in need of female attendance; and to avoid cold, of
-—v  which he was very fenfible, he wore a lur doublet un¬
der his (hirt, &c. The indulgence and accommodation
which his ficknefs required, had taught him all the un-
plcafing and unfocial qualities of a valetudinary man.—-
When he wanted to fleep, he nodded in company ; and
once Numbered at his own table when the prince of
Wales was talking of poetry. He was extremely trou-
blefome to fuch of his friends as alked him out, which
many of them frequently did, and plagued the fervants
beyond defeription. His love of eating is another fault
to^which he is faid to have fallen a facrifice. _ In all
his intercourfe with mankind, he had great delight in
artifice, and endeavoured to attain all his purpoies by
indireift and unfufpedfed methods.
In familiar converfation.it is faid he never excelled;
and he was fo fretful and fo eafily difpleafed, that he
would fometimes leave Lord Oxford s filently without
any apparent reafon, and was to be courted back by
more letters and meffages than the fervants were willing
Dr Johnfon alfo gives a view of the intelle&ual cha-
ra&er of Pope, and draws a parallel between Dryden
and him. For particulars, however, we muff refer our
readers to Johnfon’s Lives oj the Poets.
Pope’s Dominions, or Ecclefinjlical States, a country
of Italy, bounded on the north by the gulph of Venice
and the Venetian dominions, on the fouth by the Me¬
diterranean, on the eafl by the kingdom of Naples and
the Adriatic, and on the weft by Tufcany and Mode¬
na. It is 400 miles long on the coaft of the Adriatic
from Naples to the Venetian territory. It is but nar¬
row, however, from north to fouth, not being more
than 80 miles broad from the gulph of Venice to the
Tufcan fea. ...
The foil, in general, of the pope’s dominions is very
fertile, but ill cultivated ; and there are many fens and
marfhy grounds which are very prejudicial to the air.
That the lands are badly cultivated and inhabited, the
air bad, and the inhabitants poor, idle, lazy, and
grofsly fuperftitious, is owing to a variety of caufes.
With refpedt to the accommodations of life, this country
is but in a very indifferent condition; for, notwithftanding
the fertility of its foil, its advantageous fituation for traf¬
fic, the large fums fpent in it by travellers, or remitted
to it from foreign countries, and its having, for its ruler,
thefucceffor of St Peter, the prince of the apoftles, and
the vicar of Jefus Chrift ; yet it is poor and thin of in¬
habitants, ill cultivated, and without trade and manu¬
factures. This is partly owing to the great number
of holidays, of fturdy beggars called pilgrims, and of
hofpitals and convents, with the amazing but perhaps uie-
lefs wealth of churches and convents, and the inquilition.
but the chief caufe is the feverity of the government,
and the grievous exaCtions and hardfhips to which the
fubjeCts are expofed. The legates, though moftly cler¬
gymen, whofe thoughts fhould be chiefly employed a-
bout laying up treafures in heaven, and who ought to
fet an example to the laity of difintereftednefs and a
contempt of this world, too often, it is faid, fcruple no
kind of rapacioufnefs : even the holy father himfelf, and
the cardinals, frequently make the enriching of their ne¬
phews and other relations, and the aggrandizing their
families, too much the bufinefs of their lives, i he exten-
five claims and great pretenfions of the pope are well
i 1 • POP
known, and by a large part of Chriftendom, are now
treated with conterppt and mockery. The Reforma-
tion gave a great blow to his fpintual power ; and the
French revolution has leffened it ftill more. His tem¬
poral dominions, however, ftill continue much the fame;
though how long this may be the cafe, confidering how
much he hath loft, and is daily lofing, of his gholtly em¬
pire, and the veneration in which he was formerly held,
it is difficult to fay. See Pope, p. 378^ col. 1. I he
Campania of Rome is under the pope’s immediate go¬
vernment ; but the other provinces are governed by
legates and vice-legates, and there-is a commander in
chief of the pope’s forces in every province. The pope
is chofen by the cardinals in the conclave : See this
particularly deferibed under Pope. 1 he pope holds
a confiftory of cardinals on ecclefiaftical affairs ; but
the cardinals do not meddle with his civil govern¬
ment. The pope’s chief minifter is the cardinal-
patron, ufually his nephew, who amaffes an immenfe
eftate, if the reign be of any long duration. I he cardi¬
nal that is chofen pope muft generally be an Italian, and
at leaft 55 years of age. The fpiritual power of the
pope, though far ffiort of what it was before tne Re¬
formation, is ftill confiderable. It is computed that
the monks and regular clergy, who are abfolutely at
his devotion, do not amount to Itfs than 2,000,000
of people, difperfed through all the Roman Catholic
countries, to affert his fupremacy over pi inces, and
promote the intereft of the church. The revenues of
thefe monks do not fall (hort of L. 20,000,000 Ster¬
ling, befides the cafual profits arifing from offer¬
ings, and the people’s bounty to the church, who are
taught that their falvation depends on this kind of be¬
nevolence.
The pope’s revenues, as a temporal prince, may a-
mount to about L. 1,000,000 Sterling per annum, ari¬
fing chiefly from the monopoly of corn, the duties on
wine and other provifions. Over and above thefe, valt
fums are continually flowing into the papal tieafury fioin
all the Roman Catholic countries, for difpenfations, in¬
dulgences, canonizations, annates, the pallia, and inve-
ftitures of archbilhops, bilhops, &c.
The pope has a confiderable body of regular forces,
well clothed and paid ; but his fleet confiits only of a
few galleys His life-guards are 40 Switzers, 75 cuiral-
iiers, and as many light horfe. Since the beginning of
this war, we are told, he has likewife had a guard of
Englifh horfe.
POPERY, in ecclefiaftical hiftcry, comprehends the
religious dodtrines and pradtices adopted and main¬
tained by the church of Rome. The following fummary,
extradled chiefly from the decrees of the council of
Trent, continued under Paul III. Julius III. and Pius
IV. from the year 1545 to 1563, by fucceffive feffions,
and the creed of pope Pius IV. fubjoined to it, and
bearing date November 1 564, may not be unacceptable
to the reader. One of the fundamental tenets, ftre-
nuoufly maintained by popilh writers, is the infallibi¬
lity of tire church of Rome ; though they are not
agreed whether this privilege belongs to the pope or a
general council, or to both united ; but they pretend
that an infallible living judge is abfolutely neceffary to
determine controverfies, and to fecure peace in the
Chriitian church. However, Proteftants allege, that
the claim of infallibility in any church is not juftified
POP L ! POP
'P«ref7> by the authority of Scripture ; much left does it per’
‘“““’'Y'-- tain to the church of Rome ; and that it is inconfilient
with the nature of religion, and the peffonal obliga¬
tions of its profeflbrs ; and that it has proved ineffec¬
tual to the end for which it i$ fuppofed to be granted,
iince popes and councils have dilagreed in matters of
importance, and they have been incapable, with the ad¬
vantage of this pretended infallibity, of maintaining
union and peace.
Another effential article of the popifh creed is the
fupremacy of the pope, or hisfovereign power over the
univerfal church. See Pope.
Farther, the doftrine of the feven facraments is a pe¬
culiar and diltinguilhingdo&rine of the church of Rome:
thefe are baptifm, conlirmation, the euchariit, penance,
extreme undtion, orders, and matrimony.
The council of Trent (feff. 7. can. 1.) pronounces
an anathema on thofe who fay, that the facraments are
more or fewer than feven, or that any one of the above
number is not truly and properly a facrament. And
yet it does not appear that they amounted to this num¬
ber before the 1 2th century, when Hugo de St Vic-
tore and Peter Lombard, about the year 1144, taught
that there were feven facraments. The council of
Florence, held in 1438, was the firft council that de¬
termined this number. Thefe facraments confer grace,
according to the decree of the council of Trent (fef.
7. can. 8.) ex opere operato, by the mere adminillration
of them : three of them, viz. baptifm, confirmation,
and orders, are faid (can. 9.) to imprefs an indelible
charadler, fo that they cannot be repeated without fa-
crilege ; and the efficacy of every facrament depends
on the intention of the prieft by whom it is admini-
ftered (can. 11.) Pope Pius exprefsly enjoins, that
all thefe facraments fiiould be adminiftered according
to the received and approved rites of the Catholic
church. With regard to the eucharift in particular, we
may here obferve, that the church of Rome holds the
doctrine of tranfubffantiation ; the necellity of paying
divine worfhip to Chrill under the form of the confe-
crated bread, or holt ; the propitiatory facrifice of the
mafs, according to their ideas of which Chrilt is truly and
properly offered as a facrifice as often as the prielt fays
mats ; it prattifes likewife folitary mafs, in which the
prieit alone, who confecrates, communicates, and allows
communion only in one kind, viz. the bread, to the lai¬
ty. Self. 14.
The dodtrine of merits is another diftinguifiring te¬
net of popery ; with regard to which the council of
Trent has exprefsly decreed (feff. 6. can. 32.) that the
good works of juftified perfons are truly meritorious ;
aeferving not only an increafe of grace, but eternal
hfe, arid an increafe of glory; and it has anathema¬
tized ail who deny this dodtrine. Of the fame kind is
the doctrine of fatisfadtions ; which fuppofes that pe¬
nitents may truly fatisfy, by the afflidtions they en¬
nui e under the difpenfations of Providence, or by vo-
iUntary penances to which they fubmit, for the tempo¬
ral penalties of fin, to which they are fubjedf, even af-
tet the remilfion of their eternal punifhment. Self. 6.
can. 30. and leff. 14. can. 8. and 9. In this connec¬
tion we may mention the popifh diftindtion of venial
and mortal fins : the greatefl evils arifing from the for¬
mer are the temporary pains of purgatory ; hut no man,
is .ard, can obtain the pardon cf the latter without
confeffing to a prieft, and performing the penances which Py^iy.
he impofes. v
The council of Trent (feff. 14. can. 1.) has exprefs¬
ly decreed, that every one is accurfed, who flrall af¬
firm that penance is not truly and properly a facra¬
ment, iaftituted by Chrill in the univerfal church, for
reconciling thofe Chnilians to the divine rnajeily, who
have fallen into fin after baptifm : and this facrament,
it is declared, confifts of two parts, the matter and the
form , the mattei is the adl of the penitent, including
contrition, confeffion, and fatisfadlion ; the form of it
iSjthe adl of abfolution on the part of the prieft. Ac¬
cordingly it is enjoined, that it is the duty of every
man, who hath fallen after baptifm, to confefs his fins
once a year, at lead, to a prie.il: that this confelfion
is to be fecret; for public confeffion is neither com¬
manded nor expedient: and that it mud be exadl and
particular, including every kind and a& of fin, with
all the circumftances attending it. When the penitent
has fo done, the prieft pronounces an abfolution ; which
is not conditional or declarative only, but abfolute and
judicial, ffliis lecret, or auricular confeflion, was firft
decreed and eftablifhed in the fourth council of Late-
ran, under Innocent III. in 1215, (cap- 21.) And
the decree of this council was afterwards confirmed
and enlarged in the council of Florence, and in that
of Trent; which ordains, that confeffion was xnftituted
by Chrill, that by the law of God it is neceffary to fal-
vation, and that it has been always pradlifed in the
Chriitian church. As for the penances impofed on
the penitent by way of fatisfa&ion, they have been
commonly the repetition of certain forms of devotion,
as pater-nollers, or ave-marias, the payment of ftipu-
lated Aims, pilgrimages, fails, or various fpecies of
corporal difciplinc. But the moll formidable penance,
in the eftimation of many who have belonged to the
Rom 1 lli communion, has been the temporary pains of
purgatory. But under all the penalties which are
inflifted or threatened in the Romifh church, it has
provided relief by its indulgences, and by its prayers
or maffes for the dead, performed profeffedly for re¬
lieving and refeuing the fouls that are detained in pur¬
gatory.
Anotner article that has been long authoritatively
enjoined and obferved in the church of Rome, is the
celibacy of her clergy. This was firft enjoined at
Rome by Gregory VII. about the year 1074, and
ellabliflied in England by' Anfelm archbilhop of Can¬
terbury about the year 1175; though his predeceffor
Lanfranc had impofed it upon the prebendaries and
clergy that lived in towns. And though the council
of Trent was repeatedly petitioned by feveral princes
and Hates to abolifh this rellraint, the obligation of ce¬
libacy was rather ellablifiied than relaxed by this coun¬
cil ; for they decreed, that marriage contracted after
a vow of continence, is neither lawful nor valid ; and
thus deprived the church of the polfibility of ever re-
ftoring marriage to the clergy. For if marriage, after
a vow, be in itielt unlawful, the greateil authority up¬
on earth cannot diipenfe with it, nor permit marriage to
the clegry, who have already vowed continence.
To the doctrines and practices above recited may
be farther added the worfhip of images, of which Pro-
te it ants accuie the Papiits. But to this accufation the
Pap iff replies, that he keeps images by him to preferve
2 in
POP l
Papery, in his mind the memory of the perfons reprefentcd by
•' them; as people are wont to preferve the memory of
their deceafed friends by keeping their pidures. He
is taught (he fays) to ufe them fo as to call his eyes
Jtnitd. upon the pictures or images, and thence to rane his
heart to the things reprefented, and there to employ it
in meditation, love, and thankfgiving, defire of imita¬
tion, &c. as the objeft requires.
Thefe pi&ures or images have this advantage, that
they inform the mind by one glance of what in reading
might require a whole chapter. 1 here being no other
difference between them, than that reading reprefents
leifurely and by degrees ; and a pifture, all at once.
Hence he finds a convenience in faying bis prayeis with
fome devout pictures before him, he being no fooner
diftradted, but the light of thefe recals his wandering
thoughts to the right objedl ; and as. certainly brings
fomething good into his mind, as an immodeft picture
difturbs his heart with filthy thoughts. And becaufe
he is fenfible that thefe holy piaures and images repre-
fent and bring to his mind iuch objeas as in his heart
he loves,-honours, and venerates ; he cannot but upon
that account love, honour, and refpedt, the images them-
felves.
The council of Trent likewife decreed, that all bi-
fhops and paflors who have the cure of fouls, do dili¬
gently inftrua their flocks, that it is good and profitable
to dejit e the inter a-(ft on of faints reigning ivrth Chrifl in
heaven. And this decree the. Papifts endeavour to de-
21U fend by the following obfervations. 1 hey confcfs that
we have but one Mediator of redemption ; hut affiim
that it is acceptable to God that we fhould have many
mediators of interceifion. Mofes (fay they) was fuch
a mediator for the Ifraelites; Job for his three friends ;
Stephen for his perfecutors. The Romans were thus
defired by St Paul to be his mediators ; fo were the Co¬
rinthians, fo the Ephefians, JSp. ad Rom. Cor. Eph. fo
almofl every' fick man defires the congregation tube his
mediators, by remembering him in their prayers. . And
fo the Papift defires the bleffed in heaven to be his me¬
diators ; that is, that they would pray to. God for him.
But between thefe living and dead mcdiatois there is
no fimilarity : the living mediator is prtfent, and cer¬
tainly hears the requeft of thofe who defire him to in*
tercede for them ; the dead mediator is as certainly ab-
fent, and cannot poffibly hear the requeits of all thole
who at the fame inilant may be begging him to intercede
for them, unlefs he be pofTeffed of the divine attribute
of omniprefence ; and he who gives that attribute to any
creature is unqueftionably guilty idolatry. And as
this decree is contrary to one of the firll princip es of
natural religion, fo does it receive no countenance fiom
Scripture, or any Chriftian writer of the three fii it cen¬
turies. Other practices peculiar to the Papifts are the
religious honour and relpeft that they pay to faci ed
relicks; by which they underfland not only the bodies
and parts cf the bodies of the faints, but any of thofe
things that appertained to them, and which they
touched ; and the celebration of divine fervice in an
unknown tongue : to which purpofe the council of
Trent hath denounced an anathema on any one who
fhall fay that mafs ought to he celebrated only, in the
vulgar tongue; feff. 25. an<i 2-2, can’ 9* ^ hough
the council of Lateran under Innocent III. in 1215
/can* 9.) had. exprefsly decreed, that becauie in many
^ ] POP
parts within the fame city and dioccfe there are many
people of different manners and rites mixed together, —..a
but of one faith, the hifhops of fuch cities or diocefes
fhould provide fit men for celebrating divine offices, ac¬
cording to the diverfity of tongues and rites, and for ad-
miniftering the facraments.
We fhall only add, that the church of Rome main¬
tains, that unwritten traditions ought to be added
to the holy Scriptures, in order to fupply their defett,
and to be regarded as of equal authority; that the books
of the Apocrypha are canonical fcripture ; that the vul-
gate edition of the Bible is to be deemed authentic ;
and that the Scriptures are to be received and interpret¬
ed according to that fenfe which the holy mother
church, to whom it belongs to judge of the tiue fenfe,
hath held, and doth hold, and according to the unani¬
mous confent of the fathers,
Such are the principal and diflinguifliing doftrines
of Popery, moft of which have received the fainftion
of the council of Trent, and that of the creed of pope
Pius IV. which is received, profeffed, and fworn to by
every one who enters into holy oiders in the church
of Rome ; and at the clofe of this creed, we are told
that the faith contained in it is fo abfolutely and in-
difpenfably neceffary, that no man can be faved with¬
out it.
Many of the dodtrines of Popery were relaxed, and
very favourably interpreted by M. de Meaux, bifhop
of Condom, in his Expofition of the Do&rine of the
Catholic Church, firft printed in the year 1671 : but
this edition, which was charged with perverting, in
endeavouring to palliate, the dodfrine of the church,
was cenfured by the dodtors of the Sorbonne, and ac¬
tually fupprefied ; nor does it appear that they ever
teflified their approbation in the ufual form of fubfe-
quent and altered editions. It has, however, been late¬
ly publiflied in this country, by a clergyman of the Ro-
mifh church, whofe integrity, piety, and benevolence,
would do honour to any communion.
POPHAM (Sir John), lord chief juftice of the
common pleas in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was
the eldefl fon of Edward Popham, ECq; of Huntworth
in Somerfetfhire, and horn in the year 15 3 1 • He was
fome time a Undent of Baliol college in Oxford ; “ be¬
ing then (fays Ant. Wood) given at leifure hours
to many fports and exercifes.” After quitting the
univerfity, he fixed in the Middle Temple; where, du¬
ring his novitiate, he is faid to have indulged in that
kind of diffipation to which youth and a vigorous con-
ftitution more naturally incline than to the ftudy of
voluminous reports : hut, faliated at length with what
are called the pleafures of the town, he applied fedu-
loufiy to the ftudy of his profeffion, was called to the
bar, and in 1568 became fummer or autumn reader.
He was foon after made ferjeant at law, and folicitor-
general in 1579- In 1581, he was appointed attor-
ney-general, and treafurer of the Middle Temple. In
1592, he was made lord chief juftice of the king’s^
bench, and the fame year received the honour of
knighthood. In the year 1601, his lordftiip was one
of the council detained by the unfortunate earl of Ef-
fex, when he formed the ridiculous project of defend¬
ing himfelf in his houfe : and, on the earl’s trial,, he
gave evidence againft him relative to their detention.
He died in the year 1607, aged 76 ; and was buried
POP
r 3 *4 ]
POP
in the fouth aifle of the church at Wellington in So-
merfetfhire, where he generally refided as often as it
was in his power to retire. He was thought fome-
what fevere in the execution of the law againfl capital
offenders : but his feverity had the happy effeft of re¬
ducing the number of highway robbers. He wrote,
1. Reports and cafes adjudged in the time of Queen
Elizabeth. 2. Refolutions and judgments upon cafes
and matters agitated in all the courts at Weftminfter
in the latter end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign.
POPLAR, in botany. See Populus.
POPLITiEUS, in anatomy, a fmall mufcle obliquely
pyramidal, fituated under the ham. See Anatomy,
'Table of the Mu fetes.
POPPY, in botany. See Opium and Papaver.
POPULAR, fomething that relates to the common
people.
POPULATION, means the ftate of a country with
refj) eft to the number of people. SeeZ?i//j of Mortality
and Political-Arithmetic.
The queftion concerning- the number of men exifting
upon earth, has been varioufly determined by different
writers. Riccioli ftates the population of the globe at
1000 millions, Voffius at 500; the Journalifts of Tre-
voux at 720 ; and the editor (Xavier de Feller) of the
fmall Geographical Di&ionary of Vofgien, reprinted
at Paris in 1778, at 370 millions. This latl eftimate
is perhaps too low, although the writer profeffes to
have taken confiderable pains to afeertain the point
with as much accuracy as the nature of tire fubjedt will
admit. It may, perhaps, not be deemed unworthy the
attention of the curious fpeculatill to obferve, that af-
fuming the more probable ftatement of the learned Je-
fuits of Trevoux, and that the world has exiffed about
6006 years in its prefent ftate of population, then the
whole number of perfons who have ever exifted upon
earth fince the days of Adam amounts only to about
one hundred and thirty thoufand millions; becaufe
720,000,000X182 (the number of generations in 6006
years) =131,040,000,000. See on this fubjeft the au¬
thors above mentioned, as likewife Beaufobre’s Etude de
in Politiqne.
With regard to the population of England, the rea¬
der may confult, together with our article Political-
ylritbrnetic, An Inquiry into the prefent State of Popu¬
lation, &c. by W. Wales, F. R. S. and Mr Hewlett’s
Examination of Dr Price’s Effay, on the fame fub-
jeft.
POPULUS, the Poplar. : A genus of the oftandria
order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 50th order, Amen-
tacea. rI he calyx of the amentum is a lacerated, ob-
long, and fquamous leaf; the corolla is turbinated, ob¬
lique, and entire. The female has the calyx of the a-
mentum and corolla the fame as in the male ; the ftigma
is quadrifid ; the capfule bilocular, with many pappous
feeds.
I he poplar, one of the moft beautiful of the aquatic
ti ees, has frequently been introduced into the poetical
deferiptions of the ancients ; as by Virgil, Ed. vii. 66.
ix. 41. Georg, ii. 66. iv. 511. Ain. viii. 31. 276. by
Ovid, Amom. Parid. 27. by Horace, Carm. ii. 3. and
hy Catulus, Nupt. Pi/, et Thet. 290, &c. &c.
Species, i. The alba, or abele-tree, grows natural-
in the temperate parts of Europe. Its leaves are
large, and divided into three, four, or five lobes, indent- Populus.
ed on their edges, of a very dark colour on their up- "* v-"
per fide, but very white and downy on the under fide ;
Handing upon footftalks an inch long. The young
branches have a purple bark, and are covered with
a white down ; but the bark of the ftem and older
branches is grey. In the beginning of April, the
male flowers or catkins appear, which are cylindrical,
and about three inches long. About a week after
come out the female flowers or catkins, which have
no ftamina like thofe of the male. Soon after thefe
come out, the male catkins fall off; and in five or fix
weeks after the female flowers will have ripe feeds in-
clofed in a hairy covering. The catkins will then drop,
and the feeds be wafted by the winds to a great di-
ftance. 2. The major, or white poplar, has its leaves
rounder than the firft, and not much above half their
fize: they are indented on their edges, and are downy
on their under fide, but not fo white as thofe of the
former, nor are their upper furfaces of fuch a deep
green colour. 3. The nigra, or black poplar, has oval
heart-fliaped leaves, flightly crenated on their edges ;
they are fmooth on both fides, and of a light green co¬
lour. 4. The tremula, or afpen-tree, has roundifh, an¬
gularly indented leaves : they are ftnooth on both fides,
and Hand on long footftalks, and fo are fhaken by the leaft
wind ; from whence it has the title of the trembling pop¬
lar, or afpen-tree. 5. The balfamifera, or Carolina pop¬
lar, is a native of Carolina, where it becomes a large
tree. The flioots of this fort grow very ftrong in Bri¬
tain, and are generally angular ; with a light green bark
like the willow. The leaves on young trees, and alfo
thofe on the lower flioots, are very large, almoft heart-
fhaped, and crenated ; but thofe upon the older trees are
fmaller : as the trees advance, their bark becomes light¬
er, approaching to a greyifh colour. 6. The tacama-
haca, grows naturally in Canada and other parts of
North America. This is a tree of a middling growth,
fending out on every fide many fhort thick flioots,
which are covered with a light brown bark, garniflied
with leaves differing from one another in fliape and fize ;
moft of them are almoft heart-fliaped ; but fome are oval,
and others nearly fpear-fhaped ; they are whitifti on their
under fide, but green on their upper.
Culture. Thefe trees may be propagated either by
layers or cuttings, as alfo from fuckers which the white
poplars fend up from their roots in great plenty. The
belt time for tranfplanting thefe fuckers is in Oftober,
when their leaves begin to decay. Thefe may be pla¬
ced in a nurfery for two or three years, to get ftrength
before they are planted out where they are defigned to re¬
main ; but if they are propagated from cuttings, it is
better to defer the doing of that until February, at
which time truncheons of two or three feet long ftiould
be thruft about a foot and a half into the ground.—
Thefe will readily take root; and if the foil in which
they are planted be moift, they will arrive at a confide¬
rable bulk in a few years. The black poplar is lefs apt
to take root from large truncheons; therefore it is a
better method to plant cuttings of it about a foot and
a half in length, thrufting them a foot deep in the
ground. This fort will grow almoft on any foil, but
will thrive beft in moift places. The Carolina poplar
may alfo be propagated by cuttings or layers ; but the
laft is the method generally practifed, and the plants
raifed
POP [385! POR
The fhoots of on the fuhjeft, gives an account of the ufes of the fe-
veral kinds of poplar, the fubltance of which is as fol¬
lows : He finds that the wood of the black poplar is
good and ufeful for many purpofes ; that the Lom¬
bardy poplar, populus fa/tigata, is of very little value ;
that the Virginia poplar, populus Virginiana, affords a
wood of excellent quality, that may be applied to many
ufes. The Carolina poplar, populus Carolinenfts—h’te-
rophil/a, (Linn.) is a very quick grower ; beautiful
when found, but liable to be hurt by cold. Its wood
appeared lo M. de Bondaroy to be of little value ; but
M. Malefherbes, who cut down a large tree of this fort,
was allured by his carpenter that the wood was very
good.—That the tacamahaca, populus tacam shaca balfa-
mifera, is a dwarnfh plant (a), of little value.—That
the hard, populus Canadenjis, is a large tree, the wood
light, not eafy to be fplit, and fit for feveral ufes.—That
the white poplar, populus alba, is a large growing tree,
affording a wood of excellent quality, and is among the
mod valuable of this fpecies.—That the trembling pop¬
lar, populus tremula, (Linn.) is neither fo large a tree
nor affords fuch wood as the former. Thefe are in few
words the principal refult of the experiments of this
gentleman on this clafs of plants. A few other forts
are mentioned, but nothing decifive with regard to them
is determined.
From fome experiments made by M. Dambourney,
it appears that the poplar may be ufefully employed in
dyeing. The Italian poplar gives a dye of as fine a
luflre, and equally durable, as that of the fined yellow
wood, and its colour is more eafily extradled. It is
likewife very apt to unite with other colours in compo-
fition. Befide the p',pulus fajliguta, M. Lambourney
tried alfo the black poplar, the Virginian ditto, the bal-
fam ditto or Hard, the white ditto, and the trembling
poplar ; and found that all thefe dyed wool of a nut-co¬
lour, fawn-colour {’vigogne). Nankin, mufk, and other
grave lhades, according to the quantity of wood employ¬
ed, and the length of time it was boiled.
POQUELIN or Pocquelin (John Baptid.) See
Moliere.
PORANA, in botany ; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. The
corolla is campanulated; the calyx is quinquefid, and
Pupulus. railed by it are lefs mold than others.
v— this tree, while young, are frequently killed down to a
confiderable length by the frod in winter ; but as the
trees grow older, their fhoots are not fo vigorous^ and
become more ligneous, fo are not liable to the fame dif-
nder. But the trees fhould be planted in a flieltered fi-
tuation : for as their leaves are very large, the wind has
great power over them ; and the branches being tender,
they are frequently broken or fplit by the winds in dim¬
mer, when they are much expofed. The tacamahaca
fends up a great number of fuckers from its roots, by
which it multiplies in plenty; and every' cutting which is
planted will take root.
Ufes. The wood of thefe trees, efpecially of the
abele, is good for laying floors, where it will lad for
many years ; and on account of its extreme whitenefs
is by many preferred to oak; yet, on account of its
foft contexture, being very fubjeft to take the impref-
fion of nails, &c. it is lefs proper on this account than
the harder woods. The abele likewife deferves parti¬
cular notice, on account of the virtue of its bark in cu¬
ring intermitting fevers. The Reverend Mr Stone, in
Phil. Tranf. vol. LIII. p. 195. tells us, that he gathers the
bark in dimmer when it is full of fap, and having dried it
by a gentle heat, gives a dram powdered every four hours
betwixt the fits. In a few obdinate cafes, he mixed one-
fifth part of Peruvian bark with it. It is remarkable how
nature has adapted remedies to difeafes. Intermitting fe¬
vers are mod prevalent in wet countries; and this tree
grows naturally in fuch fituations. The bark of it is an
obje£t well worthy the attention of phyficians ; and if its
fuccefs upon a more enlarged fcale of praftice prove
equal to Mr Stone’s experiments, the world will be much
indebted to him for communicating them. This bark
will alfo tan leather.
The inner bark of the black poplar is ufed by the in¬
habitants of Kamfchatka as a material for bread ; and
paper has fometimes been made of the cottony down of
the feeds. The roots have been obferved to diflblve into
a kind of gelatinous fubdance, and to be coated over
with a tubular crudaceous fpar, called by naturalids o/?e-
* See CJIeo-ocolla*, formerly' imagined to have fome virtue in produ-
Q*lla. cing the callus of a fraftured bone. The buds of
the fixth fpecies are covered with a glutinous refin,
which fmells very drong, and is the gum tacamahaca
of the Ihops. The bed, called, from its being colleft-
ed in a kind of gourd-fhells, tacamahaca in Jhells, is
-fomewhat unftuous and foftifli, of a pale yellowilh or
greenifh colour, an aromatic tade, and a fragrant de¬
lightful fmell, approaching to that of lavender or am-
bergrife. This fort is vary rare ; that commonly found
in the (hops is in femitranfparent globes or grains, of a
whitifli, yellowifh, brownifh, or greenilh colour, of a
lefs grateful fmell than the foregoing. This refin is faid
to be employed externally by the Indians for difeufling
and maturating tumours, and abating pains in the limbs.
. It is an ingredient in fome anodyne, hyderic, cephalic,
and domachic pladers ; but tire fragrance of the finer
fort fufficiently points out its utility in other re-
fpeefs.'1
M. Fougeroux de Bondaroy, from afet of experiments
Vol. XV. Part I.
Pup.ultu
II . -
Porcelain.
 *
larger than the fruit; the dyle femibifid, long, and
permanent; the digmata globular; the perianthium bi-
valved. r
PORCELAIN, a fine kind of earthen ware, chief-1#
ly manufactured in China, and thence called China- cclain.^0^"
ware. All earthen wares which are white and femi¬
tranfparent are generally called porcelains: but a-
mongd thefe, fo great differences may be obferved,
that, notwithdanding the fimilarity of their external
appearance, they cannot be confidered as matters of
the fame kind. Thefe differences are fo evident, that
even perfons who are not connoifleurs in this way pre¬
fer much the porcelain of fome countries to that of
others. a
The word porcelain is of European derivation ; none Origin of
of the fyllables which compofe it can even be pronoun- the namA
ced or written by the Chinefe, whofe language com-
3 C prehends
(a) We have feen it above 30 feet high*
P O R [ 386 1 P O R
Porcelain.
^rt of ma¬
lting it in
greater per-
fration in
the Eafl
than in Eu¬
rope.
4
5efl Chi-
nefe porce¬
lain at
King-te-
tdung.
Orig in of
tke art.
P. d’Entre.
colies firft
gave an ac
count of
Chinefe
j)oi ceiaim
7
Nature of
the mate¬
rials, and
mode of
preparing
the palle.
preKcnds no fuch founds. It is probable tbat we are
indebted to the Portuguefe for it : the word porcellana,
however, in their language, iiguifies properly a cup or
dilh; and they themfelves diilinguilh all works of porce¬
lain by the general name of loca. Porcelain is called in
China tsJ-ku
The art of making porcelain is one of thofe in which
Europe has been excelled by oriental nations. The
'firft porcelain that was feen in Europe was brought
from Japan and China. The whitenefs, tranfparency,
finenefg, neatnefs, elegance, and even the magniiicence
of this pottery, which foon became the ornanunt of
fumptuous tables, did not fail to excite the admiration
and induftry of Europeans ; and their attempts have fue-
ceeded fo well, that i« different parts of Europe earth¬
en wares have been made fo like the oriental, that they
have acquired the name of porcelain. 1 he firft European
porcelains were made in Saxony and in France ; and af¬
terwards in England, Germany, and Italy: but as all
thefe were different from the Japanefe, fo each of them
had its peculiar character.
The fineft and belt porcelain of China is made in a
villageocalled King-te-tcbrng, in the province of Kiang-fi.
This-celebrated village is a league and a half in length,
and we are affured that it contains a million of inhabi¬
tants. The workmen of King-te-tching, invited by
the attracting allurements of the European trade, have
eitablifhed. manufactories alfo in the provinces of Fo-
kien and Canton ; but this porcelain is not efteemed.—
The emperor Kang-hi was defirous of having feme made
under his own infpeCfion at Pe-king. For this pur-
pofe he collected workmen, together with tools, and all
materials neceffary ; furnaces were alfo ereCted,- but the
attempt mifearried. The village of King-te-tching 11 ill
continues the molt celebrated place in the empire for
beautiful porcelain, which is tranfported to all parts of
the world, and even to japan.
Wc are unable to difeovtr who firll found out the
art of making porcelain, nor is it known whether the
Chinefe were indebted to chance for it, or to the re¬
peated efforts of inventive genius ; we cannot even de¬
termine its antiquity with precifion ; we know only
from the annals of Feoudeang, a city in the diitricl to
which King-te-tching belongs, that, iince the year 442
of our era, the workmen of this village have always fur-
nilhed the emperors with porcelain ; and that one or
two mandarins were fent from court to infpeCl their la¬
bours. It is, however, fuppofed that the invention of
porcelain is much older than that epocha.
We are indebted to Father d’EntrecolIes, a Romifh
mifiionary, for a very accurate account of the manner in
'which porcelain is made in China ; and as he lived in
King-te-tching, his information mull have been the very
belt poffible. We fhall therefore give his account of
the Chinefe manner of making it, as abridged by Gro-
fier in his General Defcription of Lhina. The principal
ingredients of the fine porcelain are pe-tun-tfe and kao-iin,
two kinds of earth from the mixture of which the pafte
is produced. I he kao-hn is intermixed with fmall filming
particles ; the other is purely white, and very fine to the
touch, i hefe firll materials are carried to the manu-
fadlories in the fhape of bricks. The pe-tun-tfe, which
is fo fine, is nothing elfe but fragments of rock taken
from certain quarries, and reduced to powder. Every
kind of Hone is not fit fo^tkis purpofe. The colour
of that which is good, fay the Chinefe, ought to incline Porcelam^
a little towards green. A large iron club is ufed for  *—•>*
breaking thefe pieces of rock : they are afterwards put
into mortars ; and, by means of levers headed with Hone
bound round with iron, they are reduced to a very fine
powder. Thefe levers are put in aclion either by the
labour of men, or by water, in the fame manner as the
hammers of our paper-mills. The dull afterwards col-
ledted is thrown into a large velfel full of water, which
is ftrongly llirred writh an iron fhovel. When it ha*
been left to fettle for feme time, a kind of cream rifel¬
on the top, about four inches in thicknefs, which i»
fkimmed off, and poured into another veffel filled with
water: the water in the firft vefiel is Itirred feveraf
times; and the cream which arifes is Hill collefted, until
nothing remains but the coarfe dregs, which, by theie
own weight, precipitate to the bottom : thefe dregs arc
carefully colleCled, and pounded anew.
With regard to what is taken from the firll veffel, ft
is fuffered to remain in the fecond until it is formed into
a kind of cruft at the bottom. When the water above
it feems quite clear, it is poured off by gently inclining'
the veffcl, that the fediment may not be difturbed; and
the pafte is thrown into large moulds proper for drying
it. Before it is entirely hard, it is divided into final!
fquare cakes, which are fold by the hundred. The co*
lour of this pafte, and its form, have ©ccalioned it to re«
ceive the name ofpe tun-t/e.
The kao lin, which is ufed in the compofition of por¬
celain, requires Ids labour than the pe-tun-tfe. Nature
has a greater fnare in the preparation of it. There are
large mines of it in the bofoms of certain mountains, the
exterior llrata of which conlift of a kind of red earth.
Thefe mines are very deep, and the kao-lin is found in
fmall lumps, that are formed into bricks after having
gone through the fame procefs as the pe-tun-tfe. Fa¬
ther d’Entixcolles thinks, that the earth called terre de
Malte, or St Paul's earth, has much affinity to the kao¬
lin, although thofe fmall Ihining particles are not obfer-
ved in it which are interfperfed in the latter.
It is from the kaodjn that fine porcelain derive*
all its ilrength ; if we may be allowed the expreffion,
it ftands it inftead of nerves. It is very extraordinary,
that a foft earth ffiould give ftrength and conliftency ta
the pe-tun-tfe, which is procured from the hardeft rocks.
A rich Chinefe merchant told F. d’EntrecolIes, that
the Englilh and Dutch had purchafed fume of the pe-
tun-tfe, which they tranfported to Europe with a de-
fign of making porcelain ; but having carried with them
none of the kao-lin, their attempt proved abortive, as
they have fince acknowledged. “• They wanted (faid
this Chinefe, laughing) to form a body, the fleffi of
which ffiould fiipport itfelf without bones.” g
The Chinefe have difeovered, within thefe few years, A new full*
a new fubftance proper to be employed in the comP°^"coveixd and
tion of porcelain. It is a itone, or rather fpecies of ufecj by the
chalk, called boa-che, from which the pbyfieians prepare Chinele,
a kind of draught that is laid to be deterfive, aperient,
and cooling. The manufaclurers of porcelain have
thought proper to employ this Hone inftead of kao-lin.
It is called hoa, becaufe it is glutinous, and has a great
refemblance to foap. Porcelain made with hoa-che is
very rare, and much dearer than any other. It has an
exceeding fine grain, and, with regard to the painting,
if it be compand with that of the common porcelain.
P O R
C 387 1
P O R
porfcsWfi- it aprenrs to furpafs it a& much as vellum does paper.
-v  This* porcelain is, befides, fo light, that it furprifes
thofe who are accuftomed to handle other kinds ; it is
alio much more brittle ; and it is very difficult to hit
upon the proper degree of tempering it.
Hoa-che is 1‘eldom ufed in forming the body of the
work ; the artifl is contented fometimes with making it
into a very fine fize, in which the vefiel is plunged when
dry, in order that it may receive a coat before it is paint-
fd and varniihed: by thefe means it acquires a fuperior
degree of beauty.
When hoa-che is taken from the mine, it is w'afhed
in lain or river water, to feparate it from a kind of yel¬
low' earth which adheres to it. It is then pounded,
put into a tub filled with water to diffolve it, and af¬
terwards formed into cakes like kao-lin. We are affix-
red that hoa-che, when prepared in this manner, with¬
out the mixture of any other earth, is alone fufficient to
make porcelain. It ferves inftead of kao-lm ; but it is
much dearer. Kao-lin colts only ten-pence Sterling; the
price of hoa-che is hall-a-crown : this difference, there¬
fore, greatly enhances the value of porcelain made wrlth
0 the latter.
To pe-tun-tfe and kao-lin, the two principal elements,
mull be added the oil or varnifh from which it derives
its fplendor and wdiitenefs. This oil is of a whitilh co¬
lour, and is extracted from the fame kind of Hone \vhich
produces the pe-tun-tfe, but the whitelt is always eho-
fen, and that which has the greenell fpots. The oil is
obtained from it by the fame proeefs uled in making
the pe-tun-tfe: the Hone is firll walhed and pulverized;
it is then thrown into water, and after it has been puri¬
fied it throw's up a kind of cream. To I CO pounds of
this cream is added one pound of che-kao, a mineral
fomething like alum, which is put into the lire till it
becomes red-hot and then pounded. This mineral is a
kind of runnet, and gives a confiltence to the oil, which
is however carefully preferved in its Hate of fluidity.
The oil thus prepared is never employed alone, another
oil mult be mixed with it, which is extracted from
lime and fern alhes, to 100 pounds of which is alfo
added a pound of che-kao. When thefe two oils are
mixed, they mult be equally thick ; and in order to af-
tertain this, the workmen dip into each of them fome
cakes of the pe-tun-tfe, and by infpedting their furface«l
clofely after they are drawn out, thence judge of the
thicknefs of the liquors. With regard to the quantity
neceffary to be employed, it isufual to mix jo meafures
of ftene-oil with one meafure of the oil made from lime
and fern alhes. '
Their mode The firff labour confilts in again purifying the pe-
'h T ^un t^e ar)d the kao-lin. The workmen then proceed
s. e u an ^ t^ie^e two fu]jHanceg together. For fine porce¬
lain they put an eqnal quantity of the kao-lin and the
pe-tun-tfe ; for the middling fort they ufe four parts of
the kao-lin and fix of the pe-tun-tfe. The lealt quan
Porrela’n*
The fplen¬
dor and
whitenefs
laf their
porcelain
derived
from oil or
varmfli.
JO
se?,
ir
upon large Hates, where they knead and roll them m
every direction, carefully obferving to leave no vacuum
in them, and to keep them free from the mixture of
any extraneous body. A hair or a grain of fand would
fpoil the whole work. When this palte has not been
properly prepared, the porcelain cracks, and melts or
becomes warped.
All plain works are fafhioned with the wheel. When And^of fa-
a cup has undergone this operation, the outfide of *tsthe ^orks.
bottom is quite round. The workman firll gives it the
requifite height and diameter, and it comes from hia
hands almoll the moment he has received it. He is
under the neceffity of ufing expedition, as he is paid
not quite a fafthing per board, and each board contains
26 pie ces. This cup paffes then to a fecond workman,
who forms iti bafoe A little after it is delivered to a
thiid, who applies it to his mould, and gives it'a pro¬
per form; when he takes it off the mould, he mult turn
it very foftly, and be careful not to prefs it more on
one fide than on another ; without this precaution it
would become warped or disfigured. A fourth work¬
man polifhes it with a chiffel, efpeciaily around the
edges, and diminilhes its thicknefs, in order to give it
a certain degree of tranfparency. At length, after ha¬
ving paffed through all the hands neceffary for giving it
all its ornaments, it is received, when dry, by the lall
workman, who falhions its bottom wdth a chiffel. It
is aftonifhing to fee with what dexterity and expedition
the workmen convey thefe vafes from one to another.
We are affured, that a piece of porcelain, before it is
finifhed, mult pafs through the hands of 70 perfons. rx
Targe works are executed in parts which are fafhion-Larpe
ed feparately. When all the pieces are finifhed, and
molt dry*, they' are put together and cemented with palte jiarts an(j
made of the fame fubltance, and foftened with w’ater. cemented.
Some time after, the feams are polifhed with a knife,
both without and within; and when the veffel is cover¬
ed with varnilh, it entirely' conceals them, fo that thd
leall trace of them is not to be feen. It is in this man¬
ner that fpouts, handles, rings, and other parts of the
fame nature, are added. This is the cafe, particularly
in thofe pieces which are falhioncd upon moulds or
modelled writh the hands, filch as embeffed works, gro-
tefque images, idols, figures of trees or animals, and
hulls, which the Europeans order. All thefe are form¬
ed of four or five pieces joined together, which are af¬
terwards brought to perfection with inltniments proper
for carving, polilhing, and finilhing, the different traces
which the mould has left imperfedt. With regard to
thofe flowers and ornaments which are not in relief,
they are either engraven or imprinted with a llamp.
Ornaments in relief, prepared feparatdyr, are alfo added
to pieces of porcelain, almolt in the fame manner as lace
is put upon a coat. tj
After a piece of porcelain has been properly fafliion-Their mac*
Thefe rcr °fl
ed, it then paffe* into the hands of the painters,
tity put of the former is one part to three of the pe- hoa-pet, or painters in porcelain, are equally indigent
tun-tfe. When this mixture is finilhed, the mafs is the other workmen; they follow no certainKplan in their
art, nor are they acquainted writh any of the rules of
drawing ; all their knowledge is the effedt of practice,
affifted by a wdiimfical imagination. Some oi them,
however, fhow no inconfiderable fliare of talte in paint¬
ing flowers, animals, and landfcapes, on porcelain, as
well as upon the paper of fans, and the filk ufed lor fill¬
ing up the iquares of lanterns. The labour of painting,
3 C 3 in
throw n into a large pit, well paved and cemented in
every part ; it is then trod upon, and kneaded until it
becomes hard. This labour is fo much the more fa¬
tiguing, as it muff be contiaued without intermiffion :
were it interrupted, all the other labourers wmuld re¬
main unemployed. From this mafs, thus prepared, the
workmen detach different pieces, which they fpread out
P O R [
Porceiain. {n the manufactories of which we have fpofcen, is di-
vided among a great number of hands. The bufinefs
of one is entirely confined to tracing out the firft co¬
loured circle, which ornaments the brims of the veflel;
another defigns the flowers, and a third paints them;
one delineates waters and mountains, and another birds
and other animals : human figures are generally the
At ini ma wor^: executed«
king it ap- T'he tfou-you, which is a kind of oil procured from
pear cove- white flint, has the peculiar property of making thofe
red with pieces of porcelain upon which it is laid appear to be
vein*. covered with an infinitude of veins in every direction ;
at a diltance one would take them for cracked vafes, the
fragments of which have not been difplaced. The co¬
lour communicated by this oil is a white, fomewhat in¬
clining to that of aflies. If it be laid upon porcelain,
entirely of an azure blue, it will appear in the fame
manner to be variegated with beautiful veins. This
kind of porcelain is called tfoui-ki.
The Chinefe make vafes alfo ornamented with a kind
Loft.
*5
A fingular
which they fret-work> perforated in fuch a manner as to referable
have now ver7 fne lace. In the middle is placed a cup proper
for holding any liquid ; and this cup makes only one
body with the former, which appears like lace wrapped
round it. The Chinefe workmen had formerly the fe-
cret of making a {till more fingular kind of porcelain :
they painted upon the fides of the veflel fifties, infedts,
and other animals, which could not be perceived until
it was filled with water. This fecret is in a great mea-
fure loft : the following part of the procefs is, however,,
preferved. The porcelain, which the workman intends
to paint in this manner, muft be extremely thin and de¬
licate. When it is dry, the colour is laid on pretty
thick, not on the outfide, as is generally done, but on.
the infide. The figures painted upon it, for the moft-
part, are fifties, as being more analogous to the water
with which the veffel is filled. When the colour i&
thoroughly dry, it is coated over with a kind of fize^
made from porcelain-earth ; fo that the azure is entire¬
ly inclofed between two laminae of earth. When the fize
becomes dry, the workman pours fome oil into the vef-
fcl, and afterwards puts it upon a mould and applies it
to the lath. As this piece of porcelain has received
its confiftence and body within, it is made as thin on
the outfide as pofiible, without penetrating to the co¬
lour; its exterior furface is then dipped in oil, and when
dry it is baked in a common furnace. The art of ma¬
king tliefe vafes requires the moft delicate care, and a
dexterity which the Chinefe perhaps do not at prelent
poflcfs. They have, however, from time to time made
feverkl attempts to revive the fecret of this magic paint-
ing, but their fqccefs has been very imperfect. This
kind of porcelain is known by the name of kia-tfini*
“ prefled azure.’*
After the porcelain has received its proper form, its
colours, and all the intended ornaments, it is tranfported
fiom the manufactory to the furnace, which is_fituated
fometimes at the other end of King-te-tching. In a
kind of portico, which is ereCked before it, may be feen
heaps of boxes and cafes made of earth, for the purpofe
of mclofing the porcelain. Each piece, however incon-
fiderable k may be, has its cafe; and the Chinefe work¬
man, by this procedme, imitates nature, which, in order
to bang the^ frqits of the earth to proper maturity,
clothes them m a covering, to defend them from the
*6
Theirmode
ef baking
porcelain.
388 ] FOR
exceffive heat of the fun during the day, and from the Porcelain*
feverity of the cold during the night. ——
In the bottom, of thefe boxes is put a layer of fine
fand, which is covered over with powder of the kao-lin,
to prevent the fand from adhering too clofely to the
bottom of the veffel. The piece of porcelain is then
placed upon this bed of fand, and prefled gently down,
in order that the fand may take the form of the bot¬
tom of the veflel, which does not touch the fides of its
cafe : the cafe has no cover. A fecond, prepared in
the fame manner, and containing its veflel, is fitted into
the firft, fo that it entirely ftiuts it, without touching
the porcelain which is below; and thus the furnace is
filled with piles of cafes, which defend the pieces they
contain from the too diredt adtion of the fire.
With regard to fmall pieces of porcelain, fuch as
tea-cups, they are inclofed in common cafes about four
inches in height. Each piece is placed upon a faucer
of earth about twice as thick as a crown-piece, and.
equal in breadth to its bottom. Thefe fmall bafes are
alfo fprinkled over with the dull of the kao-lin. When
the cafes are large, the porcelain is not placed in the
middle, becaufe it would be too far removed from the
fides, and confequently from the action of the fire.
Thefe piles of cafes are put into the furnace, and
placed upon a bed of coarfe fand, half a foot in thick-
nefs ; thofe which occupy the middle fpace are at leaft
feven feet high. The two boxes which are at the bot¬
tom of each pile remain empty, becaufe the fire acts
too feebly upon them, and becaufe they are partly co¬
vered by the fand. For the fame reafon, the cafe pla¬
ced at the top of each pile is alfo fuffered to be empty.
The piles which contain the fineft porcelain are placed
in the middle part of the furnace ; the coarfeft are put
at its farther extremity; and thole pieces which have
the moft body and the ftrongeft colouring are near its
mouth.
.Thefe different piles are placed very clofely in the
furnace ; they fupport each other mutually by pieces
of earth, which bind them at the top, bottom, and
middle; but in fuch a manner that a free paffage is left
for the flame to infinuate itfelf everywhere around
them. 17
Before each of thefe furnaces for baking porcelain ^a*ui".e o?'
there is a long porch, which conveys air, and (appliesJr“
in certain refpedts the place of a bellows. It ferves for
the fame purpofes as the arch of a glafshoufe. “ Thefe
furnaces (fays Father d’Entrecolles), which were for¬
merly only fix feet in height and the fame in length,,
are conftrudted now upon a much larger plan : at pre¬
fect they are two fathoms in height, and almoft four in
breadth ; and the fides and roof are fo thick, that one
may lay the hand upon them without being incommo.
ded by the heat. The dome or roof is fhaped like a
funnel, and has a large aperture at the top, through
which clouds of flame and fmoke meeffantly iffue. Be-,
fides this principal aperture, there are five others (mai¬
ler, which are covered with broken pots, but in fuch a
manner that the workman can increafe or diminiih th«
heat according as it may be found moft convenient t
through thefe alfo he is enabled to difcpver when the
porcelain is fufficiently baked. Having uncovered that
hole which is neareft the principal aperture, he takes a
pair of pincers, and opens one of the cafes : if he ob-
ferves a bright fire ia the furnace, if all the cafes be
red-
FOR
C 389 ]
FOR
Porcelain.
18
Their dif¬
ferent claf-
fes of por¬
celain.
19
Porcelain
firft exanii-
neJ fcien-
tificaliy by
Reaumur.
10
Different
kinds of it.
21
Tts true
compofi-
tioti difco
vercd !iy
Reaumur,
red-Kot, and if the colours of the porcelain appear with
full luftre, he judges that it is in a proper ftate ; he
then difcontinues the fire, and entirely clofes up the
mouth of the furnace for fome time. In the bottom of
the furnace there is a deep hearth about two feet m
breadth, over which a plank is laid, in order that the
workman may enter to arrange the porcelain. When
the fire is kindled on this hearth, the mouth of the fur¬
nace is immediately clofed up, and an aperture is left
only fufficient for the admifiion of faggots about a foot
in length, but very narrow. The furnace is firil heated
for a day and night ; after which two men keep conti¬
nually throwing wood into it, and relieve each other
by turns : 180 loads are generally confumed for one
baking. As the porcelain is burning hot, the work¬
man employs for the purpofe of taking it out long
fcarfs or pieces of cloth, winch are fufpended from lus
neck.”
The Chinefe divide their porcelain into feveral claffes,
according to its dift'erent degrees of finenefs and beauty.
The whole of the fir it is referved for the emperor.
None of thefe works ever come into the hands of the
public, unlefs they have blemifiles or imperfe&ions which
render them unworthy of being prefented to the fove-
reum. It is much to be doubted whether any of the
largeft and fineft porcelain of China has ever been
brought to Europe ; the mifiionaries at leall afiure us
that none of that kind is fold at Canton. The Chinefe
fet fome value upon the Drefden porcelain, and itili
more upon that which comes from the manufa&ories of
France.
The illuftrious Reaumur firft attended to the manu>
fafture of porcelain as a fcience, and communicated his
refearches in two memoirs before the Academy ol Sci¬
ences in 1727 and 1729* did not fatisfy himfelf
with confidering the external appearance, the painting
and gilding, which are only ornaments not eflential to
the porcelain, but he endeavoured to examine it inter¬
nally ; and having broken pieces of the Japanefe, Sax¬
on, and French porcelains, he examined the difference
of their grains (which name is given to their internal
ftru&ure). The grain of the Japanefe porcelain ap¬
peared to him to be fine, clofe, compact, moderately
fmooth, and fomewhat filming. 1 he grain of the Sax¬
on porcelain was found to be ftill more compaft, not
granulous, fmooth, fbining like enamel. Laitly, the
porcelain of St Cloud haff a grain much lefs clofe and
fine than that of Japan ; not, or but little, finning j
and refembling the grain of fugar.
From thefe firft obfervations Mr Reaumur perceived
that porcelains differed confiderably. lhat he might
examine them further, he expofed them to a violent
heat. More effential differences than thofe of the grain
appeared upon this trial; for the Japanefe porcelain
was unalterable by the fire, and all the European were
melted.
This effential difference betwixt the Japanefe and
European porcelains fuggefted to Mr Reaumur a very
ingenious thought, and in many refpefts true, concern¬
ing the nature of porcelain in general. As all porce¬
lains fomewhat reiemble glafs in confiftence and tranf-
parency, though they are lefs compatt and much lefs
tranfparent, Mr Reaumur confidered them as femivitrifi-
cations.. But every fubitance may appear, and may ac¬
tually be, in a femivitrified Rate in two ways; for, firft,
it may be entirely compofed of vitrifiable or fufible
matters; and in this cafe, by expofing it to the action
of fire, it will be aftually melted or vitrified, if the heat
be fufficiently ftrong and long continued. But as this
change is not made inftantly, efpecially when the heat
is not very violent; and as it paffes through different
ftages or degrees, which may be more eafily obferved as
the heat is better managed : hence, by Hopping in pro¬
per time the application of heat to porcelain made in
this manner, we may obtain it in an intermediate ftate
betwixt thofe of crude earths and of completely vitri¬
fied fubftances, and alfo poffeffed of the femitranfparen-
cy and of the other fenfible qualities of porcelain. We
know alfo, that if fuch porcelain be expofed to a ftrong-
er degree of heat, it will then be completely fufed and
entirely vitrified. But the European porcelains tried
by Mr Reaumur had this fufibility; from which he-
concluded, that their compofition is founded upon the
above-mentioned principle.
In the fecond. place, a pafte of porcelain may be com¬
pofed of fufible and vitnfiable matter, mixed with a
certain proportion of another matter which is abfolute-
ly unfufible in the fires of our furnaces. We may ea¬
fily perceive, that if fuch a mixture be expofed to a
heat fufficient to melt entirely the vitrifiable ingredient,,
that this matter will actually melt: but as it is inter¬
mixed with another matter which does not melt, and'
which confequently preferves its confiftency and opa¬
city, the whole muft form a compound partly opaque
and partly tranfparent, or rather a femitranfparent mafs ; -
that is, a femivitrified fubftance or porcelain, but of a
kind very different from the former; for as the fufi¬
ble part of this latter has produced all its effeft, and
as it has been as much fufed as it can be during the
baking of the porcelain, the .compound may be expofed
a. fecond time to a more violent fire, without approach¬
ing nearer to a complete vitrification, or without de¬
parting from its ftate of porcelain. But as oriental
porcelain has precifeiy thefe appearances and properties^
Mr Reaumur concludes with reafon, that it is compofed
upon this principle; and he afterwards confirmed his
opinion by undeniable fails.
Mr Reaumur examined the pe-tun-tfe and kao-lin of
the Chinefe, and having expofed them feparately to a
violent fire, he difeovered that the pe-tun-tfe had fufed
without addition, and that the kao-lin had given no -
fign of fufibility. He afterwards mixed thefe matters,
and formed cakes of them, which by baking were con¬
verted into porcelain fimilar to that of China. Mr
Reaumur eafily found, that the pe-tun-tfe of the Chi¬
nefe was a hard Hone of the kind called vitri/iabJt, but
much more fufible than any of thofe which were known
in Europe ; and that the kao-lin was a talky matter*
reduced to a very fine pow’der. from tliat time he
hoped to make a porcelain of the fame kind as the Chi¬
nefe with materials found in France. Whether he could
not find any materials equal to thofe of China, particu¬
larly that material analogous to the pe-tun-tfe • of the r
Chinefe, or becaufe other occupations prevented the con¬
tinuance of his refearches, wre do not know; but wc
find, from his fecond memoir upon porcelain, that he
afterwards attempted to make, an artificial pe-tun-tfe,
by mixing our vitrifiable ftones with falts capable of
rendering them fufible, or even .by fubftituting for it
glafs ready formed, arid by adding to thefe fuch lub~
0 ' ftauce*
PORTS
i orcebin /lances as he thought might be fubftitutcd for kao-iin.
"^ But he probably foainci he c«uld not execute thefe in-
Who con tentionsfor he did not refume this fubjedl from thq
verted ulafsyear *729101739, when he gave a procefs for con-
tnto a kind yerting common glafs to a fingular kind of porcelain,
laui°rCC' to w^ic^ |ie ^ his name, and of which an ac¬
count is given under Chemistry, nJ 591—594. See
3,3 alio the article GrAss-Porcelain.
He is mif- Although Mr Reaumur has farmounted many difii-
fomT ^ cu’t'es’ am* 'ia3 g>ven jaft notions concerning this fub-
ticular«r Ject> 7et ^ie has been miftakeu, or rather milled, in two
important points. His firil error concerns the Saxon
porcelain, which he confounds with the other fufible
porcelains made in Europe. Formerly, indeed, a por¬
celain might be made in Saxony, compoftd entirely of
fufible or vitrifiable materials, the vitrification of which
was ftopt in proper time, and which Mr Reaumur had
examined. But now we are certainly informed, that
ail of that country is capable of refitting the mott vio¬
lent fires without fufion, as well at leaft as thofe of Chi¬
na and Japan. Mr Reaumur might have been mif-
led by the appearance of the internal texture of this
porcelain. For when a piece of it is broken, its inter¬
nal furface does not appear granulous, but compadl,
uniform, fmooth, firming, anti much refirmbling white
enamel. But this appearance, fo far from ftiowing that
Saxon porcelain is a fufed qr vitrified fubftance, proves
that it is not entirely compofed of fufible matters. All
who have confidered attentively this fubjeft know, that
the internal furface of the mott fufible porcelains is alfo
the lealt denfe and leaft pompaft ; the reafon of which
is, that no vitreous matter can be fmooth and denfe in¬
ternally, unlefs it has been completely fufed. But if
the denfity and finning appearance of the internal fur-
face of the Saxon porcelain were only the effedis ox the
fufion of a vitreous matter, how could we conceive that
vefiels formed of that matter fliould have fullained the
necefiary fufion for giving this denfity and ftiining ap¬
pearance, without haviug entirely loft their fhape ? The
impoflibility of this is evident to any perfons who have
been converfant in thefe matters and in the fufion of
14 glafs.
between'0 This <5UalIty of tIl€ Saxon Porae1^ mutt therefore
Saxon and Proceed from another caufe. It does indeed contain,
•rierra' as every porcelain does, particularly thofe 6f China and
porcelain Japan, a fufible fubftance, which has been even com¬
pletely fufed during the baking. Its denfity alfo, and
its internal luftre, proceed chiefly from this fufed mat¬
ter : but we are alfo certain, that it contains a large
quantity of a fubftance abfolutely unfuiiblc, from which
it receives its admirable wEitenefs, its firmnefs and fo-
b'dity, during the baking; in a word, which fupplies
the place of the oriental kao-lin, and which has the pro¬
perty of contrafting its dimensions confiderably while
it incorporates with the fufible fubftance. If it be fub-
- ic;^ed tu die m°tt decilive trial, namely, the aftion of a
r' m rKi caPal)^ melting every porcelain compo-
€»em. DiSi. Rd of fufible matters alone, “ I affirm (fays Mr Mac-
quer), after many experiments, that it cannot be fufed,
unlefs by a fire capable alfo of melting the beft Tapa-
nefe porcelain ” The Saxon porcelain is therefore not
to be confounded with thofe which are vitreous and fu-
hble ; but is in its ki*d as excellent as that of Japan,
*nd perhaps fopenor, as we ffiall foe when we enume-
90 1 P O H
rate the qualities which conftitute the excellence of nor. PomUtt}
celain. The fubjeft of Mr Reaumur’s fecond error, or v—
at leaft that which he has not fufficiently explained, ia
the kao-lin of China. According to him, this matter
is a fine talky powder, from the mixture of which with
pe-tun-tfe the oriental porcelain is formed. Poffibly a
very finely ground talky fubftance mixed with pe-tun-
tfe might form a porcelain fimilar to the oriental; but
perfons acquainted with the manufafture of any porce-
lain muft perceive the impoffibility of forming veffels,
unlefs the palte of which they are made be fo duftile
Rud tenacious that it may be w'orked upon a potter’s
lathe, or at leaft that it may be moulded. But talks,
or any kinds of ttones, however finely ground, cannot
acquire the requifite tonacity, which clays only, of all
known earthy fubftances, pottefs. The Chinele porce¬
lain vtflels evidently appear to be turned upon the lathe,
fince they retain the marks of it: hence they muft
have been formed of a very tenacious patte, and confe-
quently the kao-lin is not a purely talky matter, but is
mixed with clay ; or elfe the pe-tun-tfe and kao-lin are
not, as Mr Reaumur fuppofes, the only ingredients of
which Chinefe porcelain is formed, but a fuffieient quan¬
tity of feme binding matter, unknown to Father d’En-
trecolles and Mr Reaumur, mutt be alfo added.
Although, fince Mr Reaumur, no fcientific perfon Manufadfo*
has written concerning porcelain, many have attempted riei> por-
to make it. Manufaftories have been eftabiifhed in al_celainin
mott all the ttates of Europe. Befides that of Saxony, dlfFertent
which has been long eftabliflied, porcelain is alfo madeC°Un
at Vienna, at Frankendal, and lately in the neighbour¬
hood of Berlin. All thefe German porcelains are fimi¬
lar to the Saxon ; and are made of materials of the fame
kind, although they differ fomewhat from each other.
England and Italy alfo have their porcelains, the chief
of which are thofe of Chelfea and of Naples. M. de la
Condamine, in his laft journey into Italy, vifited a ma¬
nufafture of porcelain eftabliftud at Florence by the
marquis de la Ginori, then governor of Leghorn. M.
de la Condamine obferved particularly the large fize of
lome pieces of this porcelain. He fays he law ffatues
and groups half as large as nature, modelled from fomc
of the fineft antiques. The furnaces in which the por¬
celain was baked were conftrufted with much art, and
lined with bricks made of the pprcelain materials. The
paite of this porcelain is very beautiful; and from the
grain of broken pieces, it appears to have all the quali¬
ties of the bell Chinefe porcelain. A whiter glazing
would be ddirable, which they might probaldy attain,
if the Marquis Ginori was net determined to ufe thofe
materials only which were found in that country.
But in no ftate of Europe have fuch attempts been
made to difeover porcelain, or fo many manufaftories
of it been eftabliflied, as in France. Before even Mr
Reaumur had publifhed on this fubjeft, porcelain was
made at St Cloud, and in the fuburb of St Antoine at
Paris, which was of the vitreous and fufible kind, but
confiderably beautiful. Since that time, confiderable
manufaftories of it have been eftablilhed at Chantilly,
at Villeroi, and at Orleans; the porcelains of which
have a diftinguifiied merit. But the porcelain produ¬
ced in the king’s raanufafture at Sevres holds at pre-
fent the firil rank from its fiiining white, its 'beautiful
glazing, and coloured grounds which no porcelain
P O R
16
Gnet.
tard'* dX*
ewcne*.
Frtrce’ain. }ta8 ever equalled It, The magnifieenee nf the gilding,
    the regularity and elegance of its forms, furpais every
thing of the kind.
Mr Guettard has publifhed an account ot his ddco-
veries on this fubjea, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1765. The kao lin which be
employed was a white argillaceous earth, tilled with mi¬
ca, which he found in the neighbourhood of Alen$on j
and his pe-tun-tfe is a hard, quartzoie, grit done, found
abundantly in the fame country, with which the itreets
of Alem;on are paved. We alfo know that Mr Guet¬
tard had begun to make his experiments on porcelain
with thefe materials in the year 1751, together with
the then Duke of Orleans, to whom he was attached.
The Count de Lauraguais, of the Academy of Sciences,
engaged in the purfuit of porcelain for feveral years
with uncommon ardour and conllancy. He fpared no
trouble nor expence to attain his purpofe, which was to
make porcelain equal in all refpedfs to that of China
and Japan, hie {bowed iolne pieces made by him in the
year 1766 to the members of the Academy of Scien¬
ces. The perions appointed by them to examine it
gave their opinion, “ that of all the porcelains made in
the country', that of the Count de JLauraguais moil, re-
fembles the porcelain of China and Japan in lohdity,
grain, and unfu^ibility.,, It were to be wilhed that it
poflefTed equally the other qualities eflential to the ex¬
cellence of porcelain, namely, the whitenefs and lultre
obfervable in the ancient Japanefe porcelain.
We fliall now {how what thofe qualities are which
conilitute the perfeftion of porcelain. We. mud firil
carefully didinguilh the qualities which only contribute
to the beauty and external appearance, from the intrm-
fic and eflential properties in which the goodnefs and
folidity of porcelain coniid. All perfons who have
made experiments in this way have loon difeovered the
polfibility of making compounds very white, beautifully
femi-tranfparent, and covered with a (hming glazing ;
but which cannot be worked for want of tenacity, are
not fuffieiently compact, are elfentially fuiible, are fub-
je& to break by fudden application of heat and cold;
and, ladly, the glazing of which cracks, becomes rough,
and conl'equentty lofes its lullre by uie, becaufe it is
too left.
On the other fide, we dull alfo find it not difficult
to compofe very tenacious pailes which {hall be capable
of being eafily worked and well baked; which in. the
baking {hall acquire the delirablc hardnefs and deniity ;
which are unfulible, and capable of fudaining very well
the fudden change of heat and cold ; and, in a word,
which dull have all the qualities of the mod excellent
porcelain excepting whitenefs and beauty. We {hall
foon fee that the materials fit for the compolition of
fueh porcelains may be found abundantly in every coun¬
try. The only difficulty', then, in this inquiry concern-
ing porcelain, is to unite beauty and goodnefs in one
compofition; and indeed nature Items to be very
{paring of materials lit for this purpofe, and therefore
perfect porcelain will always be a dear and valuable
- commodity.
Stone-ware Thofe potteries which we call flone-ivare tire not of
a kind of modem invention, and have all the eflential qualities of
porcelain, the bed Japanefe. For if we except whitenefs, on which
alone the femi-tranfparency depends, and compare all
the properties of Japanefe porcelain with thofe of our
r 39> I
P O R
at
Tn what
the per¬
fection of
porcelain
conhns.
done-ware, no difference can be found betwixt them. PuceMn.
'I he fame grain appears internally in both ; the fame ~~~~i *
found is produced by linking them when properly fuf-
pended; the fame denfity, the fame hardnefs by which
they Itrike fire with deei, the fame faculty of fudaining
the heat of boiling liquors without breaking, and the
fame unfufibility in fire, are obfervable. Ladly, if the
earths of which done-ware is made were free from hete¬
rogeneous colouring matters, which prevent their white*
nds and femi-tranfparency ; if vefl'els were carefully
formed ; if all the proper attentions were given ; and if
thefe veflels were covered over with a fine glazing—they
would be as perfeft porcelain as that of Japan. The
mod perfect porcelain, therefore, is nothing ejfe than a
fine white done-ware.
Earths of this kind are probably more rare in Europe
than in Japan and China. And probably alfo the want
of thefe earths was the caufe that the fird makers of
porcelain in this country confined themfelves to an ex¬
ternal imitation, by employing nothing but vitrifiable
matters with fuiible falts and a 'finall quantity of white
earth, from which full hie and vitreous porcelains were 2(J
compofed, which might be called fulfe porcelains. But Genuine
things are much changed iinee thefe fird attempts. Be-y°[celain
kvlesthe difeoveries of the Count de Lauiaguais and ofma<le in
Mr Guettard, genuine white porcelains have been made^s of00"
a long time ago in Germany, cfpeciaUy in Saxony and Europe,
at Frankendai.
Thefe porcelains are not inferior in any refpeef to
the oriental; they are even much fuperior in beauty
and whitenefs to the modern oriental porcelain, which
has much degenerated in thefe refpecls; they feem even
to excel the oriental in the molt valuable quality of
porcelain, namely, the property of fudaining the fud¬
den change of heat and cold. We cannot judge of the
quality of porcelain by a flight trial : for lb many cir-
cumftances concur to make a piece of porcelain capable
or incapable of fudaining the fudden application of heat
and of cold, that if at the fame time boiling water be
poured into two veflels, one of which is good porcelain
and the other bad, the former may poffibly break and
the latter remain entire. The only true method of dif-
covering good porcelain in this refpeft is, to examine
feveral pieces of it which are daily ufed ; for inllance,
a fet of coffee-cups. But it has been obferved, that in
many fuch pieces of oriental porcelain, which have been
long and daily ufed, cracks in the diredlion of their
height may be always perceived, which are never feen in
the good European porcelains, ^
Every one talks of porcelain, and yet few are con-Excellency
noifl'eurs of it. None can be cohfidered as fuch but thole ^ thc an'
who have long made it an objeft of their inquiries.
That the ancient Japanefe porcelain is the molt perfe&lain/ *
is a general opinion. This porcelain is indeed very beau¬
tiful, and wc mud alfo acknowledge that its quality is
excellent. It has been our model, and has long been
the objedt of our admiration and emulation ; but which
we have been never able to equal, and which many per¬
fons believe never can be equalled: Some perfon-s even
decry the Saxon porcelain for a quality which really
gives it a fuperiority to the Japanefe, namely, the
greater fmoothnefs, ludre, and lefs granulous appearance
of its internal fnrface than the oriental. The refem-
blance of this furface to that of glafs has evidently fug-
gefted this notion j and it would be well founded if the
* cknfity
FOR
c 392 ]
P O R
-pcrceUin. Jenfity and luftre of this porcelain proceeded only from
v~J » a fufible and vitreous quality ; but as they do not, and
as this porcelain is as fixed and as unfufible as the Ja-
panefe, its denfity, fo far from being a fault, is a valu¬
able quality : for we mull allow, that of porcelains equal
in other reipedls, thofe are bell which are moll firm and
jcompail. Hence the interior fubllance of the Japanefe
.porcelain is elleemed for its greater denfity, compadnels,
and Inlire, than our vitreous fand or fritt porcelains ;
becaufe thefe qualities indicate greater cohefion, and
more intimate incorporation of its parts. For the fame
reafon alfo the fuperior denfity of the Saxon porcelain
■ought to give it the preference to the Japanefe. Be-
fides, nothing would be eafier than to give the Saxon
porcelain the granulous texture of the Japanefe, by
-mixing with the palle a certain quantity of fand. But
the perfons who perfected that manufacture were cer¬
tainly fenfible that fuch a conformity to the Japanefe
porcelain would lelfen the merit of theirs : for we know,
that in general porcelains are better in 'proportion as
they contain a larger proportion of clay or earth, and
lefs of fand, flints, or other matters of that kind.
What we have faid concerning porcelain in general,
and the principal kinds of it, feems fulficient to give
jull notions of it, if not to perfons who without confi-
'dering the fubjedl are determined to prefer the moll
ancient, to thofe, at leall, who have made experiments
on this fubjedl, or who, having a fufficient knowledge
of chemiftry, are capable of lludying and examining it
thoroughly. We lhall finilh this article by giving a
fliort defcription of the method of manufacturing por-
gt celain as pra£lifed in Europe.
■Of making The balls, of the porcelains which we have called fu-
fufible or Jible, vitreous, or faljv porcelains, is called by artills a
vitreous yr/// . which is nothing elfe than a mixture of fand or
porce ains ^ p0Wdered flints, with falts capable of difpoiing them
to fuflon, and of giving them a great whitenefs by
.means of a fufficient heat. This fritt is to be then mixed
with as much, and no more, of a white tenacious earth
of an argillaceous or marly nature, than is fufficient to
make it capable of being worked upon the wheel. The
whole mixture is to be well ground together in a mill,
and made into a palle, which is to be formed, either
upon the wheel or in moulds, into pieces of fuch forms
as are required.
Each of thefe pieces, when dry, is to be put into a
cafe made of earthen ware (a) ; which cafes are to be
ranged in piles one upon another, in a furnace or kiln,
which is to be filled with thefe to the reof. The fur¬
naces are chambers or cavities of various forms and
fixes ; and are fo difpofed, that their fire-place is placed
on the outflde oppolite to one or more openings, which
communicate within the furnace. The flame of the fuel
is drawn within the furnace, the air of which rarefying,
determines a current of air from without inwards, as in
all furnaces. At firll a very little fire is made, that the
furnace may be heated gradually, and is to be increafed
more and more till the porcelain is baked, that is, till Porcelain.,
it has acquired its proper hardnefs and tranfparency ;
which is known by taking out of the furnace from time
to time, and examining, finall pieces of porcelain, placed
for that purpofe fin cafes which have lateral openings.
When thefc pieces (how that the porcelain is fufficiently
baked, the firll is no longer to be fupplied with fuel,
the furnace is to be cooled, and the porcelain taken out,
which in this Hate refembles white marble not having a
flrining furface, which is afterwards to be given by co-
-vering them with a vitreous coinpofition palled the
glazing. _
The porcelain when baked and not glazed is called Porcelain
hifcuit, which is more or lefs beautiful according to the ft;ulPturca’
nature of the porcelain. The manufacture of Sevres
excels all others in this refpeft, and it is therefore the
only one which can produce very fine pieces of fculpture ;
that is, in which all the finenefs of the workmanfhip is
preferved, and which are preferable in fmoothnefs and
whitenefs to the finell marble of Italy.
As no piece of fculpture of this kind can preferve all
the delicacy of its workmanlhip when covered with a
flazing, and as fculptors avoid polilhing their marble
gures, becaufe the lultre of the pofilh is difadvantageous;
therefore, in the manufadlures of Sevres, all figures or
little ftatues, and even fome ornamental vafes, are left in
the Hate of bifeuit. The other pieces of porcelain are
to be glazed in the following manner.
A glafs is firH to be compofed fuited to the nature Method of
of the porcelain to which it is to be applied; for every K^azin|, <)r ..
glafs is not fit for this purpofe. We frequently find^'^^
that a glafs which makes a fine glazing for one porce¬
lain fhall make a very bad glazing for another por¬
celain ; fhalFcrack in many places, ifhall have no luilrc,
or {hall contain bubbles. The glazing, then, muH be
appropriated to each porcelain, that is, to the hardnefs
and denfity of the ware, and to the ingredients of its
compofition, &c.
Thefe glazings are prepared by previoufly fufing to¬
gether all the fubfiances of which they confilt, fo as to
form vitreous mafles. Thefe mafles are to be ground
very finely in a mill. This vitreous powder is to be
mixed with a fufficient quantity of water, or other pro¬
per liquor, fo that the mixture ffiall have the confifience
of cream of milk. The pieces of porcelain are to be
covered with a thin firatum of this matter; and when
very dry, they are to be again put into the furnace in
the fame manner as before for the forming of the bifeuit,
and to be continued there till the glazing be well fufed.
The neceffary degree of fire for fufing the glazing is
much lefs than that for baking the pafie.
The pieces of porcelain which are intended to remain
white are now finiflied; but thofe which are to be
painted and gilded mull undergo further operations.
The colours to be applied are the fame as thofe ufed
for enamel painting. They all confiH of metallic calces
bruifed and incorporated with a very fufible glafs. Cro¬
cus
(a) The cafes are called by Englifh potters feggars. They are generally formed of coarfer clays, but which
snull be alfo capable of fuHaining the heat required without fufion. By means of thefe cafes the contained por¬
celain is preferved from the fmoke of the burning fuel. The whitenefs of the porcelain depends muck
x>n their compa&nefs of texture, by which the fmoke is excluded, and on the purity of the clay of which
they are made, 3
P O R
t 393 1
P O R
Porcelain,
Forth.
* See Che-
*njiry, n°
3i7.
, 34
Prepara¬
tion oi un*
fufible por
cdaia.
CHS of iron furnlfties a fed colour ; gold * precipitated
by tin makes the purple and violet; copper calcined by
acids and precipitated by an alkali givves a fine green ;
zaffre makes the blue ; earths fiightly ferruginous pro¬
duce a yellow ; and, lailly, brown and black Colours are
produced by calcined iron, together with a deep blue of
zaffre. Thefe colours being ground with gum-water,
dr with oil of fpike, are to be employed for the paint-
ihg of the porcelain with defigns of flowers and other
figures. For gilding, a powder or calx of gold is to
be applied in the fame manner as the coloured enamels.
Tlie painted and gilded porcelains are to be then expo-
fed to a fire capable of fufing the glafs, with which the
metallic colours are mixed. Thus the colours are made
to adhere, and at the fame time acquire a glofs equal to
that of the glazing. The gold alone has not then a
{hining appearance, which muff be afterwards given to
it by burnifhing with a blood-ffone.
The operations for the unfufible porcelains, and alfo
for fuch as are of the nature of ftone-ware, are fome-
what more fimple. The fands and (tones which enter into
their compofition are to be ground in a mill: the earths
or clays are to be wafhed : the materials are to be well
mixed, and formed into a pafte : the pieces are firff
rudely formed upon a potter’s wheel ; and when dry,
or half dry, they are turned again upon the wheel, and
their form is made more perfect: they are then placed
in the furnace } not to bake them, but only to apply a
fufficient heat to give them fuch r. folidity that they
may be handled without breaking, and may receive the
glazing. As the pieces of porcelain after this flight
heat are very dry, they imbibe wrater readily. This
difpoiition afiiffs the application of the glazing. The
vitrifiable or vitrified matter of this glazing, which has
been previoufiy ground in a mill, is to be mixed with
fuch a quantity of water, that the liquor fhall have the
confiftence of milk. The pieces of porcelain are haftily
dipt in this liquor, the water of which they imbibe,
and thus on their fnrface is left an uniform covering of
the glazing materials. This covering, which ought to
be very thin, will foon become fo dry, that it cannot
flick to the fingers when the pieces are handled.
The pieces of this porcelain are then put into the
furnace to be perfectly baked. The heat is to be rai-
fed to fuch a height, that all within the furnace fhall
be white, and the cafes fhall be undiftinguifhable from
the flame. When, by taking out fmall pieces, the por¬
celain is knowm to be fufhcicntly baked, the fire is dif-
Continued, and the furnace cooled. If the baking has
been well performed, the pieces of porcelain will be
found by this fingle operation to be rendered compaiff,
fonorous, clofe-grained, moderately glofly, and covered
externally with a fine glazing. The painting and gild¬
ing of this porcelain are to be executed in a manner fi-
milar to that already deferibed.
PoRC^LAiN-Sbelly a fpecies of Cypr^a.
PORCH, in architecture, a kind of veftibule fup-
ported by columns; much ufed at the entrance of the
ancient temples, halls, churches, &c.
A porch, in the ancient architeClure, was a veftibule,
or a difpofition of infulated columns ufually crowned
with a pediment, forming a covert place before the
principal door of a temple or court of juflice. Such is
that before the door of St Paul’s, Covent-Garden, the
work of Inigo Jones, When a porch had four columns
Vol. XV. Part I.
Porella.
in front, it was called a tetrajlyle } when fix, hexajly'e; Porch
when eight, oftojlyle, &c.
Porch, in Greek a public portico in Athens
adorned with the pi&ures of Polygnotus and other emi¬
nent painters. It wras in this portico that Zeno the
philofopher taught; and hence his followers were call¬
ed Stoics. See Stoics and Zeno.
PORCUPINE, in zoology. See PIystrix.
PoRcupiNE-Mon, the name by which one Edward
Lambert, who had a diftempered flrin, went in Lon¬
don. We have the following account of him in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1755, by Mr Henry-
Baker, F. R. S. “ He is now (fays he) 40 years of age,
and it is 24 years fince he was firff fhown to the focie-
ty. The fkin of this man, except on his head and face,
the palms of his hands, and the foies of his feet, is co¬
vered with excrefcences that refemblc an innumerable
company of warts, of a brown colour and cylindrical fi¬
gure ; all rifing to an equal height, which is about an
inch, and growing as clofe as pofliblc to each other at
their bafis ; but fo ftiff and elaftic as to make a ruff¬
ling noife when the hand is drawn over them. Thefe
excrefcences are annually fhed, and renewed in fome of
the autumn or winter months. The new ones, which
are of a paler colour, gradually rife up from beneath as
the old ones fall off; and at this time it has been found
neceffary for him to lofe a little blood, to prevent a flight
ficknefs which he had been ufed to fuffer before this pre¬
caution was taken. He has had the fmallpox, and he has
been twice falivated, in hopes to get rid of this difagree-
able covering ; but though juft when the puftules of the
fmallpox had fealed off, and immediately after his fali-
vations, his fkin appeared wdiite and fmooth,yet theex-
crefcences foon returned by a gradual incrcafe, and his
flrin became as it wras before. His health, during his
whole life, has been remarkably good : but there is one
particular of this cafe more extraordinary than all the
reft ; this man has had fix children, and all of them
had the fame rugged covering as himfelf, which came
on like his own about nine weeks after the birth. Of
thefe children only one is now living, a pretty boy, who
was fhown with his father. It appears, therefore, as
Mr Baker remarks, that a race of people might be pro¬
pagated by this man, as different from other men as
an African is from an Englifhman ; and that if this
fhould have happened in any former age, and the acci¬
dental original have been forgotten, there would be the
fame objeclions agalnft their being derived from the
fame common flock with others : it muff therefore be
admitted pofiible, that the differences now fubfifting
betw-een one part of mankind and another may have
been produced by fome fuch accidental caufe, long af¬
ter the earth has been peopled by one common progeni¬
tor.”
PORE, in anatomy, a little interflice or fpace be¬
tween the parts of the flrin, ferving for perfpiration.
PORELLA, in botany ; a ge-nus of the natural or¬
der of mufei, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The antherse are multilocular, full of natural
pores, with an operculum ; there is no calyptra, nor pe¬
dicle ; the capfules contain a powder like thofe of the
other moffes ; and their manner of fhedding this powder
is not by feparating into two parts, like thole of the fe-
lago and lycopodium, but by opening into feveral holes
on all Tides.
3D
PC REN-
p o R [394-] FOR
Pftrentru, PORENTRU, is a town of SwifTcrland, in Elfgaw,
1 o^lfm• and capital of the territory of the bifhop of Bafle. It has
- ' a good caftle, where he refides^ It has in it, however,
nothing elfe worth taking notice of, except the cathe¬
dral. The biihop is a prince of the empire. It is feat-
ed on the river Halle, near mount Jura, 22 miles fouth
of Bade. E. Long. 7, 2. N. Lat. 47. 34.
PORISM, in geometry, is a name given by the
ancient geometers to two clafTes of mathematical propo-
fitions. Euclid gives this name to propofitions which
are involved in others which he is profeffedly inveftiga-
ting, and which, although not his principal objedl, are
yet obtained along with it, as is exprefled by their name
porifmata, “ acquifitions.” Such propofitions are now
called corollaries. But he gives the fame name, by way
of eminence, to a particular clafs of propofitions which
he colle&ed in the courfe of his refearches, and fele&ed
from among many others on account of their great fub-
ferviency to the bufinefs of geometrical investigation in
general. Thefe propofitions were fo named by him,
either from the way in which he difcovered them, while
he was inveftigating fomething elfe, by which means
they might be confidered as gains or acquifitions, or from
their utility in acquiring farther knowledge as fteps in
the inveftigation. In this fenfe they are porifmata; for
Tiopi u fignifies both to inveftigate and to acquire by in-
veftigation. Thefe propofitions formed a colledtion,
which was familiarly known to the ancient geometers
by the name of Euclid’s jorifms ; and Pappus of Alex¬
andria fays, that it was a mod ingenious colle&ion of
many things conducive to the analyfis or folution of the
moft difficult problems, and which afforded great delight
to thofe who were able to underhand and to invefligatc
them.
Unfortunately for mathematical fcience, however, this
valuable colle&ion is now loft, and it ftill remains a doubt¬
ful queftion in what manner the ancients condudled their
refearches upon this curious fubjeft. We have, however,
reafon to believe that their method was excellent both
in principle and extent, for their analyfis led them to
many profound difcoveries, and was reftridled by the fe¬
vered logic. The only account we have of this clafs
of geometrical propofitions, is in a 'ragment of Pappus,
m which he attempts a general definition of them as a
fet of mathematical propofitions diftinguilhable in kind
from all others ; but of this diftiruftion nothing remains,
except a criticifm on a definition of them given by fome
geometers, and with which he finds fault, as defining
them only by an accidental circnmftance, “ Porijma
ejl quod deficit hypothfi a theoremate locali.,>
Pappus then proceeds to give an account of Euclid’s
porifms; but the enunciations are fo extremely defec¬
tive, at the fame time that they refer to a figure now
loft, that Dr Halley confeffes the fragment in queftion
to be beyond his comprehenfion.
I he high encomiums given by Pappus to thefe pro¬
pofitions have excited the curiofity of the greateft geo¬
meters of modern times, who have attempted to dif-
cover their nature and manner of inveftigation. M.
eimat, a French mathematician of the laft century,
attaching himfelf to the definition which Pappus cri-
ticifes, publifhed an introdu&ion (for this is its modeft
title) to this fubjeft, which many others tried to eluci¬
date in vain. At length Dr Simfon of Glafgow, by
pauent inquiry and feme lucky thoughts, obtained
reiteration of the porifms of Euclid, which has all the Porifrn»
appearance of being juft. It precifely correfponds to 
Pappus’s defeription of them. All the lemmas which
Pappus has given for the better underftanding of Eu¬
clid’s propofitions are equally applicable to thofe of
Dr Simfon, which are found to differ from local theo¬
rems precifely as Pappus affirms thofe of Euclid to
have done. They require a particular mode of analyfis,
and are of immenfe lervice in geometrical inveftigation ;
on which account they may juftly claim our atten¬
tion.
While Dr Simfon was employed in this inquiry, he
carried on a correfpondence upon the fubje<ft\vith the
late Dr M. Stewart, profeffor of mathematics in the
univerfity of Edinburgh ; who, befides entering into Dr
Simfon’s views, and communicating to him many curi¬
ous porifms, purfued the fame fubjedl in a new and very
different diredion. He publiffied the refult of his in¬
quiries in i74^> tinder the title of General Theorems,
not caring to give them any other name, left he might
appear to anticipate the labours of his friend and for¬
mer preceptor. The greater part of the propofitions-
contained in that work are porifms, but without de-
monftrations; therefore, whoever wifhes to inveftigate
one of the moft curious fubje&s in geometry, will them
find abundance of materials, and an ample field for dif-
cuffion.
Dr Simfon defines a porifm to be “ a propofition, in
which it is propofed to demonftrate, that one or more
things are given, between which, and every one of in¬
numerable other things not given, but affumed accord¬
ing to a given law, a certain relation deferibed in the
propofition is ffiown to take place.”
This definition is not a little obfeure, but will be
plainer if expreffed thus : “ A porifm is a propofition
affirming the poffibility of finding fuch conditions a»
will render a certain problem indeterminate, or capable
cf innumerable folutions.” This definition agrees with
Pappus’s idea of thefe propofitions, fo far at leaft as
they can be underftood from the fragment already men¬
tioned ; for the propofitions here defined, like thofe
which he deferibes, are, f(ri<ftly fpeaking, neither theo¬
rems nor problems, but of an intermediate nature be¬
tween both ; for they neither fimply enunciate a truth
to be demonftrated, nor propofe a queftion to be refol-
ved, but are affirmations of a truth in which the deter¬
mination of an unknown quantity is involved. In as
far, therefore, as they affert that a certain problem may
become indeterminate, they are of the nature of theo¬
rems ; and, in as far as they feek to difeover the condi¬
tions by which that is brought about, they are of the
nature of problems.
We ffiall endeavour to make our readers underftand
this fubjeft diftinftly, by confidering them in the
way in which it is probable they occurred to the an¬
cient geometers in the courie of their refearches: this
will at the fame time fhow the nature of the analyfis pe¬
culiar to them, and their great ufe in the folution of
problems.
It appears to be certain, that it Iras been the folution of
problems which, in all ftates of the mathematical fei- .
ences, has led to the difeovery of geometrical truths :
the firft mathematical inquiries, in particular, muft have
occurred in the form of queftions, where fomething was
given, and fomething required to be done j and by the
reafoning
p o u
[ 395 3
P O R
Pprifm,
reafonlng neceflary to anfwer thefe queftmns, or to dif-
cover the relation between the things given and thofe
to be found, many truths were fuggefted, which came
afterwards to be the fubjed of fcparate demonftra-
tions. , r l
The number of thefe was the greater, became the an-
'cient geometers always undertook the folutkm of pro¬
blems, with a fcrupulous and minute attention, into-
tnuch that they would fcarcely fuffer any of the collate¬
ral truths to efcape their obfervation.
Now, as this cautious manner of proceeding gave an
opportunity of laying hold of every collateral truth con-
neded with the main objed of inquiry, thefe geometers
foon perceived, that there were many problems which in
certain cafes would admit of no folution whatever, in
confequence of a particular relation taking place among
the quantities which were given. Such problems were
faid to become impofiible : and it was foon perceived,
that this always happened when one of the conditions
of the problem was inconfiftent with the reft. 1 hus,
when it was required to’ divide a line, fo that the rec¬
tangle contained by its fegments might be equal to a
given fpace, it is evident that this was poffible only when
the given fpace waslefs than the fquare of half the line;
for when it was otherwife, the two conditions denning,
the one the magnitude of the line, and the other the
redangle of its fegments, were inconfiftent with each
other.& Such cafes would occur in the folution of the
jnoft fimple problems ; but if they were more compli¬
cated, it muft have been remarked, that the conftruc-
tions would fometimes fail, for a reafon diredly contra¬
ry to that juft now afligned. Cafes would occm, where
the lines, which by their interfedion were to determine
the thing fought, inftead of interfeding each other as
they did commonly, or of not meeting at all as in the
above mentioned cafe of impoflibility, would coincide
with one another entirely, and of courfe leave the pro-
idem unrefolved. It would appear to geometers upon
a little refledion, that fmce, in the caie of determinate
problems, the thing required was determined by the in¬
terfedion of the two lines already mentioned, that is,
by the points common to both; fo in the cafe of their
coincidence, as all their parts were in common, every
one of thefe points muft give a folution, or, in other
■words, the folutions muft be indefinite in number.
Upon inquiry, it would be found that this pioceed-
d from fome condition of the problem having been in¬
volved in another, fo that, in fad, there was but one,
which did not leave a fufficicnt number of independent
conditions to limit the problem to a Angle or to any de¬
terminate number of folutions. It would foon be per¬
ceived, that thefe cafes formed very curious propoimons
of an intermediate nature between problems and theo¬
rems ; and that they admitted of being enunciated in a
manner peculiarly elegant and concife. It was to luch
propofitions that the ancients'gave the name ot porifms.
This dedudion requires to be illuftrated by an examp.e :
fuppofe, therefore, that it were required to refolve the
following problem. ,
A circle ABC (fig. i.), a ftraight line DL, and a
tccCAiu *nt. being given in pofition, to find a point G in the
ftraight line DE fuch, that GF, the line drawn from
it to the given point, fhall be equal to GB, the line
drawn from it touching the given circle.
Suppofe G to be found, and GB to be drawn touch-
plate
ing the given circle ABC in B, let U be its centre, join
HB, and let HD be perpendicular to DE. From D
draw DL, touching the circle ABC in L, and join HL;
alfo from the centre G, with the diftance GB or GF,
deferibe the circle BKF, meeting HD in the points K
and K'. Then HD and DL are given in pofition and
magnitude ; and becaufe GB touches the circle ABC,
HBG is a right angle ; and fince G is the centre of the
circle BKF, therefore HB touches the circle BKF, and
HBZ= the redangle K HK ; which redangle -f-DK1
= HD% becaufe K'K is bifeded in D, therefore
HL’-i-KD'rrDH^HL ’and = LD;; therefore DK*
- DL% and DK = DL ; and fince DL is given in mag¬
nitude, DK is alfo given, and K is a given point: for the
fame reafon K' is a given point, and the point F being
given by hypothefis, the circle BKP is given by pofition.
The point G, the centre of the circle, is therefore gi¬
ven, which was to be found. Hence this conftrudion ;
Having drawn HD perpendicular to DE, and DL
touching the circle ABC, make DK and DK each
equal to DL, and find G the centre of the circle de-
feribed through the points K'FK ; that is, let FK be
joined and bifeded at right angles by MN, which meets
DE in G, G will be the point required; that is, if
GB be drawn touching the circle ABC, and GF to the
given point, GB is equal to GF.
The fynthetical demonftration is eafily derived from
the preceding analyfis ; but it muft be remarked, that in
fome cafes this conftrudion fails. For, firft, if F fall
anywhere in DH, as at F , the line MN becomes paral¬
lel to DE, and the point G is nowhere to be found ; or,
in other words, it is at an infinite diftance from D.—
This is true in general; but if the given point F coin*
cides with K, then MN evidently coincides with DE ;
fo that, agreeable to a remark already made, ever)' point
of the line DE may be taken for G, and will fatisfy
the conditions of the problem ; that is to fay, GB will
be equal to GK, wherever the point G be taken in the
line DE : the fame is true if F coincide with K. Thus
we have an inftance of a problem, and that too a very
fimple one, which, in general, admits but of one folu¬
tion ; but which, in one particular cafe, when a certain
relation takes place among the things given, becomes
inde nite, and admits of innumerable folutions. The
propofition which refults from this cafe of the problem
is a porifm, and may be thus enunciated:
“ A circle ABC being given by pofition, and alfo a
ftraight line DE, which does not cut the circle, a point
K may be found, fuch, that if G be any point what¬
ever in DE, the ftraight line drawn from G to the
point K fhall be equal to the ftraight line drawn from
G touching the given circle ABC.”
The problem which follows appears t© have led to
the difeovery of many poi'ifms.
A circle ABC (fig. 2.) and two points D, E, in a
diameter of it being given, to find a point F in the cir¬
cumference of the given circle ; from which, if ftraight
lines be drawn to the given points E, D, thefe ftraight
lines fhall have to one another the given ratio of 1 to /?,
which is fuppoftd to be that of a greater to a lefs.—
Suppofe the problem refolved, and that F is found, fo
that FE has to FD the given ratio of * to produce
EF towards B, bifedl the angle EFD by FL, and
DFB by FM : therefore EL : LD : : Eh : FD, that
is in a given ratio, and fince ED is given, each of the feg*
o D 2 mentjs
Porifm.
FOR [
, Pori^n1‘ ment^ !EL, LD, is given, and the point L is alfo given ;
" * becaufe DI^B is bifeftetl by FM, EM:MD : : EF:FD,
that is, in a given ratio, and therefore M is given.
Since DFL is half of DFE, and DFM half of DFB,
therefore LFM is half of (DFE-f-DFB), therefore
LFM is a right angle ; and fince the points L, M, are
given, the point F is in the circumference of a circle
defcribed upon LM as a diameter, and therefore given
in poiition. Now the point F is alfo in the circumfe¬
rence of the given circle ABC, therefore it is in the in-
terfetlion of the two given circumferences, and there¬
fore is found. Hence this conftrudlion : Divide ED
jn 1j, fo that EL may be to LD in the given ratio of
« to ft, and produce ED alfo to M, fo that EM may
be to MD in the fame given ratio of a to /S; bifeft
LM in N, and from the centre N, with the diltance
NL, defcribe the femicircle LFM; and the point F, in
which it interfe&s the circle ABC, is the point re¬
quired.
The fynthetical demoadration is eafily derived from
the preceding analylis. It muft, however, be remark¬
ed, that the conftruftion fails when the circle LFM
■falls either wholly within or wholly without the circle
ABC, fo that the circumferences do not interfetf ; and
in thefe cafes the problem cannot be folved. It is alfo
obvious that the conllrudbion will fail in another cafe,
viz. when the two circumferences LFM, ABC, entire¬
ly coincide. . In this cafe, it is farther evident, that
every point ia the circumference ABC will anfwer the
conditions of the problem, which is therefore capable
of numberlefs folutions, and may, as in the former in-
itances, be converted into a pon-fm. We now inquire,
therefore, in what circumflances the point L will coin¬
cide with A, and alfo the point M with C, and of con-
fequence the circumference LFM with ABC. If we
fuppofe that they coincide EA : AD EC :
CD, and E/\ : EC :: AD : CD, or by converiion EA
. AC : : AD : CD—AD : : AD : 2DO, O being the
centre of the circle ABC ; therefore, alfo, EA: AO : ;
AD : DO, and by compofition EO : AO : : AO : DO,
therefore EOxOD = AOz. Hence, if the given points
pLe E and D (%• 3-) be fo fituated, that EOxOD =
CCCCXtlF AO% and at the fame time a: ft:: EA ; AD : : EC :
CD, the problem admits of numberlefs folutions ; and
if either of the points D or E be given, the other point.
396 ] FOR
is equal to AOH, and therefore the angle FOB to Porifm.
HOO, that is, the arch FB to the arch HG. This ——v—“
propofition appears to have been the laft but one in
the third book of Euclid’s Porifms, and the manner of
its enunciation in the porifmatic form is obvious.
The preceding propofition alfo affords an illuftration
of the remark, that the conditions of a problem are in¬
volved in one another in the porifmatic or indefinite cafa;
for here feveral independent conditions are laid down,
by the help of which the problem is to be refolved.
Two points D and E are given, from which two lines
are to be infledled, and a circumference ABC, in which
thefe lines are to meet, as alfo a ratio which 'thefe lines
are to have to each other. Now thefe conditions arc
all independent on one another, fo that any one may he
changed without any change whatever in the reft. This
is true in general; but yet in one cafe, viz. when the
points are fo related to one another that their redlangle
under their diftances from the centre is equal to the
fquare .of the radius of the circle ; it follows from the
preceding analyfis, that the ratio of the inflected lines
is no longer a matter of choice, but a neceffary confe-
quence of this difpofition of the points.
1'rom what has been already laid, we may trace the
imperfect definition of a porilm which Pappus afcribes
to the later geometers, viz. that it differs from a local
theorem, by wanting the hypothefis affumed in that
theorem. —Now, to underftand this, it muft be obferved,
that if we take one of the propofitions called loci, and
make the conftruCtion of the figure, a part of the hypo¬
thefis, we get what was called by the ancient geo¬
meters a local theorem. If, again, in the enunciation of
the theorem, that part of the hypothefis which contains
the conftru<ftion be fupprefled, the propofition thence
arifing will be a porifm, for it will enunciate a truth,
and will require to the full underftanding and inveftiga-
tion of that truth, that fomething fhould be found, viz.
the circumftances in the conitruCtion fuppofed to be o-
mitted.
Ihus, when we fay, if from two given points E, D,
(fi§b 3-) two ftraight lines EF, FD, are infledfted to a
third point 1*, fo as to be to one another in a given ra¬
tio, the point F is in the circumference of a given
circle, we have a locus. But when converfely it is
faid, ii a circle ABC, of which the centre is O,
ir .. ... ... 9 '  c ui wnicu me centre is VJ,
and alio the ratio which will render the problem inde- be given by pofition, as alfo a point E; and if D be ta-
1PTITHTlriff3- mStr>f* rrwirvH T-TA~ 1   * 1 • .1 i* -w-t t   — _  
terminate, may be found. Hence we have this po¬
rifm : r
A circle ABC, and alfo a point D being given,
another point E may be found, fuch that the two lines
inflected iiom thefe points to any point in the circum-
ieience ALC, fhall have to each other a given ratio,
which ratio is alfo to be found.” Hence alfo we have
an example of the derivation of porifms from one ano¬
ther, for the circle ABC, and the points D and E re¬
maining as before (fig. 3.), if, through D, we draw
any line whatever HDB, meeting the circle in B and
H ; and if the lines EB, EH, be alfo drawn, thefe lines
will cut off equal circumferences BF, HG. Let FC
be drawn, and it is plain from the foregoing analyfis,
that the angles DFC, CFB, are equal; therefore if
OG, Oli, be drawn, the angles BOC, COG, are alfo
equal; and confequently the angles DOB, DOG In
the fame manner, by joining AB, the angle DBE be¬
ing bifeaed by BA, it is evident that the angle AOF
ken in the line EO, fo that EOxOD = AO* and if
from E and D the lines EF, DF be infledted to any
point of the circumference ABC, the ratio of EF to
DF will be given, viz. the fame with that of EA to
AD, we have a local theorem.
Laitly, when it is faid, if a circle ABC be given by
pofition, and alfo a point E, a point D may be found,
inch that if EF, FD be infledled from E and D to any
point F in the circumference ABC, thefe lines Ihall
have a given ratio to one another, the propofition be¬
comes a porifm, aud is the fame that has juft now been
inveftigated*
Hence it is evident, that the local theoremis changed
into a porifrn, by leaving out what relates to the deter¬
mination of D, and of the given ratio. But though all
propofitions formed in this way from the converfion of
loci, are porifms, yet all porifms are not formed from
the converfion of loci; the firft, for inftance, of the pie.
ceding cannot by converfion be changed into a locus
therefore
FOR
C 397 1
FOR
Porifm. therefore Fermat’s idea of porifms, founded upon this
circumftance, could not fail to be imperfeft.
To confirm the truth of the preceding theory, it may
be added, that profelfor Dr Stewart, in a paper read
a confiderable time ago before the Philofophical Society
of Edinburgh, defines a porifm to be “ A propofition
affirming the poffibility of finding one or more condi¬
tions of an indeterminate theorem;” where, by an in¬
determinate theorem, he meant one which expreiTes a re¬
lation between certain quantities that are determinate
and certain others that are indeterminate ; a definition
which evidently agrees with the explanations which have
been here given.
If the idea which we have given of thefe propofitions
be juft, it follows, that they are to be difeovered by
confidering thofe cafes in which the conftruftion of a
problem fails, in confequence of the lines which by
their interfeftion, or. the points which by their pofi-
tion, were to determine the problem required, happen¬
ing to coincide with one another. A porifm may
therefore be deduced from the problem to which it be-
longs, juft as propofitions concerning the maxima and
minima of quantities are deduced from the problems of
which they form limitations; and fuch is the moft natu¬
ral and obvious analyfis of which this clafs of propofi-
tions admits.
The following porifm is the firft of Euclid’s, and the
firft alfo which was reftored. It is given here to exem¬
plify the advantage which, in inveftigations of this kind,
may be derived from employing the laiv of continuity
in its utmoft extent, and purfuing porifms to thole ex¬
treme cafes where the indeterminate magnitudes increafe
ad infinitum.
muft pafs through the point to be found M ; for if not,
it may be demonftrated juft as above, that AE" does
not pafs through H, contrary to the fuppofition. 1 he
point to be found is therefore in the line E'B, which is
given in pofition. Now if from E there be drawn EP
parallel to AE', and ES parallel to BE', BS : SE :: BL
SExBL ^ a P • PF • • A F ?
Purine.
LN='
BS
therefore FG : LN :
, and AP: PE :: AF : FG=-
PEXAF.SEXBL
AP~ : BS
PExAF
XBS : SExBLxAP; wherefore the ratio of FG to
LN is compounded of the ratios of AF to BL, PE to
ES, and BS to AP ; but PE : SE :: AE': BE', and
BS :AP: : DB : DA for DB : BS : : DE': E'E ::
DA : AP; therefore the ratio of FG to LN is com*
pounded of the ratios of AF to BL, AE' to BE', and
DB to DA. In like manner, becaufe E" if a point in
the line DE and AE", BE" are inflefted to it, the
ratio of FH to LM is compounded of the fame ratios
of AF to BL, AE' to BE', and DB to DA ; there¬
fore FH : LM : : FG: NL (and confequently) : : PIG
: MN; but the ratio of HG to MN is given, being the
fame as that of a to /3; the ratio of P H to LM is
therefore alfo given, and FH being given, LM is given
in magnitude. Now LM is parallel to BE', a line
given in pofition ; therefore M is in a line QM, parallel
to AB, and given in poiition ; therefore the point M,
and alfo the line KLM, drawn through it parallel to
BE', are.given in pofition, which were to be found.
Plate
Hence this conftnnftion : From A draw AE' parallel
to FK, fa as to meet DE in E'; join BE', and take in
it BQ^ fo that « : 6 : : HF : BQj-and through Qdraw
Thu'poiifm may be confidcred as having occurred in QM parallel to AB. Let HA be drawn, and produ-
the folutuon of the followmg problem: Two points A, B, tdl « meet DE m E , and draw BE', meeting QN*
(fig. 4.) and alfo three ftraight lines DE, FK, KL, be-
CCCCXLH ing given in pofition, together with two points H and M
in two of thefe lines, to infleft from A and B to a point
in-the third, two lines that ffiall cut off from KF and
KL two fegments, adjacent to the given, points PI and
M, having to one another the given ratio of to n.
Now, to find whether a porifm be connected with this
problem, fuppofe that there is, and that the following
propofition is true. Two points A and B, and two
ilraight lines DE, FK, being given in pofition, and
in M ; through M draw KML parallel to BE, then is
KML the line and M the point which were to be
found. There are two lines which will anfwer the con*
ditions of this porifm ; for if in QB, produced on the
other fide of B, there be taken B</=BQ_, and if qm
be drawn parallel to AB, cutting MB in m; and if m k
be drawn parallel to BQ^, the part m n, cut oft by EB
produced, will be-equal to MN, and have to HG the
ratio required. It is plain, that whatever be the ratio
of a to t1, and whatever be the magnitude of FH, if the
dfol po nt H in one of ihem,°a ifne LK may be found, other thing, given remain the fame, the lines found w.ii
, ^ at be all parallel to BE'. But if the ratio of « to d re-
and alfo a point in it M, both given in pofition, fuch
that AE and BE inflefted from the points A and B
to any point whatever of the line DE, fhafl cut off fiom
the other lines FK and LK fegments HG and MN
adjacent to the given points H and M, having to one
another the given ratio of a to f.
Firft, let AE, BE', be infleaed to the point E', fo
that AE' may be parallel to FK, then fhall E B be pa¬
rallel to KL, the line to be found ; for if it be not pa¬
rallel to KL, the point of their interfeftion muft be at
a finite diftance from the point M, and' therefore ma¬
king as /3 to a; fo this diftance to a fourthproportional,
the diftaneg from H at which AE' interfeas 1 K, will
be equal to that fourth proportional. But AE does
not interfea FK, for they are parallel by eonftruaion ;
therefore BE' cannot interfea KL, which is therefore
parallel to BE', a line given in pofition. Again, let
AE", BE", be infleaed to E", fo that AE' may pafs
through the given point H : then it is plain that BE"
be all parallel
main the fame likewife, and if only the point H van',
the pofition of KL will remain the fame, and tiie point
M will vary.
Another general remark which may be made on the
analyfis of porifms is, that it often happens, as in the
laft example, that the magnitudes required may all, or
a part of them, be found by confidering the extreme
cafes; but for the difeovery of the relation between
them, and the indefinite magnitudes, we muft have re-
courfe* to the hypothefis of the porifm in its moft gene¬
ral or indefinite form; and muft endeavour fo to con¬
duit the reafoning, that the indefinite magnitudes may
at length totally difappear, and leave a propofition af-
futing the relation between determinate magnitu es
only.
For this purpofe Dr Simfcn frequently employs two
ftatementa of the general hypothefis, which he comparts
together. As for iuitar.ee, in his analyfis of the laft po-
^ niin.
P O R [
-Po ifm rlfm, he affufnes not onljT E, any point !n the line DE,
 but alfo another point Q, anywhere in the fame line,
to both of which he fuppofes lines to be inflefted from
the points -A., E. i his double ftatement, however,
cannot be made without rendering the inveftigation long
and complicated ; nor is it even necefiary, for it may be
avoided by having recourfe to fimpler peri'ms, or to /oci,
or to propofitions of the data, 1 he following porifm
is given as an example where this is done with fome
difficulty, but with confiderable advantage both with
regard to the fimplicity and fhortnefs of the demonllra-
tion. It will'be proper to premife the following lemma.
Plate J^et AB (frg. 7.) be a ftraight line, and D, L any
CCCCXL (W0 points in it, one of which X) is between A and B}
let CL be any ftraight line,
393 i
AD’;
P o
•BDJ =
ecAL‘4c'BL‘+^'DL’
CL
Place CL perpen-
dicular to AB, and through the points A, C, B, de-
feribe a circle; and let CL meet it again in E, and join
AE, BE. Draw DG parallel to CE, meeting AE
and BE in H and G. Draw EK. parallel to AB.
CL : LB : :(LA : LE::) LA*: LAxLE=:-i? LA*
JLj
CL : LA :: (LB : LE;:) LB’:LBxLE=^-BL*.
Now CL : LB ; : LA ; LE : : (EK) LD : KH, and
CL : LA : : L B : L E :: (EK) LD ; KG; therefore,
(V. 24.) CL : AB :: (LD; GH ;;) LD*: EKxGH-
AB T -p., , r LB t a * 1 LA r , AB
~Cl’LD J thercforc CL LA + cl L+ cl
*LD’=ABxLE+EKxGH. Again, CL ; LA :;
) DB‘;DBXDG=^
and CL : LB :: (LA: LE : : DA : DH; :)
therefore ^^DA*-}-
4 LB : LE : : DB : DG
*DB
DA3
DAxDH=~-DA
LA
CL
GH;
CL
DB1=ADxDH+DBxDG=ABxLE+EKx
wherefore LB DA*4--^!dB*= ^LA*4-
CL ^ CL CL ^
— LB3
CL
4-^LD3
‘ CL
^E.D.
Let there be three ftraight lines AB, AC, CB
given in pofition (fig. 5.) ; and from any point what¬
ever in one of them, as D, let perpendiculars be drawn
to the other two, as DF, DE, a point G may be found,
fuch, that if GD be drawn from it to the point D, the
fquare of that line fhall have a given ratio to the fum of
the fquares of the perpendiculars DF and DE, which
ratio is to be found.
Draw AH, BK perpendicular to BC and AC; and
in AB take L, fo that AL : LB : : AH* : BK2:;
AC :CB*. The point L is therefore given; and if
N be taken, fo as to have to AL the fame ratio that
AB has to AH , N will be given in magnitude. Al¬
fo, frnce AH*: BK*:; AL : LB, and AH *: AB* :;
AL : N, <?> equo BK*: AB*: : LB ; N. Draw LO,
LM perpendicular to AC, CB; LO, LM are there¬
fore given in magnitude. Now, becaufe AB*: BK*:;
AD*; DF*, N: LB :: AD* iDF*, andDF^z:—
N
R
•pt — AL.
and for the fame reafon DE*=-^'•BD,;butl
by the preceding lemma, —?-,AD*4-^i'-BD*“
1 r 6 N N N
•AL-+4^-BL-+M-DL> J that is, DE*+DF-=
Join LG then by hypothe-
Porifm ^
N
LO*+LM*+^-DL3
N
iis LO1 -4-LM , as to LG*, the fame ratio as DF*-|«
DE* has to DG’; let it be that of RtoN, then LO*-f
LhLzz ji-LG*; and therefore DE*-f.DF*=^-LG*-f
^•DL*; but DE*-fDF* = ?-DG*; therefore, 5
•I.G'+BNA-DL‘=|-DG%and^-DL'=|(DG--
LG*) ; therefore DG1—LG* has to DL* a conftant
ratio, viz. that of AB to R. The angle DLG is there¬
fore a right angle, and the ratio of AB to R that of
equality, otherwife LD would be given in magnitude,
contrary to the fuppofition, LG is therefore given in
pofition ; and fince R : N : : AB : N :: LO3 -f LM*;
LG3 ; therefore the fqnare of LG, and confequently
LG, is given in magnitude. The point G is there¬
fore given, and alfo the ratio of DE*-f-DF* to DG*,
which is the fame with that of AB to N.
The conftru£tion calily follows from the analyfis, but
it may be rendered more limple ; for fince AH-1: AB*
:: AL : N, and BK*: AB3: : BL ; N; therefore AH*
+ BIC: AB*;: AB : N. Like wife, if AG, BG, be
joined, AB ; N :: AH*: AG2, and AB : N :: BK*:
BG1; wherefore AB : N:: AK2-j-BK2: AG-f-BG*
and AG2-1-BG =AB*; therefore the angle AGB is a
right one, and AL; LG : : LG : LB. If therefore AB
be divided in L, fo that AL : LB : ; AH*; BK*; and
if LG, a mean proportional between AL and LB, be
placed perpendicular to AB, G will be the point re¬
quired.
d he ftep in the analyfis, by which a fecond intro-
du&ion of the general hypothefis is avoided, is that in
which the angle GLD is concluded to be a right angle;
which follows from DG2—GL2, having a given ratio to
LD2, at the fame timethat LD is of no determinate mag¬
nitude. For, if poffible, let GLD be obtufe (fig. 6.),
and let the perpendicular from G to AB meet it in V,
therefore V is given: and fince GD —LG2=LD2-j-
2DLXLV ; therefore, by the fuppofition, LD2-f-2DL
XLV muft have a given ratio to LD3; therefore the
ratio of LD2 to DLxVL, that is, of LD toVL, i&
given, fo that VL being given in magnitude, LD is al¬
fo given. But this is contrary to the fuppofition ; for
LD is indefinite by hypothefis, and therefore GLD
cannot be obtufe, nor any other than a right angle.
The conclufion here drawn immediately from the inde¬
termination of LD would be deduced, according to
Dr Simfon’s method, by affuming another point D'
any how, and from the fuppofition that GD'*—GL2 i
LD'2: : GD‘—GL‘: LD-’, it would eafily appear that
GLD muft be a right angle, and the ratio that of equa¬
lity.
Thefe porifms facilitate the folution of the general
problems from which they are derived. For example, let
three ftraight lines AB, AC, BC (fig. 5.), be given in
poll-
P O R
[ 399 ]
P O R
Porifm. pofition, and alfo a point R, to find a point D in one of
—v  the eiven lines, fo that DE and DF being drawn per¬
pendicular to BC, AC, and DR, joined ; DE -f-DF
may have to DR a given ratio. It is plain, that ha-
vincr found G, the problem would be nothing more than
to find D, fuch that the ratio of GD2 to DR% and
therefore that of GD to D R, might be given, the point
D being in the circumference of a given circle, as is
well known to geometers.
The fame porifm alfo afiifts in the folution of
another problem. For if it were required to find D
fuch that DE2 + DF2 might be a given fpace ; having
found G, DG7 would have to DE2 + DF2 a given ra¬
tio, and DG would therefore be given ; whence the fo¬
lution is obvious. _ .
The connection of this porifm with the impoihble
cafe of the problem is evident; the point D being that
from which, if perpendiculars be drawn to AC and CB,
the fum of their fquares is the. leaft pofiible. for iince
DFH M1 : DGZ :: LOz + LM= : LG"‘; and finee
LG is lefs than DG, LOJ+LMl muft be lefs than
LF1 -f DE\ It is evident from what has now appear¬
ed, that in fome inftances at leaft there is a clofe con-
neftion between thefe propofitions and the maxima or
minimat and of confequence the impofiible cafes of pro¬
blems. The nature of this connexion requires to be
farther inveftigated, and is the more interefting becaufe
the tranfition from the indefinite to the impollible cafe
feems to be made with wonderful rapidity. I hus in
the firft propolition, though there be not properly
fpeaking an impoffible cafe, but only one where the
point to be found goes off ad injimtumr it may be re¬
marked, that if the given point F be anywhere out of
the line HD (fig. i.), the problem of drawing GB
equal to GF is always pofiible, and admits of juft one
folution ; but if F be in DH, the problem admits of
no folution at all, the point being then at an infinite
diftance, and therefore impofiible to be afligned. There
is, however, this exception, that if the given point be
at K in this fame line, DH is determined by making
DK equal t© DL. Then every point in the line DE
gives a folution, and may be taken for the point G.
Here therefore the cafe of numberlefs folutions, and of
no folution at all, are as it were conterminal, and fo clofe
to one another, that if the given point be at K the
problem is indefinite; but if it remove ever fo little from
K, remaining at the fame time in the line DH, the
problem cannot be refolved. I his affinity might ha\e
been determined a prion : for it is, as we have feen, a
general principle, that a problem is converted into a po¬
rifm when one or when two of the conditions of it ne-
ceflarily involve in them fome one of the reft. Sup-
pofe, then, that two of the conditions are exa&ly in
that ft ate which determines the third; then while they
remain fixed or given, fhould that third one vary or
differ ever fo little from the ftate required by the other
two, a contradiftion will enfue: therefore if, in the hy-
pothefis of a problem, the conditions be fo related to one
another as to render it indeterminate, a porifm is pro¬
duced ; but if, of the conditions thus related to one ano¬
ther, fame one be fuppofed to vary, while the others con¬
tinue the fame, an abfurdity follows, and the problem
becomes impoffible. Wherever, therefore, any problem
admits both of an indeterminate and an impoffible cafe,
it is certain, that thele cafes are nearly related to one
Plate
ccccxm
another, and that fome of the conditions by which they
are produced are common to both.” It is fuppofed -
above, that two of the conditions of a problem involve
in them a third; and wherever that happens, the con-
clufion which has been deduced will invariably take
place. But a porifm may in fome cafes be fo fimple as
to arife from the mere coincidence of one condition
with another, though in no cafe whatever any incon-
fiftency can take place between them. There are,
however, comparatively few porifms fo fimple in their
origin, or that arife from problems where the conditions
are but little complicated ; for it ufually happens that
a problem which can become indefinite may alfo become
impofiible; and if fo, the conne&ion already explained
never fails to take place.
Another fpecies of impofiibility may frequently arife
from the porifmatic cafe of a problem which will affedl
in fome meafure the application of geometry to aftrono-
my, or any of the fciences depending on experiment or
obfervation. For when a problem is to be refolvcd by
help of data furnifiied by experiment or obfervation,
the firft thing to be confidered is, whether the data fo
obtained be fufficient for determining the thing fought;
and in this a veiy erroneous judgment may be formed,
if we reft fatisfied with a general view of the fubjeft; for
tho’ the problem may in general be refolved from the data
with which we are provided, yet thefe data may be fo
related to one another in the cafe under confideration,
that the problem will become indeterminate, and inftead
of one folution will admit of an indefinite number. This
we have abeady found to be the cafe in the foregoing pro¬
pofitions. Such cafes may not indeed occur in any of the
practical applications of geometry ; but there is one o£
the fame kind which has actually occurred in aftronomy.
Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Principia, has confidered a
fmall part of the orbit of a comet as a ftraight line de-
feribed with an uniform motion. From this hypothefis,
by means of four obfervations made at proper intervals
of time, the determination of the path of the comet is
reduced to this geometrical problem : Four ftraight
lines being given in pofition, it is required, to draw a
fifth line acrofs them, fo as to be cut by them into
three parts, having given ratios to one another. Now
this problem hud been conftrudted by Dr Wallis and
Sir Chriftopher Wren, and alfo in three different ways
by Sir Ifaac himfelf in different parts of his works; yet
none of thefe geometers obferved that there was a par¬
ticular fituation of the lines in which the problem ad¬
mitted of innumerable folutions : and this happens to
be the very cafe in which the problem is applicable to
the determination of the comet’s path, as was firft dil-
covered by the Abbe Bofcovieh, who was led to it
by finding, that in this way he could never deter¬
mine the path of a comet with any degree of cer¬
tainty.
Befides the geometrical there is alfo an algebraical
analyfis belonging to porifms ; which, however, does not
belong to this place, becaufe we give this account of
them merely as an article of ancient geometry; and the
ancients never employed algebra in their inveftigations.
Mr Playfair, profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity
of Edinburgh, has written a paper on the origin and.
geometrical inveftigation of potifms, which is publifhed
in the third volume of the Tranfailions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, from which this account ot the
5 £ubje&
Porifm.
P 0 R
^Vrlaclc.
fubji (ft is taken. lie has there promiied a fecond part
_ to his paper, in which the algebraical invelligafion
of porifms is to be confulered. This will no doubt
throw confiderable light upon the fubject, as we may
readily judge from that gentleman’s known abilities, and
. from’the fpecimen he has already given us in the firlt part.
FORK, the flefh of fwine killed for the purpofes of
food. See Sus.
The hog is the only domeftic animal that wre know
of no ufe to man when alive, and therefore feems pro¬
perly defigned for food. Befides, as loathfome and ugly
to every human eye, it is killed without rdu&ance.
The Pythagoreans, whether to preferve health, or on
account of compaffion, generally forbade the ufe of ani¬
mal food ; and yet it is alleged that Pythagoras referved
ihe ufe of hog’s flelh for himfelf. The Jews, the
Egyptians, &c. and other inhabitants of warm countries,
and all the Mahometans at prefent, rejedl the ufe of
pork. It is difficult to find a fatisfactory reafon for this,
or for the precept given to the Jews refpefting it, tho’
tmqueftionably there was feme good one for it. The
Greeks gave great commendations to this food; and Galen,
though indeed that is fufpefted to be from a particular
fondnefs, is everywhere full of it. The Romans confi-
dered it as one of their delicacies ; and if fome of the
inhabitants of the northern climates have taken an aver-
fion to it, that probably arofe from the uncultivated
Rate of their country not being able to rear it. Pork
is of a very tender ftrufture ; increafed perhaps from a
peculiarity in its ceconomy, viz. taking on fat more
readily than any other animal. Pork is a white meat
even in its adult Rate, and then gives out a jelly in very
great quantity. On account of its little perfpirability
. and tendernefs it is very nutritious, and was given for
that intention to the athlete. With regard to-its alka-
lefcency, no proper experiments have yet been made ;
but as it is of a gelatinous and fucculent nature, it is
Cullen's probably lefs fo than many others. Upon the whole,
Med. ft appears to be a very valuable nutriment; and the rea-
fim. is not very obvious why it was in fome countries
forbid. It is faid that this animal is apt to be difeafed ;
but why were not inconveniences felt on that account
in Greece ? Again, it has been-alleged, that as Paleftine
would not rear thefe animals, and as the Jews had
learned the ufe of them in Egypt, it was necefiary they
fhould have a precept to avoid them. But the Egyp¬
tians themfelves did not ufe this meat; and this reli¬
gious precept, indeed, as well as many others, feems
to have been borrowed from them. Poffibly, as pork
is not very jperfpirable, it might increafe the leprofy,
which was faid to be epidemic in Paleftine; though
this is far from being, certain.
PORLOCK, in the county ofSomerfet in England, is
a fmall fea-port town fix miles weft from Minehead. This
whole parifh, including hamlets, contains about no
houfes, and nearly 600 inhabitants. The fituation of the
town is very romantic, being nearly furrounded on all
fides, except toward the fea, by fteep and lofty hills,inter-
le6led by deep vales and hollow glens. Some of the hills
are beautifully wooded, and contain numbers of wilddeer.
he valleys are very deep and pi&urefoue; the fides be-
mg fteep,fcarredwithwild rocks,and patched with woods
and for eft ii rubs. Some of them are well cultivated
and ftudd d with villages or fingle fat ms and cottages,
although agriculture here is very imperfcaiy uaderftood.
1 400 1
P O R
Moft of the roads and fields are fo fteep, that no carriages Po-e
of any kind can be ufed ; all the crops are therefore il
carried in with crooks on horfes, and the manure in Pt,rPh>ry
wooden pots called dojfds. Many of the poor are cm-  
ployed in fpinning yarn for the Dunfter manufaeftory.
W. Kong. 3. 32. N. Lat. 51. 14.
PORO. See Calauria.
f ORI ESSE, in ichthyology. See Delphinus.
PORPHYRIUS, a famous Platonic philofophct, was
b6rn at Tyre in 233, in the reign of Alexander Seve-
rus. He was the difciple of Longinus, and became
the ornament of his fchool at Athens ; from thence he
went to Rome, and attended Plotinus, with whom he
hved fix years. After Plotinus’s death he taught phi-
lofophy at Rome with great applaufe ; and became well
ficilled in polite literature, geography, aftronemy, and
muhe. He lived till the end of the third century, and
died in the reign of Dioclefian. There are ftill extant
his book on the Categories of Ariftotle ; a Treatife on
Abftinence fiom bleffi; and feveral other pieces in
Greek. He alfo compofed a large treatife againft the
Chriftian religion, which is loft. That work was an-
fwered by Methodius biffiop of Tyre, and alfo by Eu-
febius, Apollinarius, St Auguftin, St Jerome, St Cyril,
and Theodoret. The emperor Theodofius the Great
caufed Porphyrtus’s book to be burned in 338. Thofe
of his w'orks that are ftill extant were printed at Cam¬
bridge in 1655, 8vo, with a Latin verfion.
“ Porphyrins (fays X>r Enfield) was, it muft be own¬
ed, a writer of deep erudition ; and had his judgment and
integrity been equal to his learning, he would have defer-
ved a diltingihfficd place among the ancients. But neither
the fplendor of his diftion, nor the variety of his reading,
can atone for the credulity or the diffionefty which fifl-
ed the narrative parts of his works with fo many extra¬
vagant tales, or intereft the judicious reader in the ab-
ftrule iubtelties and myftical flights of his philofophical
writings*”
PORPHYRY, a genus of ftones belonging to the
order of faxa. It is found of feveral different colours,
as green, deep.red, purple, black, dark-brown, and
giey. Under the name of porphyry, Mr Kirwan and
M. de Saufture include thofe ftones which contain ei¬
ther felt-fpar, fchoerl, quartz, or mica, with other fpecies
of cryftalhzed flone on a filiceous or calcareous ground.
There are a great many different kinds. M. Ferber de-
feribes 20 varieties under four fpecies, but in general it
is conlidered with relation to its ground, which is met
with of the colours already mentioned. When the
ground is of jafper, the porphyry is commonly very
hard; the red generally contains felt-fpar in fmall white
dots or fpecks; and frequently, together with thefe,
black fpots of fchoerl. The green is often macmetic,
and is either a jafper or fchoerl, with fpots of quartz.
Sometimes a porphyry of one colour contains a frag¬
ment of another of a different Colour. Thofe that have
chert for their ground are fufible per fe. The calca¬
reous porphyry confifts of quartz, felt-fpar, and mica,
in feparate grains, united by a calcareous cement ; and,
laftly, the micaceous porphyry confifts of a greenifh
grey micaceous ground, in which red felt-fpar and
greenifh foap-rock are inferted.
'1 he porphyry of the ancients is a moft elegant mafs
of an extremely firm and compaft ftrufture, remarkably -
heavy, and of a fine ftrong purple, variegated more.or.
lefs
P O R [ 401 ] P O It
Porphyry. lefs with pale red and white; its purple is of all degrees, tor Francefco Tadda gave his tools fuch an admirable Porphyry
from the claret-colour to that of the violet; and its va¬
riegations are rarely difpofed in veins, but fpots, fome-
times very fmall, and at others running into large blotch¬
es. It is lefs fine than many of the ordinary marbles ;
but it excels them all in hardnefs, and is capable of a
moll elegant polifh. It is Hill found in immenfe ftrata
in Egypt. The hard red-lead coloured porphyry, va¬
riegated with black, white, and green, is a molt beauti¬
ful and valuable fubftance. It has the hardnefs and all
the other characters of the oriental porphyry ; and even
greatly excels it in brightnefs, and in the beauty and
variegation of its colours. It is found in great plenty in
the ifland o/Minorca; and is well worth importing, being
greatly fuperior to all the Italian marbles. The hard,
pale-red porphyry, variegated with black, white, and
green, is of a pale flefh-colour ; often approaching to
white. It is variegated in blotches from half an inch to
an inch broad. It takes a high polilh, and emulates all
the qualities of the oriental porphyry. It is found in
immenfe itrata in Arabia Petraea, and in the Upper
Egypt; and in feparate nodules in Germany, England,
and Ireland.
Ficoroni takes notice of two exquifitely fine columns
of black porphyry in a church at Rome. In Egypt
there are three celebrated obelilks or pillars of porphy¬
ry, one near Cairo and two at Alexandria. The French
call them aguglias, and in England they are called Cleo¬
patra’s needles.
The art of cutting porphyry, pradtifed by the an¬
cients, appears now to be loft. Indeed it is difficult
to conceive what tools they ufed for fafhioning thofe
huge columns and other porphyry works in fome of the
ancient buildings in Rome. One of the moft confi-
• derable of tbefe, ftill entire, is a tomb of Conftantia, the
emperor Conftantine’s daughter. It is in the church of
St Agnes, and is commonly called the tomb of Bacchus.
In the palace of the Thuilleries there is alfo a buft of
Apollo and of twelve emperors, all in porphyry. Some
ancient pieces feem to have been wrought with the chif-
fel, others with the faw, others with wheels, and others
gradually ground down with emery. Yet modern tools
* PblUfopb. will fcarce touch porphyry. Dr Lifter therefore thinks*,
*Tranfaa. tjiat t}ie ancients had the fecret of tempering fteel better
^Lowtb'l °r t^ian we ’ an<* as ^ome imaSlne’ t*iat t^ie
vo!. art of foftening the porphyry ; though it is probable
m. p. j6o, that time and air have contributed to increafe its hard-
nefs. Mr Addifon fays, he faw a workman at Rome
cutting porphyry ; but his advances were extremely
flow and almoft infenfible. The Italian fculptors work
the pieces of old porphyry columns ftill remaining (for
the porphyry quarries are long fince loft) with a hrafs
faw without teeth. With this faw, emery, and water,
they rub and wear the ftone with infinite patience.
Many perfons have endeavoured to retrieve the ancient
art, and particularly Lecn Baptifta Alberti; who,
fearching for the neceflary materials for temper, fays,
he found goats blood the beft of any: but even this
availed not much ; for iu working with duffels tem¬
pered with it, fparks of fire came much more plenti¬
fully than pieces of the ftone. The fculptors were
thus, however, able to make a flat or oval form ; but
could nevar attain to any thing like a figure.
In the year 1555, Cofmo de Medicis is laid to have
diftilled a water from certain herbs, with which his fculp-
Vol. XV. Part II.
hardnefs and fo fine a temper, that he performed fome
very exquifite works with them ; particularly our Sa¬
viour’s head in demi-relievo, and Coftno’s head and his
duchefs’s. The very hair and beard, how difficult fo-
cver, are here well conduced ; and there is nothing of
the kind fuperior to it in all the works of the ancients ;
but the fecret appears to have died with him. The
French have difeovered another mode of cutting por¬
phyry, viz. with an iron faw without teeth, and grrz,
a kind of free ftone pulverized, and water. The au¬
thors of this invention fay, that they could form the
whole contour of a column hereby if they had matter to
work on. Others have propofed to harden tools fo as
to cut porphyry, by fteeping them in the juice of the
plant called bear’s beech or brankurjtne. See Birch’s
Hijl. R. S. vol. i. p. 238. vol. ii. p. 73, &c. Mr Boyle
fays, that he caufed porphyry to be cut by means of
emery, fteel faws, and water ; and obferves, that in his
time the Englifh workmen were ignorant of the man¬
ner of working porphyry, and that none of them would
undertake to cut or polifh it. See his Works abr. vol. i.
p. nr.
Da Cofta fuppofes, and perhaps with reafon, that
the method ufed by the ancients in cutting and engra-
ving porphyry was extremely fimple, and that it was
performed without the aid of any fcientific means that
are now loft. He imagines, that, by unwearied dili¬
gence, and with numbers of common tools at great ex¬
pence, they rudely hewed or broke the ftone into the
intended figure, and by continued application reduced
them into more regular defigns ; and that they com¬
pleted the work by polifhing it with great labour, by
the aid of particular hard fands found in Egypt. And
he thinks, that in the porphyry quarries there were
layers of grit or loofe difunited particles, analogous to
the porphyry, which they carefully fought for, and ufed
for this work. See Nat. Hjjl. of FrffiU, p. 285.
Pokrumr-Shellt a fpecies of Murex.
PORPITES, the Hair-button stone, in natural
hiftory, a name given by authors to a fmall fpecies of
foflil coral; which is ufually of a rounded figure con-
fiderably flatted, and ftriated from the centre everyway
to the circumference. Thefe are of different fizes and
of different colours, as greyifh, whitifh, brownifh, or
bluifh, and are ufually found immerfed in ftone. See
Plate CC.
PORRUM, the Leek ; a fpecies of plants, belong,
ing to the genus of Allium.
PORT, a harbour, river, or haven, formed either by-
nature or art to receive and {belter (hipping from the
(forms and waves of the open fea.
Artificial ports are thofe which are either formed by
throwing a ftrong mound or rampire acrofs the har¬
bour’s mouth to fome ifland or rock, or erefting two
long barriers, which ftretch from the land on each fide
like arms or the horns of a crefeent, and nearly inclofe
the haven ; the former of thefe are called mole-heads and
the latter piers.
Port, is alfo a name given on fomc occafions to the
larboard or left fide of the (hip, as in the following in-
ftances. Thus it is faid, “ the (hip heels to port,” i. e.
(loops or inclines to the larboard-fide. “ Top the yard
to port!” the order to make the larboard extremity of
a yard higher fhan the other. “ Port the helm !” the
3 E ©rd<5?
Port.
FOR L 4°2 ] FOR
Port. order to put the helm over to the larboard-fide of the
veffel. In all thefe fenfes this phrafe appears intended
to prevent any miltakes happening from the fnnilarity
of founds in the words Jlarboard and larboard^ particu¬
larly when they relate to the helm, where a mifappre-
heniion might be attended with very dangerous confe-
tpiences.
Ports, the embrafures or openings in the fide of a
fhip of war, wherein the artillery is ranged in battery
upon the decks above and below.
The ports are formed of a fufficient extent to point
and fire the cannon, without injuring the fhip’s fide by
the recoil ; and as it ferves no end to enlarge them be¬
yond what is neceflary for that purpofe, the fhipwrights
have eftablifhed certain dimenfions, by which they are
cut in proportion to the fize of the cannon.
The ports are fhut in at fea by a fort of hanging-
doors called the port-lids ; which are fattened by hinges
to their upper edges, fo as to let down when the can¬
non are drawn into the (hip. By this means the water
is prevented from entering the lower decks in a turbu¬
lent fea. The lower and upper edges of the ports are
always parallel to the deck, fo that the guns, when le¬
velled in their carriages, are all equally high above the
lower extremity of the ports, which is called the port-
, cells.
Port, is alfo a ftrong wine brought from Port-a-
port, and alfo called Porto and Oporto.
Port of the Voice, in mufic, the faculty or habit of
making the fhakes, paffages, and diminutions, in which
the beauty of a fong or piece of mufic confitts.
PoRT-Crayon, a pencil-cafe, which is ufually four or
five inches long, and contrived fo as that the pencil may
hide up and down. Its infide is round, and its outfide
is fometimes filed into eight fides or faces, on which are
drawn the fe£tor-lines ; fometimes it is made round both
without-fide and within, and has its length divided into
inches and parts of inches.
PoRT-Fire, a compofition for fetting fire to powder,
fee. Port-fires are frequently ufed by artillery people
in preference to matches; and they are diftinguifhed
into wet and dry port-fires. The compofition of the
former is faltpetre four, fulphur one, and mealed powder
four. When thefe materials are thoroughly mixed and
lifted, the whole is to be moiilened with a little linfeed
oil, and rubbed between the hands till all the oil is im¬
bibed by the compofition. The preparation for dry
port-fires is faltpetre four, fulphur one, mealed powder
two, and antimony one. Thefe compofitions are dri¬
ven into fmall paper cafes, to be ufed whenever necef-
dary.
PoRT-aux-Prune, fo called by the French, is a coun¬
try on the coaft of Africa, to the north of the ifland
of Madagafcar. It is a rich country, and fertile in rice
and paftures; it is inhabited only by the negroes, who
are an induftrious good fort of people, but very fuper-
ftitious. There are no towns, but feveral villages, and
they have fome cuftoms which febm to incline to Tu-
.daifm. ; J
PoRT-Jackfon, in New Holland. See New Holland,
n° 7, &c.
• PoRT-Royal, a fea-port town in the ifland of Jamaica.
It was once a place of the great eft riches and importance
mthe Weft Indies : but in 1692 it wasdeftroyed by an
•arthquake, 11* 1702 by fire, in 1722 by an inundation
of the fea, and in 1744. it fuffered greatly by a hum. «
cane. It is now reduced to three ftreets, a few lanes, H
and about 200 houfes. It contains the royal navy-yard *>orter'
for heaving down and refitting the king’s fliips ; the *
navy-hofpital, and barracks for a regiment of foldiers.
The fortifications, which are very' extenfive, being in
excellent order, and having been lately ftrengthened
with many additional works, it may be faid to vie in
point of ftrength with any fortrefs in the king’s do’mi-
nions. The harbour is one of the beft in the world,
and 1000 fhips may ride therein, fecure from every
wind that can blow. It is fix miles call of Spanilh-
town, and as much by water fouth-eaft of Kingfton.
W. Long. 76. 40. N. Lat. 18. o.
PORT-Royal, an illand in Noith America, on the coaft
of South Carolina, which, with the neighbouring con¬
tinent, forms one of the moft commodious harbours in
the Britilh plantations. It is 15 miles in length ; and
the town on the north ftiore is called Beaufort. W.
Long. 80. 10. N. Lat. 31. 40.
PoRT-Royal, the name of two monafteries of Cifter-
tian nuns in the diocefe of Paris ; the one near Chev-
reufe, at the diftance of five leagues from Paris, called
Port-Roy a l of the Fields ; and the other in Paris, in the
fuburbs of St James.
T. he nuns of the former of thefe monaftenes provincr
refractory , were difperfed; when many ecclefiafties, and
others, who were of the fame fentiments as thefe reli¬
gious, retired to Port-Royal, took apartments there,
and printed many books. Hence the name of Port-
Royalijls was given to all their party', and theii books
were called hooks of Port-Royal: from hence we fay
the writers of Port-Royal, Meflieurs de Port-Royal, and
the tranfiations and grammars of Port-Royal.
PORTA, or Vena Porta, in anatomy, a large veirr
diftributed through the liver in the manner of an ar¬
tery. See Anatomy, n° 96.
PoRTA-Angufa (anc. geog.), mentioned only by
Ptolemy; a town of the Vaccaei in the Hither Spain ;
thought by fome to be Torre ^uernada, in Old Caftile ;
by others Los Valvafes, a village between Burgos and
Torre Quemada.
PORTAL-Romana: (anc. geog.), according to
Pliny, Romulus left but three, or at matt four, gates of
Rome : afterwards, on enlarging the Pomocria, or com-
pafs of the city, they amounted to 3 7.
PORTAL, in architecture, a little gate where there
are two gates of a different bignefs j alfo a little fquare
corner of a room cut off from the reft by the wainfeot,.
and forming a ftiort paffage into the room. The fame
name is alfo fometimes given to a kind of arch of join¬
ers work before a door.
PORT ATE, or a Crofs Portate, in heraldry, a crofa
which does not fta».id upright, as croffes generally do ;
but lies acrofs the efeuteheon in bend, as if it were car- •
ried on a man’s ftioulder.
PORTCULLICE, in fortification, is an affemblage
of feveral large pieces of wood, joined acrofs one ano¬
ther like a harrow, and each pointed with iron at the.
bottom. They are fometimes hung over the gate-way
of old fortified towns, ready to let down in cafe of fur-
prife, when the gates could not be ftiut.
PORTER, a kind of malt-liquor which differs from,
ale and pale beer, in its being made with high dried
malt. See Ale, Beer, and Brewing.
PORT-
P O K [ 403 ] P O R
Port- PORT-Glasgow. See Glasgow', n° io.
Glalgow PORTGREVE, orPoRTGRAVE, was anciently the
Portico principal magi ft rate in ports and ether maritime towns.
>. —_ ' . The word is formed from the Saxon port> “ a port or
other town and geref “ a govenior.”—It is fome-
times alfo written y>or/-re7;e.
Camden obferves, that the chief magiftrate of'Lon¬
don was anciently called port-greve : inftead of whom,
Richard I. ordained two bailiffs ; and foon afterwards
King John granted them a mayor for their yearly ma¬
giftrate.
PORTICI, a palace of the king of Naples, fix
miles from that capital. It has a charming fttuation,
on the fea-ftde, near mount Vefuvius. It is enriched
with a vail number of fine ftatues, and other remains
of antiquity, taken out of the ruins of Herculaneum.
The mufeum coniifts of 16 rooms, in which the dif-
fesent articles are arranged with veiy great tafte. d he
floors are paved with Mofaic, taken from the recovered
towns, and the w'alls of the court are lined with inferip-
tions. Befides bulls, ftatues, medals, intaglios, lamps,
and tripods, there is fcarcely an article ufed by the an¬
cients of which a fpecimen may not be feen in this mu-
fVatkins't feum. “ But the moll valuable room is the library,
'•Travels from the numerous manufeript rolls which it contains.
'Zetland mat a fidd is here for conjecture! what room for
&c. ’ hope! Among this ineftimable collection, how many
great works are there, of which even the names are
now unknown ! how many unbroken volumes, whofe
very fragments, preferred in the writings of the ancient
feholiafts, convey to us moral improvement, information,
and delight! perhaps all the dramatic pieces of Menan¬
der and Philemon ; perhaps, nay, certainly, the loft De¬
cades of Livy ; for it is impofiible to fuppofe, that a-
mong fo many rolls, the molt admired hiltory of the
people who poffeffed them is not to be found : what pri¬
vate library in Britain is without the bell hiftories of
England ? But how I tremble for their lituation, as
Portici is built on the lava that overwhelmed Hercula¬
neum ! How I tremble too for the indifference of the
king of Naples towards this invaluable treafure, in
which all the moft enlightened people of Europe are
deeply interefted ! When I firft faw them, I had no idea
of what they were, as they refemble wooden truncheons
burnt almoft to charcoal. They are fo hard and brit tle,
that the gneateft caution muft be ufed in removing
them, left they crumble to dull; neverthelefs, an inge¬
nious friar of Genoa, named Raggioy undertook to un¬
roll them; and by a moft curious, though tedious pro-
cefs, fo far fucceeded, as to tranferibe three Greek I rea-
tifes on Philofophy and Mufic ; but finding (as I hear)
no other encouragment than his falary, which was but
little more than you pay feme of your fervants, the
work was -unhappily difeontinued. Were thele manu-
feripts in England, they would not long remain a fecret
to the world.”
PORTICO, in architecture, a kind of gallery on
the ground ; or a piazza encompaffed with arches fup-
ported by columns, where people walk under covert.
The roof is ufually vaulted, fometimes flat. The an¬
cients called it lacunar. Though the word portico be
derived from porta, “ gate, door yet it is applied
to any difpofition of columns which form a gallery,
without any immediate relation to doors or gates. The
atxift celebrated porticoes of antiquity were, thole of So¬
lomon’s temple, which formed the atrium or court, and
encompaffed the fanCtuary ; that of Athens, built for the
people to divert themfelves in, and wherein the philofo-
phers held their dilputes and converfations, (fee Porch );
and that of Pompey at Rome, raifed merely for magni¬
ficence, confifting of feveral rows of columns fupport-
ing a platform of vaft extent ; a draught whereof,
Serlio gives us in his antique buildings. Among the
modern porticoes, the moft celebrated is the piazza
of St Peter of the Vatican.—That of Covent-Garden,
London, the work of Inigo Jones, is alio much ad¬
mired.
PORTII. See Pompeii.
PORTLAND, a pertinfula in Dorfetflilre, of great
ftrength both by nature and art, being furrounded with
inaccefiible rocks, except at the landing-place, where
there is a ftrong caftle, called Portland cujlle, built by
king Henry VIII. There is but one.church in the
ifland : and that Hands fo near the fea, that it is often
in danger from it. It is now chiefly noted for the free-
ftone which is found there, and which is greatly em¬
ployed in London, and other parts of England, for
building the fineil ftrutlures. St Paul’s church, in par¬
ticular, was built therewith. W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
5°* 3°- .
The following cuftom at Portland is worthy of no¬
tice. “ While 1 was looking over the quarries at Port¬
land (fays Mr Smeaton), and attentively confidering the
operations, obferving how foon the quarrymen would
cut half a ton of fpawls from an unformed block, and
what large pieces flew off at every ftroke ; how fpeedily
their blows followed one another, and how inceffantly
they purfued this labour with a tool of from 1 8 to 20
pound weight; I was naturally led to view and confider
the figure of the operative agent; and after having ob-
ferved, that by far the greatell number of the quarry-
men were of a very robuft hardy form, in whofe hands
the tool I have mentioned feemed a mere play-thing,
I at lalt broke out with furprife, and inquired of my
guide, Mr Roper, wdiere they could pofiibly pick up
luch a fet of ftout fellows to handle the level, which in
their hands feemed nothing ? for I oblerved, that in the
fpace of 15 minutes, they would knock off as much
walte matter from a mafs of Hone, as any of that occu¬
pation I had ever feen before would do in an hour. Says
Roper, ‘ we do not go to fetch thofe men from a diftance,
they are all born upon the ifland, and many of them
have never been farther upon the main land than to
Weymouth.’ I told him, I thought the air of that
ifland muft be very propitious, to furuifti a breed of
men fo particularly formed for the bufinefs they follow¬
ed. * T he air (he replied), though very (harp from our
elevated lituation, is certainly very healthy to working
men ; yet if you knew how thefe men are produced,
you would wonder the lefs ; for all our marriages here
are produ&ive of children.’ On defiring an explana¬
tion how tin’s happened, he proceeded: ‘Our people
here, as they are bred to hard labour, are very early in
a condition to marry and provide for a family ; they in¬
termarry with one another, very rarely going to the
main-land to feek a wife ; and it has been the cuftom of
the ifland, from time immemorial, that they never mar¬
ry till the woman is pregnant.’ But pray (faid I)
does not this fubject you to a great number of baftards ?
Have not your Portlanders the fame kind ol ficklenefs
Portil,
Portland.
 v ~~ 4
Po't'anr',
FO R [404] FOR
their attachments that Englishmen are fubjeft to ? that refpeA which it did when it was firfl propofed. Portland
and,in c
veniences
^ vv-- • *-*x*.*.w v* xxx^n. At vv xas^u iw vva^ iuil pi
:onfequence, does not this produce many incon- We lhall therefore give a fhort account of the
s ? ‘ None at all (replies Roper), for previous to figures, without noticing any of the theories
'll txroo Knf r» n 11 /in ■**c*r*r\y~r\ nr i^»r+nr#>c fi In 'i +■ noxr/i K/a/an rv> o rl T-v vl*
y V, HI WiV, V-vJ • X 1 V' 1XX- v*v j y t ■w » * w c ^ ^ 7 A 1A X £ nil J t A LIU
my arrival here, there was but one child on record of jedlures that have been made about them.
.1 ..•/».  ;a.„ i i i i   i._/i j • * r    ^  , -i -o
feveral
or con-
Port-Louis,
the parilh regifter that had been born a baftard in the
compafs of i jo years. The mode of courtfhip here is,
that a young woman never admits of the ferious ad-
drelfes of a young man, but on fuppofition of a tho¬
rough probation. When fhe becomes with child, fhe
tells her mother, the mother tells her father, her father
tells his father, and he tells his fon, that it is then pro¬
per time to be married.’ But fuppofe, Mr Roper,
fhe does not prove to be with child, what happens then ?
3)o they live together without marriage ? or, if they
feparate, is not this fuch an imputation upon her, as to
prevent her getting another fuitor ? ‘ The cafe is thus
managed (anfwered my friend), if the woman does not
prove with child after a competent time of courtfhip,
they conclude they are not deftined by Providence for
In one compartment three exquifite figures are placed
on a ruined column, the capital of which is fallen, and
lies at their feet among other disjointed ftones : they fit
under a tree on loofe piles of ftone. - The middle figure
is a female in a reclining and dying attitude, with an
inverted torch in her left hand, the elbow of which fup-
ports her as fhe finks, while the right hand is raifed
and thrown over her drooping head. The figure on
her right hand is a man, and that on the left a woman,
both fupporting themfdves on their arms, and apparent¬
ly thinking intenfely. Their backs are to the dying
figure, and their faces are turned to her, but without
an attempt to afiift her. On another compartment of
the vafe is a figure coming through a portal, and go¬
ing down with great timidity into a darker region,
/   / — .... ...g v.wvvii wii £i>-cu. Luiiiuiuy nuu a uarKcr region,
each other ; they therefore feparate ; and as it is an efla- where he is received by a beautiful female, who flretches
blifhed^ maxim, which the Portland women obferve with forth her hand to help him: between her knees is a
great ftri&nefs, never to admit a plurality of lovers at
one time, their honour is noway tarnifhed : fhe juft as
foon (after the affair is declared to be broke off) gets
another fuitor, as if fhe had been left a widow, or that
nothing had ever happened, but that fhe had remained
an immaculate virgin.’ But pray, Sir, did nothing
particular happen upon your men coming down from
London ? ‘Yes (fays he) cur men were much ftruck,
and mightily pleafed with the facility of the Portland
ladies, and it was not long before feveral of the women
proved with child; but the men being called upon to
many them, this part of the leffon they were uninflruc-
ted in ; and on their refufal, the Portland women arofe
to ftone them out of the ifland ; infomuch, that thofe
few who did not choofe to take their fweethearts for
ter or for worfe, after fo fair a trial, were in reality ob¬
liged to decamp ; and on this occafion feme few baftards
were born : but fince then matters have gone on accord¬
ing to the ancient cuftom.”
POR BLAND vase, a celebrated funeral vafe which
was long in pofiefiion of the Baberini family; but which
was lately purchafed for 1000 guineas by the Duke of
Portland, from whom it has derived its prefent name.
Its height is about ten inches, and its diameter where
broadeft fix. There are a variety of figures upon it of
moil exquifite workmanfhip, in has relief of white opake
glafs, raifed on a ground of deep blue glafs, which ap¬
pears black except when held againft the light. It ap-
large and playful ferpent. She fits with her feet to¬
wards an aged figure, having one foot funk into the
earth, and the other raifed on a column, with his chin
refting on his hand. Above the female figure is a Cupid
preceding the firft figure, and beckoning him to ad¬
vance. This firft figure holds a cloke or garment,
which he feems anxious to bring with him, but which
adheres to the fide of the portal through which he
has pafted. In this compartment there are two trees,
one of which bends over the female figure and the other
over the aged one. On the bottom of the vafe there
is another figure on a larger fcale than the one we have
already mentioned, but not fo well finifhed nor fo eleva¬
ted. This figure points with its finger to its mouth.
The drefs appears to be curious and cumberfome, and
above there is the foliage of a tree. On the head of the fi¬
gure there is a Phrygian cap: it is not eafy to fay whe¬
ther this figure be male or female. On the handles of
the vafe are reprefented two aged heads with the ears
of a quadruped, and from the middle of the forehead
rifes a kind of tree without leaves: thefe figures are in
all probability mere ornaments, and have no connexion
with the reft; of the figures, or the ftory reprefented on
the vafe.
PORTLANDIA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is eleva-
—r- i-im. At up- ui which uic orucr is QOUDirui. i lie corona is eieva-
peais to have been the work of many years, and there ted and funnel-fhaped ; the anther® are longitudinal;
are antiquarians who date its production feveral centuries the capfule pentagonal, and retufe at top ; bilocular, and
e oie the Chnftian era; fince, as has been faid, fculpture crowned with a pentaphyllous calyx
3* Lives of
f’he Plants.
was declining in excellence in the time of Alexander
the Great.
Refpefting the purpofe of this vafe, and what the fi¬
gures on it were meant to reprefent, there have been a
variety ot conjectures, which It is not our bufinefs to
enumerate. We think with Dr Darwin* that it was not
made for the afhes of any particular perfon deceafed ;
and therefore that the fubjeft of its embellifhments is
not a private hiftory, but of a general nature. But we
are not fine that he is right in conje&uring it to repre¬
fent a part of the Eleufinian myfteries; becaufe that
conjecture depends on Warburton’s explanation of the
i>.Ui booA, of tiie ^Eiieid, which does not now command
%
There are two fpecies, viz. the grandiflora and hex-
andra ; the former of which has been particularly de-
feribed by Dr Browne, who has alfo given a good figure
of it. It has frequently flowered in the royal garden at
Kew, and in Dr Pitcairn’s at Iflington.
The external bark is remarkably rough, furrowed,
and thick ; it has no tafte. The inner bark is very
thin, and of a dark brown colour. Its tafte is bitter
and aftringent, and its virtues are the fame as thofe of
the Jefuit’s bark. Infufed in fpirits or wine with a
little orange-peel, it makes an excellent llomachic tinc¬
ture.
PORT-Louis, is a itrong town of France, in Bre¬
tagne, ,
Port,
Porto.
P O Pv
[ 4°5 1
P O R
In tKe dioccfe of VanneSj with 3 citadel and a
good harbour. It was fortified by Louis XIII. from
whom it derived -its name. It was a ftation for part of
the royal navy and the Eaft India (hips belonging to
France. It is feated at the mouth of the river Blavet,
27 miles weft of Vannes. W. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat.
47. 40.
PoRr-]\Tahon. See Minorca.
PORTO. See Oporto.
PoRTO-Seilo, a town of North America, fituated In
N. Lat. 9. 3. W. Long. 79. 45i»clofe to the fea, on the
declivity of a mountain, which furrounds the whole har¬
bour. This harbour is fo large, deep, and fafe, that
Columbus, who firft difeovered it, gave it the. name
of Porto-Be/lo, or the “ Fine Harbour,” which is now
commonly ufed to denote the town. I he number of
the houfes is about 130 ; moft of them of wood, large
and fpacious, forming one long ftreet along the ftrand,
with other fmaller ones, crofling it. 1 he governor of
the town is always a gentleman oi the army, fuboidi-
nate to the prefxdent of Panama ; but having under
him the commandants of the forts that defend the har¬
bour. At the eaft end of the town, on the road to
Panama, is a place called Guinea, where all the negroes
of both fexes, whether (laves or free, have their habi¬
tations. This place is very much crowded when the
galleons are here, moft of the inhabitants of the tow n
quitting their houfes entirely for the fake of letting
them ; while others content themfelves with , a fmall
part, in order to make money of the reft. 1 he Mu-
lattoes and other poor families alfo remove either to
Guinea, or to cottages already erecled near it, or built
on the occafion. Great numbers of artificers likewife
who flock to Porto-Bello from Panama to .work at
their refpedtive callings during the fair, lodge in Guinea
for cheapnefs. I owards the fea, in a large tract^ be¬
tween the town and Gloria caftle, barracks are eietteJ,
in mod of which the (hips crews keep flails of iwe.et-
meats, and other kinds of eatables, brought from Spain j.
but at the conclufion of the fair, when the (hips put to
fea, all thefe buildings are taken down, and the town
returns to its former tranquillity and emptinels. In
1739, the harbour was defended by a caitle and two
forts; which were all demolifhed by admiral Vernon,
who, with fix (hips only, made himfelf mailer of this
port. The country about Porto-Bello is over-run with
mountains and impenetrable forefts, except a few val¬
leys, in which arc fome fcattered farms. Among the
mountains that furround the harbour is one diftinguifiie.d
by the name of Capiro, and by its fuperior loftmefs is
a fort of barometer to the country, by foretelling every
change of weather. Its top is always covered with
clouds, of a denfity and darknefs feldom feen in thole
of the atmofphere. When thefe clouds thicken, in-
creafe their blacknefs, and fink below their ufual fta¬
tion, it is a fure fign of a temped; while, on the other
hand, their clearnefs and afeent as certainly indicate
the approach of fair weather. Thefe changes are very
fudden and frequent here. 'I he fuffimit of the moun¬
tain is fcarce ever clear from clouds ; and when it hap¬
pens, it is only, as it were, for an inftant. Except in
the time of the fair, all the inhabitants of Porto-Bello
do not amount to whom are Indians,
Mulattoes, or Negroes; the Spaniards ot any fubftance
not cboofing to refide in a place fo extremely unhealthy,
and fatal even to the lives of the natives. Ulloa tells
us, that the cattle brought hither from Panama or
Carthagena, lofe their fleih fo fad in the bed paftures,
as to become fcarce eatable : he allures us alfo, that
neither horfes nor afles ate bred here. The heat, in¬
deed, is exceffive ; and the torrents of rain are fo dread¬
ful, fudden, and impetuous, that one not accuftomed
to them would imagine a fecond deluge was coming.
Thefe torrents are alfo accompanied with frightful
tempeils of thunder and lightning, the awfulnefs of the
feene being heightened by the repercuflions from the
mountains, and the (hrieks and bowlings of multitude's
of monkeys of all kinds which inhabit the furrounding
woods.
Freih water pours down in dreams from the moun¬
tains, fome running without the town, and others crofs-
ing it. Thefe waters are very light and digeftive ;
qualities which in other countries would be very valu¬
able, but are here pernicious, producing dyfenteries,
which the patient (eldom furvives. However, thefe.
rivulets, formed into refervoirs, ferve the purpofes ot
bathing, which is here found to be very conducive
to health.
As the forefts almoft border on the houfes of the
ftreets, tygers often make incurfions into the ftreets
during the night, carrying off fowls, dogs, and other
domeftic animals, and fometimes even children have
fallen a prey to them. Befides the fnares ufually laid
for them, the Negroes and Mulattoes, who fell wood in
the forells of the mountains, are very dexterous in en¬
countering them ; and fome, for a (lender reward, even
feek them in their retreats.
The town of Porto-Bello, which is thinly inhabited
by reafon of its noxious air, the fcarcity of provifions,
and the barrenness of the foil, becomes, after the arri¬
val of the galleons, one of the moft populous towns in
the world. He who had feen it quite empty, and
every' place wearing a melancholy afpeft, would be
filled with aftoniftrment to fee the buftling. multitudes
in the time of the fair, when every houfe is crowded,
the fquares and ftreets encumbered with bales of mer-
chandife and chefts of gold and filver, the harbour
full of (hips and veffels, fome loaded with provifions
from Caithagena, and others with the goods of Peru,
as cocoa, Jefuit’s bark, Vicuna wool, and bezoar ftones ;
and this town, at all other times detefted for its delete¬
rious qualities, becomes the ftaple of the riches of the
Old and New World, and the feene of one of the moft
confiderable branches of trade in the univerfe. For¬
merly the fair was limited to no particular time; but
as a long ftay in fuch a fickly place extremely affe&ed
the health of the traders, his Catholic majefty tranf-
mitted an order that the fair (hould not laft above 40
days ; and that, if in that time the merchants could not
agree on their rates, thofe of Spain (hould be allowed
to carry their goods up the country to Peru : and ac¬
cordingly, the commodore of the galleons has orders
to re-embark them, and return to Carthagena ; but
otherwife, by virtue of a compadl between the mer¬
chants of both kingdoms, and ratified by the king, no
Spanifh trader is to fend his goods, on his own account,
beyond Porto-Bello. The Englhh were formerly al¬
lowed to feud a (hip annually to this fair, which turn¬
ed
Porto.
P O R
Corto,
Portrait.
cd to great account; and, whilft the afllento coutratl
fubfifted, either with the Englifli or the French, one of
their principal factories was at Porto-Bello.
PoKTo-Farina, a port about 12 miles from Cape
Carthage, in the bay of Tunis, where formerly the large
velfels belonging to the bey were fitted out, and laid up
on their return from a cruize. This harbour is fafe
from the weather, and opens into a large lake, formed
by the Mejerdah, which runs through into the fea.—
1 he north-well wind, which blows right upon the Ihore,
together with the foil brought down by the river, which
has the fame quality as the Nile of overflowing its
banks, has formed a bar, fo that only fmall veflels can
now enter. It is Hill the arfenal where the naval llores
are kept. E. Long. 10. 16. N. Lat. 37. 12.
Porto-Farraio, a handfome town of Italy, in the
ult of Elba, with a good citadel. It is very llrong, and
heated on a long, high, deep point of land, to the well
of the bay of the fame name, which has two forts. It
belongs to the great duke of Tufcany, who always
'keeps a good garrifon there. E. Long. 10. 37. N.
Lat. q.8. 55.
Pok To-Longoney a fmall but very llrong town of I-
t aly, and 111 the ille of Elba, with a good harbour, and
a fort refs upon a rock almoll inacceffible. The king
ot Naples has a right to put a garrifon therein, though
the place belongs to the prince of Piombino. It is
dated on the call end of the ifland, eight miles fouth-
weil of Piombino. E. Long. 10. 10 N. Lat. 42. 52.
PoRToSanto, an ifiand of the Atlantic Ocean, on
the coad of Africa, and the lead of thofe called the
Madciras. It is about 15 miles in circumference, and
produces but little corn ; however* there are oxen and
C 406 1
p o 11
Portree,
Pont’.
mouth.
traits, when as large as the life, are ufually painted in
oil-colours ; fometimes they are painted in miniature
with water-colours, crayons, padils, &o. See Paint¬
ing, p. 641. '~~v
POE 1 REE, is a fmall village, containing a church
and a very tew houfes, with an excellent bay and a good
harbour, in the Ille of Sky. “ The entrance of the Knox'*
bay (Mr Knox tells us) reprefents agreeable landfcapes
on both fides, with excellent paflure.
‘ The bay of Portree (fays Mackenzie), off the
houfes, is an exceeding good harbour for a few fhips of
any lize ; it is well flickered, the ground good, the
depth from five to 14 fathoms, and nothing to fear co-
mmg in but a rock, about half a cable’s 'length from
Aii derachig Point, on the darboard as you enter the
anchorage, part of which is always above water.’ It
is the only port or harbour to a very confiderable divi-
fion of Sky, on the ead fide. I rom this opening to the
northern extremity, a courfe of 20 miles, the Ihore is
one continued line of lofty rocks, where no fhip can find
refuge in. the mildelt weather, and where inevitable dan¬
gers await the mariners in rough weather.
James\ . of Scotland and feveral ol his nobility land¬
ed here, When they made the tour of the Hebrides in
1.535 ; R°in Which circumdance, this fine bay has 'rot
the honourable name of Portreed’
Mr Knox tells us, “ that the country round this vil¬
lage, though mountainous, is well inhabited; it raifes
much grain, and many cattle. Here the late Sir James
Macdonald had marked out the lines of a town ; and "■o-
vernment, it is faid, promifed to afiid him in the work
with 500 1. ; but the death of that gentleman put an end
to thefe promifing appearances, and matters remain in
wild hogs, and a vad number of rabbits. There are Jlalu quo”
PORTSMOUTH, a fea-port town in Hantpfltire,
which are extremely Mod. It has no liarhm.r "h.o ?'.!'i.?."? d •the .T'1 .R'?1!”1 and caPllc,ous l.'5bl)m's ‘B
which are extremely good. It has no harbour, but
good mooring in the road. It belongs to the Portu-
guefe, and is 300 miles wed of the coad of Africa.
W. Long. 16. 20. N. Lat. 32. 58.
PokTo-Seguroy a government of South America, on
the eadern coad of Brafil; bounded on the north by
the government of Rio-dos-Hilios, on the ead by the
North Sea, on the fouth by the government of Spiritu-
Santo, and on the wed by the Tupicks. It is a very
lertile country, and the capital town is of the fame
name.. It is built on the top of a rock, at the mouth
of a river on the coad of the North Sea, and is in-
halnted by Portuguefe. W. Long. 38. 50. S. Lat.
Porto-Vecch'tOy is a fea-port town of Corfica, in the
email oTtb1"3!! A3’ fea-ed 011 a bay 0,1 the eaikrn
toal ol the iflimd It is 12 miles from Bonifacio, and
40 north of Sardinia. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat.
^   V, * Am u 1 o ill
England, being defended by a numerous artillery, both
on the fea and land-fide, and very good fortifications.
A great part of the royal navy is built here ; and here
are lome of the lined docks, yards, and magazines of
naval (lores, in Europe. It is feated in the ille of
Port ley, being furrounded by the fea except on the
north fide, where there is a river which runs from one
arm of it to the other. It is much reforted to on ac¬
count of the royal navy, whole ufual rendezvous is at
Spithead, which is at the ead end of the ifle of Wight,
and oppofite to Port (mouth. There is a draw-bridge
over the river, and it has always a good garrifon. It
is governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen, and burgefles,
and lends two members to parliament. It has one
church, and two chapels, one in the garrifon, and one
in the Common, for the ufe of the dock, and others,
befides feveral meeting-houfes of the dilfenters. The
houfes of Portfmouth amount to about 2000, and the
Ga,:r^rm’u°,orof^™ ^“ntstoabout,”oo°-w- w.La..
feated ’on the'fide'of aHU 'at the ff 'T'l*' h ^ ^ J'1' t0"'" ’S fup|I’ofed to rcce!TC '« name from Port,
“ fort- it has a vny “’„cd atl om and V* f &mof? ,S?xo» clieftai"- A. D. ,e.. landed
fouth-ead of Genoa liarbou,» a»d ^+J miles
pORTRAT P * tT' LullS* 9* N. Lat. 44. 5.
. W.- Ii’ or P°Rtraiturk, in painting the
reprefenta ton of a perfon, and efpeckily of a fa“e done
from the life. In this fenfe We IZ V ’ d
in contradiftinSion to \ 7
, refemblance of perfon,,,
7
heie with his two Ions. It made a confiderable figure
in the time oi the Saxons ; and from the utility of its
fituation, was highly favoured by all our monarchs of
the Norman line. It was incorporated, and became alfo
a parliamentary borough. In the reign of Edward III.
it was in a very flouridling date; but, A. D. 1338
iu the veiy fame reign, was burned by the French*
when
P O R r 407 j P O R
pcrtf- when that monarch, which was afterwards ratified by
mouth kJng Richard II. forgave the inhabitants a debt, and
_ remitted their fee-farm for 10 years; within which
° fpace they fo recovered themfelves, as to equip a fqua-
dron, which failed into the mouth of the Seine, funk
Campbell's two fhips, and brought away a great booty. The
Political fmgular excellence of its port, and the convenience of
Survey. fitting out fleets from thence in the time of a French
war, induced Edward IV. to think of fortifying it,
as he actually, in fome meafure, did ; which fortifi¬
cations were farther carried on by Richard III. But
king Henry VII. was the firft who fettled a garrifon
therein ; which was increafed, and the place made
Hill itronger, in the reign of Henry VIII. who had a
great dock there, wherein was built the Hemy Grace
de Dieu, which was the large!! fhip in the navy of his
time. The fame monarch, remarkably attentive to
the fecurity of all maritime places, built what is now
called South-Sea Cajlle, for the protection of this.—
The improvements made here in the reign of Q. Eli¬
zabeth were much fuperior to all thefe. King Charlesll.
after his reftoration, directed great alterations, elta-
bliihed new docks and yards, railed feveral forts, and
fortified them after the modern manner; which works
were augmented under his brother’s reign. Notwith-
ftanding this, king William directed likewife frefh alte¬
rations and additions ; and fucceeding princes, following
his example, have, at a large expence, extended thefe
fortifications, and taken in a vaft deal of ground : fo that
it is at prefent, as the importance of the place deferves,
the moft regular fortrefs in Britain ; and, as it cannot
be effectually attacked by fea, may be juitly elteemed
impregnable.
Portsmouth, the largefl town in the flate of New
Hampfhire in North America. It Hands on the fouth-
eaft fide of Pifcataqua river, about two miles from the
fea, and contains about 600 houfes, and 4400 inhabi¬
tants. The town is handfomely built, and pleafantly
fituated. Its public buildings arc, a court-houfe, two
churches for Congregationaliils, one for Epifcopalians,
and one other houfe for public worfhip. Its harbour
is one of the fineit on the continent, having a fufficient
depth of water for veflels of any burthen. It is defend¬
ed againft ftorms by the adjacent land, in fuch a man¬
ner, as that fhips may fecurely ride there in any feafon
of the year. Befides, the harbour is fo well fortified by
nature, that very little art will be neceflary to render it
impregnable. Its vicinity to the fea renders it very
convenient for naval trade. A light-houfe, with a
fingle light, ftands at the entrance of the harbour.
PORTSOY, is a handfome fea-port town, fituated
on a fmall promontory running into the fea, on the fouth
fide of the Murray Frith, in Scotland, about fix miles
from Cullen, and feven well from Banff. It fends out
feveral fifhing veffels, particularly for the Hebride white
fifhery, and exports a coniiderable quantity of grain.
A manufacture of flocking and fewing thread is alfo
carried on to a confiderable amount for the London and
Nottingham markets. In the neighbourhood is a lira-
turn of marble, of a dark greenifh colour, in which, it
is faid, the curious fubftance called asbestos, or earth-
flax, has been found. From the afheftos a fort of in-
combuftible cloth is made, which is purified by throw¬
ing it into the fire. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 57. 50.
PORTUGAL, the moft wefterly kingdom of Eu¬
rope, bounded on the weft and fouth by the Atlantic Portugal.
Ocean, and on the eaft and north by Spain ; extending
about 310 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. Spam and
By modern writers, we find this country conflantly Portugal,
ftyled in Latin Lufttania; and it is certain, that an- 1 .
ciently a country of Spain went by that name ; but it Boundaries*
does not by any means appear that the country called
by the ancients Lufitania had the fame boundaries
with the modern kingdom of Portugal. Before Au-
guftus Caefar, Lufitania feems to have been bounded
on the north by the ocean, and on the fouth by the ri¬
ver Tagus ; by which means it comprehended all Ga¬
licia, and excluded two of the fix provinces of Portu¬
gal. But in the more ItriCt and reftrained fenfe of
the word, it was bounded on the north by the Du-
rius, now the Douro, and on the fouth by the river
Anas, now the Guadiana ; in which fenfe it was not
quite fo long as modern Portugal, but confiderably
broader. *
The commonly received opinion vVith regard to the^T010^??
etymology of the word Portugalis, that a great num-^^f
her of Gauls landed at Porto, or Oporto, whence it
received the name of Portus Gallorumy or the Port of
the Gauls ; and in procefs of time that name gradually
extended over the whole country, being foftened, or
rather {hortened, into Portugal. But the time when
this event happened, the reafon why thefe Gauls came
thither, and what became of them afterwards, are all
particulars which lie buried in oblivion. It is alleged,
however, that, upon an eminence which overlooks the
mouth of the river Douro, there flood an ancient town
called CVf, ftrong and well peopled, but ill feated for
trade ; and this occafioned the conltrudtion of a lower
town or hamlet, which was called Portus Gale, that
is, the haven of Gale ; and, in procefs of time, Por-
tuca/ia. At length, becoming fo eonfiderable as to
merit an epifcopal chair, the bifhops fubferibed them¬
felves, as the records of ancient councils teitify, Por-
tucalenfes, and the name of the city was transferred to
the diocefe. It is true, that thefe biihops afterwards
changed their title, and fubferibed themfelves Portu-
enfes, that is, hi fops of Porto. But the fadts jult men¬
tioned are actually recorded in authentic hiitories ; and
as the diocefe of Portucalia contained in a great meafure
that little country in which the fovereignty originally
began, the name extended itfelf, together with the ae-
quifitions of the fovereigns, and has remained to the
kingdom, though the diocefe itfelf has changed its name*,
and pofiSbly on that very account. 3
Portugal, though even yet but a fmall kingdom, Originally
was originally much fmaller. The Spanifli and Por-°nR a..
tuguefe hiltorians agree, that Don Alonfo, king UI1°
Leon and Caltile, and fon to Don Ferdinand the
Great, bellowed his daughter Donna Therefa in mar¬
riage upon an illultrious itranger, Don Henry, and
gave him with her the frontier province which he had
conquered from the Moors, fmall indeed in extent,
but excellently fituated, and fo pleafiint and fertile,
that it has fometimes been ftyled Medulla Hifpanica.,
or the marrow of Spain. To this territory was added
the title of Count; but authors are much divided about,
the time that this Itranger came into Spain, and who
he was. However, the authors of the Univerfal Hi*
ftory make it pretty evident, that he was a grandfou
of Robert the firil duke of Burgundy. The manner in
which*.
P O R
Po'-fnira1. which he obtained the principality above-mentioned is
v'—related as follows :
The king, Don Alonfo, apprehenfxve that his fuc-
Cefs in taking the city of Toledo would bring upon
him the whole force of the Moors, fent to demand
affiftance from Philip I. of France, and the duke of
Burgundy, whofe daughter he had married. His re-
quefl was granted by both princes; and a numerous
body of troops was fpeedily collected for his fervice, at
whofe head went Raymond count of Burgundy, Hen¬
ry younger brother of Hugh duke of Burgundy, Ray¬
mond count of Tholoufe, and many others. They
arrived at the court of Don Alonfo in the year 1087,
where they were received and treated with ail poflible
marks of efteem ; and having in the courfe of two or
three years given great proofs of their courage and
conduft, the king refolved to beftow his only daugh¬
ter named Urraca, then a mere child, being at moil
in her ninth year, upon Raymond count of Burgundy,
and afligned them the province of Galicia for the fup-
port of their dignity. About four years after, Don
Alonfo being very defirous to exprefs his gratitude to
Henry of Burgundy, gave him in marriage a natural
daughter of his, born while he remained in exile at To¬
ledo, whofe name was Donna Tberefa ; and upon this
marriage, he gave up in full property the country which
has been already mentioned.
The new fovereign, with his confort, fixed their re-
fidence in the town of Guimaraez, pleafantly fituated
the banks of the river Ave. The remains of an
[ 408 ]
P O R
4
Henry of
Burgundy
the firft
count of
s Portugal.
on
aneient palace belonging to their fucceflbrs are ftill to
be feen ; and on account of its having been anciently
the capital, the king, Don Denis, granted the inha¬
bitants an immunity from taxes, which they ftill en-
j°y-
The Portuguefe, now finding themfelves indepen¬
dent, immediately began, like other nations, to at¬
tempt the fubjeftion of their neighbours. Henry is
faid to have performed great exploits againft the
Moors ; but the accounts of them are fo indiftinft, that
they cannot be taken notice of here. He died in 1112;
and was fucceeded by his fon Don Alonfo, then an in-
Differences ^a.nt t^lt: ^ird year of his age. In his minority, the
with Caf- kingdom was governed by his mother Donna Therefa,
tile. aftifted by two able minifters. During the firft nine
years of their adminiftration, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened ; but after that period, fome differences took
place between the queen regent (for Ihe had affumed the
title of queen after her father’s death) and Urraca queen
of Caftile. Therefa infilled, that fome part of Gali¬
cia belonged to her in virtue of her father’s will • and
therefore feized on I uy, an epifcopal town, and a place
of fome confequence. Urraca, having affembled a nu¬
merous army, went in perfon into Galicia; upon which
1 here fa was obliged to abandon Tuy, and take Ihelter
m one of her own fortreffes. The confequences, in all
probability, would have been fatal to the new kingdom,
mn.n°L ttC aic^kilbop of Compoftella, without whofe
affiftance Jrraca could do nothing, demanded leave to
retire with his vaffals. This offended the queen to fuch
a degree, that Ihe threw him into prifon ; which ad of
violence excited fuch a commotion among her own fub-
jects, that the Portuguele were foon delivered from their
apprehenfions. Queen Pherefa fell immediately after
a imi ar error, by throwing into prifon the arch¬
bishop of Braga, who had not efpoufed her eaufe fo 'Portugal,
warmly as (he had expe6led. The bifhop, however, *—y—
was quickly delivered by a bull from the pope, who alfo
threatened the kingdom with an interdidl; and this was
the firft remarkable offence which Therefa gave her
fubjecls.
Soon after this, Queen Urraca died, and all diffe¬
rences were amicably fettled at an interview between
Therefa and Don Alonfo Raymond, who fucceeded to
the kingdom of Caftile. But, in 1126, the king of
Caftile being obliged to march with the whole ftrength
of his dominions againft his father-in-law the king of
Navarre and Arragon, Therefa took the opportunity
of again feizing upon Tuy ; but the king foon return¬
ing with a fupcriof army, fhe was again obliged to aban¬
don her conqueft. But the greateft misfortune which
befel this princefs, was a quarrel with her own fon Don
Alonfo Enriquez. It does not appear indeed that
Therefa had given him any juft caufe of offence ; but it
is certain that a civil war enfued, in which the queen’s
forces were totally defeated, and fhe herfelf made prifon-
er, in which fituation fhe continued during the remain¬
der of her life. ^
Enriquez having thus attained to the free and full Don A-
poffeflion of his dominions, made feveral attempts upon hnffbs wars
fome places in Galicia, but without fuccefs ; fo that he the
was at laft conftrained to make peace with Alonfo king
of Caftile and Leon, who had affumed the title of Em- Caftile.
frror of the Spains ; the more efpecially as his dominions
happened to be at that time invaded by the Moors. 
The number of infidels was fo great, that the count of
Portugal had little hopes of fubduing them; but a
plague breaking out in the Moorifti army, they were o-
bliged to retreat; after which he reduced feveral places.
belonging to that nation. But, in the mean time, the
emperor Don Alonfo, breaking into the Portuguefe
territories, deftroyed every thing with fire and fword.
The king of Portugal furprifed and cut off a confider-
able part of his army ; which, however, did not hinder
the emperor from marching dire&ly towards him.—
But, at the interceflion of the pope’s legate, all diffe¬
rences were accommodated, and a peace concluded; all
places and prifoners taken on both fides being delivered
up.
In the mean time, the progrefs of the Chriftian arms
in Spain being reported to Abu-Ali Texefien, the mi-
ramamolin or chief monarch of the Moors in Barbary,
he directed Ifmar, or Ifhmael, his lieutenant in Spain, to
affemble all the forces in the fouthern provinces, and
drive the Chriftians beyond the Douro. Ifhmael imme¬
diately began to prepare for putting thefe orders in ex¬
ecution ; and having added a confiderable body of troops
brought from Barbary to thofe whom he had raifed in
Spain, the whole army was very numerous. He was
met by Don Alonfo of Portugal, in the plains of Ou-
rique, on the banks of the river Tayo; and Ifhmael Vf&ory of
took all poffible means to prevent the Chriftians from Ourique.
pafling that river, becaufe his own cavalry, in which
the ftrength of his army chiefly confifted, had thus
more room to a61. The Portuguefe forces were very
inconfiderable in number in companion of the Moors ;
but Ifhmael, being too confident of vidlory, divided
his army into 12 bodies, and difpofed them ’ in fuch a
manner as might beft prevent the flight, not fuftain
the attack, of the Chriftians. The confequence was,
that
P O R
[ 4° 9 1
P O R
f*ortfigal, that Ins army was overthrown with Incredible flaugh-
-v  ter and a vaft number of prlfoners taken, among
whom were iooo Chriillans, of the feft ilyled Movi-
rabians, whom, at the requeft of Theotonus, prior of the
Holy Crofs, Don Alonfo fet at liberty with their wives
and children, and procured them fettlements in his own
8 dominions.
After this fignal vi&ory, gained in the year 1139,
Portugal.
Don Alon¬
fo affumes
Sea!kW Don Alonfo was proclaimed king by his foldiers, and
II.CUUC.IU . i-nio nil kind of fub-
king
ever after retained that title, renouncing all kind of fub-
jedion to the crown of Spain. Being very defirous,
however, of bringing down the power of the emperor,
he entered into a league with Raymond count of Bar¬
celona and regent of the kingdom of Arragon againil
that prince. In confequence of this treaty, he entered
Galicia with a confiderable force on one fide, while Don
Raymond did the fame on the other. Neither of thefe
enterprifes, however, fucceeded. I he Portuguefe mo¬
narch met with a fevere checkin his expedition into
Galicia, where he received a dangerous wound, and had
fome of the nobility who attended him taken prifonei s.
At the fame time he received intelligence that the
Moors had invaded his dominions, fo that he was obh-
ged to retire ; which, however, was not done in lufli-
cienttime to prevent the ftrong fortrefs of Leyna from
falling into their hands. This fortrefs they demolifhed,
and put all the garrifon to the fvvord ; but the king
caufed it to be rebuilt ftronger than before, and put a
more numerous garrifon into it ; however, he under¬
took nothing farther this campaign. The war conti¬
nued with various fuccefs till the year 1145, when the
king projeaed an enterprife againft Santaren, a ftrong
city about 12 miles from Lifbon. In this he luckily
fucceeded: and by that means gained a confiderable
track of country, and a ftrong barrier to his domi-
nions. . , , . r ir . .
After this fuccefs Don Alonfo caufed hiinfelr with
much ceremony to be chofen and crowned king of 1 or-
tugal before an affembly of the ftates, where he alfo fo-
lemnly renounced all dependence on the crown of Spain,
declaring, that if any of his fucceffors fhould condefcend
to pay tribute or to do homage to that crown, he^vyas
Reduces unworthy of enjoying the kingdom of Portugal. I he
l.ifbon and next year the king undertook the recovery oy -Lnbon
13 other out the }iantis 0f the Moors; and concerning this
CUies' expedition there are fuch numbers of fables, that it is
almoft impofiible to come at the truth. W hat can be
gathered from thefe accounts is, that he undertook the
ftege with a fmall army, and was able to make but little
progrefs in it, partly from the ftrength of the place,
and partly from the numerous garrifon by which it was
defended. At length, fortunately for Don Alonfo, a
fleet of adventurers, French, Englifh, Germans, and
Flemings, that were going to the Holy I.and, anchored
at the mouth of the river Tagus, whofe afliftance he de¬
manded, as not altogether foreign to their defign of ma¬
king war on the infidels. His requeft was readily grant¬
ed ; and, with their afiiftance, Lilbon was fpeedily re¬
duced ; which conqueft fo much raifed the reputation
of this monarch, and brought fuch numbers to recruit
his army, that before the end of the year 1147
reduced 12 other confiderable cities.
Has his re- por many years after this, Don Alonfo was fuccefs-
confirmed7 ful in aft his undertakings. He fettled the internal go¬
by the vernment of his kingdom, procured a bull from pope
pope. Vol. XV. Part II.
Alexander III. confirming his regal dignity, undertook   ,
many fuccefsful expeditions againft the Moors, and be'
came mafter of four of the fix provinces which compoie
the prefent kingdom of Portugal. In all his underta¬
kings he was afliited by the counfels of his Queen Ma¬
tilda, who was a woman of great capacity, and fuffi-
cient for the government of the kingdom in her huf-
band’s abfence. By her he had a numerous offspring,
particularly three daughters ; the eldeft of whom, Don¬
na Mafalda or Mathilda, was married to the king of
Arragon ; the fecond, Urraca, to Don Ferdinand king
of Leon; and the third, Therefa, to Philip earl of it
Flanders. In 1166, however, the king thought pro-H^unfhe.
per, from what provocation we know not, to invade with Oon
the dominions ot Ins fon-in-law Don Fcidmand . and Ferdinand
poflefled, himfelf of Limmia and Turon, two cities of of Spun.
Galicia, in which he put ftrong garrilons. I he next
year, elated with his fuccefs, he marched with a nume¬
rous army towards Badajos, which he invefted ; on the
news of which, Don Ferdinand, who had affembled a.
large army at Ciudad Rodrigo, marched to^ its relict.
Yet before he could come within ftgbt °f it, it had lui-
rendered to the king of Portugal; upon which Don
Ferdinand came to a rcfolutkm of befteging his anta-
gonift in his newly conquered city ; which Don Alon-
fo perceiving, endeavoured to draw out his forces into
the' field. Though he was at that time upwards of 70
years of age, he was himfelf on horfeback, and pulhing
forwards at the head of his horfe to get out at the gate,
he ft ruck his leg againft one of the bolts with fuch vio¬
lence that the bone was Ihattered to pieces. This ac¬
cident occafioned fuch confufion, that the Portuguele
troops were eaftly beaten, and Don Alonfo was taken
prifoner. He was exceedingly mortified by this dil-
grace, efpecially as he had no great reafon to expect ve¬
ry kind treatment from his fon-in-law. However, the
king of Leon behaved towards him with the greateit
refperit and affedtion. He deftred him to lay aiide all
thoughts of bufinefs, and attend to his cure ; but find¬
ing him reftlefs and impatient, he aftured him that he
expected nothing more than to have things put into v
the fame condition as before the war, and that they
might live in peace and friendfhip for the future: to
which the king of Portugal molt readily affented ; but
returned to his dominions before his cuie was perfect¬
ed, which was the caufe of his being lame all the left
of his life. However, this did not abate his military
ardour; for, notwithftanding this inconvenience, his
courage tranfported him into the field whenever he was
calledby the intereft of his fubjeas. Towards the end
of his reign, an opportunity feemed to prefent itfelf of
obtaining once for all an entire releafe from the diia-
greeable pretenfions of the king of Leon, who, it feems,
bad infilled on the king of Portugal’s doing homage for
his kingdom. The opportunity which now prefentecl
itfelf was a quarrel between the king of Leon and his
nephew Don Alonfo king of Caftile. I he lattei afleed
afliftance from the king of Portugal,_ which was readily
granted. But Don Ferdinand, having received intelli¬
gence that the infant Don Sancho (the king’s eldeft
fon) was advancing towards Ciudad Rodrigo, aflem-
bled his troops on that frontier with fuch diligence, f*
that he was enabled to attack him unexpecledl), and <’n"cj10*s fuc.
tirely defeated him. Undcrftanding, however, that Don cefs agauift
Sancho was recruiting his forces with great diligence, ihe Moore,
3 F he
*3
His wife
admniftra
P O R f 4
Portugal, he let him know that they might be much better cm-
ployed againft the infidels, who remained carelefs and
unprepared, expecting the iflue of the war. Don San-
cho made a proper ufe of this advice ; and, after ma¬
king fome motions to amufe the enemy, made a hidden
irruption into Andalufia, penetrating as far as Triana,
one of the fuburbs of Seville. The Moors affembled
their forces in order to attack him on his retreat; but
Don Sancho having firft fatigued them by the celerity of
his march, at length chofe a ilrong camp, and, having
given his troops time to repofe, drew them out and
offered the enemy battle. The Moors accepted the
challenge, but were entirely defeated ; and Don San¬
cho returned into Portugal with fpoils to an immenfe
amount. For fome years after the war was continued
without any remarkable event; but, in 1184, Jofeph
king of Morocco, having already tranfported multitudes
oi men from Barbary^ at length followed in perfon with
a prodigious army, and carried all before him as far as
the Tayo. He appeared before the city of Santaren ;
but having weaned and reduced his army by unfuccefs-
ful affaults on that place, he was attacked by the Por-
tuguefe forces afliifed by Ferdinand of Leon, entirely
defeated, and himfelf killed. By this vi&ory, the Por-
tuguefe were left at liberty to improve the interior part
of their country, and fortify their frontiers ; and du¬
ring this interval, the king died in the 76th year of his
age, in the year 1185. •
Don Alonfo was fucceeded by his fon Don San¬
cho I. Of this prince it is remarkable, that, before he
Eoi. ^ alccnded the throne, he was of a reftlefs and warlike
k- difpofition ; but no fooner did he come to the poffef-
fion of the kingdom, than he became a lover of peace,
and began with great affiduity to repair the cities that
had fuftered mofb by the war, and to repeople the coun¬
try around them. By his fteady attention to this, he
in a very fhort time quite altered the appearance of his
territories, and procured to himfelf the glorious title of
The riftorer oj cities, and father of his country. In the
year 1189, a fleet, compofed for the moft part of Eng-
Jifli veffels, but having on board a great number of ad¬
venturers of other nations bound to the Holy Land,
entered the river of Lifbon. They were very kindly
icceived, and lupplied with all kinds of refrefhments by
Don Sancho, who took this opportunity of foliciting
them to affift him in a deiign he had formed of attack¬
ing the city of Silves in Algarve; to which they readily
yielded. Having joined a fquadron of his own galleys,
and marched a body of troops by land, the place was
1 educed, and the Lnglifh, according to agreement, re¬
warded with the plunder. But, in a fhort time, the
Moors from Africa having again invaded Portugal, the
town was feveral times taken and retaken, till' at lad
Don Sancho, being fenfible of the difficulties that would
attend the keeping of it, caufed it to be demoliffied.
is latt enterpnfe was the reduftion of Elvas ; foon af-
xer which he died with the reputation of the heft eco-
nomnt that ever fat on the throne of Portugal. With
the character of being rather liberal than avaricious, he
rad amailed a treafure of more than 700,000 crowns
mready money befidest+o:-, merits of filver and 100
ofgmdplatt, which he d.f,„,fed 0f fome time before his
death He was interred by his own command with
much le.s pomp than his father, in the cathedral of
Coimbra; and wkn las body was taken up 400 yca-s
10 ] FOR
after by order of the king Don Emanuel that it might Portugal
be laid in a new tomb, it was found uncorrupted. 0 -—v-~^f
. ^ie hiftory of Portugal affords fcarce any event of n-ff1!,,,.*-.
importance till the year 1289; when, in the reign of with Ci-
Don Denis, a difference commenced with Caitile, which hUe.
fubfilled for a long time.. Frequent reconciliation took
place ; but thefe were either of very fhort duration, or
never fincere. An length, in the reign of John I. Don
Juan of Caltile, who had alfo pretenfions to the crown
of I ortugal, invaded that kingdom at the head of the
whole force of his dominions, and with the flower of
the Caftilian nobility entered the province of Alentego.
According to the Portuguefe hiftorians, he befieged
the city of Elvas without effect; which difappoint-
ment enraged him to fuch a degree, that he determined
next year to invade Portugal a fecond time, and ruin
all the country before him. Accordingly, having col¬
lected an army of 30,000 men, lie invaded Portugal,
took and ruined feveral places, while King John lay in¬
active, with a fmall army, waiting for fome Englifh
fuccours which he expected. At laft he ventured an The^aftf-
engagement with the forces which he had; and, not-Hansentire-
withHanding the gyeat fuperiority of the enemy, ob-‘y defeated,
tained a complete victory; after which he made an ir¬
ruption into Caftile, and had the good fortune to gain
another battle, which fixed him firmly on the throne of
1 ortugal. I he Calf ihans were obliged to confent to a
truce of three years, which was foou after improved in¬
to a lafting peace. * ^
In 1414, King John undertook an expedition againft rhe city of
the Moors in Barbary) where he commanded in perfon ; Ceuta ta-
but before he fet out, his queen (Philippa the daugh-k,"n f,nm
ter of John duke of Lancafter) died "of grief at thethe Maor3*
thoughts of his abfence. The expedition, however,
proved fuccefsful, and the city of Ceuta was taken from
the Moors almoft at the firft affault : but fca>-ce had
the king left that country, when the princes of Barbary
formed a league for the recovery of it ; and though
they were defeated by the young princes of Portugal,
whom John again fent into Barbary, yet the trouble of
keeping it was lo great, that fome of the king’s coun¬
cil were of opinion that the town fliould he demolifhed.
hut John, having confidered the arguments on both
tides, determined to keep the city; and therefore en¬
larged and ftrengthened the fortifications, augmenting
his forces there to 6000 foot and 2500 horfe, which he
hoped would be fufficient for keeping oft’ the attacks of
the Moors.
King John died in 1478, and was fucceeded by his
eideft fon Edward. He undertook an expedition againft
d angier in Barbaiy : but the event proved very unfor¬
tunate ; the Portuguefe being fo Ihut up by the Moors,
that they were obliged to offer Ceuta back again, in
order to obtain leave to return ta Portugal. The v
king’s fon, Don Ferdinand, was left as a hoftage for
the delivery of Ceuta ; but was, with the utmoft cruel¬
ty and injuftice, left in the hands of the infidels, by the
king and council of Portugal, who conftantly refilled
to deliver up the place. Many preparations indeed
were made for recovering the prince by force ; but be¬
fore any thing could be accomplifhed the king died in
143°, which put. an end to all thefe defigns. Sec Pe¬
dro (Don). 17
'■pc 7 • i t'* PafTa
Ihe war with Barbary continued at intervals, butthcE.ft iiu
with little i'uccefs on the part of the Portugueie ; and ’ies nifeu.
vered.
V O T’v
r 4f
Portugal
Jtotefifon't
JuJ.a.
18
Circum-
Itances
which faci
litated the
dilcovery
i9
The king
*jf the
country-
jealous of
his new v
fitois.
till the year *497, there i« »o event of any eonfequer.ee
recorded in the hiJtory of Portugal. This year was
remarkable for the difeovtry of the paffage to the Pait
Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The enterpnling
fpirit of the Portuguefe had prompted them to under-
take voyages along the coalt of Africa for a conhder-
able time before ; W when they undertook their fir ft
voyage of difeovery, it is probable that they had no¬
thing farther in view than to explore thofe parts of the
coaft of Africa which lay neareft to their own coun¬
try. But a fpirit of enterprife, when roufed and put
in motion, is always progreffive ; and that of the Por¬
tuguefe, though flow and timid in its fhft operations,
gradually acquired vigour, and prompted them to ad¬
vance along the weftern fhore of the African continent,
far beyond! the utmoft boundary of ancient navigation
in that diredtion. Encouraged by fyccefs, it became
more adventurous, defpifed dangers which formerly ap¬
palled it, and furmounted difficulties which it once
deemed infuperable. When the Portuguefe found in
the torrid zone, which the ancients had pronounced to
be uninhabitable, fertile countries, occupied by nume¬
rous nations ; and perceived that the continent of A-
frica, inftead of extending in breadth towards the weft,
according to the opinion of Ptolemy, appeared to con-
trad itfelf, and to bend eaftwards, more extenfive pro-
fpeds opened to their view, and intpired them ^hh
hopes of reaching India, by continuing to hold the fame
courfe which they had fo long purfued.
After feveral unfuccefsful attempts to accompfiih
what they had in view, a fmall fquadron failed from the
Tagus, under the command of Vafco de Gama, an of¬
ficer of rank, whofe abilities and courage fitted him
to condud the meft difficult and arduous enterprifes.
From unacquaintance, however, with the proper feafon
and route of navigation in that vail ocean through
which he Trad to fleer his courfe, his voyage was long
and dangerous. At length he doubled that promon¬
tory, which, for feveral years, had been the obj<?d of
terror and of hope to his countrymen. From that, af¬
ter a profperous navigation along the fouth-eail of A-
frica, he arrived at the city of Melinda, and had the
fatisfadion of difeovering there, as well as at other
places where he touched, people of a race very different
from the rude inhabitants of the weftern ffiore of that
continent, which alone the Portuguefe had hitherto vi-
flted. Thefe he found to be fo far advanced m civili¬
zation and acquaintance with the various arts of h e,
that they carried on an adive commerce, not only with
the nations on their own coaft, but with remote coun¬
tries of Alia. Conduded by their pilots, who held a
courfe with which experience had rendered t icm v\ e
acquainted, he failed acrofs the Indian ocean, and
landed at Calecut, on the coaft of Malabar, on the 22d
of May 1498, ten months and two days after his de¬
parture from the port of Lifbon.
The famorin, or monarch of the country, aftomihed
at this unexpeded vifit of an unknown people, whofe
afped, and arms, and manners, bore no refemblance to
.j_ any of the nations accuftomed to frequent his harbours,
and who arrived in his dominions by a route hitherto
deemed impradicable, received them at firft with that
fond admiration which is often excited by novelty ; but
in a fhort time, from whatever motives, he formed ya-
iious fchemes to cut oil Gama and his followers. 1 he
Portu»«;,
, 1 FOR
Portuguefe admiral, however, was not to he rwer-reach.   .
ed by fuch politics as his. From every danger to which v
he was expofed, either by the opsn attacks or fecret
machinations of the Indians, he extricated himfelf with
lingular prudence and dexterity, and at laft failed from
Calecut with his (hips, loaded not only with the com¬
modities peculiar to that coaft, hut with many rich pio-
duftions of the eaftern parts of India. He returned to
Portugal in two years after his failing from the Tagus,
but with a great lofs of men ; for out of 148 perfons
whom he took out with him, only returnee, ft he
king received him with all poffible teftimonies of re-
fpeft and kindnefs ; created him count of Videgueira ;
and not only declared him admiral of the Indies, but
made that office hereditary in his family. 20
On the firft intelligence of Gama’s fuccefsful voyage, The Vent-
the Venetians, with the quick-lighted difeernment of
merchants, forefaw the immediate confcquence o. it to
be the ruin of that lucrative branch of commerce which meixe.
had contributed fo greatly to enrich and aggrandize
their country ; and they obferved this wuth more poig¬
nant concern, as they were apprehenfive that th>.y md
not poffefs any effeftual means of preventing, or even
retarding, its operation. . , . 2r „
The hopes and fears of both were well-founded. The Accoun^of
Portuguefe entered upon the new career opened to them nient Jf '
with activity and ardour, and made exertions, both com-, he Poru*.
mercial and military, far beyond what could have been «uefe in
expedit’d from a kingdom of fuch inconflderable extent, hidia.
All theie were directed by an intelligent monarch, ca¬
pable of forming plans of the greateft magnitude with
calm fyftematic wiidom, and of profecuting them with
unremitting perfeverance. T he prudence and vigour ot
his meafures, howrever, wTould have availed little without
proper inftruments to carry them into execution. Hap¬
pily for Portugal, the difeerning eye of Emanuel feledt-
ed a fucceffion of officers to take the fupreme command
in In'dia, who, by their cute, priiing valour, military
{kill, and political fagacity, accompanied with difinte-
refted integrity, public fpivit, and love of then country,
have a title to be ranked with the perfons moll eminent
for virtue and abilities in any age or nation. Gieater
things perhaps were atchieved by them than v/ere e-1. ci
accompliffied in fo fhort a time. V» ithi.n 24 \eais oiu^
after the voyage of Gama, the Portuguefe had rendered
themfelves mailers of the city of Malacca, in w hich the
great flaple of trade carried on among the inhabitants
of all thofe regions in Alia, which Europeans have di-
ftinguiflied by the general name of the Lt/Ji indies, was
then eftabliffied. This conqueft fecured to them great
influence over the interior commerce of India, wrhile, at
the fame time, by their fettlements at Goa and Fiu,
they were enabled to engrofs the trade of the Malabar
coail, and to obitrud greatly the long eflablifhed inter-
courfe of Egypt with India by the Red Sea. In ev..iy
part of the eaft they were received with refpett ; in
many they had acquired the abfolute command. i uey
carried on trade there without rival or controul; they
preferibed to the natives the terms of their mutual in-
tercourfe ; they often fet what price they pleafed on the
goods which they pm-chafed ; and were thus enabled to
import from Ilidoltan and the regions beyond it, w hat¬
ever is ufeful, rare, or agreeable, in greater abundance,
and of more various kinds, than had been known for-
merly in Europe, ^ ^ ^ ^
Portugal
42
Oppolition
made by
the Vene¬
tians.
»3
Tnquifition
introduced
into Por¬
tugal.
P O R [4
Not fatisfied with this afcendant which they had ac¬
quired in India, the Portuguefe early formed a fcheme
no lefs bold than interdled, of excluding all other na¬
tions from participating of the advantages of commerce
with the eaft ; and they accomplilhed one half of what
their ambition had planned.
In confequence of this, the Venetians foon began to
feel that decreafe of their own Indian trade which they
had forefeen and dreaded. In order to prevent the far¬
ther progrefs of this evil, they incited the Soldan of the
Mameluks to fit out a fleet in the Red Sea, and to at¬
tack thofe unexpefted invaders of a gainful monopoly,
of which he and his predeceffbrs had long enjoyed un-
difturbed poflefiion. The Portuguefe, however, en¬
countered his formidable fquadron with undaunted cou¬
rage, entirely defeated it, and remained mailers of the
Indian ocean. They continued their progrefs in the
call almoft without obllruftion, until they eftabliflied
there a commercial empire ; to winch, whether we con-
fider its extent, its opulence, the flender power by which
it was formed, or the fplendor. with which the govern¬
ment of it was condufted, there had hitherto been no¬
thing comparable in the hiftory of nations. Emanuel,
who laid the foundation of this llupendous fabric, had
the fatisfaction to fee it almoft completed. Every part
of Europe was fupplied by the Portuguefe with the
productions of the eaft; and if we except fome incon-
fiderable quantity of them, which the Venetians ftill
continued to receive by the ancient channels of convey¬
ance, our quarter of the globe had no longer any com¬
mercial intercourfe with India, and the regions of Afia
beyond it, but by the Cape of Good Hope.
In September 1522, King Emanuel died of an epi¬
demical fever, and was fucceeded by his fon John III.
The moft remarkable tranfaCtion of this prince’s reign
was the introduction of the inquifition into his domi¬
nions. This happened in the year 1525, or, as fome
fay, in 1535. A famine happening to ceafe in a fhort
time after it was introduced, the priefts perfuaded the
ignorant multitude that it was a blefiing from heaven on
account of the ereCting fuch an holy tribunal. How¬
ever, it was not long before the bulk of the nation per¬
ceived what kind of a blefiing the inquifition was : but
their difcernment came too late ; for by that time the
inquifitors had acquired fuch power, that it became
equally dangerous and ineffectual to attempt difcloling
any of their myfteries.
In the mean time Solyman the Magnificent, the
moll enlightened monarch of the Ottoman race, ob-
ferving the power and the opulence of the Portu¬
guefe riling, and attributing it to its proper caufe,
and eager to fupplant them, fent orders to the balhaw
of Egypt to employ his whole ftrength againtl the Chri-
fiians in the Eaft Indies. The bafhaw, in obedience
to thefe orders, failed out from the Red Sea with a
greater naval force than ever the Mohammedans had
employed before ; having 4000 Janizaries, and 16,000
other land troops on board. Yet, by the courage and
condud of the Portuguefe officers and foldiers, all this
mighty armament was defeated, and their Eaft India
poffefiions faved from the danger which threatened
them. In Africa likewife the king of Fez was baffled
before the town of Safi, and frelh quarrels breaking out
among the princes gave great relief to the Chriftians,
who had long been obliged to carry on a defenfive war,
12 ] P O R
and had more than once been on the very brink of Portugal,
ruin. For a long time indeed their fafety had been de- —
rived only from the quarrels of the Moors among them-
felves ; for fuch was the envy and jealoufy which reign¬
ed among the Portuguefe, that they could never unite
heartily in oppofing the common enemy; and therefore,
had their enemies united againft them, they mult cer¬
tainly have been cut off. But whenever the cheriffs
quarrelled with each other, one party was fure to have
recourfe to the Portnguefe; who, by fending them a
fmall fupply, fecured quiet to themfelves, and had the
pleafure of feeing their enemies deftroy one another. 2,
Yet in the end even this had bad confequences ; for, Bad ftate of
on one hand, it kept up a martial fpirit among the a^airs in
Moors, and on the other it made them acquainted with ^■irl)ary*
the Portuguefe difcipline ; fo that after every fliort in¬
terval of repofe they not only found them as much ene¬
mies as before, but much more formidable than ever.
The confequence of all this was, that King John began
to apprehend that the conqueft of Barbaiy was impof-
fible, and therefore to limit his defires to the keeping
of thofe few fortreffes which he had already ; which,
though a neceffary and prudent meafure, difpleafed the
generality of his fubjeCls.
King John exerted himfelf much in the fettlement
of Brazil in South America, which he brought into a
very good ftate, caufed feveral ftrong towns to be ereCt-
ed there, and took all pofiible methods to encourage the
converfion of the natives to Chriftianity. He alfo made
many regulations Ijbr the welfare and happinefs of his
fubjeCts. The difpRtes of the nobility about precedency
w’ere frequently attended with very difagreeable confe¬
quences, which made the king refolve once for all to
fettle them by eftablifhed rules; and the rules eftabliih-
ed by him on this occafion have fubfifted ever fince,
and in a great meafure prevent thefe altercations. He
had other great defigns in his mind, particularly with
regard to the reformation, which he had pufhed veiy faf
with refpedt to religious perfons of both fexes ; but,
on a dole examination of. his affairs, he found his fub-
je£ts in general to have been fo much injured by his
leaving their concerns to the infpedtion of his council,
that he was thrown by the grief of it into a kind of
apoplexy, from which he never recovered. His death
happened in June 1557 ; and he was fucceeded by his
fon Don Sebaftian III. an infant of three years of
aSe*
After the death of King John, the adminiftration re¬
mained in the hands of the queen, grandmother to Se¬
baftian, who behaved with great prudence and circum-
fpedtion. The Moors, however, fuppofing that under
a minority they might be able to difpoffeis the Chri¬
ftians of fuch places as they held in Barbary, laid clofe
liege to Mafagnan. But the queen-regent fent fuch
fpeedy fuccours, and promifed fuch rewards to thofe
who diftinguifhed themfelves, that the Moors, though
they brought 80,000 men into the field, were obliged
to abandon the enterprife. This was at firft magnified
as a high inftance of the queen’s capacity and wifdom j
but in a fhort time the natural averfion which the Por¬
tuguefe had to the government of women, together
with the prejudice they had againft her country, as be¬
ing a Caltilian, appeared fo plainly, and gave her fo
much uneafinefr, that of her own accord fhe refigned
her authority into the hands of cardinal Don Henry
the
Portugal.
25
Prepofle-
rous educa*
ti< n of the
young king
Sebaflian
a6
«- i
.»ex.
_ ^iition a-
gainft A-
frica.
P O R r 4
the king’s brother. By him Don Alexias de Menefes
was appointed the king’s governor, and Gonfales de
Gomera with two other prieits his preceptors. By
means of thofe inilru&ors the king’s education was to¬
tally marred. His governor affiduoufly inculcated up¬
on him that the chief virtue of a king was courage j
that danger was never to be avoided, but always fur-
mounted, let the occafion be what it would. . His
other tutors, inftead of inilrutting him in the true re¬
ligion, only infpired him' with an abhorrence of profef-
fed infidels : the confequence of all which was, that he
became rafh, inconfiderate, and obftinate ; all which
qualities confpired to draw upon him the cataflrophe
which ruined both him and the kingdom.
After the king was grown up to man’s eflate, his
defire was to diftinguifh himfelf againfl the infidels.
He himfelf chofe an expedition to the Eaft Indies;
but the prime minifler Alco^ova, who did not choofe to
nd his monarch to fuch a diflance, fubllituted
•iifrica in its Head. This expedition the king entered
into in the moft inconfiderate and abfurd manner. He
firil fent over Don Antonio prior of Crato, with fome
hundreds of foldiers; carried his principal courtiers over
with him from a hunting match, and without equi¬
pages ; he then fent for the duke of Aveyro, with fuch
troops as he could collect on the fhort warning he had
got; and when all thefe were affembled, the king fpent
his time in hunting, and flight excurfions againfl the
enemy, without doing any thing of confequence, ex¬
cept expofing his perfon upon all occafions. At length
he returned to Portugal in fuch tempeftuous weather,
that his fubje&s had given him up for loll ; when they
were agreeably furprifed by his unexpedled arrival in the
river of Lifbon, which they celebrated with the greatcfl
rejoicings.
The little fuccefs which attended the king in this
expedition ferved only to inflame him more with defire
for another ; fo that from the time he returned, he
feemed to think on nothing elfe. He was highly de¬
lighted alfo with an accident which at this time furnifh-
eddiim with a pretence for war, though of that he flood
in no great need. Muley Hamet, king of Fez and
Morocco, had been difpoflefTed of his dominions by his
uncle Muley Moloch. At the beginning of this war
Don Seballian had offered him his troops in Africa,
which offer was rejedled with contempt: but now be¬
ing a fugitive, and having in vain applied for affiftance
to Philip of Spain, Muley Hamet applied to the king
of Portugal; and, that he might the more eafily fuc-
ceed, caufed the fortrefs of Arzila, which his father
had recovered, to be reflored to the Portuguefe. The
king was in rapture at this event, and fancied that
his glory would exceed that of all his predeceffors. He
w as advifed againfl this expedition, however, by all his
friends. King Philip of Spain having done every thing
to diffuade him from it in a perfonal conference, fent
Francifco Aldana, an old and experienced officer, to
Morocco; and at his return ordered him to attend Don
Sebaflian, in order to give him an account of the Hate
of affairs in that country. This he performed with the
greatefl fidelity, but without any effedl. The queen
dowager and cardinal united in their endeavours to di¬
vert him from this unfortunate enterprife ; but he treat¬
ed them both with fo little refpedl, that his grandmo¬
ther broke her heart j and the cardinal, to fhow his dif-
n l p o r
tafle to the mcafure, retired to Evora without coming Portugal.
either to court or council; which example was follow- 1 ^ 1 *
ed by many of the nobles. Many of thefe, however,
fent very free remonflrances to the king on the impro¬
priety of his condudl ; and King Philip fent to him the
duke de Medina Celi, once more to lay before him the
reafons why he thought his fcheme impracticable, and
to put him in mind that he had no hand in pufhing him
upon his deflru£lion, or of concealing from him the
dangers into which he feemed determined to plunge
himfelf and his fubje&s. Laltly, he received a letter
on the fubjedt from Muley Moloch kimfelf, wherein
that prince explained to him his own right to the
crown of Fez, and fhowed that he had only difpofief-
fed a tyrant and a murderer, who had therefore no
right to his friendfliip or affiitance. He next affured
him that he had no reafon to fear either the power or
neighbourhood of the Portuguefe; as a proof of which,
and as a mark of his eiteem, he was content to make
him a prefent of ten miles of arable ground round each
of the fortrefles he poffdTed in Africa, and which indeed
were no more than four, viz. Tangier, Centa, Mafa-
gan, and Arzila. At the fame time he addrefled him¬
felf to King Philip of Spain, with wrhom he wras on
good terms, defiling him to interpofe with his nephew
Sebaflian, that things might be yet adjufled without the a?
effufion of human blood. But the king of Portugjd Account of
was deaf to all falutary advice; and therefore paid no his forces,
j’egaid to this letter, nor to the remonilrances of his
uncle. On the 24th of June 1577, therefore, he fet
fail from the bar of Lifbon with a fleet of 50 fhips and
five galleys, twelve pieces of cannon, and tranfports
and tenders, making up near 1000 fail. His troops
confifled of 9000 Portuguefe foot ; 3000 Germans;
700 Italians commanded by Sir Thomas Stukeley, an
Englifh exile, but remarkably brave; 2000 Caftilians
and 30D volunteers, commanded by Don Chriflopher
de Tuvara mailer of the horfe, a man of courage, but
without either conduct or experience. He touched
firfl at Lagos bay in the kingdom of Algarve, where
he remained for four days : thence he proceeded to Ca¬
diz ; where he was magnificently feafltd for a week by
the duke de Medina Sidonia, who took the opportu¬
nity once more, by order of Philip, of diffuading him
from proceeding further in perfon. But this exhorta¬
tion proved as fruitlefs as the reft; and the king having
failed with a flrong detachment for Tangier, ordered
Don Diego de Souza, his commander in chief, to follow
w’ith the remaining part of the army.
The troops landed on the coafl of Africa without
any bad accident, and joined at Arzila. Plere the
king was met by the cherifF Muley Hamet, on wdiofe
account he had undertaken the war, who delivered him
his fon Muley, a boy of 12 years of age, as a hoflage,
and brought a reinforcement of 300 Moors. The boy
wra$ fent to Mafagan under a flrong guard; hut the fa¬
ther remained in the Portuguefe camp. Here it was .
refolved in a council of wrar to reduce the town of La-
rache, but it was difputed whether the troops fhould
proceed thither by land or fea. Don Sebaflian, who
efpoufed the former opinion, finding himfelf oppofed by
Muley Hamet, gave him fuch a rude anfvver, that he
left his prefence in difeontent; after which the king’s
opinion prevailed, and the army began its march on the
29th of July. As they proceeded, the king received a
1 letter
VOR [414] FDR
’Portugal letter from tKe duke of Alba, requeuing him to at-
' ^  tempt nothing beyond the taking of the town of hz-
rache. Along with the letter was fent an helmet which
'l% had been worn by Charles V.
More- ^ Qn t}ie other hand Muley Moloch, having intelli-
difpofiy'oti gence of this formidable invafion, took the field, though
of the ar- at that time fi? ill of a fever that he could not fit on
anics, horfeback, with 40,000 foot and 60,000 horfe. He
conducted every thing, notwithftanding his diltrefi'ed
fituation, with the greatell prudence. Finding fome
reafon to fufpeft that part of his army were defirous of
going over to his rival, he proclaimed that fuch as in¬
clined to join their old mailer- were at liberty to do it.
This at once put a Hop to the defection, and only a
very few made ufe of the liberty which was granted
/ them. Standing in doubt like wife of the fidelity of a
body of 3000 horfe, he fent them to reconnoitre the
enemy, by which act of confidence he fecured them.
Still, however, he feared that his officers might be cor¬
rupted by the Portuguefe gold ; for which reafon he
changed the difpofition of his army entirely, fo that none
of his officers commanded the corps to which they had
been accultomed ; and therefore, having new men to
deal with, had none whom they could trull.
Having taken tliefe precautions, he advanced agaiull
the Portuguefe army with fuch celerity, that he came
in fight of them on the 3d of Augull. On this Don
Sebaftian called a council of war ; in which many who
out of complaifance had given their opinions for this
march, were now for returning. They were feparated
from the enemy by a river, and the Moors were mailers
of the ford, fo that it was impoffible to force them im¬
mediately in their polls ; neither was it practicable' for
them to wait for a more favourable opportunity, becaufe
they had no provifions. The foreign officers, on the
contrary, were of opinion that fighting was now be¬
come neceffiary, and a retreat dangerous. 'Phis, however,
was violently oppofed by the chert IF, who faw plainly
that they ran a great rilk of being defeated and of lo¬
lling all, while at the fame time they were not certain
of gaining any thing of confequence though they Ihould
be victorious: whereas, if they drew down towards
the fea, they might entrench themfelves till they were
r elieved by their fleet; during which interval if Muley
Moloch fhould die, he looked upon it as certain that
a great part of the army would defert to him, which
would render him mailer not only of the kingdom, but
of the fate of the Chrillians alfo. When lie found
that the king was bent on fighting, lie only requefted
that the engagement might he delayed till 4 o’clock in
the artemoon, that, in cafe of a defeat, they might
have fome chance ofefcaping: hut even in this he co'uld
not prevail; for the king having difpofed of every thing
tor a battle the next day, was impatient to begin the
onfet as foon as it was light.
^ In the mean time Muley Moloch was fo feiifible of
tne advantages of his fituation, that he was inclined
to take the whole Portuguefe army prifoners; but find¬
ing his difeafe increafe, fo that he had no hopes of re¬
covery, he came to the refolution to fight, that his arita-
gonift might not avail himfelf of his death. The dif-
pofition or the Chriftian* army was very regular and cor-
rea, through the care of fome old officers in Don Se-
balhan’s fervice the infantry were difpofed -in three
.rules j tue ositahon of volunteers made the vanguard^
the Germans commanded by colonel Amherg, and ths Portua*!,
Italians by Sir Thomas Stuekeley, were on the right ; ——-v*"’—*
the Caftilian battalions on the left ; the Portuguefe in
the centre and rear ; the cavalry, coniifting of about
15*00 men, partly on the right under the command of
the duke d’Avegro, to whom the cheriff joined him¬
felf with his horie: on the left was the royal ftandard,
with the reft of the cavalry, under the command of the
duke of Barcelos eldeft fon to the duke of Braganza,
Don Antonio prior of Ci ato, and feveral other perfons
of great rank. The king took poll at firft with the vo¬
lunteers. Muley Moloch difpofed alfo his troops in
three lines: the firft confuted of the Andalulian Moors,
commanded by three officers who had dillinguiflied
themfelves in the w ars of Granada ; the fecond of re-
negadoes ; and the third of the natives of Africa.
They moved in a half moon, with 10,000 horfe on
each wing, and the reft in the rear, with orders to
extend themfelves in fuch a manner as to encompafi-
the Chriftian army. Muley Moloch, though extreme¬
ly weak, was taken out of his litter, and fet on horfe¬
back, that he might fee how his commands had been
obeyed ; and being perfe&ly fatisfied with the fitua¬
tion of his troops, he diredled the fignal of battle to
he given. The Chriftians advanced with the greateft Ihe Portu»
refolution ; broke the firft line of the Moorifii infantry, £ue/e arn.15r
and difordered the fecond. On this Muley Moloch j^ated ^ *C"
drew his fword, and would have advanced to encou¬
rage his troops, but that his guards prevented him ; on
which his emotion of-mind was fo great, that he fell
from his horfe. One of his guards caught him in his
arms, and conveyed him to his litter; where he imme¬
diately expired, having only time to lay his finger on
his lips by way of enjoining them to conceal his death.
But .by this time the Mooriffi cavalry had wheeled
quite round, and attacked the Chriftian army in the
rear : upon which the cavalry in the left wing made
fuch a vigorous effort that they broke the Portuguefe
on the right; and at this time the cheriff, in paffing a
rivulet, was drowned. In this emergefley, the Ger¬
mans, Italians, and Caftilians, did wonders; but the
Portuguefe, according to their own hillorians, beha¬
ved indifferently. Attacked on all fides, however,
they were unable to refill; and the whole army, except
about 50 men, were killed or taken prifoners. The
fate of the king is varioufly related. According to
fome, he had two horfes killed under him, and then
mounted a third. Plis braveft officers were killed in
his defence ; after which the Moors furrounding him,
feized his perfon, ftripped him of his fword and arms,
and fecured him. They immediately began to quarrel
about whole prifoner he was ; upon which one of the
generals rode in among them, crying, “ What, you
dogs, when God has given you fo glorious a victory,
would you cut one anothers throats about a prifoner ?”
at the fame, time difeharging a blow at Seballian, he
brought him to the ground, when the reft of the Moors
foon difpatched him. Others affirm, that one Lewis
de Brito meeting the king with his ftandard wrapped
round him, Sebaftian cried out, “ Hold it fall, let us
<lie upon it! ” upon which charging the Moors, he was
feized, refeued by Brito, who was himfelf taken with
the ftandard, and carried to Fez. He affirmed, that
after he-was taken, he faw the king at a diftaiice, and
unpurfued. Don Lewis de Lima met him afterwards
2 ' making
Portugal.
30
Portugal
conquered
by Fhilip
of Spam
Si-
Terms
granted by
him to his
new fub-
jt&s.
p ° R [ 4
making towards the river j and this is the lafl account
we have of his being feen alive.
Muley Hamet, the brother of Muley Moloch, was
proclaimed king by the Moors immediately after the
battle. Next day, having ordered all the prifoners to
be brought before him, the new fovereign gave orders
to fearch for the body of Don Sebaftian. The king’s
valet-de-chambre brought back a body, which he (aid
was that of his mailer, but fo disfigured with wounds,
that it could not well be known ; fo that notwith-
ftanding the moll diligent fearch, this monarch’s death
could never be properly authenticated. This body, how¬
ever, was preferved by Muley Hamet, who delivered it up
as the body of Don Sebaftian to King Philip of Spain.
By him it was fent to Ceuta, from whence it was tranf-
ported to Portugal, and buried mnong his anceilors in
the monallery at Belem, with all pofiible folemnity.
By this terrible difaller, the kingdom of Portugal,
from being the molt eminent, funk at once into the
lowed rank of the European dates. All the young
nobility were cut off, or carried into da very : the king¬
dom was exhanded of men, money, and reputation ; fo
that Don Henry, who adumed the government after
the death of his brother Don Sebadian, found himfelf
in a very difagreeable fituation. The tranfadlions of his
reign were quite trifling and unimportant ; but after
his death a great revolution took place. The crown of
Portugal was claimed by three different competitors ;
viz. the prince of Parma, the dutchefs of Braganza,
and Philip of Spain. Whatever might have been the
merits of their refpeftive claims, the power of Philip
quickly decided the conted in his favour. He found
his fchemes facilitated by the treachery of the regents,
who took the mod Icandalous methods of putting the
kingdom into his hands. Under pretence of infpe&ing
the magazines, they took out feme of the powder, and
mixed the red with fand: they appointed an agent
to go to France for fuccours, from whence they knew
that they could not arrive in time ; they diffolved the
dates as foon as they difeovered that they were bent on
maintaining the freedom of the nation ; and, under a
fhovv cf confidence, rent off to aidant places fuch of the
nobility as they fufpe&ed.
King Philip, finding every thing in his favour,
commanded the duke of Alva to invade Portugal, at
the head of 20,000 men. The people, perceiving
that they were betrayed, exclaimed againd the gover¬
nors, and placed on the throne Don Antonio prior of
Crato. But his forces being inexperienced, and he
himfelf behaving in a very Improper manner, he was
quickly defeated by the duke of Alva, and forced to
fiy out of the kingdom, which he effe&ed with great
difficulty. On his flight the whole kingdom fubmit-
ted, together with the ganifons in Barbary, the fcttle-
raents on the wedern coad of Africa, of Brazil, and
in the Ead Indies. All the Madeiras, however, ex¬
cept the ifle of St Michael, held out for Don An¬
tonio until (hey were reduced, and the French navy,
who came to their affillance, entirely defeated and de-
ftroyed.
Philip made; his entry into Lifhon as foon as the
kingdom was totally reduced, and endeavoured to con¬
ciliate the affedlions. ol the people by confirming the
terms which he had before offered to the dates. Thefe
terms were, that he would take a folemn oath to maiu*
15] p. 0 R
tain the privileges and liberties of the people! that the Portugal,
dates fhould be affembled within the realm, and nothing —v—
propofed in any other dates that related to Portugal:
that the viceroy or chief governor fhould be a native,
unlefs the king fhould give that charge to one of the
royal family : that the houfehold fhould be kept on the
fame footing : that the pod of fird prefident, and of
all offices, civil, military, and judicial, fhould be filled
with Portuguefe; all dignities in the church and in the
orders of knighthood confined to the fame ; the com¬
merce of Ethiopia, Africa, and the Indies, referved al-
fo to them, and to be carried on only by their mer¬
chants and veffels : that he would remit all impods on
ecclefiadical revenues: that he would make no grant
of any city, town, or jurifdi&ion royal, to any but
Portuguefe: that edates refulting from forfeitures fhould
not be united to the domain, but go to the relations of
the lad poffeiTor, or be given to other Portuguefe for
recompenfe of fervices : that when the king came to
Port ugal, where he fhould rdide as much as poflible,
he fhould not take the houfes of private perfons for his
officers lodging, but keep to the cudom of Portugal:
that wherever his majedy reiided, he fhould have an ec-
clefiadic, a trtaiurer, a chancellor, two maders of rc-
queds, with under odicers, all of them Portuguefe, who
fhould difpatch every thing relating to the kingdom: that
Portugal ihould ever continue a didinbt kingdom, and
its revenue be confumed within itfelf: that all matters
of judice fhould be decided within the realm: that the
Portuguefe ffiould be admitted to charges in the houfe-
holds of the kiqg and queen of Spain : that all duties
on the frontiers ffiould be taken away : and, ladly, that
Philip fhould give 300,000 ducats to redeem prifoners,
repair cities, and relieve the miferies which the plague
and other calamities had brought upon the people. ••
All thefe conditions, formerly offered and rejected by
the Portuguefe, the king now confirmed : but whereas
the duke of Offuna, by way of fecurity for thefe con¬
ditions, had promifed them a law, that if the king did
not adhere to them, the Hates fliould be freed from their
obedience, and might defend their right by the fword,
without incurring the reproach of perjury, or the guilt
of treafon ; this he abfolutely refufed to ratify. ^ z
All thefe conceffions, however, did not anfwer the Camot ‘
purpofe ; nay, though Philip was to the lafl degree
lavifh of honours and employments, the Portu ruefet ,e r
were fliil diffatisfied. This had alfo an effedb whichU l0*
was not forefeen : it weakened the power, and abforb-
ed the revenues, of the crown; and, by putting it out
of the power of any of his fucceffors to be liberal in the
fame proportion, it raifed only a ffiort-lived gratitude
in a few, and left a number of malecontents, to which
time was continually adding.
Thus Philip, with all his policy, and endeavours to
pleafe, found his new fubjedls fliil more and more dif-
gufted with his government, efpecially when they found
their king treating with the utmoft feverity all thofe
who had fupported Don Antonio. The exiled prince, -
however, ftill ftyled himfelf king of Portugal. At fii ft is difairbed
he retired to France, and there demanded fuccours for by Don
the recovery of his dominions. Here he found fo nffich/^nton*'3a
countenance, that with a fleet of near 60 fail, and a
good body of troops on board, he made an attempt
upon the Terceras, wiiere his fleet was beat by the
Spaniards j and a great number of prifoners being ta¬
ken,-
P O R [4
Portugal, ken, all the officers and gentlemen were beheaded, and
v—"'v"’"-1 a great number of meaner people hanged. Don An¬
tonio, notwithftanding, kept polfeffion of fome places,
coined money, and performed many other a&s of regal
power; but was at length conftrained to retire, and it was
with fome difficulty that he did fo, and returned into
France. He pafled from thence into England, where
he was well received; and many fitted out privateers to
cruife againll the Spaniards under his commiffion. But
after king Philip had ruined the naval power of Portu¬
gal as well as Spain, by equipping the armada, Queen
Elifabeth made no difficulty of owning and affilting
Don Antonio, and even of fending Sir John Norris
and Sir Francis Drake with a ftrong fleet and a great
army to reftore him. Upon this occafion Don Anto¬
nio lent his fon Don Chriftopher a holtage to Muley
Hamet king of Fez and Morocco, who was to lend him
200,000 ducats. But king Philip prevented this by
furrendering Arzila : and this difappointment, the un-
feafonable enterprife upon Corunna, and the difputes
that arofe between Norris and Drake, rendered that ex¬
pedition abortive ; fo that, except carrying the plague
into England, it was attended with no confequences
worthy of notice. He remained fome time after in
England : but finding himfelf little regarded, he with¬
drew once more into France, where he fell into great
poverty and dillrefs; and at length dying in the 64th
year of his age, his body was buried in the church of
the nuns of Ave Maria, with an infeription on his
tomb, in which he is ftyled king. He left feveral
children behind him, who, on account of his being a
knight of Malta, and having made a vow of virginity
at his entrance into the order, were looked upon as il¬
legitimate. He preferved, even to the day of his
death, a great interelt in Portugal; and had drawn
from thence, in the courfe of his life, immenfe fums of
money ; which had been fquandered in many fruitlefs
negociations and attempts to dilturb the pofleffions of
king Philip in almoll all parts of his dominions, and
particularly in the Indies, where the Portuguefe were
rather more averfe to the Caftilian yoke, or at leall tef-
34 tified their averfion more openly, than in Europe.
Impoftors Don Antonio was not the only pretender to the
to^cTlorf crovvn Portugal: for the people, partly through the
Sebaftian. ^ove their prince, and partly from their hatred to the
Caftilians, were continually feeding themfelves with the
hopes that Don Sebaftian would appear and deliver
them; and in this refpeft fueh a fpirit of credulity
reigned, that it was faid proverbially, they would have
taken a negro for Don Sebaftian. This humour put
the fon of a tiler at Alcobaza, who had led a profli¬
gate life, and at length turned hermit, to give himfelf
out for that prince ; and having with him two compa¬
nions, one of them ftyled himfelf Don Chriflopher de
Davor a, and the other the bifljop of Guar da, they began
to colledft money, and were in a fair way of creating
much difturbance, if the cardinal arch-duke had not
caufed him to be apprehended; and after leading him
ignominioufly through the ftreets of Lifbon, he who
took the name of Seba/lian was fent to the galleys for
life, and the pretended bifliop was hanged. Not long
after, Gonfalo Alvarez, the fon of a mafon, gave him¬
felf out for the fame king ; and having promifed mar¬
riage to the daughter of Pedro Alonfo, a rich yeoman,
whom he created earl of Torres Novas, he affembled a
I()] FOR
body of about 800 men, and fome blood was fpilt be- Portugal
fore he was apprehended: at length, being clearly  
proved to be an impoftor, himfelf and his intended fa¬
ther-in-law were publicly hanged and quartered at
Lilbon ; which, inftead of extinguiftiing this humour,
farther increafed it. 35
There was, however, a perfon who appeared, about Account of
20 years after the fatal defeat of Sebaftian, at Venice, ab1Jemark~
who created much more trouble. He aflumed the name aj C 0ne*
of Don Sebajiian, and gave a very diftindl account of
the manner in which he had pafled his time from that
defeat. He affirmed, that he had preferved his life and
liberty by hiding himfelf amongft the (lain : that, after
wandering in difguife for fome time in Africa, he re¬
turned with two of his friends into the kingdom of Al¬
garve : that he gave notice of this to the king Don
Henry: that finding his life fought, and being unwill¬
ing to difturb the peace of the kingdom, he returned
again among the Moors, and pafled freely from one
place to another in Barbary, in the habit of a peni¬
tent : that after this he became a hermit in Sicily ; but
at length refolved to go to Rome, and difeover himfelf
to the pope. On the road he was robbed by his do-
meftics, and came almoft naked to Venice, where he
was known, and acknowledged by fome Portuguefe.
Complaint being made to the fenate, he was obliged to
retire to Padua. But the governor of that city order¬
ing him alfo to depart, he, not knowing what to do,
returned again to Venice; where, at the requeft of the
Spanifh ambaflador, who charged him not only with
being an impoftor, but alfo with many black and atro¬
cious crimes, he was feized, and thrown into prifon. He
underwent 28 examinations before a committee of noble
and impartial perfons ; in which he not only acquitted
himfelf clearly of all the crimes that had been laid to his
charge, but entered alfo into fo minute a detail of the
tranfadftions that had pafled between himfelf and the re¬
public, that the commilfioners were perfeiftly aftonilhed,
and fhowed no difpofition to declare him an impoftor;
moved more efpecially by the firmnefs of his behaviour,
his lingular modefty, the fobriety of his life, his exem¬
plary piety, and his admirable patience under his afflic¬
tions. The noife of this was diffufed throughout Eu¬
rope, and the enemies of Spain endeavoured everywhere
to give it credit.
The ftate, however, refufed to difeufs the great point,
whether he was or was not an impoftor, unlefs they were
requefted fo to do by fome prince or ftate in alliance
with them. Upon this the prince of Orange fent Don
Chriftopher, the fon of the late Don Antonio, to make
that demand; and at his requeft an examination was
made with great folemnity: but no decilion followed ;
only the fenate fet him at liberty, and ordered him to
depart their dominions in three days. He went there¬
fore, by the advice of his friends, to Padua, but in the
difguife of a monk, and from thence to Florence; where
he was arrefted by the command of the grand duke,
who delivered him to the viceroy of Naples. The count
de Lemos, then in pofleffion of that dignity, died foon
after, before whom he was firft brought; this man af-
ferted, he mull know him to be Don Sebaftian, fince
he had been twice fent to him from the king of Spain.
He remained prifoner feveral years in the caftle Del Ovo,
where he endured incredible hardihips. At length he
was brought out, led with infamy through the ftreets
ef
FOR f 417 1 P O R
Portugal of tlie city, and declared to be an impoltor, who affumed upon h!s death-bed. In deploring bitterly that he never
the name of Sebajlian : at which words, when proclaim- thought of afting it before. I he reign of 1 hilip II I. ^
ed before him, he faid gravely, Jmlfo I am. In the and IV. was a feries of worfe meafures, and work for-Great lc ffe,
36
IBad confe
adminiftia
tivn
fame proclamation it was affirmed, that he was in truth a
Calabrian; which as foon as he heard, he faid, It is
falfe. He. was next (hipped on board a galley as a Have;
then carried to St Lucar, where he was Tome time con¬
fined ; from thence he was transferred to a caftle in the
heart of Caftile, and never heard of more. Some per-
fons were executed at Lifbon for their endeavours to
raife an infurredbon on his behalf: but it was thought
ftrange policy, or rather a ftrange want of policy, in
the Spaniards, to make this affair fo public without
proofs ; and the attempt to filence this obje&ien, by af¬
firming him to be a magician,"was juftly looked upon as
ridiculous.
The adminiftration of affairs in Portugal, during the
«uenccs < f r€;gn of Philip, was certainly detrimental to the nation ;
^^Lff/a^and yet it does not appear that this flowed fo much
from any ill intention in that monarch, as from errors
in judgment. His prodigious preparations for the in-
yafion of England impoverilhed all his European domi¬
nions ; but it abfolutely exhaufted Portugal. The pre-
tenlions of Don Antonio, and the hopes of defpoiling
their Indian fleets, expofed the Portuguefe to the ge-
fentment of the Englifh ; from which the king having
granted away all his domains, wanted power to defend
them. Their clamours were not at all the lefs loud for
their being in fome meafure without caufe. The king,
to pacify them, borrowed money from the nobility upon
the cuftoms, which wmre the only fure remedy he had
ftill left; and this w^as attended with fatal confequences.
The branches, thus mortgaged, became, and continue
to this hour, fixed and hereditary; fo that the merchant
was oppreffed, and the king received nothing. This
expedient failing, a tax of three per cert, was impofed,
in the nature of (hip-money, for the defence of the
coafts and the commerce,,.which for fome years was pro¬
perly applied ; but it then became a part of the ordinary
revenue, and went into the king’s exchequer without
account. This made way for diverting other appropri¬
ated branches; as for inftance, that for the repair of for¬
tifications, the money being ffritffly levied, and the
works fuffered to decay and tumble down ; and for the
maintenance of the conquefts in Africa, by which the
garnlons mouldered awray, and the places were loft.
•Upon the whole, in the fpace of 18 years, the nation
was vilibly impoverilhed: and yet the government of
Philip was incomparably better than that of his fuccef-
fors; fo that his death was juftly regretted; and the
Portuguefe were taught by experience to confeis, that
of bad mailers he was the bell.
His fon Philip, the fecond of Portugal and the third
©f Spain, fat 20 years upon the throne before he made
a vifit to Portugal, where the people put themfelves to
a moft enormous expence to receive him; for which
they received little more than the compliment, that be¬
fore his entry into Lilbon, he knew not how great a
king he was. He held an affembly of the ftates, in
which his fon was fvvorn {ucceffor. Having done all
that he wanted for himfelf, he acquired a falfe idea of
the riches of the nation from an immoderate and foolifh
difplay of them during his ftiort ftay at Lilhon ; and
having fhown himfelf little, and done lefs, he returned
Into Spain ; wdiere he a£ted the part of a good king
Vol. XV. Part II.
tune : all his dominions fuffered greatly ; Portugal moft in Ada and
of all. The lofs of Ormus in the Eall, of Brazil in the America.
Weft Indies, together with the fhipwreck of a fleet
fent to efcort that from Goa, brought the nation incre¬
dibly low, and encouraged the conde duke to hope they
might be entirely cruftied. Thefe are the heads only
of the tranfadions for 40 years : to enter in any degree
into the particulars, is, in other words, to point out the
breaches made by the Spanilh minifters on the condi¬
tions granted by king Philip; which, with refpedl to
them, was the original contrad, and unalterable conili-
tution of Portugal while fubjed to the monarchs of
Caftile ; and which, notwithftaiiding, they fo often and
fo flagrantly violated, that one would have imagined
they had ftudied to provoke the wrath of heaven, and
infult the patience of men, inftead of availing them¬
felves, as they might have done, of the riches, power,
and martial fpirit of the Portuguefe people. -g
It was the very bafis and foundation of their privi-The Por-
leges, that the kingdom ftiould remain feparate and in-’'^^^0?*
dependent, and confequently that Lifbon fhould conti- ’j^ sepa.y
nue as much its capital as ever, the feveral fupreme niarda.
councils and courts refiding ; fo that the natives of this
realm might not be obliged to travel in fearch of juftice.
So little, or at leaft fo fhort a time, was this obferved,
that neither promotion nor juftice was to be obtained
without journeys, and Madrid was not more the capital
of Caftile than of Portugal. The general affembly of
eftates was to be held frequently, and they were held
thrice in the fpace of 60 years ; and of thefe twice
within the firft three. The king was to refide in this
realm, as often and as long as poffible; in compliance
with which, Philip I. was there but once, Philip II.
but four months, and Philip III. was never there at all.
The houfehold eftablifhment was fuppreffed through all
their reigns. The viceroy was to be a native of Portu¬
gal, or a prince or princefs of the blood ; yet when any
of the royal family bore the title, the power was in rea¬
lity in the hands of a Spaniard. Thus, when the prin-
cefs of Mantua was vice-queen, the marquis de la Puebla
was to affift in council, and in all difpatches ; and fhe
was to do nothing without his advice. The council of
Portugal, which was to be compofed entirely of natives,
was filled with Caftilians, as the garrifons alfo were,
though the contrary had been promifed. The preii-
dents of provinces, or corregidors, were to be natives ;
but by keeping thofe offices in his own hands, the king
eluded this article. No city, town, or diftrict, were to he
given but to Portuguefe ; yet the duke of Lerma had Be-
ja, Serpa, and other parts of the demefnes of the crown,
which were formerly appendages of the princes of the
blood. None but natives were capable of offices of
juftice, in the revenue, in the fleet, or of any poll civil
or military ; yet thefe were given promifcuoufly to fo¬
reigners, or fold to the higheft bidder; not excepting
the governments of caftles, cities, and provinces. The
natives were fo far from having an equal chance in fuch
cafes, that no polls in the prefidials were ever given to
them, and fcarce any in garrifons ; and whenever it
happened, in the cafe of a perfon of extraordinary me¬
rit, whofe pretenfions could not be rejefted, he was ei¬
ther removed, or not allowed to exercife his charge;
3 G as
Port’iga1.
39,
A revolu¬
tion in fa¬
vour of the
<3uke of
Braijanza,
40
Perilous
flare of
Portugal
on his
death,
41
Don Alon¬
zo obliged
to refign
the throne.
P o R f 4
as fell out to the marquis of Manalva and others. The
forms of proceeding, the jurifdid.ion,-the miiiilters, the
fecretaries, were all changed, in the council of Portugal;
being reduced from five to three, then two, and at lull
to a iingle perfon.
By reafon of thefe and many other grievances too te¬
dious to be mentioned here, the detellation of the Spa-
nifh government became univerfal; and in 1640 a revo¬
lution took place, in which John duke of Braganza was
declared king, by the title of John IV. This revolu¬
tion, as being determined by the almoft unanimous voice
of the nation, was attended with very little effufion of
blood ; neither were all the efforts of the king of Spain
able to regain his authority. Several attempts indeed
■were made-for this purpofe. The firft battle was fought-
in the year 1644, between a Portuguefe army of 6000
foot and 1100 horfe, and a Spanifh army of nearly the
fame number. The latter were entirely defeated; which
contributed greatly to eftablilh the affairs of Portugal
on a firm bafis. The king carried on a defenfive war
during the remainder of his life ; but after his death,
which happened in 1655, the war was renewed with
great vigour.
This was what the Spaniards did not expeft ; for
they expreffed a very indecent kind of joy at his death,
hoping that it would be followed by a diffolirtion of the
government. It is not indeed eafy to conceive a king¬
dom left in more perilous circumftances than Portugal
was at this time :—The king Don Alonzo Enriquez, a
child not more than 13 years of age, reputed of no
very found conftitution either in body or mind ; the re¬
gency in a woman, and that woman a Caftilian ; the
nation involved in a war, and this ref peeling the title
to the crown ; the nobility, fome of them fecretly dif-
affected to the reigning family, and almoft all of them
embarked in feuds and contentions with each other; fo
that the queen fcarce knew who to trull or how ihe
fhould be obeyed. She afted, however, with great vi¬
gour and prudence. By marrying her only daughter
the princefa Catharine to Charles If. King of Great
Britain, ihe procured to Portugal the prote&ion of
the Enghlh fleets, with reinforcements of fome thou-
jands of horfe and foot; and at laft, in 1665, ter¬
minated the war by the glorious victory of Montef-
claros. This decifive atlion broke the power of the
Spaniards, and fixed the fate of the kingdom, though
not of the king, of Portugal. Alonzo was a prince
whofe education had'been neglefted in his youth, who
was devoted to vulgar amufements and mean company,
and whom the queen for thefe reafons wifhed to deprive
of the crown, that fhe might place it on the head of his
younger brother Don Pedro. To accomplifh this pur¬
pofe, fhe attempted every method of ftern authority and
fieeret artifice ; but fhe attempted them ail in vain. The
Portuguefe would not confent to fet afide the rights of
primogeniture, and involve the kingdom in all the rni-
leries attending a difputed fuccefixon. After the death,
however, of the queen-mother, the infant entered into
Caba:r, again it the king of a much more dangerous na¬
ture than any that fne had carried on. Alonzo had
married the princefs of Nemours ; but being, as was
faief, impotent, and hkewife lefs handfome than his bro¬
ther, that lady transferred her affection to Don Pedro,
to whom flie lent her affiftance to hurl the king from
the throne. Alon-zo was compelled to fign a lefignn-
18 1 P O R
tion of the kingdom ; and his brother, after governing Pomura!.
a few months without any legal authority, was in a  v-—^
meeting of the Hates unanimoufly proclaimed regent,
and veiled with all the powers of royalty. Soon after
this revolution, for fuch it may be called, the marriage
of the king and queen was declared null by tha chapter
of Lifbon ; and the regent, by a papal difpenfation, and
with the confent of the ffates,” immediately efpoufed the
lady who had been wife to his brother. He governed*
under the appellation of regent, 15 years, when, upon tlie
death of the king, he mounted the throne by the title of
Don Pedro II. and after a long reign, during which he
conducted the affairs of the kingdom with great pru¬
dence and vigour, he died on the 9th of December
1706.
Don John V. fucceeded his father; and though he Don Jofcf*
was then little more than 17 years of age, he a&ed V\ awife
with fuch wifdom and refolution, adhered fo fteadily toand
the grand alliance formed againfl France and Spain,lute Pr‘nc®*
and firowed fuch refources in his own mind, that though
he fuffered great Ioffes during the war, he obtained fuch
terms of peace at Utrecht, that Portugal was in all re-
fpefts a gainer by the treaty. The two crowns of
Spain and Portugal were not, however, reconciled tho¬
roughly till the year 1737 ; and from this period they
became every day more united, which gave much fatis-
faclion to fome courts, and no umbrage to anv. In
this fituation of things, a treaty was made in 1750
with the court of Madrid, by which Nova Colonia, on
the river of Plata, was yielded to his Catholic majefty,
to the great regret of the Portuguefe, as well on ac¬
count of the value of that fettlement, as becaufe they
apprehended their poffellion of the Brafils would by this
action be rendered precarious. On the laff of July the
fame_ year, this monarch, worn out by infirmities, de-
ceafed, in the 6iff year of his age, and in the 44th of
his reign. _ ^
Don Jofeph, prince of Brafrl, fucceeded him, to the Don J#-
univerfal fatisfadlion of his fubjecls, and with as greaDePh’s e*’
expectations as ever any monarch that mounted the06'1^
throne. It was generally believed that he would make X‘*'
confiderable alterations, in which he did not difappoint
the hopes of the public ; and yet they were done fo
(lowly, with fuch moderation, and with fo many circum¬
ftances of prudence, as hindered all grounds of com¬
plaint. Amongft other new regulations, the power of
the inquifition fuffered fome reitriCtion ; the king di¬
recting, that none of th/ir fentences firoukl be put in ex¬
ecution till reviewed1 and approved by his privy-council*
But as in the reign of lus- father he had confented to
the treaty with Spain, he ratified it after his acceilion,
and fmee earned it into execution upon this noble prin¬
ciple, that no confiderationsof interell ought ever to in¬
duce a monarch to break his word.
However, within the fpace of the few years of this Dreadful
king’s reign, the calamities of Portugal in general, aiicl calamities
thole of the city of Lifbon in particular, cannot, in a L®
great degree, be paralleled in all biliary. An earth-™1®0*
quake, a fire, a famine, an affaftination-plot againft their
prince, executions upon executions, the fcaffohls and
wheels for torture reeking with the noblefl blood ; im-
prifonment after imprifonmefct of the greatell and muff
dillinguifhed perfonages ; the expulfton of a chief order
of eccleliaftics ; the invafion of their kingdom byr a
powerful, ilronger, and exafperated nation 3 the nume¬
rous
P O R
45
Thcfe ca-
Jamities
fooliftily
accounted
for.
Portugal, gays troops of the enemy laying wafle their territory,
kjum-y 1 1 bringing fire and fword with them, and rolling like di-
flant thunder towards the gates of their capital; their
prince ready almoil to fave himfelf hy flight ! The
Spanifli miniilry had already decreed the doom of Por¬
tugal, and nothing was to be heard at the Efcurial but
Delemia ejl Carthago. Carthaginian, perhaps, or Jew-
ifli ilory, n\ay poffibly afford a fcene fomething like this,
but for the fhortnefs of the period not fo big with
/ events, though in their final deftrudtion fuperior. From
that indeed, under the hand of Providence, the national
humanity and generofity of Great Britain has preferved
the Portuguefe; and it remains now to be feen, in fu¬
ture treaties, how that people will expreis their grati¬
tude (fee Britain, n'J45o). Thofe who are able to
fearch deeper into human affairs, may affign the caufes
of fueh a wonderful chain of events ; but no wile man
will aferibe all this to fo Angular a caufe as that which
a Spaniard has done, in a famous pamphlet, printed in
the year 1762 at Madrid. It is intitled, A Spanijh
prophecy ; and endeavours to fhow, that all thefe cala¬
mities have befallen the Portuguefe, folely on account
of their connection with the heretic Englifh. The
great Ruler and Governor of the world undoubtedly
a&s by univerfal laws, regarding the whole fyftem, and
cannot, without blafphemy, be conlidered in the light
of a partizan. The reft of the pamphlet tends to fhow,
that his Catholic majefty carried his arms into Portugal,
folely to give them liberty, and fet them free from Eng¬
lifh tyranny.
Jofeph dying without male iffue, the fucceffion de¬
volved to Mary, his daughter, now queen of Portugal.
She was married fome time before be died, with the
pope’s difpenfation, to his brother Don Pedro.
The air of Portugal, in the fouthem provinces, would
be exceflively hot, if it were not refrefhed by the fea-
breezes ; but in the northern, it is much cooler, and
the weather more fubjedf to rains. The fpring is ex¬
tremely delightful here; and the air, in general, more
temperate than in Spain. Lifbon has been much re-
forted to of late by valetudinarians and confiimptive
perfons from Great Britain, on account of its air.
The foil is very fruitful in wine, oil, lemons, oranges,
pomegranates, figs, raifins, almonds, chefnuts, and other
fine fruits ; but there is a want of corn, owing, it is faid,
in a great meafure to the negleft of agriculture. There
is plenty of excellent honey here ; and alfo of fea and
river fifh, and fea-falt. The horfes in Portugal are
brifle lively animals, as they are in Spain, but of a flight
make: but mules being furer-footed, are more ufed for
carriage and draught. By reafon of the fcarcity of
pafture, there are not many herds of cattle or flocks of
ifheep ; and what they have are final! and lean, though
the flefh is tolerably good : their beft meat is faid to
be that of hogs and kids. The country in jnany parts
is mountainous : but the mountains contain all kinds of
ores ; particularly of filver, copper, tin, and iron, with
a variety of gems, beautifully variegated marble, mill-
{lones, and many curious fofiils. Not far from Lifbon
is a mine of faltpetre ; but none of the metal mines are
here worked, the inhabitants being fupplied with me¬
tals of all kinds from their foreign fettlements. The
principal rivers are the Minho, in Latin Minius ; the
JLimia, anciently the famed Lethe ; the Cavado ; the
JJouro ; the Guadiana, anciently Anas ; and the Tajo,
I 4’9 1
FOR
46
Air, cli-
snate, &c.
or Tagus, which is the largeft river in the kingdom, Portugal^
carrying iome gold in its fands, and falling into the fea ~v
a little below Lifbon. There are feveral mineral fprings
in the kingdom, both hot and cold, which are much
frequented. . 47
The only religion tolerated in Portugal is that of Religion,
the church of Rome; yet there are many concealed
Jews, and thofe too even among the nobility-, bifhops,
prebends, monks, and nuns, and the very inquifitors
themfelves. If a Jew pretends to be a Chriftian and a
Roman Catholic, while he is really a Jew', by going to
mafs, confefiion, &c. or if after being converted, or pre¬
tending to be converted and pardoned, he relapfesein-
to Judaifm and is difeovered, the inquifltion lays hold
of him. In the firft cafe, if he renounce Judaifm, he
is only condemned to fome corporal punifhment or
public ftiamc, and then ordered to be inftru&ed in the
Chriftian religion. In the fecond, he is condemned
to the flames without mercy. Befides Jews and here¬
tics, who broach or maintain any doftrines contrary to
the religion of the country, the inquifltion puniflies all
fodomites, pretenders to forccry and the black art, apo-
ftates, blafphemers, perjured perfons, impoftors, and hy¬
pocrites. The burning of thofe condemned by the in-
quifition, is called an auto da fe, or “ aft of faith.”
There are .feveral tribunals of the inquifltion, one of
which is at Goa in the Eaft Indies; but there are
none in Brafil. The number of convents in Portugal
is faid to be 900. The order of Jefuits hath been fup-
prefled in this country, as they have been in others.
Here is a patriarch, feveral archbifhops and bifliops:
the patriarch is always a cardinal, and of the royal fa¬
mily. The archbifhops rank with marquifles, and the
bifliops with counts. The Portuguefe have archbi¬
fhops and bifhops in the other quarters of the world as
well as in Europe. The fums raifed by the popes here,
by virtue of their prerogatives, are thought to exceed^
the revenues of the crown, and the nuncios never fail of
acquiring vaft fortunes in a fhort time. 1 hough there
are two univerfities and feveral academies, yet while tne
papal power, and that of the ecclefiaftics, continues at
fuch a height, true learning is like to make but a final!
progrefs. The language of the Portuguefe does not
differ much from that of Spain : Latin is the ground¬
work of both ; but the former is more remote from it,
and harfher to the ear, than the latter. The Portu¬
guefe tongue is fpoken on all the coaft of Africa and
Afia as far as China, but mixed with the languages of
the feveral nations in thofe diftant regions. _ 4R
With regard to manufactures, there are very few in Manufac«
Portugal, and thofe chiefly coarfe filks, woollen cloths,tures*
and fome linen ; but their foreign trade is very confi-
deruble, efpecially with England, which takes a great
deal of their wine, fait, foreign commodities, and fruits,
in return for its woollen manufaftures, with which the
Portuguefe furnifli their colonies and fubjefts in Afia,
Africa, and America. Their plantations in Brafil are
very valuable, yielding gold, diamonds, indigo, copper,
tobacco, fugar, ginger, cotton, hides, gums, drugs, dy¬
ing woods, &c. From their plantations in Africa, they
firing gold and ivory, and flaves to cultivate their fugar
and tobacco plantations in Brafil. They have ftill ie-
veral fettlements in the Eaft Indies, but far lefs conft-
derable than formerly. The Azores or Weftern Hies,
Madeira, and the Cape de Verde iflands, alfo belong to
3 G a them 5
/
Portujal.
P O R [ 420 ] P O R
them ; but a great part of the riches and merchandize Though thefe three orders are religious, yet the knights Portugal
brought from thefe diftant countries becomes the pro- are at liberty to marry. 4. The order of St John, H
which has alfo feveral commanderies. Portulae*.
49
ConfHtu-
tion and
govern-
jneot.
5°
Revenues
of the
king.
51
©rders of
knight¬
hood.
perty of foreigners, for the goods they furnifh the Por-
tuguefe with to carry thither. The king’s fifth of the
gold brought from Brafil amounts commonly to about
300,000!. Sterling; fo that the whole annual produce
of gold in Brafil may be eftimated at near 2,000,000
Sterling. Lifbon is the greateft port in Europe next to
London and Amfterdam.
As to the conftitution of Portugal, it is an abfolute
hereditary monarchy. Both here and in Spain there
were anciently cortes, ftates, or parliaments ; but they
have long fince entirely loft their lhare in the legifla-
ture. tor the adminiftration of the civil government,
there is a council of ftate, and feveral fecretaries; for
military affairs, a council of war; for the finances, a
treafury-court; and for the diftribution of juftice feveral
high tribunals, with others fubordinate to them, in the
feveral diftrifts into which the kingdom is divided. The
cities have their particular magiftracy. The proceed¬
ings of the courts are regulated by the Roman law, the
royal edidts, the canon law, and the pope’s mandates.
Like the Spaniards, they tranfadt moft of their bufinefs
in the mornings and evenings, and fieep at noon. The
nobility are very numerous, and many of them are de¬
scended from natural fons of the royal family. They
are divided into high and low. The high confifts of
the dukes, marquiffes, counts, vifeounts, and barons,
who are alfo grandees, but of different claffes, being buf¬
fered to be covered in the king’s prefence,, and ha¬
ving the title of Dons, with a penfion from the royal
treafury, to enable them the better to fupport their dig¬
nity : the king ftyles them Illulrious in his letters, and
treats them as princes. A duke’s fons are alfo gran¬
dees, and his daughters rank as marchioneffes. The in¬
ferior nobility or gentry are termed Hidalgos, i. e. gen¬
tlemen : they cannot affume the title of Don without
the king’s licence.
The revenues of the crown, fince the difeovery of
the Brafil mines, are very confiderable; but the real
amount can only be gueffed at. Some hr.ve faid that
it amounts, clear of all falaries. and penfions, to upwards
of 3,000,000 Sterling ; others make it a great deal lefs.
Phus much is certain, that the cuftoms and other taxes
run excelfively high. Befides the royal demefnes, the
hereditary' eftates of the houfe of Braganza, the mono¬
poly of Brafil fnuff, the coinage, the money arifing
fiom the fale of indulgencies granted by the pope, the
fifth of the gold brought from Brafil, the farm of the
Brafil diamonds, the mafterfhips of the orders of knight¬
hood, and other fources, yield veiy large fums. The
forces, notwithftanding, of this nation, both by fea and
land, are very inconfiderable ; their land-forces being
the worit militia in Europe, and their navy of little
importanee. They would be an eafy conqueft to the
Spaniards if they were not under the prote&ion of Bri¬
tain. /
1 here are feveral orders of knighthood here, the
ore er o mft, the badge of which is a red crofs with¬
in a white one, and the number of the commanderies
454. 2. I he order of St James, the badge of which
is a red fword in the ftiape of a crofs. A great num-
The king’s titles are, King of Portugal and the Al-
garves, on this Jide and the other Jide the fea of Africa ;
Lord of Guinea,, and of the navigation, conquefls, and
commerce, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Perjia, India, See. The
king’s eldeft fon is ftyled Prince of Bra/H. In the year
1749> P°pe Benedict XIV. dignified the king with the
title of His mojl faithful majefy. ^
The Portuguefe are reprefented as inferior to theCharaftep^
Spaniards both in perfon and genius: as extremely t*lc
haughty, treacherous, and crafty in their dealings;
much given to avarice and ufury; and vindictive, ma¬
licious, and cruel. The naeaner fort are faid to be ex¬
tremely addicted to thieving : notwithftanding, it mult
be owned,- that they have fhown themfelves on many
occafions a brave and warlike people. They are jultly
famed for their Ikill in navigation; and for the many
difeoveries they have made, both in the Eaft and Weft
Indies. The women here, and in other countries of the
fame degree of heat, are not fo prolific as in the colder
climates.; but they are faid to be very beautiful whilft
yroung, though their complexion is fomewhat upon the
olive. Their eyes aie very black and fparkling, and
retain their brilliancy after all their other charms are
gone. It is the faihion here, at prefent, as in moft
other countries, for the ladies to fpoil and disfigure
their Ikins and complexions with paints and walhes ;
but, though lively and witty, they are faid to have a
nice fenfe of female honour. Both men and women
make great ufe of fpeCtacles ; often not fo much to aid
their fight, as to denote their wifdom and gravity.
Their drefs, like that of the Spaniards, never ufed to
vary, efpecially among the men ; but of late years, both,
men and women have given much into the French modes.
The women, when they go abroad on foot, are wont to
ufe long veils, which cover their heads, but leave their
faces bare.
PORTUGALLICA tjrra, earth of Portugal;
the name of a fine aftringent bole, dug in great plenty
in the northern part of Portugal.
PORTULACA, purslane : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
13th order, Succulents. The corolla is pentapeta-
lous; the calyx bifid; the capfule unilocular, and cut
round. There are feveral fpecies, but the two follow¬
ing are the moft remarkable. 1. The oleracea, annual,
or common culinary purfiane, rifes with herbaceous,
low, fucculent, branchy ftalks, fix or eight inches high,
garnilhed with wedge-fhaped, thick, fucculent leaves,
and fmall clofe-fetting flowers. There are two varieties ;
one with deep green leaves, the other with yellow
leaves ; both of which rife from the fame feed. 2. The
anacampferos, perennial, or fhrubby cape purffane, rifes
with a fhrubby branchy ftalk, about fix inches high,
with oval, gibbous, fucculent leaves, and the ftalks ter¬
minated by fmall clufters of red flowers. Both thefe plants
are of a fucculent nature : the firft is an herbaceous an¬
nual, for culinary ufes; and the fecond a fhrubby perenni¬
al,raifed by the curious for variety. They are both exotics
| r . i 1 — b gitat iiuiu- uy cm- iui variety. JL ncy ai c UUlll CXOUC§
errr?| °^nS afn<: c°mrnandenes belong to this order, of a tender quality, of the temperature of greenhoufe or
f * 1 f 0rrfr 0t n i'2’ W1°/e badge is a green crofs in ftove plants. The common culinary purfiane is raffed an.
orm 0 a 1 y, and the number of its commanderies 49, nually from feed for fummer ufe, and is an excellent inr
gredieat
p O S [ 421
poitumna jrredient in fummer falads, but improper for winter on
\\ account of its cold moift nature. rihe plant being
Pofj elite ten(ier, muft be vailed either on a hot-bed or m a warm
     border ; in which lalt it will not fucceed before April.
or May. The Ihrubby fort mull be kept in the hot-
houfe, in pots of a dry foil. .
PORTUMNA, a town of Ireland, in the county ot
Galway and province of Connaught, is 74 miles from
Dublin. The caille of Portumna, the feat of the Earl
of Clanricarde, is at-this place, and near it are tire ruins
of an ancient cattle. There is alfo a garrifon foi a
troop of horfe and two companies of foot. . ri he town,
is feated on the river Shannon,.where it falls into Lough
Dercr. The monks of the Cittertian abbey ot Dun-
brody, in the county of Wexford, had for a long time
a chapel here, dedicated to St Peter and St Paul; but
having at length forfaken it, 0‘Madden, dynatt of the
country, gave it to the Dominican friars, who, with the
approbation of the monks of Dunbrody,. eredted a friary
here and a church, which they dedicated to the bleifed
Virgin and the original patron faints ; at tlm fame time
they built a tteeple, and all other neceffary offices. Pope
Martin V. granted a bull to confirm their pofieffions,
dated 8th Oaober 1426 ; and on the 23d of Novem¬
ber following he granted indulgencies to all who had
contributed to the building.. The walls are ftill nearly
entire, and fhow that the monaftery of Portumna was by
no means an ignoble flrudfure. ihe ancient chon is
now the pariffi-ehurch.
POSE, in heraldry, denotes a lion, horfe, or other
bead, {landing ftill, with all his four feet on the,ground.
See Hollingfhead s Dejcription of Britain, chap. x\i.
POSITIVE, a term of relation oppofed to negative.
It is alfo ufed in oppolition to relative 01 arbitrary .
thus we fay, Beauty is no pofitive thing, but depends
on the different taftes of people. . ....
Positive Degree^ in grammar, is the adjedtive iix its
fimple fignification, without any comparifon.
Positive Electricity. In the Franklinian fyftem all
bodies fuppofed to contain more than their natuial
quantity of ekaric matter are laid to be pofitively elec¬
trified ; and thofe from whom fome part of their elec¬
tricity is fuppofed to be taken away are faid to be elecr
tnfied negatively.. Thefe two ekaricities being fiifl
produced, one from glafs, the other from amber or ro-
fin, the former was called vitreous^ the other rtjinousy
ele&ncity.
POSPOLITE, in the military eftabliffiment of Po¬
land, is the name given to a kind of militia. It is the
moft numerous and the moft ufelefs of the Poliffi armies.
r™-It confifts of the gentry at large, who, in cafe of in-
wlt. vafion, are affembkd by a regular fummons from the
king, with confent of the diet. Every palatinate is
divided into diftrias, over each of which proper officers
are appointed; and every perfon poffeffing free and
noble tenures is bound to military iervice, either fingly
or aL the head of a certain number of his retainers, ac¬
cording to the extent arid nature of his poffeffions. The
troops thus affembkd are obliged only to ferve for a
limited time, and are not under, the neceffity of march¬
ing beyond the limits of their country. 1 hey fubmit
to no difeipline but fuch as they like themfelves ; and
are very apt to mutiny if detained more than a fortnight
iu the place appointed them to meet in, without march-
] P o s
mg. The mode of levying and maintaining this army Fop
is exaftly ftmilar to that pra&ifed under the feudal p0g-c|jjon#
fyftem. At prefent, though .it is almoft totally_unfit
for the purpofes of repelling a foreign enemy, it is yet
a powerful inftrument in the hands of domeftic faction ;
for the expedition with which it is raifed under the feu¬
dal regulations facilitates the formation of thofe danger—
ous confederacies which fuddenly fiart up on the con-
tefted ek&ion of a fovereign, or whenever the nobles
are at variance with each other.
POSSE comitatus, in law, fignifies the power of
the county, or the aid and affiftance of all the knights,
gentlemen, yeomen, labourers, fervants, apprentices, &c.
and all others, within the county that are above the age
of 1*5, except women, ecciehafttcal perfons, and inch as
are decrepit and infirm-
This poffe comitatus is to be raifed where a riot is
committed, a poffeffion kept upon a forefok entry, or
any force of refeue ufed contrary to the king’s writ, or
in oppofition to the execution of juftice ; and it is the
duty of all ffieriffs to affift juftices of the peace in the
fuppreffion of riots, &c. and to raife the poffe comitatus,
or to charge any number of men for that purpofe.
POSSESSION, in law, is either a&ual, where a
perfon a&ually enters into lands or tenements defeended
or conveyed to him ^ or where lands are defeended to
a perfon, and he has not yet entered into them. A-
long poffeffion is much favoured by the law as an ar¬
gument of right, even though no deed can be ffiown^
and it is more regarded than an ancient deed without
poffeffion.
If he that is out of poffeffion of land brings an ac¬
tion, he muft prove an undeniable title to it; and
when a perfon would recover any thing of another, it
is not fufficient to deftroy the title of the perfon in
poffeffion without he can prove that his own right is
better than his.
In order to make poffeffion lawful upon an entry,,
the former poffeffor and his fervants are to be removed
from off the premiffes entered on : but a perfon by kafe
and rekafe is in poffeffion without making any entry
upon the lands*
Possession, in Scots law. See Law, Part IIL
N° clxii. xi, &e.
Da maniacal Possession. (See Daemon and Daemon!**-
Acs.) In the third volume of the Manchefter Tranfac-
tions, there is a paper on/cyw/ar illujions or medical de¬
monology by Dr b erriar. He informs us in a note.,
that, on the 13th of June 1788, George Lukins c£
Yatton in Somerfetffiire was exorcifed in the temple
church at Briftol, and delivered from the poffeffion o£
feven devils by the efforts of feven clergymen. An
account of his deliverance was publiffied in feveral of
the public papers, authenticated by the Reverend Mr
Eafterbrook, vicar of the temple church in Briftol.—Dr
Ferriar gives us the following particulars, extracted from
this account, which we ttiall here infert.
“ Lukins was firft attacked by a kind of epileptic
fit, when he was going about afting Chriftmas plays,
or mummeries: this he aferibed to a blow given by an
invifibk hand. He was afterwards feized by fits ; du-.
rfoo- which he declared, with a roaring voice, that he.
was the devil, and fung different fongs in a variety of
keys. The fits always began and ended with a ftrong
J agitatioia-
JWcfllon
P 0 S [ 422 3 P 0 S
tgftation of the right hand. He frequently uttered ftatiqn, particularly a military ftatlon;
Po!ft, dre«dfu! execrations during fhe fits. The whole dura-
—  lion of his diforder was eighteen years.
“ At length, viz. in June 1788, he declared that he
was pofleffed by feven devils, and could only be freed
by the prayers ^in faith) of feven clergymen. Accord¬
ingly the requifite force was fummoned, and the pa¬
tient fung, fwore, laughed, and barked, and treated
the company with a ludicrous parody on the Te Deum.
Thefe aftonifhing fymptoms refifted both hymns and
prayers, tillayma//, faint, voice admonifhed the mini-
fters to adjure. The fpirits, after fome murmuring,
yielded to the adjuration, and the happy patient return¬
ed thanks for his wonderful cure. It is remarkable,
that during this folemn mockery, the fiend fwore ‘ by
his infernal den,' that he would not quit his patient ;
an oath, I believe, nowhere to be found but in the Pil¬
grim’s Progrefs, from which Lukins probably got it.
“ Very foon after the firft relation of this ftory was
pubiifiied, a perfon, well acquainted with Lukins, took
the trouble of undeceiving the public with regard to
his pretended diforder, in a plain, fenfible narrative of
his conduft. He afferts, that Lukins’s firft feizure was
nothing elfe than a fit of drunkennefs ; that he always
foretold his fits, and remained fenfible during- their con¬
tinuance ; that he frequently faw Lukins in his fits,
* in every one of which, except in finging, he per-
formed not more than moft aftive young people can
caiily dothat he was detefted in an impofture with
refpea to the clenching of his hands ; that after money
had been colle&ed for him, he got very fuddenly well ;
that he never had any fits while he was at St George’s
Hofpital in London ; nor when vifitors were excluded
from his lodgings, by defire of the author of the Nar¬
rative ; and that he was particularly careful never to
hurt himfelf by bis exertions during the paroxyfm.
Is it for the credit of this philofophical age, that
fo bungling an impofture fhould deceive feven clergy¬
men into a public aft of exorcifm ? This would not
have palled even on the authors of the Malleus Ma¬
le ficarum ; for they required figns of fupernatural a-
gency, fuch as the fufpenfion of the poftelfed in the
air, without any vifible fupport, or the ufe of different
languages, unknown to the demoniac in his natural
ftate.”
POSSESSIVE, in grammar, a term applied to pro¬
nouns, vvhich denote the enjoyment or poffelfion of any
thing either in particular or in common: as mus,
“ mineand tuus, “ thine.”
POSSESSORY action in Scots law. See Law,
nQ clxxxni. 18.
POSSIBILIT Y, in law, is defined to be any thing
that is altogether uncertain, or what may or may not be.
ossibicity, alfo denotes a non-repugnance to ex-
3 PrtQQ an^r t'}.unS ^iat does not any way exift.
1 OSSIBLE, is fometimes oppofed to real exift-
and a underftood of a thing, which, though
1 POSsmnmV*/*1, yet may exilt; as a nevv ftar-
vniv h ^nc’ geoS*) See Poestum.
, ‘ d wprd derived from the Latin poftus, “ fet
or placed. It is ufed in feveral different meanings, but
aft of them referring either immediately or remotely to
this primitive fenfe ofpoftlon. Thus the word Poll fi<r-
tunes, 1. A ftake or piece of timber fet upright • 2 A
. - - ■ ■ —- , 3» Ax\ office nr
employment; 4. An operation in book-keeping; e,
conveyance for letters or difpatches } 6. A particular
mode of travelling.
Post, a ftake or piece of timber fet upright. Polls
are ufed both in building and in fencing ground. In
brick-buildings much of the flrength of the fabric de¬
pends on the nature of the polls ; as it. is through them
that the feveral parts are fuftained and held together,
ft he corner pojls are called the principalpojls; thofe form¬
ed mto breffummers between principal polls for ftrength-
ening the carcafe of the houfe are called the prick-pollr.
1 oils which are to be fet in the ground ought to be
vvell feafoned and coated to preferve them from rotting;
burning the downward end has been recommended as
an excellent prefervative, but a coating of pitch or
tar, particularly the late invented coal-tar, can be moft
lafely relied upon. For the various ufes to which pofts
may be applied, and the form and fpecies of them fit-
tell to be employed in each cafe, fee the articles Ar¬
chitecture, Joining, Gardening, House, Fence,
&c. In arc]litefture and fculpture posts are a term
ufed to denote certain ornaments formed after the man¬
ner of rolls or wreathings.
I ost, a ftation, particularly a military ftation.—-
An> place where perfons are let or placed upon parti¬
cular occafions may be termed a pojl; but the word in
this view is now chiefly reftrifted to military opera¬
tions, and means any place or fituation where foldiers
are ilationed. I bus the detachments eftabliflied in
front of the army are termed the out-pojls, the ftations
on the wings of the army are faid to be the pojls of
honow, as being the moft confpicuous and moft ex-
pofed. But in the operations of a campaign, a polt
properly fignifies any fpot of ground capable of lodging
loldiers, or any fituation, whether fortified or not,
where a body of men may make a Hand and engage
the enemy to advantage, 'i he great advantages of
good pofts, in carrying on war, as well as the mode
of fecuring them, are only learned by experience. Bar¬
barous nations difdain the choice of pofts, or at lead
are contented with fucli as immediately fall in their
way ; they truft folely or chiefly to ftrength and cou¬
rage : and lienee the fate of a kingdom may be decided
by the event of a battle. But enlightened and expe¬
rienced officers make the choice of pofts a principal
objeft of attention. The ufe of them is chiefly felt
in a defenfive war againft an invading enemy; as by car-
rying on a war of pofts in a country where this can
be done to advantage, the moft formidable army may
be fo haraffed and reduced, that all its enterprifes may
be rendered abortive. Indeed in modern times this is
fo well underftood, that pitched battles have become
much more rare than formerly, manoeuvring and fecu-
rmg of pofts being confidered as the moft effential ob-
jefis in the conduct of a campaign ; a change in the ait
of war much to the advantage of humanity ; ikillgeon-
duft, and prudence, having thus obtained the afeen-
dency over brutal courage and mere bodily ftrength.
In the-choice of a poll, the general rules to be attend¬
ed to are, that it be convenient for fending* out parties
to reconnoitre, furprife, or intercept the enemy ; that
if poffible it have fome natural defence, as a wood, a
river, or a morals, in front or flank, or at kaft that it
be
P O S [42
be difficult of accefs and lufceptible of fpeedy fortifica¬
tion ; that it be lb fituate as to preferve a communica¬
tion with .the main army, and ha'7e covered places in
the rear to favour a retreat; that it command a view
of ail the approaches to it, fo that the enemy cannot
advance unperceived and relt concealed, while the de¬
tachment itationed in the poll are forced to remain un¬
der arms ; that it be not commanded by any neighbour¬
ing heights ; and that it be proportioned in extent to
the number of men who are to occupy and defend it.
It is not to be expe&ed that all theie advantages will
often be found united; but thole polls ought to be fe-
lefted which offer the greatell number of them, bee
War, Index.
Post, an office or employment. This ufe of the
word is probably derived immediately from the idea of
a military" llation ; a poll being ufed to exprefs inch
offices or employments as are fuppofed either to ex-
pofc the holder to attack and oppofition, or to require
abilities and exertion to fill them. Hence the term
is ufed only for public offices, and employments under the
government ; and were llri£l propriety of ipeech al¬
ways attended to, pojis would denote thofe llations only
in which duty mull be performed. In common lan¬
guage, however, every' public office or appointment, even
though nominal and finecure, goes under the name of a
pvjl- . . . .
Post, an operation in book-keeping. Polling in book¬
keeping means fimply the transferring an article to the
place in which it Ihould be put*, and arranging each under
its proper head. It is upon this that the whole theory
of book-keeping is founded. The Waile-book, which
is the groundwork of all fubfequent operations, records
every tranfaftion exactly in the order in which it oc¬
curs. From this the feveral articles are polled, or
transferred into the Journal, which in fa6l is but a kind
of fupplementary book to the Wafte-book. From the
Journal they are polled anew into the Ledger ; in which
a feparate place is appropriated for each perfon with
whom tranfaftions are carried on, and frequently for
every feparate article about which the huiinefs is con¬
cerned. The particular mode according to which fuch
transferences are made, may vary according to the na¬
ture of the trade carried on ; the objeil is the fame in
all, to place every article fo as that its operations on
the general Hate of the bufrnefs may be certainly
known and diltinclly traced. For a full account of
the way in which tins is done, fee Book-Keeping.
Post, a conveyance for letters or difpatchea.
In the early periods of foeiety, communication be¬
tween the different parts of a country is rare and diffi¬
cult, individuals at a diltance having little inclination
or opportunity for mutual intercourfe : when fuch com¬
munication is at any time found necefiary, a fpecial mef-
fenger mull be employed. As order and civilization ad¬
vance, occafions of correfpondcnce multiply. In particu¬
lar, the fovereign finds it requifrte frequently to tranfmit
orders and laws to every part of the kingdom ; and for
doing fo he makes ufe of couriers or meffengers, to
whom he commits the charge of forwarding his dif-
patches. But without ilations in the way, where thefe
couriers can be certain of finding refrefhment for them*
felves and fupplies of what may be necefiary for car¬
rying them forward, the journey, however urgent and
important, mull always be retarded, and in many cafes
1 1 p o s
altogether Hopped, Experience, therefore, loon point-
ed out the necelfity of enfuring fuch accommodations,
by erecting upon all the great roads houfes or llations
at convenient intervals, where the meffengers might
Hop, as occafion required, and where too, for the great¬
er convenience, relays of frefh horfes Ihould always be
in readinefs, to enable them to purfue their journey
with uninterrupted difpatch. Thefe houfes or llations
were with great propriety termed pnjls, and the mef-
fenger who made ufe of them a poj}. Though at
firlt, it is probable, the inllitution was intended folely
for the fovereign and the neceffities of the Hate; yet by
degrees individuals, feeing the benefit rcfylting from it,
made ufe of the opportunity to carry on their own
correfpondence ; for which they were willing to pay
an allowance to the fovereign. Thus a poll-office, of
fome kind or other, gradually came to be ellablifiicd
in every civilized country. Without taking notice of
the different means of carrying on correfpondence faid
to have been attempted by pigeons, dogs, and other
animals, we can at leaff trace with certainty the inven¬
tion of fomething like regular polls as far back as
the ancient Perfians. Xenophon allures us, that they
were invented by Cyrus on his Scythian expedition,
about 500 years before Chriil ; that the houles at the
feveral Hations were fumptuoully built, and large enough
to contain a number of men and horfes; and that every
courier on his arrival was obliged to communicate his
difpatches to the poffmaffer, by whom they were im¬
mediately forwarded. From the fhore of the Egean
fca to Sufa the capital, there were, according to Hero¬
dotus, 111 ffages lor polls, each a day’s journey diilant
from the preceding.
In what manner poHs were effablilhed and conduc¬
ed among the Greeks does not clearly appear; but fiom
the extended commerce carried on, and the frequent
communications enjoyed among the different Hates, there
can be no doubt that a regular conveyance, in feme
form or other, was ellablilhed.
Though poHs were well known among the Romans,
yet it is difficult to trace with certainty the period of
their introduCion. Some writers carry it back to the
times of the republic ; polls and poH-officCs, under the
names of Jiatores and JlaUunes^ having been then, it is
faid, eHabITfhed by the fenate. Whether this was the
cafe or not, Suetonius allures us that Augullus mili¬
tated polls along all the great roads of the empire. At
firll the difpatches were conveyed from poll to poH by
young men who run on foot, and delivered the difpatch
to others at the next flage. By and by AuguHus fub-
llituted, in room ot thefe, horfes and chariots, both for
the conveyance of difpatches and the convenience of tra¬
velling. His fucceffors continued the fame eHablifhment;
to the maintenance of which every fubjecl of the em¬
pire was obliged to contribute. Poil-horfes are men¬
tioned in the Theodorian code >1e curfu publico; but thefe
were only the public horles appointed to be kept there
for the ule of the public meffengers, who before this inlli-
tution feized any that came in their way. At each polt-
Hation, according to Procopius, 10 horfes and as many
poffilions were kept, and the ufual rate of their tra¬
velling was from live to eight Hations a-day.
It is to be obferved, however, that all thefe eHablilh-
ments of polls in ancient times were formed as much,
if not more, for travelling Hations, than for the mere
F O S t '424 ] P 0 S
PdC. conveyance of letters and difpatclies. 1 his latter ob-
—v   it is true, was thereby fecured; but the epifto-
Jary coirefpondence of antiquity was probably at no
time fo extenfive as to require or maintain poft-offices
■ on the footing of modern pods, for the mere convey¬
ance of letters. It is in later times only, when the exten-
fion of commerce and diffuiion of literature gave occa-
lion to frequent communication, that thefe ellablilh-
ments are to be looked for.
The earlieft inftitution of pofis that occurs in modern
hi [lory is about the year 807 by the emperor Charle¬
magne ; who, having reduced under his dominion Italy,
Germany, and a part of Spain, eflablifhcd three public
polls at the public expence, to carry" on the communi¬
cation with thefe three provinces. The inftitution of
polls, however, like many other inllitutions of that em¬
peror, dropped at his death, and for a confiderable time
afterwards no traces of any fwcb eftablilhment are to be
found. We cannot indeed difcover them with certainty
fooner than 1464, when that relllefs and fufpicious
prince Louis XL dlabliihed polls in France, that he
might be the fooner advertifed of all that palled in his
own or the neighbouring kingdoms. He employed in
this fervice 230 couriers, who delivered the letters at
the different Rations, and in the various towns through
which they palled in their courfe. Succeeding mo-
narchs created at different times certain offices for the
exprefs purpofe of fuperintending the polls ; but the
frequent changes to which thefe offices were expofed,
prevented for a long time the eilablifhment of any re¬
gular fyllem of polls in that kingdom; iofomuch that
in 1619 the author of. the life of the duke d’Epemon
fays the packet or letter-office was not yet fet up in
France. Former ellablifhments, it is probable, were
folely for the ufe of the court, not for the general good
of the nation. From France, the inftitution gradually
fpread through feveral other parts of Europe. In Ger¬
many", Lewis Llornig allures us they were firft intro¬
duced by Count Taxis, who fettled them at his own
expence ; in acknowledgment for which the Emperor
Matthias in ,1616 gave as a lief the office of poftmafter
:to him and his defeendants.
In England, the eftablilhment of polls in fome form
or other appears as early as the reign of Edward III.
•but the notices concerning them are fo vague, that no
account can be given of them. In the reign of Ed¬
ward VI. however, feme fpecies of polls mull have been
fet up, as an aft of parliament paffed in 1 548, fixing the
rate of poft-horfes at one penny per mile: The poit-
horfes here referred to were, it is probable, chiefly for
travelling, and the carriage of letters or packets only
an cccafional fervicc. In 1581, we find in Camden’s
Annals mention made of a chief poftmafter for Eng¬
land being appointed.—How his office wTas managed,
does not clearly appear4 the limited Hate of the coire¬
fpondence of the country, probably rendered it of tri¬
fling confequence. King James I. originally erefted a
poll-office, under the controul of oneMatthew deQuefter
or de I’Equefter, for the conveyance of letters to and from
foreign parts ; which office was afterwards claimed by
Lord Stanhope j but w'as confirmed and continued to
William Iwizel and d ho. Witherings, by"king Charles I.
in 1632. Previous to this time, it would appear that
.private perfons were in ufe to convey letters to and
from foreign parts; all fuch interference with the poll-
mailer’s office is therefore exprefsly prohibited. King
Charles, in 1635, erefted a letter-office for England and O
Scotland, under the direftion of the above Thomas
Witherings. The rates of pollage tlten eftablilhed
were, two-pence for every Angle letter for a diftance un¬
der 80 miles; four-pence from 80 to 140 miles; fix-
pence above 140 miles. The allowance to the poll-
mafters on the road for horfes employed in thefe polls
wras fixed at two-pence halfpenny per mile for every
Angle horfe. All private inland polls were difeharged
at this time ; and in 1637 all private foreign polls w'ere
in like manner prohibited. The pofts thus eftabliffied,
however, extended, only to a few of the principal roads;
and the times of tranfmiffion were not in every cafe lo
certain as they ought to have been.
Witherings was fuperfeded for abufes in the execu¬
tion of his offices in ! 640, and they were fequellrated
into the hands of Philip Burlamachy, to be exereifed
under the care and overfight of the king’s principal fe-
.cretary of Hate. On the breaking out of the civil wTar,
great confufions and interruptions were neceffarily oc-
cafioned in the conduft of the letter-office : but it was
about that time that the outline of the prelent more
extended and regular plan feems to have been concei¬
ved by Mr Edmond Prideaux, who was afterwards ap¬
pointed attorney-general to the commonwealth. He
was chairman of a committee in 1642 for confidering
the rate of poltage to be fet upon inland letters; and
fome time after was appointed poftmafter by an ordi
nance of both houfes of parliament; in the execution
of which office he firft eftablilhed a weekly conveyance
of letters into c//parts of the nation. In 1653, this
revenue was farmed for L. 10,000 for England, Scot¬
land, and Ireland ; and after the charge of maintaining
poftmafters, to the amount of L. 7000 per annum, was
faved to the public. Prideaux’s emoluments being confi¬
derable, the common council of London endeavoured to
ereft another poll-office in oppoiition to his ; but they
were checked by a refolution of the houfe of commons,
declaring that the office of poftmafter is, and ought to
be, in the foie power and difpolal of the parliament.
This office w'as farmed by one Maubey in 1654. In
1656 a new and regular general poll-office was erefted
by the authority of the proteftor and his parliament,
upon nearly the fame model that has been ever fince
adopted, with the following rates of pollage : For 80
miles diftance, a fingle letter twro pence; for a greater
diftance, not out of England, three pence; to Scotland,
four pence. By an aft of parliament palled foon after
the reftoration in 1660, the regulations fettled in 1636
were re-eftablilhed, and a general poll-office limilar to
the former, but with fome improvements, was erefted.
In 1663 the revenue of the poll-office was found to
produce L. 21,500 annually. In 1685 it was made
over to the king as a branch of his private income, aqd
was then ellimated at L. 65,000 per annum. The year
after the revolution the amount of the poll-office reve¬
nue was L. 90,504 : 10 : 6. At the union the pro¬
duce of the Englifn poll-office was. Hated to be
L. 101,101. In 1711 the former ellablilhments of fe-
parate poft-offices for England and Scotland were abo-
liihed ; and by the Hat. 9 Anne, c. 1 o. one general poll-
office, and one poftmalter-general, was eftablilhed for
the whole united kingdom; and this poftmafter was em¬
powered to ereft chief letter-offices at Edinburgh, at
-3 Dublin^
p o s r 425 1 p o s
Bulan, at N'e’tv Tori, and other proper places in A-
meriea and the Weft Indies. The rates of poftage
were alfo increafed at this tirpe as follows.—In England,
for all diftances under 80 miles 3 d.; above 80 miles
4 d. From London to Edinburgh 6 d. In Scotland,
under 50 miles 2 d.; from 50 to 80 miles 3 d.; above
80 miles 4 d. In Ireland, under 40 miles 2 d.; above
40 miles 4d.— By the above ait all perfons, except
thofe employed by the poitmafter, were Hriitly prohi¬
bited from conveying letters. That year the grofs
amount of the poll-office was L. 111,461 17 s. lod. The
nett amount, on a medium, of the three preceding years,
was, in the printed report of the commiffioners, for the
equivalent Hated to be for England, L.62,000, and for
Scotland L. 2000. In 1754 the grofs revenue of the
poll-office for Great Britain amounted to L. 210,663,
in 176410 L. 281,535, and in 1774 to L. 345,321.
—The privilege of franking letters had been enjoyed by
members of parliament from the firll erection of the
poll-office; the original defign of this exemption was,
that they might correfpond freely with their conllituents
on the bufinefs of the nation. By degrees the pri¬
vilege came to be fhamefully abufed, and was carried fo
far, that it was not uncommon for the fervants of members
of parliament to procure a number of franks for the plir-
pofe of felling them; an abufe which was eafily praftifed,
as nothing more was required for a letter’s palling free
than the fubfeription of a member on the cover. To
rellrain thefe frauds, it was enabled, in 1764, that no
letter fhould pafs free unlefs the whole diredlion was of
the member’s writing, and his fubfeription annexed.
Even this was found too great a latitude; and by a new
regulation in 1784, no letter was permitted to go free
unlefs the date was marked on the cover in the mem¬
ber’s own hand-writing, and the letter put into the pod-
office the fame day. That year the rates of podage
were raifed in the following proportions: an addition of
I d. for a fingledage; 1 d. from London to Edinburgh;
I d. for any didance under, and 2 d. for any didance
above, 150 miles. An addition to the revenue of
L. 120,000 was edimated to arife from thefe regulations
and additional rates. In all the datements of duties upon
podage of letters given in this account, the rates men¬
tioned are thofe upon fingle letters, double letters pay
double, treble letters treble, an ounce weight quadruple
,podage ; all above are charged by the weight in the
fame proportion.
About the year 1784, a great improvement was made
in the mode of conveying the mails, upon a plan di d
Tuggeded in 1782 by Mr John Palmer. Diligences
and dage-coaches, he obferved, were edablifhed to every
town of note in the kingdom; and he propol'ed that go¬
vernment, indead of fending the mails in ihe old mode,
by a boy on horfeback, fhould contratl with the maders
of thefe diligences to carry the mail, along with a guard
for its proteftion. This plan, he {bowed, *ould not
fail to enfure much more expeditious conveyance, the
rate of travelling in diligences being far quicker than
the rate of the pod ; and it was eafy to carry it into
execution with little additional expence, as the coach
owners would have a drong inducement to contraft at
a cheap rate for conveying the mail, on account of the
additional recommendation to pafiengers their carriages
would thereby acquire in point of fecurity, regularity,
*ind difpatch.
Vol. XV. Part II.
Tho’ government heartily approved of this plan, and Pod.
the public at large were fatisfled of its utility; yet, like —
all new fchemes, however beneficial, it met with a drong
oppofition : it was reprefented by a number of the oldi d
and abled officers in the pod-office, not only as imprac¬
ticable, but dangerous to commerce and the revenue.
Notwithdanding of this oppofition, however, it was at
lad edablilhed, and gradually extended to many diffe¬
rent parts of the kingdom ; and, upon a fair compari-
fon, it appeared that the revenue was improved, and the
plan itfelf executed for L. 20,000 per annum lefs tha-a
the fum firll ellimated by Mr Palmer.
The prefent edablifhment of the general pod-office
for Great Britain, confids of two podmaders-general, a
fecretary, furveyor, comptroller-general, and upwards of
150 affidants and clerks for the head letter office in
London ; the number of deputy podmaders and other
officers through the kingdom is very confiderable, but
not eafy to afeertain with accuracy, as it mud frequent¬
ly vary with the changes made in the dlablifhment of
country pods. The total expence of this branch of the
revenue in 1788 was L. 149,029, 17 s. 2d. the grofs
produce may now be reckoned at L. 650,00c.
The fird accounts we have of the edablifhment of a
pod-office in Scotland reach no farther back than 1635,
when Charles I. created one both for Scotland and
England. The pod to Scotland by that appointment
was to run night and day, to go from London to Edin¬
burgh and to return in Jix days, taking with it all let¬
ters intended for any pod-town in or near the road ;
the rate of podage from London to Edinburgh was
8 d. for a fingle letter. The expedition with which the
pod went from London to Edinburgh at this time, is
indeed furprifing, confidering the nature of the roads ;
perhaps, however, though the king made the regulation
that it fhould go and return in fix days, the journey
was not always performed in the fpecified time. Du¬
ring the government of Cromwell, the public pod con¬
veyed letters to Scotland as well as England ; the poil-
age from London to Scotland was only 4d. After the
Redoration, when the pod-office was erected for Eng¬
land, mention is made in the a£t of parliament of the
conveyance of letters to Scotland ; and the podage to
Berwick is fixed at 3d. For fome time after,howe*r,
we find no edablifhment by a£l of parliament of an in¬
ternal poll in Scotland. In 1662, a pod between Ire¬
land and Scotland was fird edablifhed; and the privy
council gave Robert Main, who was then podmader*-
general for Scotland, an allowance of L. 200 Sterling
to build a packet-boat for conveying the mail between
Portpatrick and Donaghadee : the podage to Ireland
was 6d. In 1669, a pod was edablifhed to go between
Edinburgh and Aberdeen twice a-week, and between
Edinburgh and Invernefs once a-week: the rate of pod¬
age was fixed, for 40 Scots miles 2d. and for every 20
miles farther an additional penny. Thefe appear to
have been the on\y public pods in Scotland at that time ;
but as they could not fnffice for the correfpond-
ence of the country, there mud have been more, ei¬
ther under the dire&ion of the poitmader, or in the
hands of privatewperfons ; probably there might be of
both kinds. In 1690, an aft^for the fecurity of the
common pod was paffed, fubjefting robbers of the mail
to capital punifhment. It was not till 1695 that the
edabhffiment of the pod-offiee in Scotland received the
3 H. fan&ion
/
P O S * [ 426 ] P o s
Po(t- fan&ion of parliament: polls were then appointed for all
   parts of Scotland j the rates of poftage were fixed, for any
place within 50 miles of Edinburgh 2 d. between 50
and 100 miles 3d. all places above 100 miles 4d. By
the fame act, a weekly packet to Ireland was eftablifh-
ed, and L. 60 Sterling annually allowed for that fer-
vice. Though polls were eftablifhed in confequence of
this adt, yet fuch was their mode of travelling, that they
hardly deferved the name. Thus, for inftance, the
perfon who fet out to carry the mail from Edinburgh
to Aberdeen, in place of hopping at the firft interme¬
diate ftage from Edinburgh, and delivering over the
mail to another, to be carried forward, went on with it
himfclf the whole journey, refting two nights by the
way, firlt at Dundee, and next at Montrofe.
In this manner the mail was conveyed thrice a-week
from Edinburgh to Aberdeen ; but between moll parts
of Scotland the poll went only twice, and between fome
only once a-week. The poll-boy generally travelled
on foot. Horfes were but little ufed in the fervice of
the poll-office.
At the Union, the Scots poll-office was farmed for
D. 1194: in 1710, the nett amount for Scotland was
reckoned to be L. 2coo. The epillolary correfpond-
ence of Scotland mull have been fmall indeed, when
even the rates of pollage then ellablilhed proved fo very
unproduftive. This may perhaps, however, be in part
accounted for, by conjedluring, that as private polls had
probably prevailed pretty much before 1695, it was
long before thefe were entirely fupprelfed, the people
flill adhering to their old conveyances, and difficulties
occurring in ftri&ly enforcing the law ; the amount of
the poll-office revenue, therefore, at the two periods
above-mentioned probably exhibits a view of only a pait
of the correfpondence of Scotland.
In 1711, it has been already mentioned, one general
poll-office was eftablilhed for the whole united king¬
dom ; but the pollmaller-general was authorifed to
<rre& at Edinburgh a chief letter office for Scotland.—
This was accordingly done, and a pollmaller-general
for North Britain, with other neceflary officers, appoint¬
ed. All the deputy pollmafters in Scotland are under
his immediate direrition, but he himfelf is under the con-
travl of the poftmaftev-generalfor Great Britain. From
this head letter office polls were ellablilhed. to the dif¬
ferent parts of Scotland.
For many years the poll-boys generally travelled on
foot, or if on horfeback, without a change of horfes.
It was not till about 1750 that the mail began to be
conveyed from ilage to ilage by different poll-boys and
frelh kcrfes to the principal places in Scotland, and by
foot runners to the reft. The communication between
London and Edinburgh was at firft but thrice a-week,
audio flow, that the mail from London to Edinburgh
■yvas upon the road 85 hours, and from Edinburgh to
London 131 hours. In 1757, upon a reprefentation
from the royal boroughs, regulations were fallen upon,
by which the time was fhortened to 82 hours in the one
cafe, and 85 in the other. By the extenfion of Mr
Palmer’s plan to Scotland, the time has been Hill far¬
ther fhortened to about 60 hours in each cafe-
The eftablilhment of the Scots poll-office, which has
been gradually enlarged as the Hate of the country re¬
quired, conlifts at prefent of a pollmaller-general, fe-
cretary, folicitor, and accountant, with a number of
other clerks and affiftants for the head office at Edin- Folk.
burgh; under its management are about 180 deputy- -—~v—
pollmafters for the different poll-towns through Scot¬
land.
rJ he nett produce of the poll-office for Scotland in
3733 was L.5399, in 1754 L.8927, in 1757 L. 10,623,
in 1760 L. 11,942, in 1776 L.31,103. 1788 the
grofs produce was L. 55,836, the expence L. 22,636,
13 s. 6 d. ; in 1793 the grofs amount was about
L. 64,000, the nett produce about L. 40,000,
Penny-PosT, a poll ellabliflied for the benefit of Lon¬
don and other parts adjacent, whereby any letter or
parcel under 16 ounces weight, or L. 10 value, is fpee-
dily and fafely conveyed to and from all places within
the bills of mortality, or within 10 miles of the city.
It is managed by particular officers, and receiving houfes
are ellablilhed in moll of the principal ftreets, for the
more convenient tranfmiffion of the letters. Some other
large towns have inllituted fimilar ellablilhments.
About 20 years ago a penny-poll was fet up in Edin¬
burgh by an individual, unconnedled with the general
poll-office. It met with hut indiflerent encouragement
for fome years, doubts being entertained as to its punc¬
tuality in delivering the letters ; by degrees, however,,
it feemed to be advancing in eftimation, and was more
frequently employed. About a year ago, the ge¬
neral poll-office, in virtue of the adl of parliament pro¬
hibiting the conveyance of letters by any but thofe em¬
ployed under the poilmalter-general, took the penny-
poll entirely into its own hands ; and at prefent letters
are tranfmitted from the general poll-office to the diffe¬
rent quarters of Edinburgh and the fuburbs, three or
four times a-day.
Post, a particular mode of travelling. A perfon is
faid to travelpojl, in contradillindlion to common jour¬
ney travelling, when, in place of going on during his
whole journey in the fame vehicle, and with the fame
horfes, he flops at different llages, to provide frelh
horfes or carriages for the fake of greater convenience
and expedition. As he thus ufes the fame mode of
travelling that is employed for the common poll, he
is faid to travel poll, or in poll, /. e. in the manner of a
poll.
In tracing the origin of polls, it has been already re¬
marked, that the more ancient ellablilhments of this
kind were fully as much for travelling Jlations as the
conveyance of letters. The relays of horfes provided
at thefe public llations for the meffengers of the prince,
were oecafionally, by fpecial licence, allowed to be ufed
by other travellers who had fufficient intereft at court.
Frequent demands of this nature would fuggeft the expe¬
dient of having in readinefs fuppiies of frelh horfes or car¬
riages over and above what the public fervice required, to
be hired out to other travellers on payment of an ade¬
quate price. We find, therefore, that in former times the
poffimallers alone were in ufe to let out horfes for ri¬
ding poll, the rates of which were fixed in 1548 by a
llatute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile. In what
fituatian the Hate of the kingdom was with regard to
travelling poll for more than a century after this pe- '
riod, we cannot now certainly difeover; but in the ffa-
tute re-eltablilhing the poll-office in 1660, it is enacted,
that none but the poftmafter, his deputies, or affigns,
fhall furnilh poll-horfes for travellers ; with a provilo,
however,• that if he has them not ready in half an hour
5 after
P O S [ 427 ] P o s
after being demanded, tlic traveller fhall be at liberty to
provide himfelf elfewhere.
The fame prohibition is contained in the adl. eftablifil¬
ing the Scots poft-office in 1695, as as the fub-
fequent adt of Queen Anne, erefting the general office
for the united kingdom. It is doubtful, however, whe¬
ther it ever was ftri&ly enforced. By an explanatory'
adit of 26 Geo. II. the prohibition is confined to poft
horfes only, and every perfon declared to be at liberty
to furnifh carriages of every kind for riding poft. This
regulation has, in fa£t, done away the prohibition, as
hardly any perfon now thinks of travelling pofi; except
in a carriage.
The rate fixed by the a£t 1695, in Scotland, for a
horfe riding poft, was three-pence per Scotch mile. By
the adit 9 Anne, c. 10. three-pence a-mile without, and
four-pence a-mile with, a guide, was the fum fixed for
each horfe riding poft. The increafe of commerce, and
necefiity for a fpeedy communication between different
parts of the kingdom, have brought the mode of tra¬
velling poft fo much into ufe, that upon every great
road in the kingdom poft-chaifes are now in readinefs
at proper diftances ; and the convenience of polling is
enjoyed in Britain to a degree far fuperior to what is to
be met with in any other country whatever.
Polling at laft appeared to the legillature a proper
cbjedl of taxation. In 1779 the firil aft was palled,
impofing duties on horfes hired either by themfelves or
to run in carriages travelling poft : the duties were, one
penny per mile on each horfe if hired by the mile or
ilage, and one fhillingper day if hired by the day. Eve¬
ry perfon letting out fuch horfes was alfo obliged to
take out a licence at five Ihillings per annum. Thefe
duties were next year repealed, and new duties impo-
fed, of one penny per mile on each horfe hired by the
mile or ftage, and is. 6d. on each if hired by the day.
A number of additional regulations were at the fame
time enafted for fecuring thefe duties. An addition
of one halfpenny per mile, or three-pence per day, for
each horfe riding poft, was impofed in 1785, by Stat.
25 Geo. III. c. 51. The duty is fecured, by obliging
every letter of horfes to deliver to the perfon hiring
them a ticket, expreffing the number of horfes hired,
and either the dillance in miles to be travelled, or that
the horfes are hired by the day, as the cafe happens to
be. Thefe tickets mull be delivered to the bar-keeper
at the firlt turnpike through which the traveller palfes ;
and the turnpike-keeper gives, if demanded, what is
termed an exchange ticket, to be produced at the next
turnpike. The ftamp-office iffues to the perfon licen-
ied to let poft-horfes fuch a number of thefe tickets as
is required, and thefe mull be regularly accounted for
by the perfon to whom they are iffued. As an effec¬
tual check upon his account, the turnpike-keeper is
obliged to return back to the ftamp-office all the tickets
he takes up from travellers. Evafions are by thefe
means rendered difficult to be pradlifed without running
a great rifle of deteftion. In 1787, for the more effec¬
tually levying the polt-horfe duties, a law was paffed,
authoriiing the commilhontrs of the ftamp-office to Jet
them to farm by puolic auftion, for a fum not Lefs than
the produce in the year ending ill Auguft 1786.
. advertifement publilhed by the commiffioners
in eonfequence of this law, previous to the receivino-
propofals for farming them, the total amount of the
doty for Great Britain is ftatedto have been, at the pe¬
riod above referred to, L. 119,873. The fum for which '
that duty was fanned in 179-}- amounted in all to
L. 140,030, of which the diftrift of North Britain was
L. 6000.
Soon after the tax was irnpofed, confiderable diffi¬
culties were railed about the meaning of the term poR-
ingy and what mode of journeying Ihould fubjeft travel¬
lers to duty. The old law', Stat. 9 Anne, c. 10. ex¬
plained polling to be “ travelling feverat llages, and
changing horfes but the afts impofing the polling
duties exprefsly declare, that “ every horfe hired by
the mile or ftage {hall be deemed to be hired to travel
poft, although the perfon hiring the fame doth not go
feveral llages upon a poft road, or change horfes and
that “ every horfe hired for a day or lefs period of
time, is chargeable w’ith the duty of three halfpence per
mile, if the diftance be then afeertained ; and if the di-
llance be not then afeertained, with is. 6d. each
horfe.” Horfes hired for any lefs time than twro days
are by thefe afts to be deemed to be hired for a day.
An aftion w’as brought in 1788, in the court of exche¬
quer at Edinburgh, to detennine whether feveral dif-
puted cafes fell under the meaning of the aft, and were
liable to duty; when the following decifions were given:
Saddle-horfes both hired and paid by the mile, and
faddle-horfes hired originally for an excurfion, but af¬
terwards paid by the mile, were found liable to duty
according to the number of miles paid for; carriage-
horfes, w'here the carriage is hired and paid for only at
the ufual rate of outgoing carriages, and no more, whe¬
ther the perfon hiring it does or does notreturn in it, wrere
found liable to duty only for the number of miles out ;
but if the carriage be hired and paid for, or aftual-
ly paid for though not originally hired, at the ufual rate
of carriages employed both to carry out and bring back
the fame company, the duty was found to be exigible
according to the number of miles both out and home
taken together. Hackney-coaches in Edinburgh, lu¬
red and paid for lefs than two miles, were found liable
to duty for one mile.
No duty was found to be exigible on faddle-horfes
hired for a mere excurfion, and paid for accordingly,
where the diftance neither is nor can be afeertained; ou
hackney-coaches employed in the ft reels for left than a
mile, or for an excurfion or round of vifits merely ; and
on horfes or carriages hired for a journey of three days
or more, and paid for accordingly, or paid for at the
rate of three days, though the journey fhould aftually
be performed in two full travelling days. The gene¬
ral rule of thefe decifions was, that in every cafe, except
unafcertathable diftance, or journey's exceeding two
days, the mode of travelling fell under the legal defini¬
tion of polling. The only point that may feem doubt¬
ful in the judgments here Hated, is that where the duty
is found chargeable by the number of miles both going
and returning. Yet as the law exprefsly declares, that
horfes hired by the mile or ftage are to be deemed pft-
ingy and as the number of miles for which they are hired
can only be afeertained by the number paid for, it is
clear, that where an addition to the outgoing charge is
made on account of bringing back, the perfon hiring
the carriage, tlie carriage in that cafe is aftually hired
and paid for according to the number of miles both out
and home, aiid the duty'rm;ft fall to be rated accord-
3 H 2 ingly.
P o S [4
Pofterlor Jngly. The doubtful points being now fettled by the
Pofture ab°ve decifions, the mode of levying the duty in Scot-
■ land has been regulated agreeably to them ever fmce
the matter was thus determined.
POSTERIOR, a term of relation, implying fome-
thing behind, or that comes after, another. In which
fenfe it is ufed in oppoiition to prior and anterior.
The back and hips are the pofterior parts of man.
Ariitotle has given prior and pofterior analytics. A
date is pofterior to another, when it is later or frefher.
POSTERN, in fortification, a fmall gate, ufually
made in the angle of the flank of a baftion, or in that
of the curtain, or near the orillon, defcending into
the ditch ; whereby the garrifon can march in and out,
unperceived by the enemy, either to relieve the works,
or to make private fallies, &c.
The word is alfo ufed in the general for any private
or back-door.
POSTHUMOUS, a child born after the death of
his father, or taken out of the body of a dead mo¬
ther ; from whence it is frequently applied to the works
of an author not publifhed till after his deceafe.
POSTIL, a name anciently given to a note in the
margin of the Bible, and afterwards to one in any other
book pofterior to the text.
POSTING, among merchants, the putting an ac¬
count forward from one book to another, particularly
from the journal or wafte-book to the ledger. See
Post and Book-Keeping.
POSTLIMINIUM, among the Romans, the re¬
turn of one who had gone to fojourn elfewhere, or had
been baniftied, or taken by an enemy, to his own coun¬
try or ftate.
POSTPONING, putting any thing after or behind
another with regard to time.
POSTSCRIPT, an article added to a letter or me¬
moir, containing fomething learnt or recolledled after
the piece was written.
POSTULATE, in mathematics, &c. is defcribed
to be fuch an eafy and felf-cvident fuppofition, as needs
no explication or illuftration to render it intelligible;
as that a right line may be drawn from one point to an¬
other.
POSTURE, in painting and fculpture, the fitua-
tion of a figure with regard to the eye, and of the fe-
veral principal members thereof with regard to one an¬
other, whereby its adiion is exprefled. A confider-
able part of the art of a painter confifts in adjufting
the poftures, in giving the moft agreeable ones to
his figures, in accommodating them to the characters
of the refpedtive figures, and the part each has in the
adtion, and in conducting and in purfuing them through¬
out.
Poftures are either natural or artificial.
Natural poftures are fuch as nature feems to have
had a view to in the mechanifm of the body, or ra¬
ther fuch as the ordinary actions and occafions of life
had us to exhibit while young, and while the joints,
mufcles, ligaments, &c. are flexible.
Slrtificial poftures, are thofe which fome extraordi¬
nary views or ftudies occafion us to learn ; as thofe of
dancing, fencing, &c. Such alfo are thofe of our ba¬
lance and polture mailers.
* A painter would be ftrangely puzzled with the figure
of Claik (a late famous pofture-maiter in London) in
28 1 v O T
a hiftory-piecc. This man, we are told in the Phil. Potamege»
Tranf. had fuch an abfolute command of his mufcles ton
&c. that he could disjoint almoft his whole body; fo II
that he impofed on the great furgeon Mullens, who Potai1l‘ ,
looked upon him as in fuch a miferable condition, he v ^
would not undertake his cure. Though a well-made
man, he would appear with all the deformities imagina¬
ble ; hunch-backed, pot-bellied, fharp-breafted, &c.
He disjointed his arms, fhoulders, legs, and thighs; and
rendered himfelf fuch an objeCl of pity, that he has
frequently extorted money, in quality of a cripple, from
the fame company in which he had the minute before
been in quality of a comrade. He would make his hips
Hand a confiderable way out from his loins, and fo hiirii
as to invade the place of his back. Yet his face was the
moft changeable part about him, and (bowed more pof¬
tures than all the reft. Of himfelf he could exhibit all
the uncouth odd faces of a Quaker’s meeting.
PO FAMOGETON, pond-weed : A genus of the
tetragynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
15th order, Inundate. There is no calyx; but foitr
petals ; no ftyle, and four feeds There are 12 fpecies,
all of them floating vegetables on the furfaces of ftagnant
waters, affording an agreeable (hade to fi(h, and food to
cattle.
POTAMON or Potamo, was a philofopher of
Alexandria. He kept a middle courfe between the
fcepticifm of the Pyrrhonians and the prefumption of
the dogmatifts; but attached himfelf to none of the
fchools of philofophy of his time. He was the firft
projector of the Eclectic fed; for though that mode of
philofophifing had been pretty common before, he was
the firft that attempted to inftitute a new fed on this
principle. “ Diogenes Laertius relates, that not long Fnfidi>t
before he wrote his Lives oi the Plnlofophers, an Eclec- Hiftory of
tic fed, rtf u,p a:i, had been introduced by Po- Hikjophy.
tamo of Alexandria, who ieleded tenets from every
former fed. He then proceeds to quote a few particu¬
lars of his fyftem from his Ededic inftitutes, relpeding
the principles of reafoning, and certain general topics
of philofophical inquiry ; from which nothing further
can be learned, than that Potamo endeavoured to recon¬
cile the precepts of Plato with thofe of other mailers.
As nothing remains concerning this philofopber beiides
the brief account juft referred to in Laertius, an obfeure
paffage in Suidas, and another Hill more obfeure in
Porphyry ; it is probable that his attempt to inftitute a
fchool upon the Ecledic plan proved unfuccefsful.
The time when Potamo flourifhed is uncertain. Suidas
places him under Auguftus; but it is more probable,
from the account of Laertius, that he began his under¬
taking about the clofe of the fecond century.”
POTASH, the lixivious a(hes of certain vegetables,
ufed in making ofglafs, foap, &c. See Glass,,Soap,
&c.
The method of making potalh is direded by Dr o-
Shaw as follows. Burn a quantity of billet-wood tomchod
grey allies ; and taking feveral pounds of thefe allies,of nuking
boil them in water, fo as to make a very ftrong lixivium,
or ley. Let this ley be drained through a coarfe linen
cloth, to keep out any black parts of the half-burnt,
wood that might happen to remain in the afhes; then
evaporate this drained lye in an iron-pan over a quick
fire almoft to drynd's: then taking out the matter re¬
maining
P O T
warning at the bottom, and putting it into an iron
crucible, fet it in a {bong Hre Oil the matter is melted,
and then immediately pour it out upon an iron-plate,
where it foon cools, and appears in the form of a folid
lump of potafh *. Much after this manner is pot-afh
made in the large way of bufmefs, for the fervice of the
foap-boiler, glafs-maker, fuller, &c. but according to
fion!fl*ethc diffen nee of the wood, or cumbuftible matter em-
Acadtmy? ployed, witli the manner of turning it, and conducting
n%f),art. i. the procefs, different kinds of potafli are prepared
Cif.
Science.
Potafli.
# See
Pearl-
Afh, tind
'Iranf-
Potafh.
Account of
2Hr Ste¬
phen’s ma-
nufa^ure.
ff’here are certain faline plants that yield this potafh to
great advantage, as particularly the plant kali; there
are others that afford it in lefs plenty, and of an inferior
quality, as bean-ffalks, &c. but in general, all vegetable
fubjefts afford it of one kind or other, and may moft
of them be made to yield it tolerably perfect after the
manner of the procefs already laid down, even the lop¬
pings, roots, and refufe parts of ordinary trees, vine
clippings, &c. The fixed falts of all vegetables except¬
ing the kali and marine plants, when reduced to abio-
lute purity, or entirely ieparated from the other prin¬
ciples, appear to be one and the fame thing : whence it
fhould feem, fays Dr Shaw, that by a fuitable manage¬
ment, good faleable potafh might be made in all places
where vegetable matters abound. For if by examining
Rufiia ( a ) potafh, for example, we find that its fuperi-
or excellence depends upon its being clear of earth, or
upon its containing a large proportion of oil, or re¬
fined fait, thefc advantages may, by properly regulating
the operation, be given to Englifh potalhes, fo as per¬
haps to render the latter as good as the former: but
where the potafh of any remarkable faline vegetable is
to be imitated, that of the kali, for example, the Do&or
recommends a prudent fprinkiing oi the iubjeft with
fait, or fea-water, in the burning ; and by thefe ways,
peoperly diverfified, any principle that is naturally want¬
ing might be artificially introduced io as to perfect the
art of potafh.
About 40 years ago or upwards, Mr Stephens, en
429 1 POT
two from the grate, more or lefs according to the fize ;
C is the afh-hole, 2' or 3 feet deep. Fig. 2. B repre- ^ ^
fents quadrangular bars of iron, with their oppofite },;s apo
angles placed upwards ami downwards, not above an paratus.
inch afunder. Fig. 3. A, B, and C, are three iteepers
five feet deep, and of any width from four to eight feet
fquare, of the beft white pine or Cyprus plank, with
fquare joints and ftrong oak frames, placed each over a
receiver, with a cock to let off the lye, and a vent juil
beneath the furface of the grating. FI reprefents three
receivers, {landing each under, and projecting out, from
its ffeeper. They muff be made of the bed Huff, care-
couraged by the Society of Arts, &c. and by a parlia¬
mentary grant of 30001. ellablifhed a manufacture of
pot-afh in North America, which produced fuch as was
fo perfectly good as to anfwer in bleaching and other
ufes the purpofes of f earl-aft ; and which at the fame
time afforded a very large produce. But the very great
beat which his procefs required, occa»»oned the deitruc-
tion of a very extenfive apparatus ; and other circura-
ftances concurred to difappoint the hopes and check the
fpirit of the proprietors. The manufacture was, how¬
ever, afterwards undertaken and profecuted by others.
£CCCXV. Stephens’s apparatus was as follows : Fig. 1. A is
the bed of the kiln,, which Hies off about four feet by
fully put together, and laid in tough clay well rammed
within the ground, their tops being level with the fur-*
face: they need not be fo large as the fleepers by fix,
eight, or twelve inches. Fig. 4. E repref'ents a falfe
bottom, or lattice of boards, eight inches deep and five
fquare, with a hole in the under edge of every partition
for the lye to pafs into the deeper. F'ig. 5. A is the
veffel over the furnace in which the lye and afhes are
mixed; B is a hole or funnel a few inches from the back
of the furnace, with an iron focket to let the pipe
through the hinder part of the arch, to reach down
within two inches of the floo\of the furnace. C is a
cad iron cauldron for boiling the lye to drynefs when
pearl-afh is made, D is a veffel whence the liquor is let
into the cauldron as it evaporates. The mortar for
building the furnace fhould be made of loam ; the arch
fhould be 18 inches thick, and the floor fhould be laid
with tiles on a layer of fand an inch thick, with neat
joints. . 4
Mr Stephens’s procefs,both withand without the kiln, P™”**
wasasfollows. Cut timber,felledatanyfeafon,into lengths ^
of about eight feet; lay from three to ten of them length- k,ia)
wife in a heap upon dry ground, and fill the vacancies
between with fmaller wood : the fooner it is burnt after
felling, the better. Set fire to it by laying embers on
the bott(jm logs at each end; and for burning the brufh
and lappings, with other fmaller woods, lay them length-
wife on the ground, top to top, lapping over a little,
with the butt ends outwards, and as clofe as a faggot;
laying the larger woods on top till the heap is full four
feet high; the length of the brufh fet againd each
other making the breadth of the heap. As to the
choice of the timber, old hollow trees, if not dead, are
bed: pine, Cyprus, and cedar, are to be totally rejeAed.
As foon as the pile is burnt down, rake fuch afhes as
lie round the outfide a little in towards the middle; add
no frefh fuel, nor throw' on any brands. Let the afhes
lie without dirring till you can juft bear your hand in
them; then carry them to a houi'e, or under a died, on
a plank floor raffed a little from the earth and well
jointed ;
(a) According to Sir Peter Warren, the beft woods for making Rufiia potafh are, oak, afh, poplar, hiccory,
elm, hazle, and beech. They mud. be cut in November, December, January, and February, Ipiit and flacked to
dry. After 12 months in warm open weather, it mud be burnt on a brick hearth by a flow lire in a knn, oi
.clofe place ; the afhes mult be fitted through two fteves, one finer than the other, and then put up in brick
troughs or wooden backs, covered with ram or river water, and mud remain well maifiled anil incorporated five
months. Brick furnaces fhaped like bakers ovens mud be heated with a ftrong fire of oak or afh, burning
night and day; the prepared allies mud be gradually thrown on the fire, when they will run into metal like lead
the fire mud not go out till the furnace is nigh filled with potafhes. 1 he afhes mud then be broken to be ta¬
ken out, but the larger tiie pieces the better; th;y mud be preferved Irom the air in tight calks, the large
pieces by themfelves, and the duft by itfeif.
Poiafti.
Anj with
it.
Plate
POT I 430
jointed; there wet them till brought nearly to the con-
lillence of mortar in the firlt mixture cf lime and fand,
and ram them in a heap, in which they mufl: lie full 20
days, or fame months if you pleafe ; obferving to be
more fparing of water in winter, and ramming them
. clofer, and fometimes wetting the top that it may nev'er
grow quite dry.
Wood may alfo be burnt in a kiln, as fig. 1 and 2 ;
and then it mult be cut into fuch lengths as may be
moll convenient for carriage, and belt fuit the fize of
CGCCXV.the kiln. The mouth of the alh-hole mult be dole
Hopped by daubing the joints of the lid with loam, or
throwing a bank of fand or earth againlt it: keep the
bed of the kiln filled with wood up to the furface, but
not above it, and let it burn incefiantly till the alhes rife
within fix or eight inches of the grate. Draw them
out whillt red-hot, and in that Hate fprinkle them with
\ lye, from four to fix caratts weight; weigh a Imall vial
which holds about four ounces very exa&ly; then fill it
with water and weigh that alfo : divide the weight of
water into equal parts till you come to -^-5- of the whole,
which is called a caraft, ^ two carafts, &c. until you
have a weight equal to £ of the whole water, which is
.called 32 carafts: all which fmall weights, together
with one equal to the phial filled with water, are to be
kept for weighing the lye in the faid phial till they are
made damp; then ram them as before in a heap, but Sepa¬
rate from the afhes made as above. N. B. By kiln-burn¬
ing a ftronger lye may be more certainly procured than
by the other way, where rain may chance to fall on the
tithes before they can be removed.
The alhes thus prepared are to be put in vats or
Iteepers fig. 3, with a falfe latticed bottom as fig. 4 ;
firil putting coarfe wheat or rye ftraw about a foot thick
on the lattice or grating 5 on which put allies to with¬
in four or five inches of the top, ramming them all the
way up, efpecially at the iides, with a fmall light ram¬
mer, as tight as you can, without burlting the vat.
I'orm on the top of the Iteeper a hollow bafon in the
alhes four or five inches deep, leaving the alhes four or
live inches thick on the lides, by railing a fmall bank
round the fides, fo that the liquor may not overflow the
edges of the alhes at top : keep this bafon conllantly
filled, with foft water in the ileeper A, until the afhes
will imbibe no more, which will be in 24 hours or more,
according as it is rammed ; then turn the cock, and let
off what ft 1 all be foaked through into the receiver or
lower chamber of the Iteeper, and no more ; for if the
ieveral runnings are not kept feparate, the lye will not
be brought to its due ftrength. Follow that Iteeper
with frelh water on the fame alhes for feveral other
runnings, which will each come off in a few days, till
the liquor has neither fmcll nor taite; then heave out
the allies, and charge the Iteeper afrelli.
Upon drawing off the firlt running from the lleep-
er A, fig. fill the Iteeper B with alhes as before, and
put into its hollow at. the top the lye fo firlt run off,
and the fnialkr or half lyes alfo, till full, and draw off
as directed xor the fteeper A : if this weighs 18 caradts
or more, pump it into the ciltern F as fit for ufe ; if it
, c lliort ol that, pals it off as half lye to the Iteeper C,
ar.a through frelh alhes till {hong enough. With kiln-
alhes only, from water palling through the firft Iteeper,
it will be Itrong enough for the ciltern, if the alhes are
wel! prepared. If your water be hard, let it Hand two
] POT
01 three days evpofed to the air and fun in a lhallow Potaflt.
bacx, and it will be foft. When you ufe kiln-allies v
with others, lay them at bottom.
^ 1 he lye mult be conveyed from the ciftern F, as it
is wanted to the veffel A fig. 5 ; where with every gal¬
lon of proof lye mix three ounces of fine, light, wood
an<^ to t^e that is ^ over-proof put fix ounces
ol alhes; and if -f over-proof 12 ounces, increafmo- or
leffening according to the ftrength of the lye.
For evaporating the lye and melting the fait, heat a
furnace till^ you bring it very near a white heat, of
which the fide-doors being red-hot is a mark. This
will take 48 hours or more, if the furnace be quite cold;
when thorough hot, a little fuel keeps it fo. ' Then’
tliiough the cock of the veffel A, pafs the mixture by
t ic funnel B into the furnace, not fo as to reach much
be} end the. miadle of the floor, before it changes from
dark to bright red, letting the heat prevail towards
front or back as you fee neceffary. When the mafs be¬
gins to gather about the flues or in heaps, rim in no
more till the furnace is cleared by driving the fire back¬
ward. You mult have two funnels, one foon choaking':
in an hour or lefs will iffue out a red-hot ftream of
melted lalt, which is potafli, to be broke to pieces as
foon as cold, and packed in tight clofe calks, being
in no refpea inferior to the belt foreign alh- what¬
ever.
I he belt potafli is made from barilla, and comes from Spanifh
Spain. I lie plants from which it is procured are found Potalh ibc
in great plenty about Carthagena, where they are indi- e^"
genous, and may be cblle&ed in a fwamp called Almojar
ealt of that place; the Sayoncs barilla is the belt. They
are found, befides all along that coalt, on the borders
of the Mediterranean for 60 leagues in length and 8 in
bieadth. About 150,000 quintals of it are annually
exported from Spain. It produces a revenue of 23,5061.
a year; each quintal paying a duty of 17 reals: vet
Don Bernaidode Ulloa, A. I). I74°j fays it was farm¬
ed at L. 1822, 4s* 3b* M. Macdonnell has brought the
manufacture of potalh to its prefent perfection in Spain;
but its exportation is materially injured by the heavy
tax on it. See lownlhend’s T"ravels, vol. iii. p, 131.
See alfo Barilla, Kelp, and Fucus. 7
In the 70th volume of the Philofophical TranfaCtions Per-
. 1 —   r > • '• - - — aval's ac= j
we have an account of a method of procuring this lalt f
bom the putrid water vdiich runs from dunghills. The mating
procels is very ealy, coniilting only in fimple evapora-pothh,
tion of the fluid, and calcining the impure fait till molt
of the foulnels is burnt out. From 24 wine-pipes full
of this muck-w'ater wrere obtained 9 cwt. 1 q. 12 lb of
faleable potalh, valued at 42 s. per cwt; the expence of
manufacturing them being only valued at 4I. 9 s.
The potafli thus made is of a greyifli wdiite appear¬
ance ; deliquefces a little in moilt air; but if kept in a
dry room, near the fire, acquires a powdery furface. It
is hard and of a fpongy texture when broken, with ma¬
ny fmall cryltals in its fubftance. The colour of its in¬
ternal parts is dulky and variegated. To the tafte it is
acrid, faline, and fulphureous. It emits no fmell of vo¬
latile alkali, either in a folid form, diffolved, or when
added to lime-water ; neither does it communicate the
fapphire-colour to a folution of blue vitriol. Silver is
quickly tinged black by it ; a proof that it contains
much phlogilton. Ten grains of this potalh required
11 drops ol the weak fpirit of vitriol to feparate it.
The
1
POT
Potafh.
T 431 1
POT
1'he like quantity of fait of tartar required 24 drops :
" - v " a ftrong effervefcence occurred in both mixtures ; and a
fulphureous vapour exhaled from the former. A tea
fpoonful of the fyrup of violets diluted with an ounce
of water was changed into a bright green colour by
five grains of the fait of tartar; but ten grains of this
potaih were neceffary to produce the fame hue in a fimi-
lar mixture. Half an ounce of the fait diffolved entire¬
ly in half a pint of hot water ; but when the liquor was
cold, a large purple fediment fubfided to the bottom ;
and it was found that this fediment amounted to about
two-thirds of the whole quantity of afhes ufed.
Dr Percival, the author of this paper, concludes with
obferving, that this potaih is a true fixed vegetable al¬
kali, produced by putrefaftion ; that the quantity of
alkali contained in it may be eitimated at one-third of
its weight, whereas the white Mufcovy a£hes are faid to
yield only one-eighth part; that no quicklime appears
to be contained in this potaih, for afolution of it pour¬
ed from its fediment remained clear though long ex-
pofed to the air: that it would be -worth trying, whe¬
ther the large purple fediment, which fubfides when
this potaih is lixiviated, might not be applied to the
manufacture of Pruffian blue, or ufed in the manner
recommended by Macquer for dyeing wool and lilks;
and that this manufacture will furnifh the farmer for
g top-dreffing for his garden and land, of great fertilizing
Other at- Powers* See Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXX. p. 345.
tempts. Thefe are the precedes moil effentially different from
one another which have appeared concerning the ma¬
nufacture of this ufeful fait. Some indeed have attempt¬
ed to compofe it on the fuppolition that alkali confuted
of an earth combined in a peculiar manner with a cer¬
tain acid. But the little fuccefs of all thefe attempts
fHow that they have Ireen built on a falfe principle.
The only method of producing alkaline falls originally
is from the afhes of vegetables ; and the vegetable fub-
ftances which yield the largeft quantity of them are tar¬
tar and marine plants. From the former the purell and
ftrongeft vegetable alkali is obtained, and from the lat¬
ter the mineral alkali. From other vegetables, as fern,
broom, bean-italks. See. an alkaline fait is produced, but
fo impure, and in fuch fmall quantity, that no manufac-
^ ture of it can he eftablifhed in this country with any
On extract- reafonable expectations of profit.
ing its al- Dr Watfon (the prefent bifhop of Landaff) fuggefls,
ka.mc part t]iat t}ie jn veiligation of a method of extracting its alka-
faltT 10 ^ ^ne Part Bom rock fait would be a molt ferviceable dif-
eovery. We have inexhauftible mines of rock fait in
this country, which (he obfenes) the proprietors can
afford at ten (hillings a ton. A ton of rock-falt con¬
tains about half a ton of mineral alkali, which is for
molt purpofes far preferable to potafh. To thofe who
have Icifure to attempt fuch a difeovery, he gives the
following hint: whether the alkaline part of rock-falt
may not be obtained by calcining it in conjunction with
charcoal in open fires ? His reafon for this conjecture
is founded upon the following experiment : upon burn¬
ing iea-wreck to a black coal and Hopping the procefs
at that point, he has obtained great plenty of common
fait, but no mineral alkali from the black hfhes ; though
vve are certain, that when the black afhes are thorough¬
ly calcined, or reduced to white alhes, mineral alkali
n ay be obtained from them. This makes it probable,
that the common fait contained in the black allies o
fea-wreck is decempofed, and changed into a mineral
alkali, during the burning of the black afhes. There
are reafons to fuppofe, that the cinder of pit-coal would
anfwer the purpofe better than charcoal. Chem. EJf.
vol. i. p. 136, &c.
The potafhes of different countries vary much in
quality ; and the experiments of Dr Home, in his trea-
tife on Bleaching, feem to fet forth their different pro¬
perties in the cleareft point of view. The different
kinds tried by him were,
1. Blue pearl-ajhes. Thefe appear to be a pure al¬
kaline fait, mixed with a fmall quantity of vitriolated
tartar and earth. Half a pound of this, filtered and
evaporated, yielded ounces of pure fait.—Here,
however, we muff obferve, that though the quantity was
fo far diminilhed by this operation, yet we are not to
imagine that the whole of this diminution was owing to
impurities; for all falls are deltroyed in fome meal'ure
by folution in water and exficcation.
2. White pearl-ajhes are nearly of the fame quality
with the former; half a pound of them giving five
ounces and feven drams of pure fait, with fome vitriola¬
ted tartar and earth.
3. RuJJia or Mufcovy ajlces have very much the ap¬
pearance of flacked lime, and are, like it, friable betwixt
the fingers. They adhere to the tongue; and their al¬
kaline tafte foon goes away, leaving in the mouth a
ffrong tafle of lime. Some fmall bits of charcoal are
obfervable in their compofition, and they never turn moifl
in the air. Half a pound of the fait lixiviated with
water and evaporated, gave only 10 drams 15 grains of
very cauftic fait. Thefe confift therefore of a finall
quantity of alkaline fait united with a large quantity of
lime.
4. Cafhul-qfhes are of the colour of iron ftone, and
extremely hard, with many fhining particles of charcoal
in them. They have a faline taffe, with a confiderabk
degree of pungency ; feel gritty in the mouth when
broke in pieces by the teeth; and will diffolve in water.
To extract the pure fait, half a pound of the alhes were
boiled in a pint of water ; then that water poured off,
and half a pint put on the afhes again ; and fo on, till
tlie afhes tailed no more fait. This boiling took 24
hours, and the laft water that carae off’ had a ffrong
taffe of fulphur, and was blackifh. A piece of filver
put in the decoClion was in a few minutes turned- al-
moff black ; but though the decodtion was evaporated
confiderably, it did not turn fffver black more fpeedily
than before. The whole, when totally evaporated,,
yielded only 10 drams of a brown fidt having a ffrong
cauftic alkaline tafte. Some Cafhub-afhes powdered,
and often wafhed in water fo that the falts were all car¬
ried off, were infuied in water. After (landing fome
time, there was a weak lime-water, with fomething of
a faline tafte, but no pellicle. Some of this refrduum
was put into a reverberatory furnace for two hours >
after which it afforded good lime-water. Caftuib-afhes
then appear to contain an earth lialf vitrified, fome
lime, alkaline ialts, and a quantity of fulphur.
5. Ma renft cjhes are of a paler colour than the for¬
mer, with fome fmall pieces of charcoal in their compo¬
fition. They have a ftrong faline tafte ; and fo great
pungency, that they cannot be held long-in the mouth.
Half a pound diffolved in water, filtered and evapora¬
ted, yielded 11 drams one fcruplc and two grains of ak
kaline
Potaih.
10
Dr Home’*
experi¬
ments on
the pot¬
aih es of
different
countries*'
II
On roanu-
fa&uiing
them in
this coun¬
try.
POT [ 432
Potafa. inline rendimm. The decodtion blackened filver, but fait.
—'v  not fo ftrongly as the former; and by evaporation it
quickly loft that quality.
Our author next proceeds to eonfider the probabi¬
lity of manufacturing thefe afhes in this country. On
which fubjedt he has the following obfervations,-——
The blue and white pearl-afl.es we have difeovered
to be pure alkaline falts, without any conliderable mix¬
ture of heterogeneaus bodies. Their purity {hows the
lixive to have been {trained through fome clofe fub-
llance, fuch as linen or flannel. The blue aih.es fhow
by their colour that they have fuftained the moil fire.
But both of them are fo much alike, that the one ma'jr
be fubftituted for the other; ancTtherefore we {hall con-
fider them in one view.
“ Every one knows that alkaline falts, fuch as thefe,
are got from all plants except the alkalefcent, and from
all trees except the moft refinous, which afford them
iu very fmall quantity. Thefe plants or trees, when
found, are pulled or felled in the fpring, dried, and
burnt to allies. By the affufion of warm water the
falts are diffolved, and, by {training, feparated from the
earth along with the water. This faline liquor, which
is called a lixive, is evaporated over a fire ; and what
remains is an alkaline fait of the fame kind with the
pearl-alhes.
“ I was informed by a ikilful bleacher in Ireland,
that he pradfifed a more expeditious way of extradling
the falts. He bought the afhes of different vegetables
iVom the commonalty for 9 s. a bufhel. From thefe a
very ftrong lye was made, into which dry ftraw was
{tipped until it fucked up all the lye. This Itraw was
afterwards dried and burnt, and gave him falts which
he (hawed me, almoft as good and pure as the pearl-
sfhes. This method 1 have feveral times tried; but
could never bum the flraw to white afhes, the falts di-
minifhing the inflammability of the ftraw. It is a very
expeditious method if it can be pradtifed. But I can
fee no occafion for bringing the lye into a folid form,
as the falts muft again be diffolved in water before they
-can be ufed. The ftrength of the lye can eafily be de¬
termined by the hydroltafical balance.
“ Though I make no qudlion, that the quantity of
jalt, in plants of the fame fpecies, will vary in different
foils and climates; yet it would be of advantage to
have the proportion afeertained in general. Some trials
of this kind I have made.
“ Two pounds of fern which had been pulled Au-
guft x 6. were dried, and burnt to white afhes. Thefe
weighed 7 dr. and tailed very fait. When lixiviated,
{trained, and evaporated, they gave me 49 gr. of fait,
about the eighth part of the allies. If the fern had
been pulled in April, it would have afforded more fait.
Why then {hould we not prepare falts from this vege¬
table ? I here is more ot it growing on our hills than
would ferve all our bleachfields. The Infh make great
ufe of it.
“ From » oz. of tobacco-afhes I had 1 oz. of fait.
Two ounces ef peat-afhes afforded half a drachm of
1 POT
Nettler., I am informed, afford much fait, Furz
and broom, natives of this country, are very fit for this
purpofe.
“ But the kelp, as it grows in fuch plenty along our
ftiore, and contains more fait than any other vegetable
I know, would be the moft proper, were it not for a
mixture of fome fubftance that renders it unfit for
bleaching, at leaft of fine cloths, after they have ob¬
tained a tolerable degree of whitenefs. It is obferved
by bleachers, that, in thefe circumftances, it leaves a
great yellownefs in the linen. As thefe alhes are much
ufed in Ireland, and as it is not uncommon to bleach
coarfe cloths with them in Scotland, a difquifition into
their nature, and fome attempts to purify them, may
not be improper. * There are no alhes fold fo cheap as
thefe; for the beft gives but 2 1. the 2000 weight (b).
They may, therefore, allow of more labour to be ex¬
pended on them, and come cheaper at long-run than
the foreign falts.
“ I dried fome foa-ware, and burnt it, though I
found that laft operation very difficult. When I had
kept it fufed in the fire for two hours, it weigh¬
ed 34 oz. I poured on the afhes an Engliih pint and
a half of cold water, that I might have as little of the
fuiphur as poflible. This lye, after it had flood for
fome hours, was poured off clear, and had but a flight
tendency to a green colour. I made a fecond infufion
with milk-warm water, and poured it off from the fedi-
ment. This had a darker colour than the former; was
kept feparated from it, and evaporated by itfelf. There
was a third infufion made ; but having no fait tafte, it
was thrown away. The fecond infufion feemed to con¬
tain more fuiphur than the firft ; and a piece of white
linen kept in it half an hour, while it was boiling, was
tinged yellow, and could not be wafhed white again.
The earthy part remaining, weighed, when well dried,
1 oz. 2 dr. The faline decodfcion evaporated by de¬
grees, and fet at different times in a cellar to cryftal-
lize, afforded me 5 dr. 46 gr. The liquor, when en¬
tirely evaporated, left 4! dr. of a yellow fait, which ap¬
peared to be a ftrong alkaline. The falts which cry-
ftallized feemed to be moftly fea-falt, with a confider-
able quantity of fuiphur, and fome alkaline fait. There
appeared no figns of the bittern in thefe falts, as their
folution did not turn turbid with the oil of tartar.
Nor is any of the bittern to be expedted in kelp aihes,
although it probably is to be found in the recent vege¬
table; becauie the alkaline falts formed by the fire muft;
have changed it into a neutral. The lye made warm
with water, being evaporated, left 4 dr. of a black bit¬
ter fait, which, from its quantity of fuiphur, appeared
unfit for bleaching. Thefe allies, then, feem to be a
compofition of fomewhat lefs than the fourth of fui¬
phur, the fame quantity of fea-falt, about a fourth of
alkaline fait, and fomewhat more than a fourth of earth.
The alkaline fait contained in kelp aflxes amounts to
one penny a pound. This cheapnefs makes it worth
our pains to bellow fome labour on them.
“ If the bad effe&s in bleaching with kelp-afhes arife
b «. from
PofsdE
(b) “ Since this treatife was written, however, the price of kelp has been advanced to 7 1. or upwards the
200Q weiglit; fo that thofe who would now attempt any thing of this kind, muft alfo munufadture the keln
lhemfelves.,, *
POT [ 433 ]
Pataft. from the fea-falt, as fome of the mo ft knowing bleach- hours till
POT
' ers think, they can be freed from it in an eafy manner.
Let a lixive of kelp-afhes be made with cold water, for
that does not extract fo much of the fulphur; it mull
Hand but for a fhort time, for thefe falts diSolve ealily;
decant it, and evaporate the lye. As the boiling con¬
tinues, the fea-falt will cryftallize. When that is all fe-
parated, the remaining lye will contain alkaline fait
with fome fulphur. This operation every matter of a
bleachfield may learn and overfee, without taking up
much of his time. A fimilar procefs is carried on by
common fervants in the alum-works, who have by prac¬
tice learned it from others.
“ I had fome hopes that the fulphur might be car¬
ried off by long roafting, fuch as thefe falts undergo
before they are fufed in order to be turned into glafs ;
becaufe I had obferved, that the longer time they were
kept in the fire, the freer were they from this fulphu-
reous part.
“ I ordered a quantity of kelp afhes to be kept in
the furnace of a glafshoufe, where the heat was juft
below the vitrifying point, for 24 hours. During this
time they had loft almoft four-fifths of their weight.
They were now much freer from their fulphur, and
were of a light colour; but much of the alkaline fait
had been driven off with the oils. If a lye is much im¬
pregnated with this fulphureous matter, it appears to
be carried off in a great meafure by long boiling.
“We come now to explain the method of manufac¬
turing the white Mufcovy afties. We have fhown, by
undoubted experiments, that the greateft part of thefe
it was evaporated. I diffolved it again in
water, which being filtered and evaporated, gave me
11 dr. of a cauftic fait, that liquefied in the air when
it had been but four minutes from the fire. It appears,
then, that the alkaline falts are deftroyed by lime, and
that a great part of them can never be again recovered.
From the remaining lime, after the falts were extracted,
I got ftrong lime-water, but without a pellicle. This
(hows, that a quantity of alkaline falts, equal to the
lime, boiled with it for two hours, are not able to fix all
the foluble part of the lime.
“ From thefe experiments we may draw fome corol¬
laries with regard to the prefent fubjecft. \Jl% 7'hat
evaporating the water from the lime and falts by boil¬
ing, is a moft unfrugal way of preparing thefe white
afties. idly. That theie allies ought to be kept clofe
fliut up in cades ; for if expofed to the open air, though
in a room, the alternate moillure and drought mull fix
their moft ufeful parts. This I have found to be fa<Sl:
for the falts that I made became lefs pungent by keep¬
ing ; and I have obferved, that the furface of the Muf¬
covy alhes loft all pungency by being expofed to the
air, while their internal parts ftill retained it.- 3^/y, That
all boiling is prejudicial to thefe Mufcovy afties, as it
fixes, and that quickly, their moft fubtile and probably
their moft ferviceable parts.
“ Let us now proceed to another method of making
thefe white afties. I imagined, that if the falts were
diffolved in water, and the quicklime flacked with that,
the mafs would foon dry without the afliftance of fire.
In this way I added equal parts of both; but the com-
alhes confifts of lime ; and yet we have feveral a£ts of, pofition was fo ftrong, that it bliftered my tongue if it
parliament which forbid the ufe of that material under ^ ‘ ' 1 *' TTT1 •* r •’
fevere penalties. The parliament were in the right to
difcharge its ufe, upon the difadvantageous reports
which were made to them. We ftiall immediately fee
how dangerous a material it is when ufed improperly,
or without the mixture of alkaline falts, which render
it fafe, and more foluble in water. But 1 will venture
to fay, that experiment will not fupport the prejudice
entertained with regard to it, if carried any further.
“ Since bleaching, then, cannot be earned on with¬
out it (for thofe afties which contain it are quite necef-
fary in that operation), and fincc we import them from
foreign countries, let thefe prejudices againft it ceafe,
and let us only confider how we may render our own
lime as fafe as the foreign. If we can do that, the wif-
dom of the legiflature will be as ready to abrogate thefe
a<ffs as they were to make them.
“ By my experiments on the white Mufcovy afties,
I got about the eighth part of alkaline falts from them.
This made me expedf, that, by mixing in the fame pro¬
portion quicklime and alkaline falts, I ftiould be able to
produce Mufcovy afhes.
“ To an ounce of quicklime and a drachm of white
pearl afties, I added about a gill of water, and boiled
them together till the water was all evaporated. The
tafte of this fubftance was little different from lime. To
recover the falts again from the lime, I diffolved it in
water, ftrained off the liquor, and evaporated it. In-
ftead of the drachm of falts, I had but 2 gr. of a fub¬
ftance which was more earthy than faline.
> “ To 3 dr. of quicklime, and as much potafties, I add¬
ed a mutchkin of water, and kept it boiliner for two
• Vol. XV. Part II. 6
but touched it. When the fourth part was alkaline
fait, it bliftered my tongue when kept to it a few fe-
conds. I could tafte the falts plainly in the compofi-
tion, when they made but the thirty-fecond part of the
whole. jT
“ I thought, when compofed with the eighteenth
part of fait, it had, when frelh made, juft the tafte and
look of the Mufcovy afhes; nor could any perfon have
diltinguifhed them. This I once imagined was the pro¬
portion ; but when I found that the faline pungency
foon turned weaker by keeping, and that this compo-
fition would not afford the fame quantity of falts that
the Mufcovy afhes did, I faw that a much greater quan¬
tity of falts was neceffary. The proportion appears to
be one of fait to four of lime, prepared in this lalt way.
Three drachms of afhes prepared in this way, and kept
for a fortnight, gave me but 15 grains of fait; which
is but the half of what the Mufcovy would have af¬
forded. I find, if the quicklime is firft quenched, it
does not fix the falts fw much ; and therefore is better
and cheaper. One drachm of potafhes diffolved in a
little water, and added to 3 drachms of quenched lime,
gave me 44 grains of a very cauftic fait. I prefer this
method as the beft.
“ The manufacturers of this fait probably pour the
lixive upon the lime, as they can know by its fpecific
gravity what quantity of falts is in the water, and fi»
fave themfelves the expence of procuring the falts in a
dry form.
“ The manufacture of the Marcoft and Calhub afties
remains yet to be explained. We have difeovered that
both of them contain fulphur, earth, alkaline falts, and
3 I lime ;
Potafli.
—V——1
POT [ 434- ] POT
TVofh. Vitne • and differ in nothing but in the Caffmb’f having
more fulpliur than the Marcoft afnes. We lhali there¬
fore confider them together.
w Whether thefe two fpecies of afhes are of any ufe
in bleaching, may be, and has already been, difputed.
1 find they contain no other principles, the fulphureous
part excepted, than the former alhts combined together.
Why then ihould we expert any other efferts from the
fame ingredients in the Marcoft and Calhub aihes,
than what we have from either of the pearl and Muf-
cevy afhes mixed together ? The fulphureous principle
in the former muft have very bad efferts ; as I find by
experiment, that it leaves a yellownefs on cloth that is
very hard to be wafhed out. It is owing to this ful-
phurecus principle that linen, after it has been wafhed
with foap, and is pretty well advanced in whitenefs, is
apt to be difcoloured by lye which is brought to boil:
for, by boiling, the fulphureous part is extrarted from
thefe afhes, and the lye becomes of a deep brown colour.
Daily prartice, then, fhows the difadvantage of this,
fulphureous principle. Befides, as fulphur unites itfelf
t quickly and firmly with alkaline falts, it muff: weaken
or altogether deftroy a great quantity of thefe in the
Marcoft and Cafhub allies, and fo render them of no
effert in bleaching. Thefe two reafons feem to me fuf-
fieient to exclude them from the bleachfield ; efpecially
as, by increafing the other materials, we can attain per¬
haps more fpeedily the fame end.
“ However, as cuftom has introduced them into ge¬
neral prartice, we fhall confider how they are to be ma-
mifartured. Dr Mitchell has, in a very ingenious and
ufeful paper, contained in the Philofophical Tranfac-
fions for the year 174H, delivered an account tranfmit-
ted to him by Dr Linnaeus of the method of making
potafhes in Sweden. This account was contained in an
academical differtation of one Lundmark upon this fub-
jert at Aboe in Sweden. The fubftance of this account
is, ‘ That birch or alder is burnt by a flow fire to afhes,
and made into a pafte with water. This patle is jilaf-
tered over a row of green pine or fir logs. Above that
is laid tranfverfely another row of the fame ; and that
likewife is plallered over. In this way thev continue
building and plaflering till the pile be of a confiderable
height. This pile is fet on fire ; and whenever the
x afhes begin to run, it is overturned, and the melted allies
are beat with flexible fticks, fo that the allies incruil
the logs of wood, and become as hard as Hone.’ This,
in the Dorter's opinion, is the method of making the
potafhes that come from Sweden, Ruffia, and Dant/ic :
and that there is no other difference betwixt the allies
made in thofe different countries, but that the Ruffian,
containing more fait, muft be made into a paite with a
ftrong lye.
“ There would appear, by my experiments, a greater
difference than this betwixt the Swedilh aihes, if that
is the true procefs, and thofe I have examined. I had
difeovered the greateft part of the Mufeovy aihes to be
Lime. I fufpedbed k might enter into the compofition
ot the Marcoft and Caihub ; and have accordingly dif*
cover ' it there. Without the fame grounds, none
would ever have fearched for it. Whence then conies
this lime? It mull either enter into its compofition, or
arife from the materials managed according- as the pro-
ccfs direrts.
“ I have tried the birch afhes made into a palle with P’otafhY
water. I have tried common charcoal made into a
palle with a third part of potalhes, and kept them in a
ilrong reverberatory heat for fome hours, and yet no
fuch cauftic fubllance appeared. I have kept earth and
falts of kelp-afhes fufed together for 24 hours in the
furnace of a glafshoufe, where the heat was juft below
the degree of vitrification ; and yet no remarkable cau-
flicity appeared afterwards in the concreted mafs. But
fuppofing that there did, will ever this account for the
generation of lime ? Thefe chemilts do not affert that
it is a calcareous caullicity. The earth of vegetables
kept in fufion with their'falts, is fo far from turning
into a quicklime, that the mafs takes the oppolite courfe,
and becomes glufs. Bodies that, by the laws of nature,
are vitrefcible, can never, fo far as we know, become
calcareous. In one or other of thefe two fubftances all
bodies terminate that are changeable by fire ; and vege¬
tables are of the former kind. Here it may be alkeM
Why then, fince they endure fuch a fire, are they not
vitrified ? the objertion would be juft, did they contain
nothing elfe but what was found in vegetables. But if
we once allow that lime is one of the materials, the
difficulty is eafily folved: for lime, we know, in pro¬
portion as it is mixed, hinders the vitrification of all
bodies. In tffert, the earthy part in thefe aihes is al-
moft vitrified: and I think that I have carried the vi¬
trification yet farther in that part ; but I never was
able, with the utmoll heat of a reverberatory furnace,
continued for fix hours, to produce any thing like a
thorough vitrification in thefe allies. The heat of the
fire ufed in the proccfs would feem to be very great ^
and muft, if it were not very difficult, reduce them
to glafs. The invitrefcible nature of thefe falts, fo far
from being an objertion, becomes a lining proof of my
opinion.
“ Thefe fairs have a remarkable pungency. This
we have already feen is the natural tffert of quicklime
on falts.
“ Thefe falts are found to be the fitteft for making
foap, and to incoiporate fooneft and bell with oils.
Salts, we know, of themfelves do not readily unite with
oil ; but when once mixed with quicklime, they have a
greater tendency to union.
“ Again, I lind that thefe allies are more eafily flux¬
ed than charcoal made into a pafte with the third part
fait ; which is much more than the alhts contain. Now,
it is obferved that quicklime increafes the fluxing power
of alkaline falts; for the common caullic made of quick¬
lime and alkaline falts is fooner fufed than the latter
alone.
“ From thefe reafons, and the experiments that dif-
cover lime in thefe aihes, I am led to think, that it is
not generated by the procefs, but mixed with the aihes
when they are made into a pafte. The following ex¬
periment is a convincing proof of what I have been en¬
deavouring to make out..
“ I boiled fome peafe-ftraw in a ftrong lye of pearl-
allies burnt into a black coil, and made it into a pafte
with water. Another quantity of ftraw was boiled in
a lye made of one part of quicklime and four parts of
pearl falts, the lye being poured off turbid from the
lime. This ftraw was likewife burnt when dry, and
made into a pafte. Thefe two fubftances were put in-
2
p O T r 435 1 POT
12
Potaflies
and Pe;irl-
adies ob
taired from
neutrai
faIts.
Frttafti. tfl feparata cruciWes, ami flnxed in a rf'verheratory fur-
—^  nace. . The latter appeared to refemble the Marcoft
and Cafhub a(hes more than the former, which feemed
to want their pungency.”
Though the only method of preparing the alkaline
fait originally is by the combultion of vegetables, yet
there are fome neutral falls from which if it were pof-
fible to expel the acid, wc fhould have it in our power
to procure the finelt pearl-aflies in vail quantity. Thefe
are vitriolated tartar, nitre, but efpecially fea-falt, on
account of the inexhauilible quantities of it to be met
with in the waters of the ocean. Unhappily, however,
there are fome objeftions to every one of thofe. The
•vitriolated tartar, or any other fait in vvlych the vi¬
triolic acid enters, cannot be decompofcd without con¬
verting the acid into fulphur by charcoal-duil; in which
cafe it is asr difficult to get free of the fulphur as of
the acid ; and k we attempt it by frequent folutions
in water, we deftroy the phlogillon of the fulphur,
and have only vitriolated tartar again inllead of alkali.
See Chemistry, n° 716, &c.
With refpeft to nitre, though its acid may be ex¬
pelled by fire, yet it is too high-priced, and too much
ufed in other manufaftures, to be thought of for this
purpofe. A potaffi manufadlure from fea-falt has in¬
deed been lately ercdled in England. The principle on
which this was eftablifiied is, that the acid of fea-falt
may be extradled by means of lime ; and accordingly
we find that the faline efflorefcence, which frequent¬
ly appears on walls, conliils chiefly of the marine al¬
kali deprived of its acid. But this, though delivered on
the credit of a very eminent chemilt, we can affirm
from our own obfervation to be a miftake. Of the
many cafes in which we have examined this effloref¬
cence, only one was found to be alkaline ; the others
uniformly appeared to be true Glauber’s fait compo-
fed of the vitriolic acid and foffil alkali. Neither did
this appear to be formed by any decompofition of fait
originally in the plaller, but to be a real generation of
both acid and alkali where none of them exilted before.
See Efflorescence.
POTATO, in botany. See Solanum.
Potatoes, it is generally thought, came originally from
North America, where they were not reckoned good
intoBri^ f°r ^°0^* They were firft (we are told) introduced into
Ireland in the year 1565, and from thence into Eng¬
land by a veffel wrecked on the weftern coail, called
North Mcols, in Lancafflire, a place and foil even now
famous for producing this vegetable in great perfection.
It was 40 years after their introduction, however, be¬
fore they were much cultivated about London ; and
then they were confidered as rarities, without any con¬
ception of the utility that might arife from bringing
them into common ufe. At this time they were diftin-
guifhed from the Spanifh by the name of Virginia po¬
tatoes, or buttatai, which is the Indian name of the Spa-
nilh * fort. At a meeting of the Royal Society, March
18th, 1662-3, a letter was read from Mr Buckland, a
Somerfet gentleman, recommending the planting of po¬
tatoes in all parts of the kingdom to prevent famine.
I'his was referred to a committee; and, in coiifequence
of their report, Mr Buckland had the thanks of the
Society, fuch members as had lands were intreated to
plant them, and Mr Evelyn was defired to mention
the propofals at the clofe of his Sylva.
How pota¬
toes were
tain.
■^See Con-
volvulus,
In Sweden, notwlth(landing the indefatigable inda- Potato,
flry of Linnaeus, the culture of potatoes was only in- s-—**
troduced in 1764, when a royal edict was publiflied to ['hoiHits
encourage their general cultivation. They were known intio luc-
there, however, at an earlier period ; for in the Memoirs tion inoq
of the Royal Sfcadsmy of Sciences in Sweden, I 747, M.
Charles Skytfe propofed to diftil brandy from them,
in order to fave corn, which in that country is Very dear.
He found by experience, that an acre of land fet with
potatoes will yield a much greater quantity oi; brandy
than when fown with barley. ^
The utility of potatoes to the common people is well rj,ejr greRt,
known, and this utility has brought them into general utility,
ufe, and has extended them over every part of this king,
dom. To promote this utility, and to make their cul¬
tivation more eaiy, a variety of experiments and inqui¬
ries have been made. Some of thefe we (hall now lay
before our readers, without repeating, however, what
has been faid on the fame fubjtft in the article Agricul¬
ture, n° 158 —167. By many people the Irifil purple ^e-mark*
potato is thought to be the fweeteft and bed ; and of and ixperi*
thefe the bright and middle-fixed are directed to be fict meats on
whole, in February, March, and April, in a fine deep1;1011^ cu^'
tilth, in any foil. During the froil, the fidl fettingtUre’
fiiould be covered with litter or fern. They fhould be
fet fix inches deep, and a yard did ant from each other
every way, in a kind of hillocks like a mole-cad ; and
they mud be moulded every month or fortnight, as high
as poffible. By July or Augult, under each hillock
there will be nearly a bufhtl of potatoes. Tlie white
kidney potato runs all into dringy roots in loofe
ground, while the pink-coloured will do extremely well
in the way we have now directed; and the fmalk-ft of
them, though often given to hogs, unlefs they be o-
therwife improper or unhealthy, will be very good
feed.
The following experiments concerning the culture of
potatoes are related in the Geprgical Edays.
“ By all the experiments that have been made, the of the
Howard or large Bedfordfhire potato is found to pro- Howard
duce the larged crop. On that account they arc k“,ul0’
chiefly ufed in feeding of cattle. In two beds, four feet
wide, and 200 feet long, I planted in a common field
a fufficient number of fets of this kind of potato,
and managed them by a horfe-hoe. The produce
was 64 bufhels, each bufhel up-heaped, weighing
about 70 lb. My cattle eat them boiled \\ ith as much
eagernefs as the bed forts, and came on as well with
them. I have built a boiling-houfe, &c. on Mr
Young’s plan, and during this whole wimu nave boiled
potatoes for my cattle. For the fattening ones, I mix
ground oats with them; and for the milk-cows, malt-
dud ; and dare venture to affirm, that they are much
more profitable than either turnips or cabbages. Once,
when my potatoes grew- low, I defided giving them to
the milking-cows. Immediately, though fed with the
bed hay, they fell off amazingly in their milk. 1 their*,
fore began again; and in a week’s time they gave bttter
than one-third more butter. 1 own this accidental
difeovery gave me much fatisfa&ion, as it confirmed
my opinion, that potatoes boiled are an excellent wm.
ter food for cattle. 1 heir culture is not fo difficult,
at lead not fo precarious, as either turnips or cab¬
bages. Their value is fuperior, and there is no ritk of
their giving a difagreeable talk' either to butter or
3 1 2 -milk
POT
milk. Add to this the vaft increafe of the Howard po-
tato, and its equality with the bell forts when ufed
6 for cattle.
Of the in. « My gardener cut a large potato into nine pieces,
ceafe of }ie planted with dung, in a drill, in the garden.
po a oes. earthing up and laying the fhoots, he produced 575
(a) fizeable potatoes, which weighed eight ftone eight
pound. Another of my fervants produced, in the
held, feven ftone of good potatoes from the fame number
of fets. Though this experiment cannot always be ex¬
ecuted in its full force in an extenfive fcale, it ought,
notwithftanding, to be imitated as nearly as circum-
ftances will allow. It fhows, in the moll diftinguifthng
manner, the ufe of clean and careful hufhandry.
“ On the 14th of April, I cut a large white po¬
tato into 1 7 fets, which were planted in as many hil¬
locks, at the diftance of four feet. In the courfe of
growing, the plants were earthed up, and on the 14th
of October the crop was taken up ; The produce, 1 o
pecks of fizeable potatoes. At the time that this
experiment was made, I had feveral hillocks, in which
I put three and four fets of the fame kind of potato.
But, upon the moft careful examination, I could not
obferve that thefe hillocks produced a greater crop
than the others planted with a fxngle fet. Hence it is
obvious, that the potato fpreads its roots moft kindly
when leaft crowded,”
Whilft fpeaking of the increafe of potatoes, we can¬
not help taking notice of a memoir by John Howard,
Efq; of Cardington, in Bedfordfhire, on a new kind of
potato remarkable for its prolificacy. “ In the year
1765 (fays he) being at Clifton, near Briftol, I was in¬
formed a perfon had brought from America a new fort
of potato, and with fome trouble I procured half a do¬
zen roots of it, as the greateft part of thofe brought
over were already planted. That autumn I planted
three of them, and in the following fpring the other
three, in my garden at Cardington in Bedfordlhire ;
fetting them in hillocks about fix feet afunder. The
ftrength of the Items, and largenefs of the blofibm and
apples, gave the pleafing profpeid of great increafe:
and accordingly, when I took them up in the autumn
1766, I found they had xncreafed far beyond any of the
common fort, which for fome years I had encouraged
our cottagers to cultivate. The produce from each cut¬
ting was in weight from 26 to 27 pounds and a half. I
fent for two of the Bedford gaxdeners, who ferve the
market, to fee them taken up, and they were furprifed
at the gi-eat increafe. I gave fome of them to thefe garden¬
ers, and others to almoil all our own cottagers. The in¬
creafe continued to appear the fame in the fucceeding
year, viz. 1767, as in the laft : only, as many of the
fingle potatoes had been then found to weigh four or
five pounds each, I had now planted moftof them in drills
three feet afunder, in order to procure a greater number,
and a lefs fize. Their produce was now from 22 to 30
pounds from each cutting ; and the potatoes were more
POT
fizeable for common ufe. The vegetation was not fo Potata.
luxuriant as in thofe I before planted in hillocks; but —v-""-
the increafe of thefe was, allowing the cuttings to weigh
one ounce, full 400-fold. Having laft year upwards
of a waggon-load of thefe potatoes, I with pleafure or¬
dered it to be made publicly known, that every per-,
fon who chofe to cultivate them were welcome to have
a quantity for planting. In confequence of this, num¬
bers applied in our own and the adjacent counties. In
my plantations, as well as thofe of other perfons, the in¬
creafe has been ftill greater this year : for the feafon ha-
ving proved very favourable, I have had from fome hil¬
locks 41 pounds and a half, allowing for dirt.,,
We now continue our exti-a£ts from the Georgical
Effays.
“ Take a bunch of the apples of any fort of potato. Qn raffing
Hang it up in a warm room during the winter, and in feed ing
February feparate the feeds from the pulp, by wa{hingPo:atoes>
the apples in water, and prefling them with the fingers.
Then dry the feeds upon paper. In the month of A-
pril, fow thefe feeds, in drills, in a bed of earth well
dug, and manured with rotten dung. When the plants
are about an inch high, draw a little earth up to them
with a hoe, in order to lengthen their main roots.
When they are about three inches high, dig them up
with a fpade, and feparate them carefully from each
other, in order for planting out in the following man-
nei\ Prepare a piece of frelh ground by trenching it
well. Dig up the feedling plants as before directed ;
and plant them out in the ground, thus prepared, in
fuch a manner that there {hall be 16 inches between
each plant. As they advance in growth, let them re¬
ceive one or two earthings up, in order to lengthen
the main root, and encourage the Ihoots under ground.
By this management, the potatoes will, in the courfe
of one feafon, arrive at the fize of hen’s eggs, and
the haulm will be as vigorous as if fets had been plant¬
ed. But what proves the luxuriancy in the moft con¬
vincing manner, is, that flowers and apples are produ¬
ced.
“ In Lancalhire, where the gardeners raife potatoes
fxom feed, they are always two, and fometimes three,
years in bringing them to full fize. By the above
method of tranfplanting, with wide diftances, many of
the potatoes nearly attain their full fize in one feafon.
It is obfervable, that thefe feedlings produce potatoes
of all the different kinds ; and fometimes new forts are
procured. We do not find any difference whether the
apple comes from one kind or another. It is not fo
when we ufe the fet, which invariably produces the fame
kind. Potatoes, when propagated from fets, after a
number of years, are found to decreafe in bearing ; for
which reafon they ftxould be brought back every 14
years to their original. From a want of attention to
this circumftance, I have known potatoes fo run out,
that they hardly returned treble feed. The farmer
complains that his land is tired of them ; but the true
caufe
[ 436 ]
(a) Inftances of the amazing increafe of potatoes are very numerous, and are almoft every year detailed in
the public papers. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1757, p. 480, we are told, that from one Dice of a pota¬
to, fet in the fpring of the fame year by Mr Simon M‘Hoy, a farmer at Park near Tuam in Ireland, there pro¬
ceeded no lefs than 84 ftalks, which pi'oduced 965 potatoes.
POT [ 4:
Potato, eaufe is the age of the fets. The incveafe of potatoes
v.—v— raifed from feed is aftonifhing. They continue in vi¬
gour for about 14 years} after which the produce gra-
- o dually declines.
On railing “ As the culture of potatoes, and particularly of the
early pota- early forts for the table, has of late become an objedl of
toes. very general attention, I hope the following account of
a new method of obtaining thefe (without the help of
hot-beds) will be acceptable to the public.
“ On the 2d of January 1772, I made a hot-bed
for the forward fort of potatoes, and on the 7th put
in the fets, placing a glafs and frame over them, and
taking every precaution to defend them from the froft.
Of thefe fmall potatoes, or fets, there remained about
40 in a bafket, which was accidentally hung up in a
warm kitchen, and there remained unnoticed till about
the 25 th of April. I then accidentally obferved the
bafket, and perceiving fomething green on the edge
of it, took it down, and, to my great furprife, found
that the potatoes had fprouted half a yard in length,
and that there were a great number of very fmall po¬
tatoes formed on the fibrous roots which had grown
out. I took them into my garden, and planted them
in a rich fandy foil, without any manure. The roots
I put into the ground three inches deep, and laid
down the ftems that had fprouted, horizontally, and
covered them with two inches of foil, but left the tops
uncovered. Without farther attention they grew fur-
prilingly.
“ On the 26th of May, I took up the roots plant¬
ed in the hot-bed on the 7th of January. They by
no means anfwered my expedtations, or paid for the
trouble of their culture : but, at the fame time, I was
aftonifhed to find the others, which were put into the
ground fo late, to have produced larger potatoes than
the roots in the hot-bed. I took up all the roots, and
picked off the large potatoes from them, which amount¬
ed to from 4 to 12 on each root, and then fet the roots
again in the fame ground. This, indeed, I have fuc-
cefsfully pra&ifed for many years, fometimes even twice,
and have had a third good crop at Michaelmas. When
this method is tried, the roots muft be watered on the
evenings of hot days.
“ In January 1773? in order to make a fecond trial
of this experiment with a large quantity, I placed a
great many potatoes of the early forts on a thick layer
of gravelly foil, clofe to each other, over an oven, Hated
over, but open to the fouth-weft, and covered them two
inches deep with the fame earth. At the end of April
I took them up, and found the Hems about a foot long
or more. For fear of injuring the fine and delicate fibres
of the roots, I took great care in taking them up, and
planting them in the foil. This I now manured, but in
all other refpedls treated them in the manner above de-
fcribcd, many of the fibrous roots having then potatoes
formed upon them nearly as large as walnuts. For a
week, the plants came on furprifingly, when, by one
fharp night’s uncommon frofl, they were nearly de-
ftroyed. However, notwithllanding this, frefh Items
grew up in a few days, and I actually gathered from
them, on the 3d ef June following, finer potatoes than
were fold at that time, at Manchelter, from 1 s. to
is. 6 d. per pound, being the produce of hot-beds.
After taking off the larger potatoes, I again planted
7 ] POT
the roots for a fecond crop, and in September obtained Potatw.
a very large produce. I weighed the increafe of many "lMlJ
feparate roots, which amounted from four pound eight
ounces to 14 pound 12 ounces, the potatoes being the
largeft of the forward kinds I ever faw. ^
“ Make a compoft of eafth, fand, and coal-afiies. With On railing
this mixture fill a tub about 16 inches deep. Plant this t^em 'II
artificial foil with fome fets of the early round pota-%v intcr’
to, and place the tub in a liable oppofite to a window,
taking care to water the earth now and then. In all
feafons the fets will fprout, and give a tolerable increafe
of potatoes. Lalt November I planted fome fets in
the above manner; and in February following I took
up a confiderable number of young potatoes, clean Ikin-
ned and well flavoured. IO
“ On the 18th of May 1772, finding fome beds I On tranf-
had fown very early with onions, to be a miffing crop, planting
I was induced to make the following experiment. ThePotato
year before, I had fet fome potatoes in another part of
my garden in the common way; and as it is impoffible
but fome will remain in the ground all winter, fo I found
a number of fprouts about three inches high, which I
nipped off clofe to the ground, and tranfplanted them
into the onion-beds, without any further preparation, -
about a foot and a half afunder, in the fame manner
that cabbages and cauliflowers are planted. As the
feafon became immediately very dry, I was obliged to
give my plants a little water for four or five fucceffivc
nights; after which they began to flourifh, and had
the appearance of a promifing crop during all the fum-
mer. At the ufual time, in 0£lober, I ordered them
to be taken up; and for fize, quantity, and quality,
they exceeded all I ever had in the common way. Had
the ground been frelh, properly manured and prepared,
and the plants put down at a proper diftance from each
other, I am of opinion that the fuceefs would have been
flill greater. , r
“ From an accurate experiment made kill year, I On feeding
dare venture to recommend baked potatoes as an excel-hogs &c.
lent food for hogs. The pork produced by this food Pota’
was equal to that from barley and beans: but at prefent
I cannot exactly afcertain the comparative experiment
with regard to expence; however, I am of opinion, that
roalled potatoes, confidering the improvement of the
hogs, is as cheap a food, if not cheaper, than can be
given them. I roafled my potatoes upon a kiln, fimilar
to what is ufed by oatmeal {hellers for drying their oats.
The difference in expence between boiling and roalting
the potatoes is prodigious, both with regard to the la¬
bour and fuel. A kiln that will coll 3 1. will roall
potatoes fufficient for the maintenance of more than
20 hogs; and one man will bellow all the necefiary
attendance upon them, and do other work befides.
The action of the fire, by diffipating the crud? juices
that are contained in raw potatoes, reduces them into
a flate highly wholefome and nutritious. Boiling does
this in part, but not fo effe&ually. A potato roafted
in the manner above defcribed, partakes much of the
nature of a chefnut, and perhaps is not greatly inferior
to it,”
Potatoes are found to be ufeful food for moll other
animals. See Agriculture, n°45.
To thefe experiments we fliall add fome important
observations of Dr Anderfon of Cotefield near Leith,
I vh®
P O T [ 438 1 v O T
F^tsto. vvlio I ms paid a very particular attention to tin's as well
~ as other branches oF agriculture. Our readers will find
Remarks t^ie Doftor’a remarks and experiments at large in the
on the Uat/j Papers, volume fourth. He firft confiders the na¬
me is moft ture of the feeds moil proper to be planted ; and from
£e°^lairej experiments he thinks it appears that the produce
^ ' u' is not materially affedled, by planting for feed, either
whole potatoes or cuttings, or large or fmall potatoes
as fuch ; for it is only incidentally that thefe things
can affect the crop. In the fifth volume of the Baih
Papers, Mr Wimpey relates an experiment, by which
it would appear that there is an advantage in planting cut
potatoes. His conclufion is as follows. “ The meafure
of all the ground planted, fays he, was 325 poles ; the
whole produce 378 bufhels. The meafure of the
ground planted with cut potatoes was 265 poles; the
produce 312 bufhels. The ground planted with whole
or uncut fets was 60 poles, and the produce of the
fame 66 bufhela. Now, if 48 bufhels, the whole
quantity of fets ufed, produced 378 bufnels, then 34
bufhels, the quantity cut, fiiould produce 267 bufhels;
but they produced 312, which is 41; bufhels more than
the proportion. Again, if 48 bufhels produced 378
bufhels, then 14 bufhels fhould have produced 110 bu¬
fhels ; but 14 bufhels of uncut produced only 66 bu¬
fhels, which is 44 bufhels lefs than the proportion. A pre¬
ference of 40 per cent, in favour of cut potatoes, in com-
parifon with whole fets.” Mr Wimpey corroborates the
fa£l in the fixth volume of the fame work, and informs us,
•moreover, that he ufed to fupply many of his neighbours
with potatoes for planting ; fome of whom defired to
have them all fmall, as they had found them equally pro¬
ductive with the larger, and faved much trouble in cut¬
ting. “ Others (continues he) preferred the largeff, who
carried their economy much further: they, it feems, ufed
to pare them, cat the flefhy part, and plant the rinds
only.. Upon inquiry, I found it was not an unufual
practice among the cottagers; and I have been credibly
informed they get as large crops and as good potatoes
in that method of planting as in any other whatever.
If this be a faCt, it feems to appear that the flefhy part
of the bulb is of no ufe in iupplying nourifhment to
the young fruit after the fibrous roots have put forth
and laid hold of the ground. Perhaps an experiment
of this fort may be thought worth making.” The weight
of the crop, however. Dr Anderfon afferts (and Mr
Wimpey agrees with him, fee Bath Papers, vol. v. p.
34* )> is always in fome meafure influenced by the weight
of the feeds planted; but the weight of produce is not
augmented in the Jame proportion with the weight of the
ffcd planted ; the froalleft feed yielding the o rested re¬
turns in proportion to the feed, but the fmallcft in
proportion to the extent of ground. It is in no cafe pro-
btable,however,the Dodlor thinks to plantfmall potatoes
( b ), oi unall cuttings, unlefa where it is meant to increafe
as faff as poflible a favourite kind; in which cafe it may he Pom#,
iometimes eligible to plant pieces very ftnall, as in that
way the kind will be moil quickly multiplied. We may al-
fo remark here,tliatfuch as wifhfor a large increafe fhould
nevei piant the worft of the crop; it 13, we know,extreme¬
ly common, and may indeed be an immediate faving; but
it is unqueftionably a lofs upon the whole; and perhaps
it is one caufe ot the curl dpeafe, which is the fure in¬
dication of a poor dwindling crop, and of which we
fhall fpeak mote at large immediately.
Our author further remarks, that there feems to be
no reafon to fufpedl tliat eyes taken from any particu¬
lar part of the bulb are poffeffed of a degree of prolifi-
cacy greater than thofe taken from any other part of
it, independent of the fize of the flefhy part that ad¬
heres to the.eye. It is however highly probable that
a difference in the crop, either with refpeft to the num¬
ber and fize, or general weight of the whole, would
refult from planting large cuttings of equal weight, taken
from the big end of large potatoes, or from the point,
as manv eyes would be in the laft in comparifon of the
fin il. . 1 his is therefore one of the many preparatory
experiments that require to be made. It is poffible too
that even the apples may be an objeft of value, and
may indicate a thriving crop or otherwife; but of this
there is no certainty, as no fpecific experiments have
yet been made on this fubjedl. r .
With refpedl to the effedls of cutting the flems of cutting
potatoes while growing, the Doftor feems to be doubt-che ftems
f ul. The ftems of potatoes, if cut while growing, and whiTe^0^
uled green, are found to be a wholefome food for cattle growing,
and horfes. But though fome farmers maintain that
the produce in potatoes is not leffened by having the
ftems cut off while they are in a Hate of vigorous ve¬
getation ; others as pofitively infill that the crop is ef-
fentully injured by that operation. It is proper that
this point fliould be alcertained. Probably the crop is *
hurt il the ftems are cut over before they have attained
a certain point of maturity, though it is pofiible they
may be afterwards cut without doing any effential in¬
jury to it.
We have already mentioned that an experiment was On exlraft*
made a good while ago in Sweden, to extradl ardent fpi- :ng ardent
nts from potatoes. Other experiments have been made rPir‘ts frort*
in this country of a later date, but with little effed.1)0utoes*
.1 nis, however, appears to have proceeded either from
ignorance or a want oi proper attention to the fermen¬
tation and after-diftillation; as appears from Dr Ander¬
fon s experiment, which fucceeded extremely well by
attending to thefe proceffes. What he made he afferts
to have been the fineft and moft agreeable vinous fpirit
he ever faw, refembling in tafte very fine brandy, but
more mild, and having a certain coolnefs on the fto-
mach peculiar to itfelf.
Much may be done in bringing potatoes to perfect
tion
4( <>F'Poljtion to this, it is the opinion of even pra&ical men, that the fmall potatoes are to he nreferrerf'
‘‘ Inavebaumford(fayS Mr Holli„s) by a natifie of America, .ha, what wckaU the loUred Amer,Vat.
the roots^w- never'uf U T* "“k'deah.-d foil to a very large (lie ; but that the potatoes proceeding from
potatoes as Ly called them ^ t ^ ,t^e“ tt
15
Oi atfend
t*tou.
POT
tmti by 8ttending to their feveral varieties,
purpofe fome particular potato nvuft be fixed upon as
^ a flandard ; and when this is done, the inquiry muft
inamhefe” be carried on by attending,/^’ to their appearances
veral varie- below ground, as, t. the general form and fize of the
ties of po- bulbs ; 2. their colour ; 3. the fmoothnefs or roughnefs
of the Ikin ; 4. the confidence, that is, the mealinefs
or vifeofity and tafte of the bulb ; 5. the colour, length,
thicknefs, &c. of the umbilical cord ; 6. their tenden¬
cy to go deep, or to rife near the furface; to ramble
wide, or to adhere4 clofe to the flem; 7. the time when
the bulbs knot and fet; marking, not by the kalendar
only, but alfo compared with the advance of the plant
above ground ; 8. the time when they attain perfect
maturity with refpedt to fize, and alfo that period of
their growth at which they lofe the herbaceous, and
attain the farinaceous, tafte ; 9. their general proliii-
cacy ; 10. how long they may be kept, at what feafon
they are in greatelf perfedfion for eating,' &c. ^ £
muft next attend to the particulars obfervable above¬
ground ; as, 1. the general height, colour, and form
of the item ; 2. their tendency to pu(h out many or few
fterr.C from a root; 3* whether they carry bloflfom or
not; 4. the form, dimenfions, and colour of the leaves;
5. the form, colour, and general habitude of the blof-
fom where there is any ; 6. the time at which the blof-
fom appears; 7. the'tendency they have to produce
few or many apples; 8. the tendency they have to pro¬
duce thofe excrefcences on the {talks that refemble po¬
tatoes below ground, which may be called air potatoes ;
9. the comparative hardntfs cr tendernefs of the leaves,
in refpeft of froft or other variations of weather that af-
fe& them. And, Mly, we muft attend to the particulars
that concern the whole plant; as, 1. the foil which
feems belt to fuit each kind ; 2. the mode of culture
that beft agrees with them ; 3* tbe accidents which are
moft. liable to affeft them ; and in general every parti¬
cular that could indicate any difference between one
kind and another.
Our author next confiders the circubiftances of raffing
un rduu.fc feedling potatoes. His mode of railing them wasfimilar to
feeding pc-that recommended in the Georg'tcalF-JJ’y* quoted above;
£3toc«. J)ut be differs with refpe& to the utility or fuccefs of
that mode. It has been alleged, he fays, that potat oes,
which have been long propagated by means of bulbs,
lofe in time their generative quality, fo. as to become
much lefs prolific than at fir 11; and it is afferted that
thofe bulbs which have been lately obtained from feeds
are much more prolific, and confequently much more
profitable for being employed >8 plants than others:
but this opinion appears to have been adopted with¬
out fufficient examination : for there appears not toe
fmalleft indication of luperior prolificacy ^in thofe railed
from feeds, but rather the reverfe. That potatoes
do not degenerate in point of prolificacy in confe-
mience of being long propagated in the ufwal way,
feems to be confirmed by the general experience of all
Europe. It is now about a hundred years lince the
potato was pretty generally cultivated in Ireland, and
it has been very univerfally cultivated in Biitain for
16
opinions
un railing
{ 439 1 POT
For this 50 years paft; and all that have been reared in it finee Po^tn. ^
their firft introdu&ion two hundred years ago, a very ——v*
few of late only excepted, have been propagated from
bulbs only; fo that if they had declined in point of
prolificacy, the degeneracy fhould in this time have
been very apparent. Nothing of that kind however
was ever remarked, nor any infinuation of that fort
thrown out, till the difeovery of rearing potatoes
from feed was made, when it was for the firft; time
heard of. There are many perfons now living who
have been in the conftant praftice of rearing potatoes for
30 or 40 years ; and notwithftanding the general ten¬
dency that mankind have to difpraife the prefent, when
compared to pall times, yet none of them have given
the fmalleft hint of degeneracy in this refpe<ft. And
perhaps it will be found that this is merely a groundlefs
notion, that has originated from the partial fondnefs of
thofe who firft propagated this plant from feed, in fa¬
vour of their new difeovery. It has been further faid,
that by raifing potatoes from feed, many new uni-
valuable kinds may be obtained; and it is alfo afferted in
the Georgical EjJ'iys. Indeed an opinion of obtaining new
varieties of plants by propagating ,them from feed uni¬
verfally prevails among naturalifts. But Dr Anderfon, in
his firft paper, doubts whether this be fa£t, and whether,
wftien any of thefe occur, they have not been the effeft of
accidental pofition or other caufes. We may certainly
(fays he) affert on the whble, that if the practice of rear¬
ing potatoes from feeds fhall ever be produ&ive of any
advantages to fociety, they have not yet been difeovered.
Since he wrote that treatife which appears in the Bath.
Papers, vol. iv. (and of which we are now giving a
ftrort account), however, he has had occafion to alter his
opinion^ which he does with great candour in vol. v.
The experiment which induced him to itlter his opi¬
nion, and which appears to be decifive, was made with
the feed ’ of a potato procured from Ireland of a very-
peculiar kind. Its colour was a dirty dark purple, its
fhape a round irregular bulb, and its -Item tall and up¬
right. The feeds procured from this potato were
fown by themfelves, and the feedlings when of a proper
fize were tranfplanted. From the appearance of the
Items he foon difeorered that they were not all of one
fort, and on taking them up the variety was alrnoft in¬
finite ; and fuch as could not be accounted for on the
principles of a mongrel adulteration. The direrfities re-
fpefted colour, fhape, &c. fome of which he enumerates.
See Bath Papers, vol. v. p. 127.; fee alfo p. 35. where
Mr Wimpey controverts the Do&or’s former opinion.
Refpefting the caufes and pi-evention of the cur led On the
difeafe in potatoes there has been a great variety of opi-c"£eii
nions, which we have detailed at fome length underei
the article Agriculture, p. 267 to 270. Dr An¬
derfon cofafeffes that he am fay but little pojitive as to
the caufe of this diforder, but he thinks a good deal
may be faid on the negative fide of the queilion. It
was little known till lately (c), and in the northern
parts of this ifland it was abfolutely unknown but a very
few years ago ; and even now in the more remote cor¬
ners it is ItiU lefs frequent than in the more fouthern
and
(c) In the eighth volume of the Tranfa£ions of the London Society for Encouragement of Arts, &c.:
p. 43. we are told that the curl firft appeared 111/1764, in the very diftrict in Lancafhire where they were firft -
cultivated.
/
POT [ 440 ] POT
Potato. an<j m0re commercial diftri£fcs of the iiland. It has
been fuppofed that nature, fated as it wei'e by having
long produced this plant in a climate not deemed con¬
genial to it, had become fo far exhaufted as to occafion
this difeafe. But in this cafe, the more northern parts,
where the climate is moil unfavourable, fhould have
been fooneft affe&ed. It has been alfo thought that
potatoes, whofe bulbs are froft-bitten before they are
houfed, occafion this difeafe in the plants they pro¬
duce. But the fad is, that they are leaft liable to the
difeafe in thofe diftri&s where they are molt expofed
to froft. A potato can never indeed be benefited by
froll; but it is not at all probable that the being touch¬
ed by it occafions the curl. The taking up potatoes
before they arrive at maturity has been thought to oc¬
cafion the difeafe ; but in places where they mull be
taken up fo, the difeafe is fcarcely known. It has alfo
been thought that potatoes obtained from feed are en¬
tirely free from it. But Dr Anderfon gives a proof
of the contrary ; for one half of the plants of a large
field planted from potatoes the third year from the feed
were curled ; while another field adjoining raifed from
potatoes that never were, that he knows, produced from
feed in this country, had fcarcely one curled plant in
the whole. The difeafe has been fuppofed by others
to arife from the foil or feafon. But that this is not
the cafe, appears from the circumftance of a Angle field
which Dr Anderfon planted with potatoes of the very
fame fort, but obtained from different perfons. The ridges
were intermixed, and the one was very much curled, and
the other perfedtly free. The difeafe, therefore, appears
to arife from infe&ed feed: it is however poffible that it
may be communicated by juxtapofition ; and if fo, the
difeafe might be in a great meafure if not entirely avoid¬
ed, by pulling out thofe that fhowed the leafl fymptom
of it, on their firft appearing above ground.
In the T. ran factions of the London Society for en¬
couragement of arts, &c. we find a good deal about the
curl difeafe. Many of the writers agree in opinion with
Dr Anderfon in many particulars; and particularly, that
though the difeafe may be prevented, we do not yet
know enough of its nature to be able to cure it. See
their yol. viii. p. 18, &c. ix. p. 52, &c. and x. p. 75.
In this lafl volume we are told that the principal caufes
of the curl are three : 1. From their being forced by
cultivation to overgrow their power for vegetation ;
2. From their vegetative power being dried up in ebb
foil. b7 the fcorching heat of the fun ; and, 3. From
their being expofed too long after they are cut in fets
before they are planted.
On the foil r ** 18 generally and very naturally believed that a dry
and feafon or a dry feafon neceffarily produces the drieft. po-
moft pro- tatoes. But there is good reafon to doubt the truth
per for pc. the opinion. The year 1775 was the drielt and
warmelt lealon that has been known in Scotland within
the memoiy of man, yet the potatoes of that year’s
crop were watery almoil to a proverb : on the other
hand, the potatoes of crop 1777, although it was a re¬
markably rainy feafon, were as dry and meally at leall
as is common, and much more fo than in the year 'Potato.
xnS' It deferves alfo to be remarked, that the crop —
of 1 775 was almoft double in quantity to that of 1777.
Hence a dry feafon would feem to augment the produce,
though it does not for certain in all cafes improve the
quality, of this crop : nor does a dry foil neceffarily
infure meally potatoes ; for our author fays he has often
feen potatoes of the lame kind, and of the fame year’s
produce, reared in two different places ; the one of
them in a naturally damp foil, which turned out to be
much freer and more meally than the others which
were reared on a drier and lharper foil. He confeffes,
that he has alfo often feen it turn out in fa£t, that po¬
tatoes raifed in thofe diftri£fs where the foil is hot and
fandy, are ufually more free and tender than thofe raifed
in countries where the foil is cold and damp. Our
author tries to account for thefe contradictory pheno¬
mena by conje&uring the probable caufe of the watery-
nefs or drynefs of a crop. He alks, Wliether in this
refpeft the crop is anywife affe&ed by the degree of
ripenefs that the plants employed for feed may have at¬
tained in the preceding feafon ? That this is the cafe
he thinks highly probable. Potatoes which, on ac¬
count of the richnefs or other peculiarity of the foil,
continue in a ftate of vegetation highly luxuriant till
they are nipped by froft, or checked in their growth by
other inclemencies of the feafon, have much lefs chance
of being dry and meally than others of the fame fort
which have attained their full growth before the cold-
nefs or inclemency of the weather checked them. But
our author’s queftion does not relate to this, but to the
effcft thefe unripe potatoes, ufed as feed, would have
on the fucceeding crop ; a circumftance which experi¬
ence alone can determine. “ But even if it ftiould be
found (continues our author) that the maturity of the
feeds affe&ed the quality of the potatoes, it would not
follow invariably that the feeds produced on early dry
foils would be better than thofe from later foils ; becaufe
it might fometimes happen from local pofition, and
other accidental circumftances, that the growth of the
potatoes in the dry early foil might be checked by frofts
many weeks before thofe on the other foil were affe&ed,
in confequence of which the plants in the cold foil might
attain to more perfeft maturity than thofe on the drier
one. I mention this peculiarity merely to Ihow how cau¬
tious the farmer ought to be in adopting general conclu-
fions without carefully attending to all the collateral cir¬
cumftances that may affe& his experiment. I ftiall only
farther add an this head, that I had occafion to know
well a dry warm fpot of ground on which the ftems of the
potatoes of crop 1776 were froft-bitten at leaft fix weeks
before thofe on another fpot at fome miles diftance from
it, where the foil was naturally more cold and damp,
were in the fmalleft degree affe&ed by it. It likewife
fo happened, that the potatoes raifed on the firft-men-
tioned fpot in the year 1777 (their own froft-bitten (u)
feed was employed) had fuch a peculiar acrid and bit-
terifti tafte as to be hardly at all eatable, while thofe in
the colder place of that crop had nothing of that un-
ufual
mucl^hmtfbv ri!e'frnir frf‘bittetlx ,here aPPlicd to the ftems only, and not to the bulbs. The ftems were fo
ciently intenfe to hurfthem? ^ b ^ ^ bUt ^ 18111138 Were taken UP bcfore the froA had been fuffi-
P O IT [441] POT
ufual tafte. Whether this diverfity was ©ccafjoned by
the circumltance here alluded to, I do not take it on me
to fay. In matters of fueh nice difquiiition as the pre-
fent, many fadts obtained by very accurate obfervation
are neceffary before any conclufion can be relied on."
Potatoes, when planted in water, fhoot out a great
number of fine white roots like threads into the water ;
but on none of them is tVere to be found the lead ap¬
pearance of a bulb; while on the other hand the pota¬
toes in that cafe always grow on the top. P tatoes are
found to be extremely ufefu1 in bringing exhauded land
into heart again. See Agriculturk, n 35 and 586,
p. 30c), col. I. The bifhop of Killalue in Ireland di-
re&cs the ufe of them for this purpofe in a letter in the
BiUb Papers, voh 4. p. 2 32, and confirms its utility in
this refpedl by experiments of his own. In the 10th
vol. of the ’TranfaSions of the London Society for Enceu
ragement of Arts, &c. p. 34, there is alfo a molt decifive
proof of this utility.
We have been induced, from the extenfive Utility of
this root, to extend our obfervation* on the fubjeft to a
greater length than we Ihould otherwife have done.
Such of our readers as wilh for further information,
will of couife confult the books from which wre have
made up the prefent article, as well as other books
on Agriculture ; in which they will find the obfer-
vations and experiments which we have mentioned at
rrmchgreater length than we could poffibly give them. In
the fixth volume of the Bath Society Papers there is an
excellent paper on the culture of potatoes and feeding
hogs with them during fevtn years by John Billingfiey
Efq; of w'hich our limits do not permit us to take par¬
ticular notice. There are alfo a variety of other papers in
the feveral volumes of that work, as well as in the Tranf-
a&ions of the London Society, which we have already
feveral times mentioned; which will deferve the particular
attention of fuel) as wifh well to the poor, or have a defire
dill farther to extend the utility of this molt valuable
root. We have already mentioned a cheap preparation
by means of potatoes for the poor, fee Agriculture,
nJ 161; and w'e fhall finilh the prefent article with a re¬
ceipt to make a potato herrico, which may be equally ufe-
ful to thofe whofe circumftances are not fuch as to make
them regardlefs of economy. We take it from the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine, and give it in the words of a perfon
who had tried the experiment.
Scrape the Ikin clean off four pounds of good raw
potatoes, then wafh tliem clean in fair water: take two
pounds of beef, one of mutton, and one of pork ; or
as you like heft, four pounds of any of thefe meats; cut
them into pieces of three or four ounces each, feafon
them very well with pepper and fait and a good onion
chopped very fmall: have ready a flrong wide-mouthed
done jar, fuch as hares are ufually jugged in ; llice thin
a layer of the potatoes into the jar, then a layer of the
feafoned meat over them, and fo alternately layers of
potatoes and meat; let your uppermolt layer be potatoes,
fo that your jar be about three quarters full, but put
no water into your jar; then clofe or ftop the mouth of
it with a large well-fitted piece of cork, covering the
fame with a ftrong piece of canvas, and tyeing it down
with pack-thread, fo as only a little of the fteam may
efcape in the ftewing ; for a little Ihould conftantly eva¬
porate from the fide of the cork to fave the jar from
burfling. Then place your jar upright in a kettle of
Vol. XV. Part II.
cold water on the fire, fo as the mouth of the jar may
be always two inches above the water in tire kettle when
boiling. The herrico in the jar will begin to boil fome
minutes foorer than the water in the kettle, and that for
obvious rcafons. In about an hour after the water in the
kettle begiiie to boil, your herrico will be fully dewed.
Then take out and open the jar, pour out the herrico
into a deep difh, and ferve it up.
This excellent, wholefome, and economical difh fun-
plies an agreeable dinner twice a vvetk to a family con¬
fiding of three grown people, and three chi.dren under
fourteen years of age, where neither health nor good do-
machs are wanting, thanks to God : and, in point of
economy we mud obferve, that here is the whole article
of butter laved, as alfo the whole article of bread, or
nearly fo; nor does there require fo lar^e or fo continued
a fire, nor fo much time or trouble as is necedary for the
dreffing of many other dilhes that by no means deferve
the preference to this excellent herrico.
We have alfo (by way of change) made it with pow¬
dered beef, fometimes with powdered pork, fometimea
with half frelh beef or mutton and half pickled pork,
and found it good in all thefe ways, particularly with
three pounds of frelh beef and one of pickled pork. Wc
have left off fending pies and dews to the bakers. We
fometimes (in a larger kettle) boil a fmall piece of pow¬
dered beef along fide of the jar, by continuing the boil¬
ing an hour and ?.n half longer, and this ferves us to eat
cold the next day, with hot garden-ftuff or a pudding.
Potato-Bread. See Bread of Potatoes.
Spanijh Potato. See Convolvulus, n'"’
POTENT, or Potence, in heraldry', a term fora
kind of crofs, whofe ends all terminate like the head of
a crutch. It is otherwife called the Jerufalem crofst and
is reprefented Plate CCXXIX, fig. 12, 12.
POTENTIA (power), that whereby a thing is
capable either of acting or being afted upon.
POTENTIAL, in the fchools* is ufed to denote
and diffinguilh a kind of qualities, which are fuppofed
to exift in the body >n potentia only ; by which they are
capable in fome meafure of affefting and imprefling on
us the ideas of fuch qualities, though not actually inhe¬
rent in themfelves; in which fenfe we fay, potential heat,
potential cold, See.
Potential Cautery, in medicine, denotes the con-
fuming, or reducing to an efehar, any part of the hu¬
man body by a cauffic alkaline or metallic lalt, See. in-
ftead of a red-hot iron, which lad is called the actual
cautery.
Potential, in grammar, an epithet applied to one
of the moods of verbs. The potential is the fame in
form with the fubjun£tive, and is, according to Ruddi-
man, implied in that mood, for which reafon that gram¬
marian rejedls it ; but others will have it to differ from
the fubjundtive in this, that it always implies in it either
pojfum, volo, or debeo. It. is fometimes called the pcrmifjive
mood, becaufe it often implies a permiflion or conceflioh
to do a thing. See Grammar.
POTENT ILL A, SILVER-WEED, nviJd tan fey, or
cinquefoil: A genus of the pentagynia order, belonging
to the icofandria clafs of plants; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 35th order, Scnticofr. The ca¬
lyx is decemfid; there are five petals ; the feeds round-
ifh, naked, and affixed to a fmall dry' receptacle. The
fpecies are, 1. The fruticofa, or fhrubby potentilla, com*
3 K monly
/
POT L 442 1 POT
Potent ilia, monly called Jhrub-cinquefoil. This rifes with a fhort
i >nei mm. ftem, dividing into a branchy full head, three or
four feet high; clofely garnifhed with pinnated leaves of
five oblong, narrow, acute-pointed, folioles, pale green
above, and whitifh underneath ; and the branches termi¬
nated by clufters of large, fpreading, yellow flowers.
This is a beautiful deciduous flowering fhrub, worthy a
place in every curious colleftion. It grows wild in
Yorkfliire and other northern parts of England, &c. but
has been long cultivated in gardens as an ornamental
fhrub. 2. The reptans, or creeping common five-leaved
potentilla, or five-leaved grafs, hath a thick fibry root,
flender, trailing, repent ftalks, digitated, five-lobed, pe-
tiolated leaves, and yellow flowers fingly. 3. The ru-
peftris, or mountain upright cinquefoil, hath upright
ftalks, eight or nine inches high; pinnated five and three-
lobed alternate leaves, having oval crenated lobes, and
the flalks terminated by fmall white flowers. 4. The
redta, or eredt feven-lobed yellow cinquefoil, hath erect
{talks, feven-lobed leaves; having three lobes fpear-
fliaped and ferrated, green and hairy on both fides, and
the {talks terminated by corymbofe clufters of yellow
flowers. 5. Hie fragaroides, or ftrawberry-like trailing
potentilla, hath a fomewhat tuberous root, furniftied
with many long fibres, long trailing {hoots, rooting at
the joints ; pinnated, moftly three-lobed leaves, having
oval lobes, with the extreme lobe the largeft, and clufters
of fmall white flowers. This fpecies bears a great re-
femblance to the fmall fterile itrawberry plants. 6. The
argentea, filvery upright potentilla, hath upright ftalks,
'branching a foot high ; and five-lobed leaves, having
the lobes wedge-fliaped, cut on the edges, hoary and
white underneath, and the branches terminated by fmall
yellow flowers.
All thefe plants flower in June and July; the flowers
arc compofed each of five roundifti petals, and about
20 ftamina. They are all very hardy, and may be em¬
ployed in the different compar-tments of the pleafure
ground. Their propagation is very eafy. The fhrubby
potentilla may be propagated abundantly by fuckers,
layers, and cuttings; all of which will readily grow,
and make plants in one year, which after having two or
three years growth in the nurfery will be fit for any of
the (hrubbery compartments. All the herbaceous kinds
may be propagated by parting the roots in autumn or
fpring, or by feed in any of thofe feafons.
POTERIUM, GARDEN burnet: A genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
54th order. Mi feel lane#. The male calyx is tetraphyl-
lous ; the corolla quadripartite ; and there are from 30
to 40 ftamina. 1 he female calyx is tetraphyllous ; the
corolla quadripartite ; there are two piftils; the berry
is formed of the indurated tube of the corolla. The
fpecies are, 1. Ihe fanguiforba, or common garden bur-
net, hath fibry perennial roots, crowned by a large tuft
of pinnated leaves, or fix or feven pair of fawed lobes,
germinated by an odd one ; upright angular {talks, di¬
viding, and branching a foot and a half high, termi¬
nated by oblong fpikes of purplifti red flowers. This
fpecies grows wild in England, in chalky foils; but has
been long cultivated as a choice falad-herb for winter
and fpring ufe, it being of a warm nature ; the young
leaves are the ufeful parts. It is perennial in root, and
retains its radical leaves all the year, but the ftalks are
annual. . 2. The hybridum, hybrid agrimony-leaved Poterluta
Montpelier burnet, rifes with upright, taper, clofely II
gathered ftalks two feet high ; pinnated odoriferous ,
leaves of three or four pair of fawed lobes, terminated ” v J
by an odd one ; and the ftalks terminated by long foot-
ftalks dividing into fmaller, each fupporting a fmall
roundifli fpike of flowers. This fpecies often proves
biennial; but by cutting down fome of the ftalks before
they flower, it will caufe it to multiply at bottom, and
become abiding. 3. Poterium fpinofum, ftirubby fpi-
nous burnet of Crete, hath a ftirubby ftem and branch¬
es, rifing a yard high, armed with fpines ; fmall pin¬
nated evergreen leaves, of fix or feven pair of lobes, ter¬
minated by an odd one, and the branches terminated by
fmall heads of greenifti flowers.
All thefe fpecies flowrer in June and July, fuc-
ceeded by ripe feeds in Autumn. They are all na¬
turally perennial; but the two herbaceous ones are
abiding in root only ; the other in root, ftem, and
branches : the two former are hardy, and the third re¬
quires ftielter in winter. The firft fort merits culture
in every kitchen-garden for winter and fpring falads.
Some plants, both of the firft and fecond forts, may be
introduced in the herbaceous collection in the pleafure-
garden for variety. The third fort muft be kept al¬
ways in pots to have ftielter in winter. They are all
ealily propagated, the firft fort by feed and by parting
the roots. The fecond fort may alfo be increafed by
feeds and flips off the root, as for the former fort. And
the propagation of the third is by flips or cuttings of
the branches in fpring and fummer, planted inpots^and
placed under glaffes, giving ftiade and water; or miuht
be forwarded more by plunging them in a hot-bed. °
Burnet is of a heating, drying nature, cordial and
alexipharmac ; in fummer, the leaves are ufed for cool
tankards, to give the wine an agreeable flavour. The
powder of the root of the firft fpecies is commended
againft fpitting of blood, bleeding at the nofe, dyfen-
teries, and difeafes attended with violent fecretions. la
winter and fpring, the young tender leaves are ufed in
falads. For its ufes as food for cattle, fee Agricul¬
ture, n° 1 84.
1 01 HOS, in botany ; a genus of the polyandria
order, belonging Jo the gynandria clafs of plants. The
fpatha or {heath is a Ample fpadix covered; there is no
calyx, but four petals, and as many ftamina ; the ber¬
ries difpermous.
POTION, a liquid medicine, confifting of as much
as can be drunk at one draught.
POTIPHAR, or Putiphar, an officer of the
court of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and general of his
troops, according to our tranflation, Le Clerc, and the
verfion of the vulgate; but according to the Hebrew and
Septuagint, the chief of his butchers or cooks. The
Hebrew text, the Septuagint, and vulgate, call him Eu¬
nuch. But it is probable it in this place means only
an officer of the king’s court, for he was certainly
married and had children. We have no other accounts
of him but what appear in feripture; and that account
is too generally known to require to be enlarged on in
this place. See Genefis xxxviii. xxxix. &c.
POTOSI, a city of Peru in South America, fitua-
ted at the bottom of a mountain of that name, in which
is the richeft filver mine ever difeovered. To give an
idea of its richnefs, we ftiall mention its produce at dif*
fercai
POT [ 44.-! 1 POT
Fottfam, fereut times. Exclufive of what was not regiilered,
Pott. fayS Abbe Raynal, and was fmuggled away, the fifth
^ part belonging to the government, from 1545 to 1564,
* ‘31.S751 amounted to 36,450,000 livres * per annum. But this
abundance of metals foon decreafed. From 1564 to
1585, the annual fifth p.art amounted to no more than
§ 63a,?i2]. 15,187,489 livres four fols From 158510 1624,
J* ( it amounted to 12,149,994 livres 12 fols f. From
t9 ^624 to 1633, to 6,074,997 livres fix fols j. From
j 2^3.n this laft period, the produce of thefe mines hath fo evi-
37?. yd- dently decreafed, that in 1763 the fifth part, belong¬
ing to the king, did not exceed 1,364,682 livres 12
8 f0l8||. Situated in W. Long. 67. S. Lat. 22. See
^ ' the article Peru, p. 220, col. 2.
POTSDAM, or Postdam, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, with a palace, belonging
to the king of Prufiia. It is fcated in an ifland ten
miles in circumference, formed by the rivers Sprae and
Havel. The palace is very curious, and finely built
upon a delightful fpot 12 mileg weft of Berlin. E.
Long. 13. 42. N. Lat. 52. 34. Reilbeck in his travels
informs us, that the houfes in Potfdam are ftill finer
than thofe of Berlin ; but like them they are inhabited
only by perfons of the lower and middling ranks.
POTT (Percival), was born in London in 1713. He
received the firft rudiments of his education at a private
fchool at Darne in Kent; and became an apprentice
to Mr Nourfe, one of the furgeons of St Bartholo¬
mew’s hofpital ; of which hofpital, in 1744-5, was
ele&ed an afliftant furgeon, and in 1749 appointed one
of the principal furgeons. In 1746, he married the
daughter of Robert Cruttenden, Efq. His firft pub¬
lication is faid to have been planned in 1756, during
his confinement in confequence of a compound frafture
of the leg : from that time, his pen was feldom long
unemployed. His prattice and his reputation were
now rapidly increafing: in 1764, he was eledled a fel¬
low of the Royal Society ; and afterward was compli¬
mented with honorary diplomas from the Royal Col¬
leges of Surgeons at Edinburgh and in Ireland. In
1787, he refigned the office of furgeon to St Bartho¬
lomew’s hofpital, “ after having ferved it (as he ufed
to fay), man and boy, half a century and on the 22d
of December 1788, after an illnefs of eight days, he
expired.
“ The labours of the greateft part of his life (fays
Mr Earle, who publifhed his Chirurgical works), were
without relaxation ; an increafing family required his
utmoft exertion : of late years he had a villa at Neaf-
den ; and in the autumn ufually palfed a month at
Bath, or at the fea-lide. Thus, though he gathered,
as he expreffed it, fome of the fruit of the garden
which he had planted as he went along, and always
lived in a generous and hofpitable manner, at the fame
time beftowing on four fons and four daughters a libe¬
ral and neceflarily expenfive education, and applying
large fums to their eftablifliment during his lifetime,
he left an ample provifion for them at his deceafe. A-
mong his papers was found, what he had often men¬
tioned, a fmall box, containing a few pieces of money,
being the whole which he ever received from the wreck
of his father’s fortune. With this was depofited an
exadt account of every individual fee which a long
life of bufinefs had produced — abundant evidence of
well fpent. time, and the induftrious application of abi¬
lities, to which the res angujla domt, at the commence- Patter,
ment, probably a&ed more powerfully as an incentive Pottery* i
than as an obftacle.” v
POTTER (Chriftopher), a learned Engliffi divine,
was born in 1591, and bred at Oxford. In 1633, he
publiffied his “ Anfwer to a late Popifh Plot,” intitlcd
Charity mijlaken, which he wrote by fpecial order* of
King Charles I. whofe chaplain he was. In 1634, he
was promoted to the deanery of Worcefter; and, in
1640, was conftituted vice-chancellor of the univerfity
of Oxford, in the execution of which office he met with
fome trouble from the members of the long parliament.
Upon breaking out of the civil wars, he fent all his
plate to the king, declaring, “ that he would rather,
like Diogenes, drink in the hollow of his hand, than
that his majefty ffiould want and he afterwards
fuffered much for the royal caufe. In coniideration of
this he was nominated to the deanery of Durham in
1646, but was prevented from being inftalled by his
death, which happened about two months after. He
was a perfon learned and religious, exemplary in his
converfation, courteous in his carriage, of a fweet and
obliging nature, and of a comely prefence. Fie was re*
markable in his charity to the poor.
Potter (Dr John), archbilhop of Canterbury, wa*
the fon of a linen-draper at Wakefield, in Yorkfhire,
where he was born about the year 1674. He ftudied
at Univerfity college, Oxford; and at 19 publifhed
Variantes leftiones & nota: ad Plutarchi hbrum dc audicndis
poeiis ; & ad Bafilii magni orationem adjuvenes, quomodo
cumfruElu legere pojjint Grtecorum librosy 8vo, 1693. In
1697, came out his edition of Lycophron, in folio;
which is reckoned the beft of that obfeure writer: foon
after, he publiflied his Antiquities of Greece, 2 vols 8vo.
Thefe works eftablifhed his literary reputation, and en¬
gaged him in a correfpondence with Graevius and other
learned foreigners. In 1706, he was made chaplain
to the queen ; in 1715, bifhop of Oxford ; and in 1737,
he fucceeded archbifhop Wake in the fee of Canter¬
bury ; which high llation he fupported with much dig¬
nity until his death in 1747. He was a learned and
exemplary churchman ; but not of an amiable difpo-
lition, being but too ftrongly tinftured with the pride
of office ; nor is it to his credit that he difinherited his
eldeft fon for marrying below his rank in life. His
“ Theological works, containing fermons, charges, dif-
courfts on church-government, and divinity lectures,”
were printed at Oxford, in 3 vols, 8vo, 1753.
POTTERY, the manufacture of earthen-ware, or
the art of making earthen veffels. See DtiFT-Ware,
STONE-lVare, and Porcelain, &c.
The wheel and lathe are the chief and almoft the
only inftruments in pottery: the firft for large works,
and the laft for fmall. The potter’s wheel confifts prin¬
cipally in the nut, which is a beam or axis, whofe foot
or pivot plays perpendicularly on a free-ftone foie or
bottom. From the four corners of this beam, which .
does not exceed two feet in height, arife four iron
bars, called the /pokes of the wheel; which forming dia¬
gonal lines with the beam, defeend, and are faftened
at bottom to the edges of a ftrong wooden circle, four
feet in diameter, perfeClly like the felloes of a coach-
wheel, except that it has neither axis nor radii, and
is only joined to the beam, which ferves it as an axis
by the iron-bars. The top of the nut is flat, of a cir-
3 K 2 cular
P O V L 444 ] P O U
Pottery cular ttgure, and a foot in diameter : and on tins is laid
^ t the clay which is to be turned and fafhioned. 'I'he
whecl thus difpofed is encompafled with four Tides of
four different pieces of wood faftened on a wooden
frame; the hind-piece, which is that on which the
workman fits, is made a little inclining towards the
wheel; on the fore-piece are placed the prepared earth;
on the Tide-pieces he refts his feet, and thefe are made
inclining to give him more or lefs room. Having pre¬
pared the earth, the potter lays a round piece of it on
the circular head of the nut, and fitting down turns
the wheel with his feet till it has got the proper velo¬
city ; then, wetting his hands with water, he preffes
his fill or his fii gers-ends into the middle of the lump,
and thus forms the cavity of the veffel, continuing to
widen it from the middle ; and thus turning the infide
into form with one hand, while he proportions the out-
fide with the other, the wheel conflantly turning all the
while, and he wetting his hands from time to time.
When the veffel is too thick, he ufes a fiat piece of
iron, fomewhat fharp on the edge, to pare off what is
redundant; and when it is finifhed, it is taken off
from the circular head by a wire paffed under the veffel.
The potter’s lathe is alfo a kind of wheel, but more
fimple and flight than the former: its three chief mem¬
bers are an iron beam or axis three feet and a half
high, and two feet and a half diameter, placed horizon¬
tally at the top of the beam, and ferving to form the
veffel upon : and another larger wooden wheel, all of a
piece, three inches thick, and two or three feet broad,
faftened to the fame beam at the bottom, and parallel
to the horizon. The beam or axis turns by a pivot at
the bottom in an iron Hand. The workman gives the
motion to the lathe with his feet, by pufhing the great
whe.i alternately with each foot, ftill giving it a great¬
er or lefler degree of motion as his work requires. They
work with the lathe with the fame inftruments, and
after the lame manner, as with the wheel. The mould¬
ings are formed by holding a piece of wood or iron
cut in the form of the moulding to the veffel, while
the wheel is turning round; but the feet and handles
are made by themfelves and fet on with the hand ; and
if there be any fculpture in the work, it is ufually done
in wooden moulds, and ftuck on piece by piece on the
outude of the veflel. For the glazing of the work, fee
Glazing.
POTTLE, an Englifh meafure containing two
quarts.
POVERTY fignifies indigence or want of riches,
and has been the lot of a large portion of men in every
age. Whether, on the whole, it has been productive
of good or bad eonfequences, has been difputed. In a
moral view, perhaps it has been, on the whole, ufeful,
as adverlity is in general more conducive to virtue than
profperity, which too often leads to luxury and vice.^—
Sometimes, however, poverty has had a baneful effedl
upon the mind, and has prompted men to commit very
.inhuman adtions ; but this in civilized communities very
feldom occurs. In a political view, poverty is thought
by iomc to be hurtful : Raynal thinks it is a check
to population, (fee his Hiftory, vol. vi. p. 471.) ; and
I)r Smith To far agrees with him; for though he afferts,
and indeed proves, that poverty is no check to the pro¬
duction of children, he allows it to be very unfavour
able to i-aifxng them. See Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Pmnadulf
vol. i. p. 119, &c. See alfo Poor. |1
POULADUFF, two remarkable great holes in the t
ground, about a mile wreft of Rofs, in the county of
Cork, and province of Munfter, in Ireland, 80 wards
deep, in which the fea flows by fubterraneous paffages.
They are called Eaft and Weft Pouladujf; one is on
the lands of Downeen, and the other on Tralong.
POUXTICE, a fort of medicine, called alfo a cata-
plafm. See Cataplasma.
POULTRY, all kind of dameftic birds brought up
in yards, as cocks, hens, capons, ducks, turkeys, &c.
Almoft, if not all the domeftic birds of the poultry
kind that we maintain in our yards are of foreign ex¬
traction: but there are others to be ranked in this clafs
that are as yet in a Hate of nature, and perhaps only
wait till they become fufficiently fcarce to be taken-
under the care of man to multiply their propagation.
It will appear remarkable enough, if wre coniider how
much the tame poultry wdrich we have imported from
diftant climates has increafed, and how much thofe
wild birds of the poultry kind that have never yet been
taken into keeping have been diminifhed and deftroy-
ed. They are all thinned ; and many of the fpecies,
efpecially in the more cultivated and populous parts of
the kingdom, are utterly unfeen.
Under birds of the poultry kind may be ranked all
thofe that have white flefh, and, comparatively to their
heads and limbs, have bulky bodies. They are fumifh-
ed wdth fhort ftrong bills for picking up grain, which
is their chief and often their only fuftenance. Their
wings are fhort and concave ; for which reafon they are
not able to fly far. They lay a great many eggs; and
as they lead their young abroad, the very day they are
hatched, in queft of food, which they are fhown by
the mother, and wdrich they pick up for themfelves,
they generally make their nefts on the ground. The
toes of all thefe are united by a membrane as far as the
firft articulation, and are then divided.
Under this clafs we may therefore render the com¬
mon cock, the peacock, the turkey, the pintada or Gui¬
nea hen, the pheafant, the buftard, the grous, the part¬
ridge, and the quail. They all bear a ftrong fimilitude
to each other, being equally granivorous, flefhy, and
delicate to the palate. They are among birds what
beafts of pafture are among quadrupeds, peaceable te¬
nants of the field, and fhunning the thicker parts of
the foreft, that abound with numerous animals who
carry on unceafing hoftilities againfl them.
As nature has formed the rapacious clafs for war, fo
fhe feems equally to have fitted thefe for peace, reft,
and fociety. Their wings are but fhort, fo that they
are ill formed for wandering from one region to ano¬
ther : their bills are alfo fhort, and incapable of an¬
noying their oppofers : their legs are ftrong Indeed ;
but their toes are made for fcratching up their food,
and not for holding or tearing it; . Thefe are fuf-
ficient indications of their harmlefs nature ; wftule their
bodies, which are fat and flefhy, render them unwieldy
travellers, and incapable of ftraying far from each other.
Accordingly, we find them chiefly in fociety : they
live together : and though they may have their dif-
putes, like all other animals, upon fome occafions ;
yet, when kept in the fame diftridt, or fed in the
fame
P O U [ 445 1
fame yard, they learn the arts of fuborduiatien ; and, born in
in pioportion as each knows his ftrength, he fddom
tries a fecond time the combat where he has once been
worfted.
In this manner, all of this kind feem to lead an in
detent voluptuous life. As they are furniihed internal¬
ly with a very ftrong ftomach, commonly called a
zurd) fo their voracioufnefs fcarce knows any bounds.
If kept in clofc captivity, and leparated from all their
former companions, they have hill the pleafure of eat¬
ing left; and they foon grow fat and unwieldy in their
pnfon. To fay this more limply, many of the wilder
fpecies of birds, when cooped or caged, pine away, grow
gloomy, and fume refufe all fuftenance whatever; none
except thofe of the poultry kind grow fat, who feem to
iofe all remembrance of their former liberty, fatished with
indolence and plenty.
POUNCE, gum fandarach pounded and fifted very
fine, to rub on paper, in order to preferve it from
finking, and to make it more lit to write upon.
Pounce, is alfo a little heap of charcoal dull, in-
clofed in a piece of muflin or fome other open Huff, to
be palfed over holes pricked in a work, in order to
mark the lines or deligns thereof on paper, filk, &c.
placed underneath ; which are to be afterwards fmilhed
with a pen and ink, a needle, or the like. I his kind
of pounce is much ufed by embroiderers, to transfer
their patterns upon llulfs ; by lace-makers, and fome*
times alfo by engravers.
Pounces, in falconry, the talons or claws of a bird
of prey.
POUND, a ftandard-weight; for the proportion and
fubdivilions of which, lee the article Weight.
Pound alfo denotes a money of account; fo called,
becaufe the ancieirt pound of filver weighed a pound
troy.
Pound, among lawyers, denotes a place of urength,
in which to keep cattle that are diilrained, or put in
for trefpafs, until they are replevied or redeemed.
POUNDAGE, a fublidy of 12 d. in the pound,
granted to the crown on all goods and merchandizes
exported or imported ; and if by aliens, one penny
nl°re* • r- , • 1
POURPRESTURE, in law, is a wrongful inclo-
fure, or incroachment upon another perfon spsoperty.
POURSUIVANT, or Pursuivant, in heraldry,
the lowed; order of officers at arms.—They are proper¬
ly attendants on the heralds when they marlhal pub¬
lic ceremonies. Of thefe in England there were for¬
merly many; but at prefent there are only four, viz.*
blue-mantle, rouge-crofs, rouge-dragon, and port-cul-
lice. In Scotland there is only one king at arms, who
is llyted L.yon ; and has under him no lefs than fix he¬
ralds, as many purfuivants, and a great many meltengers
at arms. See Lyon.
POURVEYANCE, or Purveyance, in law, the
providing corn, fuel, vidtuals, &c. for the king’s home-
hold ; and hence the officer who did fo was termed
pourveyor. As feveral oft'ences were committed by thefe
officers, it was enafted by teat. 12. Car. II. that no
perfon, under colour of pourveyance, (hall take any
timber, cattle, corn, &c. from any fubjeft without his
fiee confent, or without a juft appraifement and paying
for the fame.
POUSSIN (Nicholas), an eminent French painter,
p o w
    1594, at Andel, a little city in Normandy,
where his father was of noble extradition, but born to a 
fmall eftate. He was inftru&ed for a few months by
one Ferdinand File, a portrait-painter, and afterwards
fpent a month with L’Alternant; but finding^ thefe ar-
tifts not likely to improve him fuitably to his defires,
he firit ftiTdied the paintings of the beft mafters, and
then haftened to finifh a few pieces he was engaged in,
and travelled to Italy. Here he devoted almoft his
whole attention to the ftudy of antique ftatues and b^s
reliefs ; which was probably the caufe of his want of
knowledge in, and tafte for, the art of colouring. Be¬
ing invited back to Paris by Louis XIII. who affign-
ed him a penfion with lodgings in the Thuilleries, he
painted for prince Juftiniani an hiftorical picture re-
prefenting Herod’s cruelty; an admirable compofition,
iu which he gave fuch expreffion to every character, as -
could not fail to ftrike the beholder with terror and
pity : he then laboured for feveral years on the cele¬
brated pictures of the leven facraments of the Romifu
church. But none of Pouffin’s defigns have been more
generally admired than that of the death of Germa-
nicus ; which would have gained him immortal honour
if he had never painted another picture. He began the
labours of Hercules in the gallery of the Louvre ; but
the faction of Vouet’s fchool railing at him and his
performances, put him fo out of humour with his own
country, that he returned to Rome, wdiere he died in
1665. He never went beyond eafel-pieces, for which
he had a perpetual demand ; and his method was to fix
the price he expedted on the back of the canvas, wffiich
was readily paid.
Poussin (Gafpar). This painter, w'hofe real name
w'as Dughet, was born at Paris in 1600 ; and wras in¬
duced to travel to Rome, not only from a love to the
art of planting, but alfo to viiit hvs filler, who wras mar¬
ried to Nicholas Pouffin. Sandrart fays that Gafpar
was employed at firft only to prepare the pallet, pen¬
cils, and colours, for Nicholas; but by the precepts and
example of that excellent mafter, gradually rofe to the
higheft reputation, and is undoubtedly one ol the beft
landfcape-painters that ever appeared. It is generally
thought that no painter ever ftudied nature to better
purpofe, or reprefeuted the effedts of land-ftorms more
happily, than Gafpar ; all his trees ffiow a natural de¬
gree of agitation, every leaf being in motion; his
feenes are all beautifully chofen, as are the fites of his
buildings. He deiigned human figures but very indif¬
ferently ; for which reafon he frequently prevailed on
, Nicholas to paint them for him ; and they wye always
introduced with the utmoft propriety. White he con¬
tinued at Rome he dropped his own name, and aflumed
that of his brother-in-law and benefadtor, by which only
he is at preient known. He died in 1662.
POWDER, in pharmacy, a dry medicine well bro¬
ken, either in a mortar by grinding or by fome chemi¬
cal operation.
Gun-Pofrnsn. See Gunpowder. See alfo Obfer-
vations on Gunpov.der in the Irifh I ranfadlions
p. 97. clafs Science, by Mr Napier.
Powder-Cbejis, certain fmall boxes charged with
powder and a quantity of old nails or fplinters of iron,
and faftened occafionally on the deck and fides of a
(hip, in order to be difeharged on an enemy who at¬
tempts to Lize her by boarding. Thefe cafes are ufu-
ally
PoifTin,
Pewder.
P o w
Powder
1 ovver^.
ally from 12 to 18 inches in length, and about eight
or ten in breadth, having their outer or upper part ter-
_ minating in an edge. They are nailed to feveral places
of the quarter-deck and bulk-head of the waift, ha¬
ving a train of powder, which communicates with the
inner apartments of the fhip, fo as to be fired at plea-
fure to annoy the enemy. They are particularly ufed
in merchant-fliips which are furnifhed with clofe-quar¬
ters to oppofe the boarders.
Potman-Magcmine, a bomb-proof arched building, to
contain powder in fortified places.
Poiru&R for the Hair. The beil fort is Itarch well
pcninded and lifted,^ and generally prepared with fome
perfume.
James's PoirvER. See James's Powder. In the
Philofophical Tranfadlions for 179:, p. 317. tlxere is
a paper by Dr Peaiion, containing experiments andob-
fervations on James’s powder. Dr Pearfon fays, it was
originally a patent medicine ; but it is well known that
it cannot be prepared by following the directions of the
fpecification in the dourt of chancery. His obfervations
and experiments, therefore, he thinks, may explain the
nature and manner of preparing this medicine, and per¬
haps may extend the hiftory of antimony. The refult
of the whole, in Dr Pearfon’s own words, is as follows :
James’s powder confifts of phofphoric acid, lime,
r 446 ]
p
or Lues
R E
Venerea.
See Medt-
<md antimonial calx ; with a minute quantity of calx of
iron, which is confidered to .be an accidental fubilance.
2. Either thefe three eflential ingredients are united
with each other, forming a triple compound, or phofpho-
rated lime is combined with the antimonial calx, compo-
iing a double compound in the proportion of about 57
parts of calx and 43 parts of phofphorated lime. 3. This
'antimonial calx is different from any other known calx
of antimony in feveral of its chemical qualities. About
three-fourths of it are foluble in marine acid, and afford
Algaroth powder ; and the remainder is not foluble in
this menflruum, and is apparently vitrified. It alfo ap¬
pears, that by calcining together bone-afhes, that is,
phofphorated lime and antimony in a certain propor¬
tion, and afterwards expofing the mixture to a white
heat, a compound was formed, confifting of antimonial
calx and phofphorated lime in the fame proportion, and
poffefling the fame kind of chemical properties as James’s
powder.
POWDIKE, in the fens of Norfolk and Ely. By flat.
22 Hen. VIII. c. 11. perverfely to cut down and deilroy
the powdike in the fens of Norfolk and Ely is felony.
Bee Blachftone's Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 243.
POWER, has been defined the faculty of doing or fuf-
fering any thing. Power, therefore, is two-fold, viz. con¬
fidered as able to make, or able to receive, any change;
the former whereof may be called attive, and the latter
fajjive, power^but this diitinaion is improper. See Me-
POX, French-Pox,
cine, n” 3 jo.
Small-Pox. See Inoculation, and Medicine,
no 222—226.
POYNlNG’s law, an a& of parliament made in
Ireland under Henry VII. whereby all the flatutes of
force in England were made of force in Ireland ; which
before that time they were not. — Nor are any now in
force there made in England fince that time.
1 he law took its name from Sir Edward Poyning,
lord-lieutenant of that kingdom at the time of its ma¬
king. See Ireland, n° 46.
POZZOLANA. See PUZZOLA NA.
PRACTICE, in arithmetic. See there, n° 16.
&c.
Gun-P r act ice, in military education. In the fpring,
as foon as the weather permits, the exercife of the great
guns begins, with an intention to fhow the gentlemen
cadets at the royal military,academy at Woolwich, and
private men, the manner of laying, loading, pointing,
and firing the guns. Sometimes inflruments are ufed
to find the centre line, or two points, one at the breech,
the other at the muzzle, which are marked with chalk,
and whereby the piece is direcled to the target: then
a quadrant is put into the mouth to give the gun the
required elevation, which at firfl is gueffed at, accord¬
ing to the distance the target is from the piece. When
the piece has been fired, it is fponged to clear it from
any duft or fparks of fire that might remain in the
bore, and loaded: then the centre line is found as be¬
fore ; and if the fhot went too high or too low, to the
right or to the left, the elevation and trail are altex-ed
accordingly. This praclice continues morning and
evening for about fix weeks, more or lefs according as
there are a greater or lefs number of recruits. In the
mean time others are Ihown the motions of quick-firing
with field-pieces.
Mortar-Prac’eice, generally thus. A line of 1500
or 2000 yards is meafured in an open fpot of ground
from the place where the mortars Hand, and a flag fix¬
ed at about 300 or 500 yards : this being done, the
ground v/here the mortars are to be placed is prepared
and levelled with fand, fo that they may lie at an ele¬
vation of 4j degrees; then they are loaded with a
fmall quantity of powder at firlt, which is increafed
afterwards by an ounce every time, till they are load¬
ed with a full charge ; the times of the flights of the
fhells are oblerved, to determine the length of the fuzes.
The intention of this pradlice is, when a mortar bat¬
tery is raifed in a fiege, to know what quantity of
powder is required to throw the fhells into the w'orks
at a given diltance, and to cut the fuzes of a juit
taphysics, n° 116.
Power, in mechanics, denotes any force, whether
of a man, a horfe, a fpring, the wind, water, &c. which,
bemg applied to a machine, tends to produce motion.
Power, in law, fignifies in general a particular au¬
thority granted by any perfon to another to reprefent
fiim, or to aa in his Head.
POWERS, in arithmetic and algebra, are nothing
but the produas anfing from the continual multiplica¬
tions of a number or quantity into itfelf. See Alge-
•beia and Arithmetic,
length, that the fhell may burfl as foon as it touches the
ground.
PRvEMUNIRE, in law, is taken either for a writ
fo called, or for the offence whereon the writ is grant¬
ed ; the one may be underllood by the other.—The
church of Rome, under pretence of her fupremacy
and the dignity of St Peter’s chair, took on her to be¬
llow molt of the ecciefiaftical livings of any worth in
England, by mandates, before they were void ; pre¬
tending therein great care to fee the church provided
of a fuccefibr before it needed. Whence thefe man¬
dates or bulls were called gratia expectativee, or provi-
Jtones ; whereof fee a learned difeourfe in Duarcnm de
hcnejictis.
JSlackfl.
Hmt/itnt.
P R JE [
l,mpm, lib. 3. cap. 1. Thcfe provilions were fo
common, that at laft Edward I. not digefting fo in¬
tolerable an encroachment, in the 35th year of his reign
made a ftatute againil papal provifions, which, accord¬
ing to Sir Edward Coke, is the foundation of all the .
fubfequent ftatutes of pnemunire : which is ranked as
an offence immediately againfl the king, becaufe every
encouragement of the papal power is a diminution of
the authority of the crown.
In the weak reign of Edward II. the pope again
endeavoured to encroach, but the paihamcnt manfully
vvithftood him ; and it was one of the articles charged
againfl that unhappy prince, that he had given allow¬
ance to the bulls of the fee of Rome. But Edw. III.
was of a temper extremely different; and, to remedy
thefe inconveniences, firll by gentle means, he and his
nobility wrote an expoflulation to the pope : but le-
ceiving a menacing and contemptuous anfwer, withal
acquainting him, that the emperor (who a few years
before at the diet of Nuremberg, A. D. 1323, had
eflabliihed a law againfl provifions), and alfo the king
of France, had lately fubmitted to the holy fee ; the
king replied, that if both the emperor and the French
king fiiould take the pope’s part, he was, ready to give
battle to them both, in defence of the liberties of the
crown. Hereupon more (harp and penal laws were
deviled againil provifors, which enadl feverally, that
the court^of Rome fhall prefent or collate to no bifhop-
tic or living in England ; and that whoever diflurbs
any patron in the prefentation to a living by vntuc of
a papal provifion, fuch provifor fhall pay line and ran-
fom to the king at his will, and be imprifoned till he
renounces fuch provilion j and the fame pumfhment is
inflidled on fuch as cite the king, or any of his fub-
je£ls, to anfwer in the court of Rome. And when the
holy fee refented thefe proceedings, and pope Urban V.
attempted to revive the vaffalage and annualrent to
which king John had fubje&ed his kingdom, it was
unanimoufly agreed by all the eflates of the realm in
parliament affembled, 40 Edw. III. that king John s
donation was null and void, being without the concur¬
rence of parliament, and contrary to his coronation-
oath ; and all the temporary nobility and commons en¬
gaged, that if the pope fhould endeavour by proeefs or
otherwife to maintain thefe ufarpations, they would
refill and withfland him with all their power.
In the reign of Richard II. it was found neceffary
to fharpen and ftrengthen thefe laws, and therefore it
was enacted by flatutes 3 R^c. II. c. 3* Rrid 7 R>c. IE
c. 12. firft, that no alien fhall be capable of letting his
benefice to faim ; in order to compel fuch as had crept
in, at leafl to refide on their preferments: and after¬
wards, that no alien fhould be capable to be prefented
to any ecclefiaftical preferment, under the penalty of
the flatutes of provifors. By the flatute 12 Rich. II.
c. 15. all liegemen of the king accepting of a living by
any foreign proviiion, are put out of the king’s pro-
teftion, and the benefice made void. To which the
ftatute 13 Rich. II. ft. 2. c. 2. adds banifhment and
forfeiture of lands and goods: and by c. 3. of the fame
ftatute, any perfon bringing over any citation or ex-
communication from beyond fea, on account of the ex¬
ecution of the foregoing ftatutes of prdvifors, fhall be
imprifoned; forfeit his goods and lands, and moreover
fuffer pain of life and member. 7
447 I p R
In the writ for the execution of all thefe ftatutes,
the words pramunire facias being ufed to command a
citation of the party, have denominated in common
fpeech, not only the writ, but the offence itfelf of main¬
taining the papal power, by the name of prawunire.
And, accordingly, the next ftatute we fhall mention,
which is generally referred to by all fubfequent ftatutes,
is ufually called the Jlatute of praemunire. It is the fta¬
tute 16 Richard II. c. 5. which enafts, that whoever
procures at Rome, or elfewhere, any tranflations, pro-
ceffes, excommunications, bulls, inftruments, or other
things which touch th<i king, againft him, his crown,
and realm, and all perfons aiding and affifting therein,
fha'l be put out of the king’s, protection, their lands
and goods forfeited to the king’s ufe, and they fhall be
attached by their bodies to anfwer to the king and his
council ; or procefs of pramunire facias fhall be made
out againft them as in other cafes of provifors.
By the ftatute 2 Henry IV. c. 3. all perfons who ac¬
cept any provifion'from the pope, to he exempt from
canonical obedience to their proper ordinary, are alfo
fubje&ed to the penalties of praemunire. And this is
the laft of our ancient ftatutes touching this offence;
the ufurped civil power of the bifhop of Rome being-
pretty well broken down by thefe ftatutes, as his ufurp¬
ed religious power was in about a century afterwards i
the fpirit of the nation being fo much raifed againft
foreigners, that about this time, in the reign of Hen. V.
the alien priories, or abbeys for foreign monks, were
fuppreffed, and their lands given to the crown. And
no farther attempts were afterwards made in fupport
of thefe foreign jurifdi&ions.
This, then, is the original meaning of the offence
which we call pramunire ; viz. introducing a foreign
power into this land, and creating imperium in imperioy
by paying that obedience to papal procefs which con-
flitutionally belonged to the king alone, long before
the Reformation in the reign of Henry VIII. at which
time the penalties of praemunire were indeed extended
to more papal abufes than before ; as the kingdom then
entirely renounced the authority of the fee of Rome,
though not at all the corrupted doftrines of the Roman
church. And therefore, by the feveral ilatutes of 24
Hen. VIII. c. 12. and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. & 21. to
appeal to Rome from any of the king’s courts, which
(though illegal before) had at times been connived at ;
to fue to Rome for any licence or difpenfation, or to
obey any procefs from thence, are made liable to the
pains of praemunire. And, in order to reftore to the
king in effedl the nomination of vacant biihoprics, and
yet keep up the eftablifhed forms, it is enadled by fta¬
tute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20. that if the dean and chapter
refufe to eledl the perfon named by the king, or any
archbifhop or bifhop to confirm orconfecrate him, they
fhall fall within the penalties of the ftatutes of praemu¬
nire. Alfo by ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 1. to refufe the oath
of fupremacy will incur the pains of praemunire; and to
defend the pope’s jurifdidion in this realm, is a praemu¬
nire for the firft offence, and high treafoa for the fe-
cond. So, too, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 2. to import any
agnus Deiy croffes, beads, or other fuperftitious things
pretended to be hallowed by the bifhop of Rome, and
tender the fame to be ufed ; or to receive the fame
with fuch intent, and not difeover the offender ; or if a
iuftice of the peace, knowing thereof, fhall not within
14;
P R -ffi [ 448 ] P R $
iVfcfnu. 1 ^.days declare it to a privy-counfellor, they all in-
r'^ cur a prarmunire. But importing or felling mafs-books,
or other Popifli books, is by ftat. 3 Jac. I. c. 5. 25*
only liable to a penalty of 40 s. Laftly, to Contribute
to the maintenance of a Jefuit’s college, or any Popiih
feminary whatever beyond fea, or any perfon in the
fame, or to contribute to the maintenance of any Jefuit
or Popifh prieft in England, is by ilatute 27 Eliz. c. 2.
made liable to the penalties of praemunire.
Thus far the penalties of praemunire feem to have
kept within the proper bounds of their original inftitu-
tion, the deprefling the power of the pope : but they
being pains of no confiderablc confequence, it has been
thought fit to apply the fame to other heinous offences;
fome of which bear more, and fome lei's, relation to this
original offence, and fome no relation at all.
Thus, 1. By the ftatute I & 2 Ph. and Mar. c. 9. to
-moleil the poflefTors of abbey-lands granted by parlia¬
ment to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. is a pnEinunire.
2. So likewife is the offence of afting as a broker or
agent in any ufurious contract where above 10 percent.
interefl is taken, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. 3. To ob¬
tain any ftay of proceedings, other than by arreft of
judgment or writ of error, in any fuit for a monopoly,
is likewife a pramumire, by ftat. 21 Jac. I. c. 3. 4. To
obtain an exclufive patent for the foie making or impor¬
tation of gunpowder or arms, or to hinder others from
importing them, is alfo a praemunire by two ftatutes 5
the one 16 Car. T. c. 21. the other r J >e. II. c. 8.
5. On th? abolition, by ftat. 12. Car. II. c. 24. of pur¬
veyance, and the prerogative of pre-emption, or taking
any vicinal, beads, or goods for the king’s ufe, at a
.ftated price, without confent of the proprietor, the ex¬
ertion of any fuch power for the future was declared to
incur the penalties of praemunire. 6. To aflert, mali-
c ion fly and advifedly, by {peaking or writing, that both
or either houfe of parliament have a legiflative authority
• without the king, is declared a praemunire by ftatute 1 3
Car. II. c. I. 7. By the halvas corpus afl alfo, 31
Car. II. c. 2. it is a praemunire, and incapable of the
king’s pardon, befides other heavy penalties, to fend-any
fuhjedf of this realm a prifoner into parts beyond the
feas. 8. By the ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. r. c. p -rfons
-of 18 years of age refufing to take the new oaths of al¬
legiance as well as fuprcmacy, upon tender by the pro¬
per magiftrate, are fubjeft to the penalties of a p 'aemu-
Jiire ; and by ftatutes 7 & 8 W. III. c. 24. ferjeants,
counfellors, prodlors, attorneys, and all officers of courts,
pra&ifing without having taken the oaths of allegiance
and fupremacy, and fubicribed the declaration again ft
popery, are guilty of a pntrmtnire whether the oaths be
tendered or not. 9. By the flatutc 6 Ann. c. 7. to af-
fert malicioufly and direttly, by preaching, teaching, or
advifed fpeaking, that the then pretended prince of
Wales, or any perfon other than according to the afts
of fettlement and union, hath any right to the throne
-of thefe kingdoms, or that the king and parliament can-
nc>t make laws to limit the defeent of the crown ; fuch
preaching, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, is a prremu-
rure : as writing, printing, or publifhing the fame doc¬
trines amounted, we may remember, to high treafon.
10. By ftatute 6 Ann. c. 23. if the aflembly of peers of
Scotland, convened to eledl their 16 reprefentatives in
the Britifh parliament, fhall prefume to treat of any other
matter fave only the election, they incur the penalties
of aprsemunire. 11. The ftat. 6 Geo. I. c. 18. (ena&- rVa?mu.
ed in the year after the infamous South Sea projecl r':re’
had beggared half the nation) makes all unwarrant- 1J;aenerc<y
able undertakings by unlawful fubferiptions, then com- *
monly known by the name of busbies, fubjedf to the
penalties of a praemunire. 12. The ftat. 12 Geo. HI.
c. ii. fubjecls to the penalties of the ftatute of prsemu-
nire all fuch as knowingly and wilfully folemnize, affifl,
or are prefent at, any forbidden marriage of fuch of the
defendants of the body of king Geo. II. as are by that
aft prohibited to contraft matrimony without the con¬
fent of the crown.
Having thus inquired into the nature and feveral fpe-
cies of praemunire, its punifliment may be gathered from
the foregoing ftatutes, which are thus fhortly fummed
up by Sir Edward Coke: “ That, from the conviftion,
the defendant lhall be out of the king’s prote^ion, and
his lands and tenements, goods and chattels, forfeited to
the king; and that his body fhall remain in prifon at
the king’s pleafure, or (as other authorities have it)
during life ; both wkich amount to the fame thing, as
the king by his prerogative may any time remit the
whole, or any part of the punifhment, except in the cafe
of tranfgrtffing the ftatute of habeas corpus. Thefe for¬
feitures here inflifted do not (by the way) bring this
offence within ou<* former definition cf Felony ; being
inflifted by particular ftatutes, and sot by the common
law.” But fo odious, Sir Edward Coke adds, was this
offence of praemunire, that a man that was attainted of
the fame, misfit have been flain by any other man with¬
out danger eff law ; becaufe it was provided by law,
that any man might do to him as to the king’s enemy;
and any man may lawfully kill an enemv. However,
the pofition itlelf, that it is at any time lawful to kill
an enemy, is by no means tenable : it is only lawful, by
the law of nature and nations, to kill him ia the heat
of battle, or for neceffary felf defence. And to obviate
fuch favage and miftaken notions, the ftatute 5 Eliz-.
c. '. provides, that it fhall not be lawful to kill any
perfon attainted in a praemunire, any law, ftatute, opi¬
nion, or expofition of law to the contrary notwithftand-
ing. But ft ill fuch delinquent, though protefted as a
part of the public from public wrongs, can bring no
aftion for any private injury, hew atrocious foever; be¬
ing fo far out of the proteftion of the law, that it will
not guard his civil rights, nor remedy any grievance
which he as an individual may fuff.-. And vu.< n ui,
knowing him to be guilty, can with fiiety give him
comfort, aid, or relief.
PRaENESTE (anc. geog.), a town of Latium, to
the fouth eaft of Rome, towaids the territory of the
iEqu! ; a place of great ftrength. Famous for the tem¬
ple and oracle of Fortune, called Sor s Prcen-jYin.e (Stra¬
bo); which i iberius wanted to deftroy, but was deter¬
red by the awful majefty of the place. From a colony
it was raifed to a municipium by Tiberias (Infcriptions,
Floras, A. Gellius), on the confideration of" his reco¬
very from a dangerous illnefs near this .place Thither
the Roman emperors usually retired, on ao unt of the
agreeablenefs of the fituation (Suetonius). It was a
very ancient city, with a territory of large extent (Li¬
vy'). The temple of Fortune was built in the mofl
fumptuous manner by Sylla, and the pavement was Mo-
faic work (Pliny). Concerning the Sortes, there is a
remarkable paffage in Cicero ; who fays, that it was ali
%
P R A , [ 4
Pf«ri^uini a mere contrivance, in order to deceive, either for the
H purpofes of gain or fuperllition. 1 he town that has
Lyrague' fucceeded it (lands low in a valley, and is called Palef-
trini, in the Campania of Rome. E. Long. 13. 30.
,N. Lat. 42. o.
PRiESIDIUM (Notitia), a town ef the Cornavii in
Britain. Now thought to be Warwick (Camden).—
Another of Corlica (Antonine), 30 miles to the fouth
of Aleria.—A third Prajidium furnamed Julium, in
Bsetica (Pliny).
PRETORIA Augusta (Ptolemy), atown of Da¬
cia. Now called Brajfnw by the natives, and Crovjiat
by the Germans (Baudrand) : a town in Tranfylvania.
•E. Long. 250. N. Lat. 47°.—Another of the Salafiii,
.ttear the two gates or defiles of the Alps, the Grajae and
•Penninse (Pliny) ; a Roman colony, fettled by Au-
guftus after the defeat of the Salaflii by Terentius Var-
ro, on the f{)ot where he encamped ( Strabo, Dio Caflius,
Ptolemy), lituated on the river Duria Major. The
•town is now called Aojia or Aouji^ in Piedmont. E.
-Long. 7. 14. N. Lat. 45. 19.
PRiETORIUM (Antonine, Notitia Imperii), a
town of the Brigantes. .Now Paterington (Camden),
near the mouth of the Humber in Yorkfhire. Coventry
(Talbot).
PRAGMATIC sanction, in the civil law, is de-
iined by Hottoman to be a refeript or anfwer of the
fovereign, delivered by advice of his council, to fome
college, order, or body of people, upon confulting him
•on fome cafe of their community. The like anfwer
given to any particular perfon is called fimply refeript.
The term pragmatic fanSion is chiefly applied to a
fettlement of Charles VI. emperor of Germany, who,
in the year 1722, having no fons, fettled his hereditary
dominions on his elded daughter the archduchefs Maria
Therefa, which was confirmed by the diet of the em¬
pire, and guaranteed by Great Britain, France, the
States-General, and mod of the powers in Europe. The
word pragmatic is derived from the Greek xpuye*, rvgo
tium, “ bufmefs.”—It is fometimes alfo called abfolutely
pragmatic, T'> rrpttyy.aliy.Br.
PRAGUE, a city of Bohemia, and capital of the
whole kingdom, is fituated 140 40 longitude, and
50 5' of latitude. It dands on both fides the Moldau,
over which Liere is a bridge 700 feet long, built of
large freedone. The nver, though of great breadth
here is neverthelefs (hallow, and not navigable. On
both fides the bridge -are feveral datues, and among
others that of St John of Nepomuck, whom king \\ en-
fel caufed to be thrown from the bridge into the river,
for venturing to reprove him upon fome occafion ; but
in 1720 he was canonized as a faint, and is at prefent
held in fuch veneration in Bohemia, that all other faints
feem on his account to be forgotten. Near the bridge,
which dands at the upper part of the city, the number
of people is very great, but the further you go from
thence the more defolate you find every place. i he
city is about three miles long and two broad; the num¬
ber of its Chridian inhabitants is faid to be 70,000,
and of Jews about 12,000. The principal branch of
its trade confids in brewing of beer. It is divided into
•the Old and the New Towns, and that called the Small
fide ; the former lying on the ead fide of the Moldau,
and the latter on the wed. The whole is about 12
miles in circumference. The fortifications are not ot
Vot. XV. Part XL
19 ] P R A
great importance, as it may be flanked and raked otj Prague,
all fides. However, the king of Pruifia was not able v
to make himfelf mader of it in the late war, though
he almoft deftroyed it with his bombs, &c. See
Prussia, n° 24, &c.—It hath differed greatly by
fieges, and hath been often taken and plundered. The
univerfity w’as founded by Charles IV. in the year 1347.
In 1409, when John Hufs w’as re&or of the univerfity,
there were no lefs than 445^®® dudents ; and when the
emperor Charles V. would have retrenched their privi¬
leges, 24,000 are faid to have left it in one week, and
16,000 in a fhort time after. 1 he Jewrs have the
trade of this city almoft entirely in their own hands.
They deal in all forts of commodities, efpecially the pre¬
cious ftones found in the Bohemian mines, and, by re¬
ceiving all old-fadiioned things in payment, quite ruin
the Chriftian handicraftfmen. In 1744 they narrowly
efcaped being expelled the kingdom, having been fuf-
pedled of correfponding wfith the Pruflians, when they
made themfelves mailers of the city. The grand prior
of the order of Malta, for Bohemia, Moravia, and Sile-
fia, refides here; and the church and hofpital of the
Holy Ghoft is the feat of the general and grandmaders
of the holy order of knights of the crofs with the red
dar, refiding in the above-mentioned countries, and in
Poland and Hungary. The houfes of this city are all
built of done, and generally condd of three (lories ;
but there are very few good buildings in it, and aimed
every thing looks dirty. Phe cathedral, which is de¬
dicated to^St Veit, is an old building, in which there
are fome pieces of excellent architedlure and many mag¬
nificent tombs of great men. fihere are too churches
and chapels, and about 40 cloiders in the place. On
Ratfchin-hill, in Upper Prague, mod of the nobility
have houfes, and the emperor a very magnificent palace,
and a fummer-houfe commanding one of the fined pro-
fpe&s in the world. Here the tribunals of the regency
meet ; and the halls, galleries, and other apartments,
are adorned with a multitude of noble pidtures. The
great hall, where the coronation fead is kept, is faid to
be the larged of the kind in Europe next to that of
Wedminder. The cadle dands on the above-mention¬
ed mountain, called Ratjchin or the White Mountain, and
is very drong. h rom a window of this cadle the em¬
peror’s counfellors were thrown in x 618 ; but though
they fell from a great height, yet they were not killed,
nor indeed much hurt. On the fame mountain (lands
alfo the arehiepifcopal palace. In the New I own is an
arfenal, and a religious foundation for ladies, called the
Free Temporal Engljh Foundation, over w'hich an abbefs
prefides. In the Leffer Side or Town, the counts Col-
loredo and Wallendein have very magnificent palaces
and gardens. The dables of the latter are very grand ;
the racks being of deel and the mangers of marble, and
a marble pillar betwixt each horfe; over each horfe alfo
is placed his pidture as big as life. Though the inha¬
bitants of Prague in general are poor, and their (hops
but meanly furniflxed, yet, it is faid, there are few cities
where the nobility and gentry are more wealthy, and
live in greater date. Her? is much gaming, mafquera-
ding, feading, and very fplendid public balls, with an
Italian opera, and affemblies in the houfes of the quality
every night. On the White Mountain, near the town,
wras fought the battle in which the Protedants, with
the eledor Palatine Frederic their king, were defeated.
2 L Ike
Fram
I!
Pmi.
P R A [ 45
The luilres and drinking-glades made here of Bohe¬
mian cryftal are much efteemed, and vended all over Eu¬
rope. Thefe cryftals are alfo polilhed by the Jews, and
fet in rings, ear-pendants, and fhirt-buttons. 'I he chief
tribunal confifls of twelve Itadtholders, at the head of
whom is the great burgrave, governor of the kingdom
and city, immediately under the emperor, and the chan¬
cery of Bohemia. Though the city of Prague is very
ill-built, it is pleafantly fituated, and fume of the pro-
fpefts are beautiful, and the gardens and pleafure-houfes
are excellent. The people, Riefbeck informs us, eajoy
fenfual pleafurcs more than thofe of Vienna, becaufe
they know better how to connect mental enjoyments
■with them. The numerous garrifon kept in the place
(9000 men) contributes much to its gaiety and livcli-
uefs.
PRAM, or Prame, a kind of lighter ufed in Hol¬
land and the ports of the Baltic Sea, to carry the car¬
go of a merchant-fhip along-fide, in order to lade or to
bring it to Ihore to be lodged in the ftorehoufes after
being difeharged out of the veffel.
Prame, in military affairs, a kind of floating battery,
being a flat-bottomed veffel, which draws little water,
mounts feveral guns, and is very ufehd in covering the
difembarkation of troops. They are generally made
ufe of in tranfporting troops over the lakes in Ame¬
rica.
PR AMNION, in natural hlftory, the name of a
femipellucid gem. This is a very lingular ftone, and of
a very great concealed beauty. Our lapidaries, when
they meet with it, call it by the name of the Hack agate.
It is of an extremely clofe, compadf, and Arm texture,
of a fmooth and equal furface, and in lhape very irre¬
gular, being fometimes round, fometimes oblong, and
often flat; in li/.e it feldom exceeds two inches. It
appears, on a common infpeefion, to be of a fine deep
black; but held up againft the fun or the light of a
candle, it is an elegant red, clouded by a quantity
of fubtile black earth. .We have it from the Eaff In¬
dies.
PRASIUM, in botany : A genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
42d order, Vtrtic'iUata. There are four monofpermous
berries.
PRATINAS, a Greek poet contemporary with jEf-
chylus, born at Phlius. He was the firll among the
Greeks who compofed fatires, which were reprefen ted
as farces. Of thefe 32 were ailed, as alfo 18 of his
tragedies, one of which only obtained the poetical
prue. Some of his verfes are extant, quoted by Athe-
meus. *
PRATIQUE, or Prattic, in commerce, a nego¬
tiation or communication of commerce which a merchant
yeffel obtains in the port it arrives in and the countries
it diicovers : hence to obtain a pratique, is to obtain
liberty to frequent a port, to go afliore, to buy and
fell, &c. r & i
PRAI P (Charles), earl of Camden, was the third
fon of Sir John Pratt, knight, chief-juffice of the court
Qt king s-bevich under George I. by his fecond wife
Elizabeth, daughter of the Reverend Hugh Wilfon ca-
**?n Bangor, and was born in 1713, the year before
his father was called to the honour of the bench. He
tfeceined the full rudixr.cnts of his education at Eton,
o l • P R A
and afterwards removed to king’s college Cambridge.
Of his early life at both places there is little known, -
ct icr than that at college he was found to be remarkably
diligent and Audio us, ana particularly fo in the hiftory
and conflitution of this country. By feme he was
thought to be a little too tenacious of the rights and
privileges of the college he belonged to ; but perhaps it
was to this early tendency that we are indebted for
thofe noble ftruggles in defence of liberty, which, whe¬
ther in or out of office, he dilplayed through the whole
courfe of his political life. After flaying out the ufual
time at college, and taking his mailer’s degree, in 1739
he entered himfelf a ftudent of the Inner Temple, and
was in due time admitted by that honourable fociety as
a barrifter at law. And here a circumftance develope*
itfelf in the hiftory of this great man, which (hows how
much chance governs in the affairs of this world, and
that the moil conflderable talents and indifputable inte¬
grity will fometimes require the introduction of this
miftrefs of the ceremonies, in order to obtain that which
they ought to poffefs from their own intrinfle qualifica¬
tions.
Mr Pratt, after his being called to the bar, notwith-
Handing his family introduction, and his own perfonal
character, was very near nine years in the profeffion,
without ever getting in any degree forward. Whether
this arofe .from a natural timidity of conftitution, ill-
luck, or perhaps a mixture of deipondcnce growing out
of the two circumftances, it is now difficult to tell ; but
the fadt was fo : and he was fo difpirited by it, that
he had fume thoughts of relinquifhing the profeffion.
of the law, and retiring to his college, where, in rota-
tation, he might be fur.e of a church living, that would
give him a fmall but honourable independence. With
thefe melancholy ideas he went as ufual the weftern cir¬
cuit, to make one more experiment, and then to take
his final determination. Mr Henley, afterwards Lord
Northington and chancellor of England, was in the
fame circuit: he was Mr Pratt’s moil intimate friend;
and he now availed himfelf of that friendfhip, and told
him his fltuation, and his intentions of retiring to the
univeriity and going into the church. He oppofed his
intention with itrong raillery, and got him engaged in
a caufe along with himfelf; and Mr Henley being ill,
Mr Pratt took the lead, and difplayed a profeffional
knowledge and elocution that excited the admiration of
his brother barrifter* as much as that of the wffiole court.
He gained his caufe ; and befides, he acquired the re¬
putation of an eloquent, profound, and conftitutional
lawyer. It was this circumftance, together with the
continued good offices of his friend Henley, which led
to his future greatnefs ; for with all his abilities and all
his knowledge, he might otherwife in all probability have
paffed his life in obfeurity unnoticed and unknown.
He became now one of the moft fuccefsful pleaders at
the bar, and honours and emoluments flowed thick upon
him. He was chofen to reprefent the borough of Down-
ton, Wilts, after the general election in x 759; recorder of’
Bath 17595 an(^ farne year was appointed attorney-
general; in January 1762 he was called to the degree of
ferjeantatlaw,appointedchkf-jufticeof the commoupleas,
and knighted. His Lordffiip prefided in that court with
a dignity, weight, and impartiality, never exceeded by
any of his predeceffors ; and when John Wdkes, Efq;
was feized and committed to the Tower on an illegal;
general;
Pratt,
V R A [ 4
Pfatt gtneral warrant, his Lordihip, with the intrepidity of a
I. v—* BritiHi mag ill rate, and the becoming fortitude of an
Engliflunan, granted him an habeas corpus ; and on his
being brought before the cohrt of common pleas, dif-
charged him from his confinement in the Tower, May
6- 1763, in a fpeech which did him honour. His wife
and (pirited behaviour on this remarkable occafion, fo
interclHng to every true-born Briton, and in the confe-
quent judicial proceedings between the printers of The
North Briton and the mefiengers and others, was fo ac¬
ceptable to the nation, that the city of London pre-
fented him with the freedom of their corporatiort in a
gold box, and defined his picture, which Was put up in
Guildhall, with this infeription :
HANC ICONEM
CAROM PRATT, EQ^
SCMMl JUDICIS C. B.
IN U ON OR E M TANTI VlRI,
ANGLIC^ MBERTATIS LEGE
ASSERTORIS,
S. P. L.
IN CURIA MUNICIPAL!
PONI JVSSERVNT
NONO KAL. MART. A. D. MDCCLXIV.
GULIELMO BRIDGEN, AR. PR^:. VRB.
This portrait, painted by ReynoldtffSvas engraved
bv Bafire. The coiqiorations of Dublin, Bath, Exeter,
and Norwich, paid him the like compliment ; and in a
petition entered in the journals of the city of Dublin, it
was declared, that no man appeared to have acquitted
himfelf in his high flat tan with fuch becoming zeal for
the honour and dignity of the crown, and the fulfilling
his majefty’s mod gracious intentions for preferving the
ireedom and bappinefs of his fuhjefts, and fuch invincible
fortitude in adminirtering juftice ^nd law, as the Right
Honourable Sir Charles Pratt, knight, the prefent lord-
chief-juftice of his majefty’s court of common pleas in
England, has ftiown in fome late judicial determinations,
which mull be remembered to his lordfhip’s hcfUour
while and wherever Britiih liberties are held facred.
Higher honours, however, than the breath of popu¬
lar applaufe awaited Sir Charles Pratt. On the 16th
uf ]uly 1765 he was created a peer of Great Britain,
by the flyle and title of Lord Camden, Baron Camden,
in the county of Kent ; and, July 30. 1766, on the re.
hguation of Robert earl of Northington, he was ap¬
pointed lord high-chancellor of Great Britain; in which
capacity he, in a fpeech of two hours, declared, upon
the fird deciiion of the fait againJt the meilengers who
» arreded Mr Wilkes, that “ it was the unanimous opi¬
nion of the whole court, that general warrants, except
in cafes of high treafon, were illegal, oppreffive, and un¬
warrantable. He conduced himfelf in tins high office
fo as to obtain the love and edeem of all parties ; but
when the taxation of America was in agitation, he
declared himfelf againd it, and rtrongly oppofing it,
was removed from his dation in 17 70.
Upon the fall of Lord North he was again taken in¬
to the adminidration, and on the 27th of March 1782
appointed prefident of the council; an office which he
tefigned in March 1783. On the 13th of May *786,
he was created Vifeount Rayhain of Bayham abbey
Jtcnt, and Earl Camden.
Whether we confider Earl Camden as a Jlatefmany
nailed to that high iituation by his talents ; as a lawyery
1 I P It A
defending, Supporting, and enlarging the conditution j U
or as a man fuftaining both by his firmuefs and uniha- j, J;
ken integrity—in all he excites our general praife ; and -y,
when we contemplate his high and exalted virtue, we
mud allow him to have been an honour to his country.
He died on the 18th of April 1794 at his houfe i«
Hill-dreet, Berkeley-fquare, being at that time prefi-
dent of bis majefty’s mod honourable privy-council,
governor of the eharter-houfe, recorder of the city of
Bath, and F. R. S.
He married Elizabeth, daughter and coheir of Ni¬
cholas Jafferys, Efq; fon and heir of Sir Jeffery Jafferys of
Brecknock priory, knight, who died in December 1 779»
and by whom he had iffue John Jafferys Pratt (now
Lord Camden), born I759» M. P* for Bath, commil-
fioner of the admiralty, 1782, refigned and reappointed
1783 ; and four daughters, Frances, married, 1775,
bert Stewart, Efq; of Mount Stewart, county of Dawn,
1779, and M. P. for that county 5 Elizabeth, fingle j
Sarah, married Nicholas Saint field, Efq; county of Down,
1779; Jane, married 1 7 80 William Head James, Eiq; foa
and heir of Sir F. Head of Langley, county- of Bucks,
His feat at Camden place, Chifelhuril, was the refidence
of the great William Camden ; on whofe death it came
by feveral intermediate owners toWefton, Spencer, and
Pratt, and was much improved by his Lordihip. Hi*
remains were interred in the family burying-place at
Seal, in Kent.
PRAXAGORAS, a native of Athens, at 1*9 years
of age ccmpofed the Hiilory of the Kings of Athens,
in two books ; and at 22 the Life of Conilantine the
Great, in which, though a pagan, he fpeaks very ad-
vantageoufiv of that prince. He alio wrote tire Hif-
tory of Alexander the Great. Fie lived under Conilan-
tins about the year 345.
PRAXITELES, a very famous Greek fculptor,
who lived 330 years before Chrift, at the time ot the
nign of Alexander the Great. All the ancient writers
mention his ftatues with a high commendation, efpe.
dally a Venus executed by him for the city of Cnidos,
which was fo admirable a piece, that king Nicomedes
offered to releafe the inhabitants from their tribute as
the purchafe of it ; but they refilled to part with it-.
The inhabitants of the ille of Cos requtfted of Praxi¬
teles a ilatue of Venus; and in confcquenee of this ap¬
plication the artill gave them their choice of two ; one
of which reprefented the goddefs entirely naked, and
the other covered with drapery. Both of thefe were
of exquilite workmarrihip ; although the former was
efteemed the molt beautiful, neverthelefs the inhabitants
of Cos had the wifdom to give the preference to the
latter, from a conviftion that no motive whatever could
jollify their introducing into their city any indecent
llatues or paintings, which are fo hkely to inflame the
paffions of young people, and lead them to immorali¬
ty and vice. What a reproach will this be to many
ChrMians!— He was one of the gallants of Phryne the
celebrated courtefan.
PRAYER, a fokmn addrefs to God, which, when
it is of any confiderablt length, tonfifts of adoration, con-
fejfion, fuppiuatkin, inlerceffion, and thanlfgivwp.
By adoration We exprtfs our fenfe of God's infinite
perfetBions, his power, wifdom, goodnefs, and mercy ;
and acknowledge that our conftant dependence is upon
Hint by whom the univerfe was created and has beert
3 L 2 hitherto
Prayer.
Man.
P R A [4.
hitherto preferved. By confejjion is meant our acknow¬
ledgment of our manifold tranfgrefllons of the divine
hnvs, and our confequent unworthinefs of all the good
things which we enjoy at prefent or expeft to be con¬
ferred upon us hereafter. In fupplication we intreat our
omnipotent Creator and merciful Judge, not to deal
with us after our iniquities, but to pardon our tranf-
greffions, and by his grace to enable us to live hence¬
forth righteoufly, foberly, and godly, in this prefent
world ; and by Chriftians this intreaty is always made
in the name and through the mediation of Jefus Chrift,
becaufe to them it is known that there is none other
name under heaven given unto men whereby they may
be faved. To thefe fupplications for mercy we may
likewife add our prayers for the necefiaries of life ;
becaufe if we feek firjl the kingdom of God and his
righteoufnefs, we are affured that fuch things (hall be
added unto us. InterceJJion fignihes thofe petitions which
we offer up for others, for friends, for enemies, for all
men, efpecially for our lawful governors, whether fu-
preme or fubordinate. And thankfgiving is the exprei-
fion of our gratitude to God, the giver, of every good
and perfect gift, for all the benefits enjoyed by us and
ethers, for the means of grace, and for the hope of glo¬
ry. Such are the component parts of a regular and fo-
lemn prayer, adapted either for the church or for the
dofet. But an ejaculation to God, conceived on any
emergency,, is likewife a prayer, whether it be uttered
by the voice or fuffered to remain a mere affedfion of
the mind ; becaufe the Being to whom it is addreffed
difeerneth the thoughts of the heart,.
That prayer is a duty which all men ought to per¬
form with humility and reverence, has been generally
acknowledged as well by the untaught barbarian as by
the enlightened Chriflian ; and yet to this duty objec¬
tions have been made by which the underflanding has
been bewildered in fophiftry and affronted with jargon.
“ If God be independent, omnipotent, and poffeffed of
every other perfection, what pleafure, it has been afked,
can he take in our acknowledgment of thefe perfec¬
tions ? If he knows all things paft, prefent, and future,
where is the propriety of our confeffing our fins unto
him ? If he is a benevolent and merciful Being, he will
pardon our fins, and grant us what is needful for us
without our fupplications and intreaties ; and if he be
likewife poffeffed of infinite wifdom, it is certain that
no importunities of ours will prevail upon him to grant
us what is improper, or for our fakes to change the
equal and fleady laws by which the world is governed.
“ Shall burning iEtna, if a fage requires,
Forget to thunder, and recal her fires?
4i On air or f<a new motions be impreft,
u Oh blamelefs Bethel! to relieve thy breaft ?
“ When the loofe mountain trembles from on high,
u Shall gravitation ceafe, if you go by ?
“ Or fome old temple, nodding to its fall,
“ For Chartres’ head referve the hanging wall*?”
Such are the moft plaufible objections which are
ufually made to the practice of prayer; and though
they have been fet off with all the art of the metaphy-
fical wrangler, and embellifiied with all the graces of
the poetry of Pope, they appear to us fuch grofs fo-
phifms as can operate only on a very unthinking head,
or on a very corrupt heart. For if God certainly ex-
2 ] P R A
ills, and there is not a mathematical theorem capable of
more rigid demonftration, it is obvious that no man can
think of fuch a being without having his mind ftrongly
imp re (fed with the convhflion of his own conftant de¬
pendence upon him ; nor can he “ contemplate the hea¬
vens, the work of God’s hands, the moon, and the liars
which he has ordained,” without forming the moft fub-
lime conceptions that he can of the Divine power, wif.
dom, and goodnefs, &c. But fuch convidtion, and fuch
conceptions, whether clothed in words or not, are to all
intents and purpofes what is meant by adoration ; and
are as well known to the Deity while they remain the
filent affections of the heart, as after they are fpoken in
the beginning of a prayer. Our adoration, therefore,
is not expreffed for the purpofe of giving information to
God, who underftandeth our thoughts afar off; but
merely, when the prayer is private, becaufe we cannot
think any more than fpeak without words, and becaufe
the very fiuml of words that are well chofen affedls the
heart, and helps to fix our attention : and as the Being
who fees at once the paft, prefent, and to come, and to
whom a thoufand years are but as one day, (lands not
in need of our information ; fo neither was it ever fup-
pofed by a man of rational piety, that he takes pleafure
on his own account in hearing his perfections enumerated
by creatures of yellerday ; for being independent, he
has no pafiions to be gratified, and being felf-fufficient,
he was as happy when exifting alone as at that moment
“ when the morning ftars fang together, and all the fons
of God (houted for joy.” Adoration is therefore pro¬
per only as it tends to preferve in our minds juft notions
of the Creator and Governor of the world, and of our
own conftant dependence upon him ; and if fuch no¬
tions be ufeful to ourfelves, who have a part to aft in
the fcale of exiftence, upon which our happinefs de¬
pends (a propofition which no theift will controvert)^
adoration mull be acceptable to that benevolent Godi
who, when creating the world, could have no other end
in view than to propagate happinefs. See Metaphy¬
sics, n° 312.
By the fame mode of reafoning, it will be eafy to Ihow
the duty of confjjion and jupp i at ion. We are not re¬
quired to confefs our fins unto God, becaufe he is igno¬
rant of them; for he is ignorant ©f nothing. If he
were, no reafon could be afiigned for our divulging to
our judge adtions deferving of punifhment. Neither
are we required to cry for mercy, in order to move hirri
in whom there is no variablenefs, neither fhadow of turn*
ing. The Being that made the world, governs it by
laws that are inflexible, becaufe they are the bell; and
to fuppofe that he can be induced by prayers,, oblations,
or facnfices, to vaty his plan of government, is an im¬
pious thought, which degrades the Deity to a level with
man. One of thefe inflexible laws is the connedlion
eftabliflied between certain difpofitions of mind and hu¬
man happinefs. We are enjoined to purfue a particular
courfe of condudl under the denomination of virtue, not
becaufe our virtuous adlions can in any degree be of ad¬
vantage to him by whom we were created, but becaufe
they neceffarily generate in our own minds thofe difpofi¬
tions which are effential to our ultimate happinefs. A man
of a malignant, arrogant, or fenfual difpofition, would
have no enjoyment in that heaven, where all are actua¬
ted by a fpirit of love and purity ; and it is doufitlefs
for this reafou omong others, that the Chriftian religion
prohibits
Prayef,
Prayer.
P R A [ 4J3 ]
prohibits malice, arrogance, and fenfuality, among her pear infurmountable.
votaries, and requires the cultivation^ of the oppofite
virtues. But a perfon who has deviated far from his
duty cannot think of returning, unlefs he be previoufly
convinced that he has gone aftray. Such conviction,
whenever he obtains it, will neceflarily imprefs upon his
mind a fenfe of his own danger, and fill his heart with
forrow and remorfe for having tranfgrefled the laws efta-
blifhed by the moil benevolent of all Beings for the pro¬
pagation of univerfal felicity. This convreton of errors
this fenfe of danger, and this compunftion for having
tranfgreffed, are all perceived by the Deity as foon as
they take place in the mind of the finner; and he is re¬
quired to confefa his fins, only becaufe the aft of confef-
fion tends to imprint more deeply on his mind his own
unworthinefs, and the neceffity of returning immediate¬
ly into the paths of that virtue of which all the ways
are pleafentnefs and all the paths are peace.
In the objeftion, it is taken for granted, that if God
be a benevolent and merciful Being, he will pardon our
fins, and grant us what is needful for us, whether we
fupplicate him or not: but this is a grofs and palpable
miftake, arifingfrom the objeftor’s ignorance of the end
of virtue and the nature of man. Until a man be fen-
fible of his fins and his danger, he is for the reafon al¬
ready affigned incapable of pardon, becaufe his difpofi-
tion is incompatible with the happinefs of the Mefled.
But whenever he acquires this conviftion, it is impofii-
ble for him not to form a mental wi/h that he may be
pardoned; and this wifhbeing perceptible to the all-feeing
eve of his Judge, forms the fum and fubftance of a fup-
plication for mercy. If he clothe it in words, it is only
for a reafon fimilar to that which makes him adore. his
Creator and confefs his fins in words, that juft notions
may be more deeply imprinted on his own mind. I lie
fame reafoning holds good with refpeft to thofe prayers
which we put up for temporal bleflings, for proteftion
and fupport in our journey through life. We are told
by high authority, that “ the Lord is nigh unto all
them that call upon him, to all that call upon him in
truth.” This, however, is not becaufe he is attrafted
-r delighted by their prayers and intreaties, but becaufe
thofe prayers and intreaties fit fuch as offer them for re¬
ceiving thofe benefits which he is at all times ready to
pour upon all mankind. In his effenee God is equally
prefent with the righteous and with the wicked, with
thofe who pray, and with thefe who pray not; for “ the
eyes of the Lord are in every place beholding the evil
and the good.” But as the atmofphere equally fur-
rounds every perfon upon this globe, and yet in its ftate
of oreateft purity does not affeft the afthmatic as it af-
fefts thofe who are whole ,v fo the Divine prefence,
though effentially the fame everywhere, yet does not
proteft the impious as it protefts the devout, becaufe
the. impious are not in a ftate capable of the Divine pro¬
teftion. The end for which God requires the exercife
of prayer as a duty, is not his benefit but ours ; becaufe
it is a mean to generate in the petitioner fuch a difpofi-
tion of mind as muft render him a fpecial objeft of that
love and that providential' care which extend over the
whole creation.
That part of the objeftion which refults from the
confideration of the fixed laws of nature, and which the
poet has fo finely illuftrated, prefents, it muft be confef-
fed, confiderable difficulties j but none which to us ap-
p R A
r     If, indeed, we fuppofe that in the Prayer. ^
original conftitution of things,.when the laws of nature ’
were eftabliftied, a determinate duration was given to
the top of the mountain and the nodding temple, with¬
out any regard to forefeen confequences, it would un¬
doubtedly be abfurd and perhaps impious to expeft the
law of gravitation to be fufpended by the prayers of a
good man, who fhould happen to be puffing at the in-
ftant decreed for the fall of thefe objefts. But of fuch
a conftitution there is fo far from being evidence, that
it appears not to be confiftent with the wifdom and
goodneis of the Author of nature. This world was
undoubtedly formed for the habitation of man and of
other animals. If fo, we muft neccffarily fuppofe, that'
in the eftablifhing of the lawrs of nature, God adjulted"
them in fuch a manner as he faw would heft ferve the
accommodation of thofe fentient beings for whofe accom¬
modation alone they were to be eftablifhed. Let it then
be admitted, that all the human beings w ho were ever to
exift upon this globe, with all their thoughts, words,
and aftions, were at that important moment prefent to
the divine intelleft, and it furely will not be impofiible
to conceive, that in confequence of the forefeen danger
and prayers of a good man, the determinate duration of
the mountain and the tower might be either lengthened
or fhortened to let him efcape. This idea of providence,
and of the efficacy of prayer, is thus illuftrated by Mr
Wollafton *. “ Suppofe M (fome man) certainly to * Relight*
foreknow, by fome means or other, that, when he fttould”/^^^
come to be upon his death-bed, L would petition for e tnea e
fome particular legacy, in a manner fo earneft and humble,
and with fuch a good difpofition, as would render it
proper to grant his requeft : and upon this, M makes
his lajl will, by which he devifes to L that which was
to be afked, and then locks up the will; and all this
many years before the death of M, and whilft L had
yet no expeftation or thought of any fuch thing.
When the time comes, the petition is made zneh granted;
not by making any new will, but by the old one already
made, and without alteration : which legacy had, not-
withftanding that, never been left, had the petition never
been preferred. The grant may be called the effeft of
a future aft, and depends as much upon it as if it had
been made after the aft. So, if it had been forefeen,
that L would not fo much as ajk, and he had been there¬
fore left out of the will, this praterition would have been
caufed by his carriage, though much later than the date
of the will. In all this nothing is hard to be admitted,
if M be allowed to foreknow the cafe. And thus the
prayers which good men offer ta the all-knowing God*
and the neglect of prayers by others, may find fitting ef-
fefts already forecafted in the courfe of nature.”
This folution of the difficulty prefents indeed to the
mind a prodigious fcheme,. in wdiich all things to come
are, as- it were, comprehended under one view, and eftL-
mated and compared together. But when it is confi-
dered what a mafs of wonders the univerfe is in other
refpefts ; what an incomprehenfibly great and perfeft
Being God is; that he cannot he ignorant of any
thing, no not of the future wants and deportments
of particular men; and that all things which derive
their exiftence from him muft be confiftent with one
another—it muft furely be confeffed that fuch an ad-
juftment of phyfical caufes to moral volitions is with¬
in the compafs of infinite power and perfeft wifdom.
To
P R A
Pr*yw.
f Mr Pa
To Out part of a prayer which we have termed in.
tercefiion, it has been objected, that “ to intercede for
others is to prefume that we poflefs an intereft with the
Deity upon which their happinefs and even the profpe-
vity of whole communities depends.” In anfwer to
this objection, it has been obferved by an ingenious and
ufeful writer f, that “ how unequal fnever our know,
ledge of the divine economy may be to a complete fo-
lution of this difficulty, which may require a compre-
lienfion of the entire plan, and of all the ends of God’s
moral government, to explain it fatisfadtorily, we can
yet underifand one thing concerning it, that it is, after
all, nothing more than the making of one man the in-
flrument of happinefs and mifery to another; which is
perfectly of a piece with the courfe and order that ob¬
tain, and which we mull believe were intended to obtaiij
in human affairs. Why may we not be affifted by the
f r-ayers of other men, as well as we are beholden for our
fupport to their labour P Why may not our happinefs be
made in fome cafes to depend , upon the interceffion as
it certainly does in many upon the good offices of our
neighbours ? The happinefs and mifery of great numbers
we fee oftentimes at the difpofal of one man’s choice,
or liable to be much affected by his condu6l : what
greater difficulty is there in fuppofing, that the prayers
■of an individual may avert a calamity from multitudes,
or be accepted to the benefit of whole communities.”
Thefe obfervations may perhaps be fufficient to re¬
move the force of the objection, but much more may
be faid for the praCtice of mutual interceffion. If it be
one man’s duty to intercede for another, it is the duty
of that other to intercede for him ; and if we fet alide
the particular relations which arifefrom blood, and from
particular Nations in fociety, mutual interceffion mult
be equally the duty of all mankind. But there is no-
thing (we fpeak from our own experience, and appeal
to the experience of our readers) which has fo power¬
ful a tendency to generate in the heart of any perfon
good-will towards another as the conilant praCtice of
praying to God for his happinefs. Let a man regularly
pray for his enemy with all that ferioufnefs which devo¬
tion requires, and he will not long Jiarbour refentment
againft him. Let him pray for his friend with that ar¬
dour which friendffiip naturally infpires, and he will per¬
ceive his attachment to grow daily and daily llronger.
II, then, univerfal benevolence, or charity, be a difpoli-
tion which we ought to cultivate in ourfelves, mut\ial
interceffion is undeniably a duty, becaufe nothing con¬
tributes fa effeftually to the acquisition of that fpirit
which an apoille terms the end of the commandment.
W hen it is faid, that by interceding for kings, and
ad in authority, we feem to eoufidev the profperity of
communities as depending upon our interell with God,
the objector miflakes the nature and end of thefe mter-
ccffions. In the profperity of any community con fills
great part of the happinefs of its individual members ;
but that profperity depends much upon the conduct of
its governors. When, therefore, individuals intercede
for their governors, the ultimate objedt of their prayers
muft be conceived to be their own good. As it is
equally the duty of all the members of the community
to pray for their governors, fuch interceffions are the
prayers of the whole community for itfelf, and of every
individual for himfetf. So that in this view of the cafe
the moft juft, we apprehend, that can be taken of it, it
1 454 1
P R E
is not true that fupplications and interceflioai forking*
and nil in authority are the prayers of one individual for
another, but the prayers of many individuals for that
body of which each of them knows himfelf to be
member.
Having evinced the duty of adoration, confeffion,
fuppheation, and interceflion, we need not furely wafte
our leaders time with a formal and laboured vindication
of thankfgiving. Gratitude for benefits received is fo
limverfally acknowledged to be a virtue, and ingrati¬
tude is fo deteflable a vice, that no man who lays claim
to a moral charafter will dare to affirm that we ought
not to have a juft fenfe of the goodnefs of God in pre¬
ferring us from the number!efs dangers to which we
are expofed, and “ in giving us rain from heaven, and
fruitful feafona, filling our hearts with food and glad-
nefs. But if we have this' fenfe, whether we exprefs
it in words or not, we offer to God thankfgiving ; be¬
caufe every movement of the heart is open and expofed
to his all-feeing eye.
In this article we have treated of prayer in general,
and as the private duty of ever)- individual; but there
ought to be public as well as £rmi/r prayer, which ffialf
be confidered afterwards. (See Worship.) We have
likewife obferved, that the prayers of every Chriftian
might to be offered in the name and through the medi¬
ation of Jefus Chrift, for which the reafon will be feen
in the article Theology. We fiiall conclude our re¬
flexions on the general duty, with obferving, that no-
tiiing fo forcibly reltrams from ill as the remembrance
ot a recent addrefs to heaven for prottXion and affilt-
ance. After having petitioned for power to refill temp¬
tation, there is fo great an incongruity in not continu¬
ing the ftrugglc, that we bluffi at the thought, ami
perfevere left we lofe all reverence for eiirfelves. After
fervently devoting our fouls to God, we ftart with hor¬
ror at immediate apoftaey : every aX of deliberate wick-
ednefs is then complicated with hypocrify an4 ingrati¬
tude : it is a mockery of the Father of Mercies, tint
forfeiture of that peace in which we doled our addrefs,
and a renunciation of the hope which that addrefs in,
fpired. But if prayer and immorality be thus incom¬
patible, furely the former Ihould not be ncgleXed by
thofe who contend that moral virtue is the fuminit of
hupjan perfeXion.
PREACHING. See Declamation', Art. I.—The
w'ord is derived from the Hebrew parafeh, cxpvfuit, “ he
expounded.”
PR LAD AMI PE, a denomination given to the in¬
habitants of the earth, conceived, by fome people, to
have lived before Adam.
Ifaac de la Pcreyra, in 1655, publifhed a book to
evince, the reality of Preadamites, by which he gained a
confiderable number of profdytes to the opinion : but
the aufwer of Demavets, profeffor of theology at Gro¬
ningen, publifiied the year following, put a ftop to its
progrefs ; though Pereyra made a reply.
His fyftem was this: The Jew's he calls Adamites*
and fuppofes them to have iffued from Adam; and
gives the title Preadamites to the Gentiles, whom he
fuppofes to have been a long time before Adam, But
this being exprefsly contrary to the firft words of Gene-
fis, Pereyra had recourfe to the fabulous antiquities of
the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and to feme idle rabbins,
who imagined there had been another world before that
4 deferibed
Brayar
li
Preada**
mice.
p R E C 45 J ] P R E
rr«p^e defcnfeed by MoTes. He was apprehended by the in- Precpt af dav* Coylat, in Scots law.
pj; t 111 Fknders, and ver>^ roughly ufed, though in Part HI. n°clxxx. 28.
U—thc fervi«-'e ofthe dauphin. But lie appealed from their PvsckPt ofSti/in, in
fentence to Rome; whither he went in the time of - -
Scots law. See Law, Part III.
See Law, Preempt
II _
Preceflion.
Alexander VII. and where he printed a retradation of
his book of Preadamites. See Pre-existence.
PREAMBLE, in law, the beginning of an ad of
parliament, See. which ferves to open the intent of the
ad, and the mifehiefs intended to be remedied bv it.
PREBEND, the maintenance a prebendary receives
cut of the eftate of a Cathedral or collegiate church.
Prebends are diilinguifhed into fimple and dignitary : a
lituple prebend has no more than the revenue for its
fupport ; but a prebend with dignity has always a ju-
rildidion annexed to it.
PREBENDARY, an ecclefiaflic who enjoys a
prebend.
The difference between a prebendary and a canon is,
that the former receives his prebend in confideration of
his officiating in the church, but the latter merely by his
being received into the cathedral or college.
PRECARIUM, in Scots law. See Law, N0 clxxiii.
9*
PRECEDENCE, a place of honour to which a
perfon is entitled 'Phis is either of courtefy or of right.
The former is that which is due to age, eftate, See.
which is regulated by cuitom and civility : the latter
is fettled by authority; and when broken ill upon,
gives an atHon at law.
In Great Britain, the order of precedency is as fol¬
lows : The king ; the princes of the blood ; the arch-
bifhop of Canterbury 5 the lord high chancellor; the
archbiftiop of York ; the lord treafurer of England ;
the lord prefident of the council ; the lord privy feal ;
dukes; the eldeft fons of dukes of the blood royal; mar-
quiffes ; dukes eldeft forts ; earls; marquiftes eldeft fons;
dukes younger fons ; vxfcouhts ; earls eldeft fons ; mar-
quifles younger fons ; biihops ; barons ; fpeaker of the
boufe of commons; lord commiffioncr of the great feal;
yifrounts eldeft fons ; earls younger forts ; barons eldeft;
fens ; privy counfellors not peers ; chancellor of the ex¬
chequer ; chancellor of the duchy ; knights of the gar¬
ter not peers ; lord chief juftice of the king’s bench ;
Jnafter of the rolls ; lord chief juftice of the coinmyn
pleas ; lord chief baron of the exchequer; puifne judges
and barons ; knights banneret, if made in the field ;
tnafters in chancery ; vlfcounts younger fons ; barons
younger fons ; baronets ; knights banneret; knights of
the Bath ; knights bachelors ; baronets eldeft" fons ;
knights eldeft fons ; baronets younger fons ; knights
younger fons; field and flag officers; doftors graduate;
ieijeants at law ; efquires ; gentlemen bearing coat ar-
mour ; yeomen ; tradefmen ; artificers; labourers.—
Net', 1 he ladies, except thofe of archbifhops, bifhops,
and judges, take place according to the degree of quality
of their hufbands ; and unmarried ladies take place ac¬
cording to that of their fathers.
^ RET ED ENT, in law, a cafe which has been de¬
termined, and which lerves as a rule for all of the fame
nature.
u RE^Ri'^OR.» a dignity in cathedrals, popularly
Called the chantor, or majler of the choir.
PRECEP I, in law, a command m writing fent by
a chief juftice or juftice of the peace, for bringing a per-
hjn, record, or other matter before him.
n0 clxiv. 16
PRECEPTIVE, any thing which gives or con*
tains precepts.
pH&CEVTirE Poetry. See Poetry, n° 146, &c.
PRECESSION or tHE Equinoxes. The moft £);ur*ai
obvious of all the celeftial motions is the diurnal revo- revo1utioi\
lution of the Harry heavens. The whole appears toof thc ftar*
turn round an imaginary axis, which paffes throughr> heawn*
two oppofite points of the heavens, called the poles. One
of thefe is in our fight, being very near the ftar and in
the tail of the little bear. The great circle which is
equidiftant from both poles divides the heavens into the
northern and feuthern hemifpheres, which are equal.
It is called the equator, and it cuts the horizon in the
eaft and weft points, and every ftar in it is 12 fiderial
hours above and as many below the horizon, in each
revolution.
The fun’s motions determine the length of day0i,ferva-
and night, and the viciffitudes of the feafons. By a tions of the
long feries of obfervations, the ftkpherds of Afia were Afiadc
able to mark out the fun’s path in the heavens; he being *!'et,heril3»
always in the oppofite point to that which comes to
the meridian at midnight, with equal, but oppofite decli¬
nation. Thus they could tell the flats among which
the fun then was, although they could not fee them.
They difeovered that his path was a great circle of the
heavens, afterward called the Ecliptic ; which cuts
the Equator in two oppolite points, dividing it; and be¬
ing divided by it, into two equal parts. They farther
obferved, that when the luu was in either of thefe points,
of interfeftion, his circle of diurnal revolution coincided
with the equator, and therefore the day's and nights
were equal. Hence the equator came to bo called the
Equinoctial line, aud the points-in which it cuts the
ecliptic were called the Equinoctial points, and the
fun was then faid to be in the equinoxes. One of thefe
was called the Vernal and the other the Autumnal
Equi.nox. ^
It was evidently an important problem in pra£lical To deter-*
aftronomy to determine the exaft moment of tire fun’s T1'"6 fhe
occupying thefe ftations ; for it was natural to compute
the courfe of the year from that moment. Accordingly pyir^fhe"
this lias been the leading problem in the aftronorny of equino&ial
all nations. It is fufceptible of confiderable precilion, toints-
without any apparatus of inftruinents. It is only ne-
cefi’ary to obierve the fun’s declination on the noon of
two or three days before and after the equinoftial day.
On two confecutive day's of this number, his declination
muft have changed from north to fouth, or from foutli
to north. It his declination on one day w as •obferved
to be 2 r north, and on the next 5' fouth, it follow's that
his declination was nothing, or that he was in the equi-
noftial point about 23 minutes after 7 in the morning
of the fecund day. Knowing the precife moments, and
knowing the rate of the fun’s motion in the ecliptic, it
is eafy to afeertain the precife point of the ecliptic in
which the equator interfered it.
By a feries of fuch obfervations made at Alexandria HiWr*
between the years 161 and 127 before Chrift, Hippar-chus’s-dilV
chus the father of our aftronomy' found that the point coveiics*
of the autumnal equinox was about fix degrees to the
eallward of the ftar called Seica virginis. Eager to.
detenniuo-
P R E [ 45G ] P R E
PrceefTion.
determine everything by multiplied obftrvations, he ran-
facked all the Chaldean, Eg/ptian, and other records,
to which his travels could procure him accefs, for obfer-
vations of the fame kind; but he does not mention his
having found any. He found, however, fome obferva-
tions of Ariftillus and Timochares made about 150
years before. From thefe it appeared evident that the
point of the autumnal equinox was then about eight de¬
grees eaft of the fame ftar. He difeufles thefe obferva-
tions with great fagacity and rigour ; and, on their au¬
thority, he afferts that the equinodtial points are not
fixed in the heavens, but move to the weltward about a
s degree in 75 years or fomewhat lefs.
Why called This motion is called the Precess!ON of the Eqtii-
■the precef- koxes, becaufe by it the time and place of the fun’s
ii <n of the eqUjno$-;al ftation precedes the ufual calculations : it is
equinoxes. £-ujjy confirrned by all fubfequent obfervations. In 1750
the autumnal equinox was obferved to be 20° 21' weil-
ward of fpica virginis. Suppofmg the motion to have
been uniform during this period of ages, it follows that
^the annual preceffion is about fo'y; that is, if the ce-
leltial equator cuts the ecliptic in a particular point on
any day of this year, it will on the fame day of the fol¬
lowing year cut it in a point 5o"-f to the weft of it, and
the fun will come to the equinox 20' 23 before he has
completed his round of the heavens. Thus the equinoc¬
tial or tropical year, or true year of feafons, is fo much
g fhorter than the revolution of the fun or the lidereal year,
fmportance ^ 18 difeovery that has chiefly immortalized
of the dif- the name of Hipparchus, though it muft be ackmnv-
covery. Edged that all his aftronomical refearches have been
condufted with the fame fagacity and intelligence. It
was natural therefore for him to value himfelf highly
for the difeovery. It muft be acknowledged to be one
of the moft Angular that has been made, thaf the re¬
volution of the whole heavens fhould not be liable,
but its axis continually changing. For it muft be ob¬
ferved, that fince the equator changes its pofition, and
the equator is only an imaginary circle, equidiftant from
the two poles or extremities of the axis ; thefe poles
and this axis muft equally change their pofitions. The
equinodtial points make a complete revolution in about
25745, the equator being all the while inclined to the
ecliptic in nearly the fame angle. Therefore the poles of
this diurnal revolution muft deferibe a circle round the
poles of the ecliptic at the diftance of about 234 degrees
in 25 745 years; and in the time of Timochares the north
pole of the heavens muft have been 30 degrees eaft ward
^ of where it now is.
‘Hipparchus Hipparchus has been accufed of plagiarifm and in-
Sias been fincerity in this matter. It is now very certain that
accufed of t}ie precefiion of the equinoxes was known to the aftro-
JI -gtan m, nomei-8 cf Jn(i;a many ages before the time of Hip¬
parchus. It appears alfo that the Chaldeans had a
.pretty accurate knowledge of the year of feafons.
From their faros we deduce their meafure of this year
to be 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 11 feconds,
exceeding the truth only by 26", and much more exadt
than the year of Hipparchus. They had alfo a lidereal
year of 365 days 6 hours 11 minutes. Now what could
©ccafton an attention to two years, if they did not fnppofe
the equinoxes moveable? TheEgyptians alfo had a know¬
ledge of fomething equivalent to this: for they had dif-
covered that the dog-ftar was no longer the faithful for-
ivarner of the overflowing of the Nile; and they com¬
bined him with the ftar Fomalhafet* in their myftidal Preeefllom
kalendar. This knowledge is alfo involved in the pre- ^ **
cepts of the Chinefe aftronomy, of much older date.)ins pur jg
than the time of Hipparchus. zodiaque
But all thefe acknowledged fadls are not fuflicient its E^yp-
for depriving Hipparchus of the honour of the difco- "c™s>
very, or fixing on him the charge of plagiarifm. This^ jnj-cr^t
motion was a thing unknown to the ailronomers of tine 8
Alexandrian fchool, and it was pointed out to them But falfely,
by Hipparchus in the way in which he afeertained
every other pofition in aftronomy, namely, as the ma¬
thematical refult of aftual obfervations, and not as a
•thing deducible from any opinions on other fubjedts re¬
lated to it. We fee him, on all other occafions, eager to
confirm his own obfervations, and his deduftions from
them, by every thing he could pick up from other aftro-
nomers ; and he even adduced the above-mentioned
practice of the Egyptians in corroboration of his doc¬
trine. It is more than probable then that he did not
know any thing more. Had he known the Indian
preceflion of 54" annually, he had no temptation what¬
ever to withhold him from ufing it in preference to one
which he acknowledges to be inaccurate,becaufe deduced
from the very fhort period of 150 years, and from the
obfervations of Timochares, in which he had no great
confidence. ^
'Ibis motion of the ftarry heavens was long a matter Heavenly
of difeuflion, as a thing for which no phyfical reafonmot‘otls ac'*
could be afllgned. But the eftablfthment of the CoAou ,tei/or
permcan lyitem reduced it to a very Ample attair ; the pemican
motion which was thought to affeft all the heavenly fyftem,
bodies, is now acknowledged to be a deception, or a falfe
judgment from the appearances. The earth turns
round its own axis while it revolves round the fun, in
the fame manner as -we may caufe a child’s top to fpin
on the brim of a mill-ftone, while the ftone is turning
flowly round its axis. If the top fpin fteadily, with¬
out any wavering, its axis will always point to the ze¬
nith of the heavens; but we frequently fee, that while
it fpins brifldy round its axis, the axis itfelf has a flow
conical motion round the vertical line, fo that, if
produced, it would flowly deferibe a circle in the hea¬
vens round the zenith point. The flat furface of the
top may reprefent the terreftrial equator, gradually turn¬
ing itfelf round on all lides. If this top were formed
like a ball, with an equatorial circle on it, it would re¬
prefent the whole motion very prettily, the only diffe¬
rence being, that the fpinning motion and this waver¬
ing moti n are in the fame direction ; whereas the diur¬
nal rotati on and the motion of the equinoftial points are
in contrary dire&ions. Even this difiimilarity may be
removed, by making the top turn on a cap, like the
card of a mariner’s compafs. l0
It is now a matter fully eftabliftied, that while the And the
earth revolves round the fun from weft to eaft, in tlieeartA,8a
plane of the ecliptic, in the courfe of a year it turns
round its own axis from weft to eaft in 2311 56 4",
which axis is inclined to this plane in an angle of nearly
.23° 28' ; and that this axis turns round a line perpen¬
dicular to the ecliptic in 25,745 years from eaft to weft,
keeping nearly the fame inclination to the ecliptic.—
By this means, its pole in the fphere of the ftarry hea¬
vens deferibes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic at
the diftance of 23° 28' mearly. The confequence ©f
this muft be, that the terreftrial equator, when produ-
3 ced
P R E F 457 1
Urcceflian. crd to the fphere of the ftarry heavens, will out the a circle diftant from it 2
1—ecliptic in two oppofite points, through which the fun
mull pafs when he makes the day and night equal; and
that thefe points mult fhift to the weltward, at the rate
of cot feconds annually, which is the precefiiou of the
equinexes. Accordingly this has been the received
dedlrine among aflronomtrs. for nearly three centuries,
and it was thought perWlly conformable to appear¬
ances. *?
But Dr Bradley, fagacious of modern aftro-
P R E
30 28 , reprefenting the circle I'fSceADn
defcribed b\' the pole ot the equator during one revolu- v 1
tion of the equinoftial points. I^et P be the place of Math^ma-
this lall mentioned pole at fome given time. Round t eal theory
11
Bradley’s
difeover t0 nomers’ l10Petl to difcOver the parallax of the earth’s
the parallaxOJbit by obfervations of the adlual pofition of the pole
of the of the celeftial revolution. Dr Hooke had attempted this
eaith’s or
bit.
before, but with very imperfedl inftmments. 'Phe art
of obfervrng being now prodigioufly improved, Dr Brad¬
ley refumed this inveftigation. It will eaJily appear,
that if the earth’s axis keeps parallel to itfclf, its extre¬
mity mull deferibe in the fphere of the Harry heavens
a figure equal and parallel to its orbit round the fun ;
and if the liars be fo near that this figure is a vifiblc ob-
jedl, the pole of diurnal revolution will be in different
tliftinguilhable points of this figure. Consequently, if
the axis deferibes the cone already mentioned, the pole
will not deferibe a circle round the pole of the ecliptic,
but will have a looped motion along this circumference,
iimilar to the abfolute motion of one of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites, deferibing an epicycle whofe centre deferibes the
circle round the pole of the ecliptic.
He accordingly obferved fuch an epicyclical motion,
and thought that he had now overcome the only diffi¬
culty in the Copernican fyftem ; but, on maturely con-
fidering his obfervations, he found this epicycle to be
quite inconfiftent with the confequences of the annual
parallax, and it puzzled him exceedingly. One day,
while taking the amufement of failing about on the
Thames, he obferved, that every time the boat tacked,
the dire&ion of th« wind, ellimated by the diredlion of
the vane, feemed to change. This immediately lug-
gelled to him the caufe of his obferved epicycle, and
he found it an optical illufion, occafioned by a combi¬
nation of the motion of light with the motion of his
telefcope while obferving the polar liars. Thus he un¬
wittingly ellablilhed an incontrovertible argument for
the truth of the Copernican fyllem, and immortalized
his name by his difeovery of the Aberration of the
liars.
IHn turther jpe jiow engaged in a feries of obfervations for af-
nifficulties
in the at¬
tempt ob¬
viated by
accident.
*3
P deferibe a circle A BCD, whofe diameter AC is 18 '. the p°hs
The real fituation of the pole will be in the ciicumference'^
of this circle; and its place, in this circumference, de-r°ff:(f *
pends on the place of the moon’s afoending node.defcribe a
Draw EPF and GPL perpendicular to it ; let GLcircie*
be the colure of the equinoxes, and EF the colure of
the folllices. Dr Bradley’s obfervations (flowed that the
pole was in A when the node was in L, the ver¬
nal equinox. If the node recede to H, the winter
folllice, the pole is in B. When the node is in the
autumnal equinox at G, the pole is at C ; and when
the node is in F, the fummer folftice, the pole is in D.
In all intermediate fituations of the moon’s afeending
node, the pole is in a point of the circumference ABCD,
three lignsor 90° more advanced.
Dr Bradley, by comparing together a great numberMbre exaflb
of obfervations, found that the mathematical theory, j!
and the calculation depending on it, would correfpondtuted ^
much better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe were the circle,
fubltituted for the circle ABCD, making the longer
axis AC 18", and the ffiorter, BD, 16". Mr d’Alem¬
bert determined, by the phyfical theory of gravitation,
the axes to be 18' and 13",4.
Thefe obfervations, and this mathematical theory, Th?fe ob.
muff, he confidered as fo many fa£ls in aftronomy, and ^ervat’l)n*
we mull deduce from them the methods of computing™.'n-v'*
the places of all celettial phenomena, agreeable to thCf^, ;n
univerfal pradlice of determining every point of the ht'a-aaronoir.ya
vens by its longitude, latitude, right afeenfion, and de¬
clination. j y
It is evident, in the firft place, that this equation Obliquity
of the pole’s motion makes a change in the obliquityof.the c*
of the ecliptic. The inclination of the equator to the c*1Pt,'c*
ecliptic is meafured by the arch of a great circle inter¬
cepted between their poles. Now, if the pole be in O
inftead of P, it is plain that the obliquity is meafured
by EO inllead of EP. If EP be confidered as the
mean obliquity of the ecliptic, it is augmented by 9"
when the moon’s afeending node is in the vernal equi¬
nox, and confequently the pole in A. It is, on the
contrary, diminifhed 9" when the node is in the au-
■iubjeci.
tumnal equinox, and the pole in C; and it is equal to
invefti •  —   — w. the mean when the node is in the colure of the folftices.
tion ofthe cfrtainJng a11 circumllances of this difeovery. In This change of the inclination of the earth’s axis to the
plane of the ecliptic was called the nutation of the axis
by Sir Ifaac Newton; who fiiowed, that a change of
nearly a fecond mull obtain in a year by the a&ion of
the fun on the prominent parts of the 'terre-ftrial fphe-
roid. But he did not attend to the change which
would be made in this motion by the variation which
obtains in the dillurbing force of the moon, in confe-
quence of the different obliquity of her aftion on the
equator, arifing from the motion of her own oblique or¬
bit. It is this change which now goes by the name
nutation, and we owe its difeovery entirely to Dr
Brae ley. The general change of the pofition of the
earth’s axis has been termed Dim at ion by modern affro-
nomers. T*
The quantity of this change of obliquity 'is eafiiy uf- Quantity of,
_ certained. It is evident, from what has been already i.rA^L
Ect E (fig. i.j, be the pole of the ecliptic, and SPQ faid, that when the pole is in O, the arch ADCO is
Vox. XV. Part XI. ^ *3 M ecmal
Plate
■CCCCXIV
the courfe of thefe, which were continued for 28 years,
he difeovered another epicyclical motion of the pole of
the heavens, which was equally curious and unexpected.
He found that the pole defcribed an epicycle, whofe
diameter was about 18'', having for its centre that point
of the circle round the pole of the ecliptic in which the
pole would have been found independent of this new
motion. He alfo obferved, that the period of this epi¬
cyclical motion was 18 years and feven months. It
ftruck him, that this was prccifely the period of the re¬
volution of the nodes of the moon’s orbit. He gave a
brief account of thefe refults to Lord Macclesfield, then
prefident of the Royal Society, in 1747. Mr Machin,
to whom he alfo communicated the obfervations, gave
him in return a very neat mathematical hypothecs, by
winch the motion might be calculated.
afceiuinedo
P R E [458
f rcceflion. equal to the node’s longitude from the vernal equinox,
and that PM is its coiine ; and (on account of the fmall-
nefs of AP in comparifon of EP) PM may be taken for
the change of the obliquity of the ecliptic. This is
therefore = 9' X cof. long, node, and is additive to the
mean obliquity, while O is in the femicircle BAD, that
is, while the longitude of the node is from 9 figns to 3
ligns; but fubtraftive while the longitude of the node
changes from 3 to 9 figns.
But the nutation changes alfo the longitudes and
right afcenfions of the liars and planets by changing
the equinoftial points, and thus occafioning an equa¬
tion in the preeefiion of the equinoctial points. It was
this circumllance which made it neceflfary for us to con-
lider it in this place, while exprefsly treating of this
preceffion. Let us attend to this derangement of the
equinoCtial points.
The great circle or meridian which pafles through
the poles of the ecliptic and equator is always the fol
19 r
Change of
the equi-
no<5tial
points.
30
Situation
the fol-
IHtial and
coiures.
31
Equation
of longi¬
tude from
nutation of
the earth’s
axis.
equinoctial HitJal colure, and the’ equinoCtial colure is at right
angles to it: therefore when the pole is in P or in O,
EP or EO is the folftitial colure. Let S be any fixed
ftar or planet, and let SE be a meridian or circle of lon¬
gitude ; draw the circles of declination PS, OS, and
the circles M'EM , m'E.m', perpendicular to PE, OE.
If the pole were in its mean place P, the equinoftial
points would be in the ecliptic meridian M EM', or
that meridian would pafs through the interfeftions of
the equator and ecliptic, and the angle MES would
meafure the longitude of the ftar S. But when the
pole is in O, the ecliptic meridian mY.m' will pafs thro’
the equinoClial points. The equinoCtial points mull
therefore be to the weftward of their mean place, and
the equation of the preceffion muft be additive to that
preceffion ; and the longitude of the ftar S will now be
meafured by the angle m ES, which, in the cafe here
reprefented, is greater than its mean longitude. The
difference, or the equation of longitude, arifing from the
OM
nutation of the earth’s axis, is the angle OEP, or Q-jy
OM is the fine of the angle CPO, which, by what has
been already obferved, is equal to the longitude of the
node : Therefore OM is equal to 9''X long, node, and
OM 9'X fin. long, node
os,s eiuaI to Th,s eq"atIon ;s
additive to the mean longitude of the ftar when O is
in the femicircle CBA, or while the afcending node is
paffing backwards from the vernal to the autumnal equi¬
nox ; but it is fubtraftive from it while O is in the femi¬
circle ADC, or while the node is paffing backwards from
the autumnal to the vernal equinox ; or, to exprcfs it
more briefly, the equation is fubtra&ive from the mean
longitude of the ftar, while the afcending node is in the
fir ft fix figns, and additive to it while the node is in the
laft fix figns.
This equation of longitude is the fame for all the
ftars, for their longitude is reckoned on the ecliptic
(which is here fuppofed invariable) ; and therefore is
affeChdd only by the variation of the point from which
the longitude is computed.
Eight The right afcenfion, being computed on the equator,
-afccnfion fuffers a double change. It is computed from, or be-
* gins at, a different-point of the equator, and it termi-
a different; point becaufe the equator having
] P It E
changed its pofition,the circles of declination alfo change PfeeflRon,
theirs. When the pole is at P, the right afcenfion of —^
S from the folftitial colure is meafured by the angle
SPE, contained between that colure and the liar’s circle
of declination. But when the pole is at O, the right
afcenfion is meafured by the angle SOE, and the dif¬
ference of SPE and SOE is the equation of right af¬
cenfion. The angle SOE confifts of two parts,"OOE
and GOS ; GOE remains the fame wherever the ftar S
is placed, but GOS varies with the place of the ftar. 
We muft firft find the variation by which GPE becomes
GOE, which variation is common to all the ftars. The
triangles GPE, GOE, have a conftant fide GE, and a
conftant angle G ; the variation PO of the fide GP is
extremely fmall, and therefore the variation of the angles
may be computed by Mr Cotes’s Fluxionary Theorems.
See Simpfon’s Fluxions, § 253, See. As the tangent of
the fide EP, oppolite to the conftant angle G, is to the
fine of the angle EPG, oppofite to the conftant fide
EG, fo is PO the variation of the fide GP, adjacent to
the conftant angle, to the variation x of the angle
GPO, oppolite to the conftant fide EG. This gives
9' X fin. long, node
* = ' "tang."obl. eclip. " ThlS 18 fubtraaive ^
mean right afcenfion for the firft fix figns of the node’s
longitude, and additive for the laft; fix figns. This equa¬
tion is common to all the ftars. 23
The variation of the other part SOG of the angle, 9tber v*“
which depends on the different pofition of the hour '^a^on*>
circles PS and OS, which caufes them to cut the equa¬
tion in different points, where the arches of right afcen¬
fion terminate, may be difeovered as follows. The tri¬
angles SPG, SOG, have a conftant fide SG, and a
conftant angle G. Therefore, by the fame Cotefian
theorem, tan. SP : fin. SPG=PO : y, and y, or the
fecond part of the nutation in right afcenlion, =
9''X fin. diff. R. A. of ftar and node
cotan. declin. ftar •
The nutation alfo affefts the declination of the ftars : Nutation
For SP, the mean codeclination, is changed into SO.— affeds the
Suppofe a circle deferibed round S, with the diftance d^cll(nat*uns
SO cutting SP in f; then it is evident that the equa- ° 1 e * ara
tion of declin. is P/zrPOX cofine OI^zz: 9' X ffgn
r. afeen. of ftar—long, of node.
Such are the calculations in conftant ufe in our a-
*5
A more
ftronomical refearches, founded on Machin’s Theory, oftralcuia-6
When ftill greater accuracy is required, the elliptical aon.
theory muft be fubftituted, by taking (as is expreffed
by the dotted lines) O in that point of the ellipfe de¬
feribed on the tranfverfe axis AC, where it is cut by
OM, drawn according to Machin’s theory. All the
change made here is the diminution of OM in the ratio
of 1 8 to 1 3,4, and a correfponding diminution of the
angle CPO. The detail of it may be fecn in De la
Lande’s AJlronomy, art. 2874 > but is rather foreign to
our prefent purpofe of explaining the preceffion of the
equinoxes. The calculations being in every cafe tedious,
and liable to miftakes, on account of the changes of the
figns of the different equations, the zealous promoters of
aftronomy have calculated and publiftied tables of all
thefe equations, both on the circular and elliptical hy-
pothefis. And ftill more to abridge calculations, which
occur in reducing every aftronomical obfervation, when
the place of a phenomenon is deduced from a compari-
£on
P R E
F 459 ]
P R E
•*7
OMVrva
tiotu of
Newton
freeeffion. Toat with known fixed ftars, there have been publifhed
-v  tables of nutation and preceflion, for forne hundreds of
tlie principal ftars, forever)' pofition of the moon’s node
^ and of the fun.
Preceflion It now remains to confider the preceflion of the equi-
#f the equi-nodtial points, with its equations, arifing from the nuta-
no&ial tjon 0f the earth’s axis as a phyfical phenomenon, and
points, <5cc. t() en(ieavour to account for it upon thofe mechanical
principles which have fo happily explained all the other
phenomena of the celeftial motions.
This did not efcape the penetrating eye of Sir Ifaac
Newton ; and he quickly found it to be a confequence,
and the moft beautiful proof, of the univerfal gravitation
and others of all matter to all matter ; and there is no part of his
on this fub ;mmortal work where his fagacity and fertility of re-
fource fhine more confpicuoufly than in this inveftiga-
tion. It muft be acknowledged, however, that New¬
ton’s inveftigation is only a fhrewd guefs, founded on
afliimptions, of which it would be extremely difftcidt to
demonftrate either the truth or fallity, and which requi¬
red the genius of a Newton to pick out in fuch a com¬
plication of abftrufe circumftances. The fubjedf has
occupied the attention of the firft mathematicians of
Europe fince his time ; and is ftill confidered as the
moft curious and difficult of all mechanical problems.
The moft elaborate and accurate differtations on the
preceffion of the equinoxes are thofe of Sylvabella and
Walmefly, in the Philofophieal Tranfadtions, publiflied
about the year 1754; that of Thomas Simplon, publiffi-
ed in his Mifcellaneous Tradts ; that of Father Frifius,
in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, and afterwards,
with great improvements, in his Cofmographia; that of
Euler in the Memoirs of Berlin ; that of D’Alembert in
a feparate diflertation ; and that of De la Grange on the
Libration of the Moon, which obtained the prize in
the Academy of Paris in 1769. We think the difler-
tation of Father Frifius the moft perfpicuous of them all,
being condudted in the method of geometrical analyfis ;
whereas moft of the others proceed in the fluxionary
and fymbolic method, which is frequently deficient in
diftindt notions of the quantities under confideration,
and therefore does not give us the fame perfpicuous
convidfion of the truth of the refults. In a work like
ours, it is impoffible to do juftice to the problem, with¬
out entering into a detail which would be thought ex¬
tremely difproportioned to the fubjedt by the genera¬
lity of our readers. Yet thofe who have the necefiary
preparation of mathematical knowledge, and wilh to un-
derftand the fubjedt fully, will find enough hererto give
them a very diftindt notion of it; and in the article Ro¬
tation, they will find the fundamental theorems, which
will enable them to carry on the inveftigation. We fhall
firft give a ftiort fteetch of Newton’s inveftigation, which
is of the moft palpable and popular kind, and is highly
valuable, not only for its ingenuity, but alfo becaufe it
will give our unlearned readers diftindt and fatistadtory
conceptions of the chief circumftances of the whole phe¬
nomena.
Let S (fig. 2.) be the fun, E the Earth, and M the
Moon, moving in the orbit NMCD«, which cuts the
plane of the Ecliptic in the line of the nodes N«, and
has one half raifed above it, as reprefented in the figure,
the other half being hid below the Ecliptic. Sup-
CCOCXIV P°^ l^s orb1t folded down ; it will coincide with the
Ecliptic in the circle N m c dn. Let EX reprefent the
18
Slcttch of
Newton’s
inveftiga-
Aion of it.
Plate
axis of this orbit, perpendicular to its plane, and there- Preceffion-^
fore inclined to the Ecliptic. Since the Moon gravitates ■—
to the fun in tire diredtion MS, which is all above the
Ecliptic, it is plain that this gravitation has a tendency
to draw the Moon towards the Ecliptic. Suppofe tin*
force to be fuch that it would draw the Moon down
from M to i in the time that fhe would have moved
from M to t, in the tangent to her orbit. By the com¬
bination of thefe motions, the Moon will defert her or¬
bit, and defcribe the line Mr, which makes the diagonal
of the parallelogram ; and if no farther action of the fun
be fuppofed, ftie will defcribe another orbit M^n', lying
between the orbit MCD/i and the Ecliptic, and fire will
come to the Ecliptic, and pafs through it in a point
nearer to M than n is, which was the former place of her
defeending node. By this change of orbit, the line EX
will no longer be perpendicular to it; but there will be
another line Ex, which will now be perpendicular t*
the new orbit. Alfo the Moon, moving from M to r,
does not move as if ffie had come from the afeending
node N, but from a point N lying beyond it; and the
line of the nodes of the orbit in this new pofition i*
N' n'. Alfo the angle MN m is lefs than the angle
MNm.
Thus the nodes fhift their places in a direclion op-
pofite to that of her motion, or move to the weftward ;
the axis of the orbit changes its pofition, and the orbit
itfelf changes its inclination to the ecliptic. Thefe
momentary changes are different in different parts of
the orbit, according to the polition of the line of the
nodes. Sometimes the inclination of the orbit is in-
creafed, and fometimes the nodes move to the eaftward.
But, in general, the inclination increafes from the time
that the nodes are in the line of fyzigee, till they get into
quadrature, after which it diminiffies till the nodes arc
again in fyzigee. The nodes advance only while they
are in the odlants afeer the quadratures, and while the
moon paffes from quadrature to the node, and they re¬
cede in all other lituations. Therefore the recefs ex¬
ceeds the advance in every revolution of the moon round
the earth, and, on the whole, they recede.
What has been faid of one Moon, would be true of
each of a continued ring of Moons furrounding the
Earth, and they would thus compofe a flexible ring,
which would never be flat, but waved, according to the
difference (both in kind and degree) of the difturbing
forces adting on its different parts. But fuppofe thefe
Moons to cohere, and to form a rigid and flat ring, no¬
thing would remain in this ring but the excefs of the con¬
trary tendencies of its different parts. Its axis would be
perpendicular to its plane, and its pofition in any moment
will be the mean pofition of all the axes of the orbits of
each part of the flexible. ring ; therefore the nodes of
this rigid ring will continually recede, except when the
plane of the ring paffes through the Sun, that is, when
the nodes are in fyzigee; and (fays Newton) the mo¬
tion of thefe nodes will be the fame with the mean mo¬
tion of the nodes of the orbit of one Moon. The in¬
clination of this ring to the ecliptic will be equal to
the mean inclination of the Moon’s orbit during any one
revolution which has the fame fituation of the nodes.
It will therefore be leaft of all when the nodes are in
quadrature, and will increafe till they are in fyzigee,
and then diminifh till they arr again in quadrature.
Suppofe this ring to contiatt .’n dimenikms, the dif-
3 M 2 turbing
P R E
Preceffion.
f 460 ]
P R E
turblng forces will diminiili In the fame proportion, and what others could hardly difcover With a microfcope Prcecffiopj
in this DroDortion will all their efFefts diminifh. Sun- in the lio-ht nf thp r,,,-, tr:, • . ■ '   J
in this proportion will all their efFefts diminifh. Sup-
pofe its motion of revolution to accelerate, cr the time
of a revolution to diminith ; the linear effefts of the dif-
turbing forces being as the fqnaresof the times of their
aftion, and their angular efFe&s as the times, thofe er¬
rors mult diminilh aifo on this account; and we can
compute what thofe errors will be for any diameter of
the ring, and for any period of its revolution. We can
tell, therefore, what would be the motion of the nodes,
the change of inclination, and deviation of the axis, of a
ring which would touch the furface of the earth, and
revolve in 24 hours ; nay, we can tell what thefe mo¬
tions would be, fhould this ring adhere to the earth.
They mull be much lefs than if the ring were detached;
For the diflurbing forces of the ring mull drag along
with it the whole globe of the earth. The quantity
of motion which the dillurbing forces would have pro¬
duced in the ring alone, will now (fays Newton) be
produced in the whole mafs ; and therefore the velocity
mull be as much lefs as the quantity of matter is greater:
But Hill all this can be computed.
Now there is Cuch a ring on the earth : for the earth
is not a fphere, but an elliptical fpheroid. Sir Ifaac
Newton therefore engaged in a computation of the effedls
of the dillurbing force, and has exhibited a moll beautiful
example of mathematical inveftigation He firll alferts,
that the earth mujl be an elliptical fpheroid, whofe po¬
lar axis is to its equatorial diameter as 229 to 230.
Then he demonftrates, that if the fine of the inclina¬
tion of the equator be called *, and if t be the num¬
ber of days (fidersal) in a year, the annual motion of
a detached ring will be 36o°X—■ He then
■■
diflurbin
tei
29
Till detcr-
jnu ation
•T the form
and dimen-
iions. of the
earth de-
inonftrated
by
#ia.
fhows that the effedl of the diflurbing force on this
ring is to its effedl on the matter of the fame ring, dif-
tributed in the form of an elliptical llratum (but Hill
detached) as 5 to 2 ; therefore the motion of the nodes
... , r 3 V/1 ’r2
Will be 360'X  —, or 16' 16" 24''' annually. He
then proceeds to fhow, that the quantity of motion in
the fphere is to that in an equatorial ring revolving in
the fame time, as the matter in the fphere to the mat¬
ter in the ring, and as three times the fquare of a qua-
drantal arch to two fquares of a diameter, jointly:
Then he fliows, that the quantity of matter in the ter-
reftriai fphere is to that in the protuberant matter of
the fpheroid, as 52900 to 461 (fiippofing all homoge*
neous). From thefe premifes it follows, that the mo¬
tion of 16' 16" 24''), mufl be diminifhed in the ratio of
10717 to 100, which reduces it to 9" 07'" annually.
And this (he fays) is the preceflion of the equinoxes,
occafioned by the aftion of the fun ; and the reft of
the 50-', which is the obferved preceffion, isowing
to the aftion of the moon, nearly five times greater than
that of the fun. This appeared a great difficulty : for
tfie phenomena of the tides fhow that it cannot much
exceed twice the fun^s force*
r a!01 Jing e,xceed the ingenuity of this procefs.
' • 1 ld°eS lV*S Gr t^ra.t€d and candid commeiitator,Da-
T- h e^Ui\ ay .(in his Differtation on the Tides, . , ^ , re
which fhared the prize of the French Academy with the fe<ai0n °f the 'P1'™
MTiaunn and Euler), that Newton faw through a veil 18 the a*ls of %ure*
in the light of the meridian fun. His determination
of the form and dimenfions of the earth, which is the
foundation of the whole procefs, is not offered as any
thing better than a probable guefs, in re difficillima ; and
it has been fince demonflrated with geometrical ris-our
by M‘Laurin. 6
His next principle, that the motion of the nodes of
the rigid ring is equal to the mean motion of the nodes
of the moon, has been molt critically difeuffed by the
fii ft mathematicians, as a thing which could neither be
proved nor refuted. Frifius has at leafl fhown it to be a
miftake, and that the motion of the nodes of the nnrr is
double the mean motion of the nodes of a fingle moon;
and that Newton’s own principles fhould have'produced
a-preceffion of 18 feconds annually, which removes the
difficulty formerly mentioned.
His third affumption, that the quantity of mo¬
tion of the ring mull be fhared with the included fphere,
was acquiefced in by all his commentators, till D’Alem¬
bert and Euler, in 1749, ftowed that it was not tlie
quantity of motion round an axis of rotation which re¬
mained the fame, but the quantity of momentum or ro¬
tatory effort. 1 he quantity of motion is the product
of every particle by its velocity ; that is, by its diftance
from the axis; while its momentum, or power of pro¬
ducing rotation, ri as the fquare of that diftance, and is
to be had by taking the fum of each particle multiplied
by the fquare of its diftance from the axis. Since the earth
differs fo little from a perfect fphere, this makes no fen-
fible difference in the refult. It will increafe Newton’s
preceffion about three-fourths of a fecond.
We proceed now to the examination of this pheno-Exim?P
menon upon the fundamental principles of mechanics. nVn^Ttke
Lecaufe the mutual gravitation of the particles ofphenome-
matter in the folar fyftem is in the inverfe ratio of the non. of ijre*
fquares of the diftance, it follows, that the gravitations
of the different parts of the earth to the fun or to the nkaTpdn*
moon are unequal. The nearer particles gravitate more ciples.
than thofe that are more remote.
Let PQ£E (fig. 3.), be a meridional ferifion of the
rreflrial iphere, and VOpq the feftion of the inferibed
fphere. Let Lo be a line in the plane of the ecliptic
palling through the fun, fo that the angle ECS is the
fun s decimation. Let NCM be a plane paffing thro’
the centre of the earth at right angles to the plane of
the meridian PQ^E ; NCM will therefore be the plane
of illumination.
In confequence of the unequal gravitation of the mat¬
ter of the earth to the fun, every particle, fuch as B, is
afted on by a diflurbing force parallel to CS, and pro¬
portional to BD, the diftance of the particle from the
plane of illumination ; and this force is to the oravita-
tion of the central particle to the fun, as three times ‘
BD is to CS, the diftance of the earth from the fun.
Let ABfl be a plane paffing through the particle B,
parallel to the plane EQ_of the equator. This fedlion
of the earthwill be a circle, of which A a is a diameter,
and will be the diameter of its fc&iort with the inferi-
bed iphere. 1 heie will be two concentric circles, and
the ring by which the feftion of the fpheroid exceeds
the fedlion of the fphere will have AQJ'or its breadth’;
Let
Plate
CSCCX1V
Freceflion.
P R E
Let EC be reprefented by the fymbol
OC or PC
EO their difference,
CL
QL
a-\-b
\/b'
f
The peripheiy of a circle to radius I
The diflurbing force at the diftance I
from the plane NCM
The fine of declination ECS
The cofine of ECS - . n
It is evident, that with refpeft to the inferibed fphere,
the difturbing forces are completely compenfated, for
every particle has a correfponding particle in the ad¬
joining quadrant, which is afted on by an equal and
oppofitc force. But this is not the cafe with the pro¬
tuberant matter which makes up the fpheroid. The
fegments NSj« and MT/wz a*e more afted on than the
iegments NT/« and MSj w; and thus there is produced
a tendency to a converfion of the whole earth, round an
axis paffing through the centre C, perpendicular to the
plane PQ/>E. We fhall diftinguifh this motion from
all others to which the fpheroid may be fubjedt, by the
name Libratjov. The axis of this libration is always
perpendicular to that diameter of the equator over which
the fun is, or to that meridian in which he is.
Prob. I. To determine the momentum of libration
correfponding to any pofition of the earth refpefting
the fun, that is, to determine the accumulated energy
of the difturbing forces on all the protuberant matter of
the fpheroid.
Let B and l be two particles in the ring formed by
the revolution of AQ^ and fo fituated, that they are at
equal diftances trom the plane NM ; but on oppofite
fides of it. Draw BD, bd, perpendicular to NM, and
FLG perpendicular to LT.
7 hen, becanfe the momentum, or power of produ-
cing rotation, is as the force and as the diftance of its
line of direction from the axis of rotation, jointly, the
combined momentum of the particles B and b will be
y.BD.DC—-f.bd.de, (for the particles B and b, are
urged in contrary directions). But the momentum of
B is/-BF.DC-f/.FD.DC, and that of l is fJG.dC—
f.dG.dC ; and the combined momentum isyiBF.Dz/—
/. FD.DC+^C,=2/.BF-LFt-2/.LT.TC.
Becaufe m and n are the fine and cofine of the angle
ECS or LCT, we have LT = w.CL, and CTcotn.CL,
and LF — m.BL, and Bb z=«.BL. This gives the mo¬
mentum =rzfmn BL1 — CL2.
The breadth AQof the protuberant ring being very
fmall, we may fuppoTe, without any fenfible error, that
all the matter of the line AQJs collected in the point
'Qj 'n like manner, that the matter of the whole
ring is collected in the circumference of its inner circle,
and that B and b now reprefent, not fingle particles,
but the collected matter of lines fuch as AQ) which
terminate at B and b. The combined momentum of two
fuch lines will therefore be 2m nf.AQ/BL'1-
461 ] P R E
which can be taken found the circle, is one half of as Preceffi»n.
many fquares of the radius CL : for BL is the fine —
, of an arch, and the fum of its fquare and the fquare of
its correfponding coflne is equal to the fquare of the
radius. Therefore the fum of all the fquares of the
1 fines, together with the film of all the fquares of the
cofines, is equal to the fum of the fame number of
fquares or the radius ; and the fum of the fquares of
the fines is equal to the furn of the fquarbs of the cor¬
refponding cofines : therefore the fum of the fquares of
the radius is double of either fum. Therefore j'n-QL
•BL2ir Yn'QL.QL2. In like manner the fum of the
number n-QL <
fums,
. Let the circumference of each parallel of latitude be
divided into a great number of indefinitely fmall and
cqua parts. 7. he number of fuch parts in the tircum-
ference, of which Qj is the diameter, will be n-QL.
o eac—pair of thefe there belongs a momentum xmnf
^AQ~BL2—CL2. ^ he o£ a11 the fquares of BLi
Thefe
•QL of CL3/ will be = n-QL-CL’.
urns, taken for the femicircle, are Jn-QL-QL2, and
:n-QL-CL3, or n-QL*|QL2, and n-QI >CI> there¬
fore the momentum of the whole ring will be 2m nf
• AQjQL.n(jQIJ2_^CL;l) : for the m<imentum of the
ring is the combined momenta of a number of pairs, and
this number is 4-ri •QL.
By the elhpfe we have OC : QLzrEO : AQ^anci
AQ= QLqC.» —-OLyi therefore the momentum of
T
A
n f—
J b
the ring is 2 m «/f-QL2ti (^QT.2—4CL2)* =
QL n (tQL CL ) : but QL2 =:£*-—x2 ; therefore
4QL*—CL2 = I^2—=±b* jw2,
therefore the momentum of the ring is m n f-n(b2 x2)
d
nf2-bn
( ^4 —4^2x:,-{-3^'‘,). If we now fuppofe another paral¬
lel extremely near to A a, as reprefented by the dotted
line, the diftance L / between them being L, we fhall
have the fluxion of the momentum of the fpheroid
mnffbU —4i2x5A;-F3if4#), of which the fluent is
4^’—+ ~ ^)- This expreftes the mo¬
mentum of the zone EA a Q., contained between the
equator and the parallel of latitude A a. Now let x be¬
come — b, and we fhall obtain the momentum of the
hemifpheroid TXmnf^n +±b>), and that of
the fpheroid-= w «/--n (^5 —43y4-}3s) zz^-mnfd
b 1 1 c J
Lhis formula does not exprefs any motion, but only
a preffure tending to produce motion, and particularly
tending to produce a libration by its adion on the co¬
hering matter of the earth, which is affedted as a num¬
ber of levers. It is fimilar to the common mechanical
formula nv.d, where w means a weight, and Jits di¬
ftance from the fulcrum of the lever.
It is worthy of remark, that the momentum of this
protuberant matter is juft of what it would be if it
were aU colledfed at the point O of the equator: for
the matter in the fpheroid is to that in the inferibed
fpherc as a2 to b\ and the contents of the inferibed
fphere
a"—//
a-
13 y n l3.
, which is the quantity
Therefore «2 : a2—b'zzl-Ub3 : £nb*
of protuberant mat-
" . a*—bx
ter. We may, without Ltvfible #rror, fuppofe —j—
2d a
P 11 E [4s
Preceflirm, rz%d\ then the protuberant matter will be ^Vd, If
   all this were placed at O, the momentum would be
^y-OH-HC, w nf db\ becaufe OH’HC = ot n b'\
now -y is 5 times tV*
Alfo, becaufe the fum of all the re&angles OH'HC
round the equator is half of as many fquares of OG, it
follows that the momentum of the protuberant matter
placed in a ring round the equator of the fphere or
fpheroid is one half of what it would be if collected in
the point O or E; whence it followrs that the momentum
of the protuberant matter in its natural place is two-
fifths of what it would be if it were difpofed in an equa¬
torial ring. It was in this manner that Sir Ifaac Newr-
ton was enabled to compare the effedt of the fun’s ac¬
tion on the protuberant matter of the earth, with his
effedt on a rigid ring of moons. The preceding invef-
tigation of the momentum is nearly the fame with his,
and appears to us greatly preferable in point of perfpi-
cuity to the fluxionary folutions given by later authors.
Thefe indeed have the appearance of greater accuracy,
becaufe they do not fuppofe all the protuberant matter
to be condenfed on the furface of the inferibed fphere:
nor were wre under the neceflity of doing this, only it
would have led to very complicated expreflions had we
fuppofed the matter in each line AQ^colledted in its
centre of ofcillation or gyration. We made a compen-
fation for the error introduced by this, which may
amount to T’t T of the whole, andfliould n®tbe negledt-
. > i a^—bt. ’ n 3 c—bz
ed, by taking d as equal to —— - initead ot — ^ .
The confequence is, that our formula is the fame wuth
that of the later authors.
Thus far Sir Ifaac Newton proceeded with mathema¬
tical rigour ; but in the application he made two af-
fumptions, or, as he calls them, hypothefes, which have
been found to be unwarranted. The firft was, that when
the ring of protuberant matter is connedted with the
inferibed fphere, and fubjedted to the adtion of the dif-
turbing force, the fame quantity of motion is produ¬
ced in the whole mafs as in the ring alone. The fe-
cond was, that the motion of the nodes of a rigid ring
of moons is the fame with the mean motion of the nodes
of a folitary moon. But we are now able to demon-
ftrate, that it is not the quantity of motion, but of mo¬
mentum, which remains the fame, and that the nodes
of a rigid ring move twice as fall as thofe of a Angle
particle. We proceed therefore to
Prob. 2. To determine the deviation of the axis, and
   the retrograde motion of the nodes which refult from this
tory mo- libratory momentum of the earth’s protuberant matter,
the^arth’f But here we mull refer our readers to fome funda-
prombe- mental propofitions of rotatory motions which are de¬
mon llrated in the article Rotation.
If a rigid body is turning round an axis A, paf-
fmg through its centre of gravity with the angular ve¬
locity a, and receives an impulfe which alone would
caufe it to turn round an axis B, alfo paffing through
its centre of gravity, with the angular velocity b, the
body wall now turn round a third axis C, pafling thro’
its centre of gravity, and lying in the plane of the axes
A and B, and the fine of the inclination of this third
axis to the axis A will be to the fine of inclination to
the axis B as the velocity b to the velocity a.
When a rigid body is made to turn round any
axis by the adtion of an external force, the quantity of
3t
■Effedts of
the libra-
rant mat
ter.
2 ] P R E
momentum produced (that is, the fum of the products Precefllias
of every particle by its velocity and by its diftance from ——’v*—"■*
the axis) is equal to the momentum or fimilar produdt
of the moving force or forces.
If an oblate fpheroid, whofe equatorial diameter
is a and polar diameter b, be made to librate round an
equatorial diameter, and the velocity of that point of
the equator which is farthell from the axis of libration
be v. the momentum of the fpheroid is -i-na2£2‘u.
15
The two lafl: are to be found in every elementary
book of mechanics. piote
Let AN a n (fig. 4.) be the plane of the earth’s equa- cqccxiV
tor, cutting the ecliptic CNK n in the line of the nodes
or equinodlial points N n. Let O AS be the fedlion of
the earth by a meridian pafling through the fun, fo
that the line OCS is in the ecliptic, and CA is an arch
of an hour-circle or meridian, meafuring the fun’s de¬
clination. The fun not being in the plane of the equa¬
tor, there is, by prop. 1. a force tending to produce a
libration round an axis ZO z at right angles to the dia¬
meter A a of that meridian in which the fun is fituated,
and the momentum of all the difturbing forces is
-rT m nf dnb\ The produA of any force by the mo¬
ment t of its adlion exprefles the momentary increment
of velocity ; therefore the momentary velocity, or the
velocity of libration generated in the time t is ^rm nfd
nb*t. This is the abfolute velocity of a point at the
diftance 1 from the axis, or it is the fpace wdiich would
be uniformly deferibed in the moment /, with the velo¬
city which the point has acquired at the end of that
moment. It is double the fpace adlually deferibed by
the libration during that moment; becaufe this has been
an uniformly accelerated motion, in confequence of the
continued and uniform aftion of the momentum during
this time. This muft be carefully attended to, and the
negleft of it has occafioned very faulty folutions of this
problem.
Let v be the velocity produced in the point A, the
moft remote from the axis of libration. The momen¬
tum excited or produced in the fpheroid is T4T n a'b'v
(as above), and this muft be equal to the momentum of
the moving force, or Vo -tT m nf d n b* t •, therefore wx
, . -A-ra n fd^ b*t
obtain v—
rV n ax b'
TT
, that is, u =: * — or ve-
3a
ry nearly mnf dt, becaufe —- = 1 very nearly. Alfo,
becaufe the product of the velocity and time gives the
fpace uniformly deferibed in that time, the fpace de¬
feribed by A in its libration round Z 2; is m nf dtxy and
, , . • mn f dt
the angular velocity is —   
Let r be the momentary angle of diurnal rotation.
The arch A r, deferibed by the point A of the equa¬
tor in this moment t will therefore be a r, that is, tfXr,
and the velocity of the point A is IT, and the angular
t
• • V
velocity of rotation is —
t
Here then is a body (fig. 5.) turning round an axis
QP, perpendicular to the plane of the equator %o%y and
therefore fituated in the plane ZP *,• and it turns round
this
P R E [
this sxis with the angular velocity £, It has received
t
an impulfe, by which alone it would librate round the
mnfdt
axis Z *, with the angular velocity  — . It will
therefore turn round neither axis (nc3i.), but round
a third axis OP’, paffing through O, and lying in the
plane ZP z, in which the other two are fituated, and
the fine Fn of its inclination to the axis of libration
Z z will be to the fine Yp of its inclination to the axis
c , ^ **. mnfdt
OP of rotation as — to
t
mnfd~) as is requi-
a
Now A, in fig. 4. is the fummit of the equator both
of libration and rotation; mnf dt* is the {pace de-
feribed by its libration in the time t; and a r is the
fpace or arch A r (fig. 4.) deferibed in the fame time
by its rotation: therefore, taking A r to Ac (perpen¬
dicular to the plane of the equator of rotation, and ly¬
ing in the equator of libration), as a r to m nf d/% and
completing the parallelogram A. r me, Am will be the
compound motion of A (n°3i.), and ar imndft*
r= 1: — , which will be the tangent of the angle
a r
m Ar, or of the change of pofition of the equator.
But the axes of rotation are perpendicular to their
-equator ; and therefore the angle of deviation -a; is
equal to this angle r Am. This appears from fig. 5.;
for n P : Yp — Op : P^, = OP : tan. POP ; and it is
• * f* it
evident that ar : mnf dt* = —
t
red by the compofition of rotations.
In confequence of this change of pofition, the plane
of the equator no longer cuts the plane of the ecliptic
hi the line N n. The plane of the new equator cuts the
former equator in the line AO, and the part AN of the
former equator lies between the ecliptic and the new
equator AN, while the part A « of the former equator
is above the new one A«'; therefore the new node N',
from which the point A was moving, is removed to the
weftward, or farther from A ; and the new node n, to
which A is approaching, is alfo moved weftward, or near¬
er to A ; and this happens in every pofition of A. The
nodes,therefore, or equinoftial points, continually fiiift to
the weftward, or in a contrary direftion to the rotation of
the earth; and the axis of rotation always deviates to the
eaft fide of the meridian which paffes through the fun.
This account of the motions is extremely different
from wh-at a perfon fhould naturally expert. If the
earth were placed in the fummer folftice, with refpeft
to us who inhabit its northern hemifphere, and had no
rotation round its axis, the equator would begin to ap¬
proach the ecliptic, and the axis would become more
upright ; and this would go on with a motion conti¬
nually accelerating, till the equator coincided with the
ecliptic. It would not ftop here, but go as far on the
other fide, till its motion were extinguifhed by the oppo-
fing forces ; and it would return to its former pofition,
and again begin to approach the ecliptic, playing up
and down like the arm of a balance. On this account
this motion is very properly termed libration ; but this
very flow libration, compounded with the incompai'ably
Xwiiter motion of diurnal rotation, produces a third mo-
465 1 p r E
tion extremely different from both. At firfl the north Preeefiiort,
pole of the earth inclines forward toward the fun; after - ■» 11L
a long courfe of years it will incline to the left hand, as
viewed from the fun, and be much more inclined to the
ecliptic, and the plane of the equator will pafs through
the fun. Then the fouth pole will come into view,
and the north pole will begin to decline from the
fun ; and this will go on (the inclination of the equa¬
tor diminifhing all the while) till, after a courfe of years,
the north pole will be turned quite away from the fun,
and the inclination of the equator will be reftored to its
original quantity. After this the phenomena wall have
another period fimilar to the former, but the axis will
now deviate to the right hand. And thus, although
both the earth and fun fhould not move from their
places, the inhabitants of the earth would have a com¬
plete fucceffion of the feafons accomplifhed in a period
of many centuries. This would be prettily illuftrated
by an iron ring poifed very nicely on a cap like the card
of a mariner’s compafs, having its centre of gravity co¬
inciding with the point of the cap, fo that it may wdiirl
round in any pofition. As this is extremely difficult
to execute, the cap may be pierced a little deeper,
which wall caufe the ring to maintain a horizontal pofi¬
tion with a very fmall force. When the ring is whir¬
ling very fteadily, and pretty brifkly, in the direction
of the hours of a watch-dial, hold a ftrong magnet above
the middle of the nearer femicircle (above the 6 hour
point) at the diftance of three or four inches. We
fhall immediately obferve the ring rife from the 9 hour
point, and fink at the 3 hour point, and gradually ac¬
quire a motion of preceffion and nutation, fuch as has
been deferibed.
If the earth be now put in motion round the fun, or
the fun round the earth, motions of libration and de¬
viation will ftill obtain, and the fucceffion of their dif¬
ferent phafes, if we may fo call them, will be perfeftly
analogous to the above ftatement. But the quantity
of deviation, and change of inclination, will now be
prodigioufiy diminifhed, becaufe the rapid change of
the fun’s pofition quickly diminilhes the dillurbing for¬
ces, annihilates them by bringing the fun into the plane
of the equator, and brings oppolite forces into a£tion.
We fee in general that the deviation of the axis is
always at right angles to the plane paffing through the
fun, and that the axis, inftead of being raifed from the
ecliptic, or brought nearer to it, as the libration would
occafion, deviates fidewHe ; and the equator, inftead of
being raifed or deprefied round its eaft and weft points,
is twilled ftdewife round the north and fouth points ;
or at leaft things have this appearance :• but we muft
now attend to this circumftance more minutely.
The compofition of rotation Ihovvs us that till’s
change of the axis of diurnal rotation is by no means a
tranflation of the former axis (which we may fuppofe
to be the axis of figure) into a new pofition, in which
it again becomes the axis of diurnal motion ; nor does
the equator of figure, that is, the moll prominent fac¬
tion of the terreftrial fpheroid, change its pofition, and
in this new pafition continue to be the equator of ro¬
tation. This was indeed fuppofed by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton ; and this fuppolition naturally refulted from the
train of reafoning which he adopted. It was ftriftly
true of a fingle moon, or of the imaginary orbit attach¬
ed to it; and therefore Newton fuppofed that the whole
earth did in this manner deviate from its former pofi.
& tion.v
t> R E
r 4^4 ]
P R E
Pr«efEon. tien, flill, however, turning round its axis of figure.
4“—    4is lie has been followed by Walmefly, Simpfon, and
xnoft of his commentators. D’Alembert was the firft
who entertained any fufpicion that this might not be
certain; and both he and Euler at lafi: fhowed that the
new axis of rotation was really a new line in the body
of the earth, and that its axis and equator of figure did
not remain the axis and equator of rotation. They af-
certained the pofition of the real axis by means of a mofl
intricate analyfis, which obfeured the connection of the
different pofitions of the axis with each other, and gave
z us only a kind of momentary information. Father Frifius
turned his thoughts to this problem, and fortunately
difeovered the compofition of rotations as a general
principle of mechaaical philofophy. Few things of
this kind have efcaped the penetrating eye of Sir Ifaac
Newton. Even this principle had been glanced at by
him. He affirms it in exprefs terms with refpeCt to
a body that is perfectly fpherical (cor. 22. prop. 66.
3F I.) But it was referved for Frifius to demonftrate
it to be true of bodies of any figure, and thus to enrich
mechanical fcience with a principle which gives fimple
and elegant lolutions of the moft difficult problems.
But here a very formidable objection naturally offers
itfelf. If the axis of the diurnal motion of the heavens
is not the axis of the earth’s fpheroidal figure, but an
imaginary line in it, round which even the axis of figure
muff revolve ; and if this axis of diurnal rotation has fo
greatly changed its pofition, that it now points at a
liar at leafl 12 degrees dillant from the pole obferved
by Tiniochares, how comes it that the equator has the
very fame fituation on the furface of the earth that it had
in ancient times ? No fenfible change has been obferved
in the latitudes of places.
The anfwer is very fimple and fatisfaftory : Suppofe
that in 12 hours the axis of rotation has changed from
the pofition PR (fig. 6.) X.o p r, fo that the north'pole,
inflead of being at P, which we may fuppofe to be a par¬
ticular mountain, is now at p. In this 12 hours the
Plate mountain P, by its rotation round p r, has acquired the
CCGCXIV p0{it-Jon r. tpe en(j 0f the next 12 hours, the axis
of rotation has got the pofition Tf,a»d the axis of figure
has got the pofition p r, and the mountain P is now at
p. Thus, on the noon of the following day, the axis
of figure PR is in the fituation which the real axis of ro¬
tation occupied at the intervening midnight. This goes
on continually, and the axis of figure follows the pofition
of the axis of rotation, and is never further removed
from it than the deviation of 12 hours, which does rot
■exceed part of one fecond, a quantity altogether
imperceptible. Therefore the axis of figure will always
fenfibly coincide with the axis of rotation, and no change
can be produced in the latitudes of places on the furface
, 4 of the earth.
Application We have hitherto confidered this problem in tlve mofl
«yfthisrea- general manner; let us now apply the knowledge we
mratf x ^ave £otten tbe deviation of the axis or of the mo-
and prtcef* menta, y adlion of the diflurbing force to the explanation
fktfi. of the phenomena: that is, let us fee what precelfion and
what nutation will be accumulated after any given time
of adtion.
l or tins purpofe we mud afeertain the precife devia¬
tion which the dillurbing forces are competent to pro¬
duce. I his we can do by comparing the momentum of
Ablation with the gravitation of the earth to the fan,
and this with the force which would retain a body on the Preceffio*#
equator while the earth turns round its axis. -—v**"w
The gravitation of the earth to the fun is in the pro¬
portion of the fun’s quantity of matter M direftly, and
to the fquare of the difbance Ainverfely,and may therefore
M
be exprefied by the fymbol —^7. The diflurbing force
at the diflance 1 from the plane of illumination is to
the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the fun as 3 to
A, (A being meafured on the fame fcale which mea-
fures the diilance from the plane of illumination).
3M
Therefore -~j- will be the diflurbing force f of our for¬
mula.
Let p be the centrifugal force of a particle at the
diflance 1 from the axis of rotation ; and let t and T
be the times of rotation and of annual revolution, viz.
fidereal day and year. Thenp ' — : "qw*
, . 3M t%
we derive 3p g—• But fince r was the angu¬
lar velocity of rotation, and confequentiy iX r the
i
fpace deferibed, and —t— the velocity; and fince the
centrifugal force is as. the fquare of the velocity divided
by the radius, (this oeing the meafure of the generated
velocity, which is the groper meafure of any accele¬
rating force), we have pi
l5Xrl _il and/-_ir_
l^X
Xqrp. Now the formula/mnd — expreffed the fine
of the angle. This being extremely fmall, the fine may
be confidered as equal to the arc which meafures the
angle. Now, fubflitute for it the value now found, viz.
3 r* tl . ...
—r—XT1’ an<^ we °blain the angle of deviation iv =r
d .... . ..
r ^yz-mn—-y and this is the fimplefl form in which it
can appear. But it is convenient, for other reafons, to
, # a3, — b1,
exprefs it a little differently: d is nearly equal to—-——g
and this is the
. . 3 t1 fli-
therefore rr!Tmn 
2 I * z
form in which we fhall now employ it.
- 3 *1 a1—bl ■ .
The fmall angler ‘ 77—m n   — is the angle in which
0 2 i ^ az
the new equator cuts the former one. It is different at
different times, as Appears from the variable part mn,
the produtl of the fine and cofine of the fun’s declina¬
tion. It will be a maximum when the declination is
in the folflice, for m n increafes all the way to 450, and
the declination never exceeds 234-. It increafes, therefore,
from the equinox to the folflice, and then diminifhes.
Let ESL (fig. 7-) be the ecliptic, EAC the equa¬
tor, BAD the new pofition which it acquires by the
momentary adtion of the fun, cutting the former in the
• 3 a1—b\
angle BAE = r —^r_mn —-—’
Let She the fun’s
place in the ecliptic, and AS the fun’s declination, the
meridian AS being perpendicular to the equator. Let
a1—b- . ' 3* 1 ,
-—gg- be L The angle BAE is then = r-kmn. la
the
P R E
Prc-ffKon. the fpheriea! triangle BAE we have fin. B : fin. AE ~
¥ fin, A ’ fin. BE, er —A : BE, becaufe very fmall
angles and arches are as their fines. Therefore BE,
which is the momentary preceffion of the equinodtial
fin. AE 3 1 * -
r 4^ i
P R E
rotation, or multiplying the fraction by—; therefore
Vrt^efKon,
2T^
m n,
35
Various
mode* of
application
$6
37
3*
$9
point E, is equal to A ~pin ~ — rX-
fin. R. afcenf.
fin. obi. eel.
1 he equator EAC, by taking the pofition BAD,
recedes from the ecliptic in the colure of the folftices
CL, and CD is the change of obliquity or the
nutation. For let CL be the folftitial colure of
BAD, and c ! the folftitial colure of EAC. Then
we have fin. B : fin. E rr fin. LD : fin. / c; and
therefore the difference of the arches LD and I c will
be the meafure of the difference of the angles B and
E. But when BE is indefinitely finall, CD may be
taken for the difference of LD and /c, they being ul¬
timately in the ratio of equality. Therefore CD mea-
fures the change of the obliquity of the ecliptic, or the
nutation of the axis with refpedh to the ecliptic.
The real deviation of the axis is the fame with the
change in the pofition of the equator, Py> being the
tncafure of the angle EAB. But this not being always
made in a plane perpendicular to the ecliptic, the change
of obliquity generally differs from the change in the pofi¬
tion of the axis. Thus when the fun is in the folftice, the
momentary change of the pofition of the equator is the
greateft poffible ; but being made at right angles to
the plane in which the obliquity of the ecliptic is com¬
puted, it makes no change whatever in the obliquity,
but the greateft poffible change in the preceffion.
In order to find CD the change of obliquity, obferve
that in the triangle CAD, R : fin. AC, or R : cof.
AEzrfin. A : fin. CD, = A : CD (becaufe A and
CD are exceedingly fmall). Therefore the change of ob¬
liquity (which is the thing commonly meant by nuta-
* 3 * *
, 3 /
the momentary nutation will be ^ p xy. In this va-
hie T|ris a conftant quantity, and the momentary nu¬
tation is proportional to x yt or to the produdt of the
fine and cofine of, the fun’s longitude, or to the fine of
twice the fun’s longitude; for xy is equal to half the
fine of twice z.
If therefore wTe multiply this fradlion by the fun’s
momentary angular motion, which we may fuppofe, wa'th
abundant accuracy, proportional to ^ we obtain the
fluxion of the nutation, the fluent of which wall ex-
prefs the whole nutation w'hile the fun deferibes the
arch z of the ecliptic, beginning at the vernal equi¬
nox. Therefore, in place of^ put f* *x4j an<I in place
of z put —T==q and we have the fluxion of the nu-
v i—x1
tation for the moment when the fun’s longitude is z,
and the fluent wall be the whole nutation. The fluxion
T^tip •
refulting from this procefs is x , of which the
40
fluent
;3_L:
zT*
tion) CDseAXcof. AE, —cof. AEk
hX fin. declin. X cof. declin. X col. R. afcenf.
But it is more convenient for the purpofes of aftro-
nomical computation to make ufe of the fun’s longitude
SE. Therefore make
The fun’s longitude ES • - =2
Sine of fun’s long. * - x
Cofine — — i—1^— y
Sine obliq. eclipt. - - ~ p
Cofine obliq. - - - — Q
zT
$tkp
-A'p—x1. This is the whole change produ¬
ced on the obliquity of the ecliptic w'hile the fun moves
along the arch 2 ecliptic, reckoned from the vernal
equinox. When this arch is 90% x1 is 1, and there-
3 tkp . # ,
fore-^7p- is the nutation produced wdiile the fun moves
from the equinox to the folftice.
The momentarychangeoftheaxis and plane of the equa-
'Zt k
tor (which is themeafure of the changing force) is
The momentary change of the obliquity of the eclip
7,1 kp .
zT **
tic is
The whole change of obliquity is
In the fpherical triangle EAS, right angled at A
(becaufe AS is the fun’s declination perpendicular to
the equator), we have R : fin. ES=:fin. E : fin. AS,
and fin. ASrrpx. Alfo R : cof. AS cof. AE : cof.
ES, and cof. ES or y _ cof. ASX cof. AE. There-
fore/xy"fin. ASXcof. ASXcof. AE, =:ninX cof. AE.
Therefore the momentary nutation CDzz X^rpi kpxy.
_ We muft recoiled that this angle is a certain frac¬
tion of the momentary diurnal rotation. It is more
convenient to confider it as a fraftion of the fun’s an¬
nual motion, that fo we may dire&ly compare his mo¬
tion on the ecliptic with the preceflion and nutation
correfponding to his fituation in the heavens. This
change is eafdy made, by augmenting the frad ion in
the ratio of the fun’s angular motion to the motion of
Vol. XV. Part II,
4*
The real
and mo¬
mentary
changes
it k * greatelt at
-——x*. the f**]/?kci
TJ 41 and at the
Hence w'e fee that the force and the real momentary equinoxes,
change of pofition are greateft at the folftices, and di- n«thing.
minifii to nothing in the equinoxes.
The momentary change of obliquity is greateft: at the
o&ants, being proportional to x x or to x v
rI he whole accumulated change of obliquity is oreat-
eft at the folftices, the obliquity itfelf being then fmalleft. 4s
We muft in like manner find the accumulated quan- Qi’suuity
tity of the precefiion after a given time, that is, the Pr.eCff*
arch BE for a finite time. a
We have ER : CD—fin. EA : fin. CA (or cof.fimc.
EA)~tan. EA : 1, and EB t ER" 1 : fin. B. There¬
fore EB : CD = tan. EA : fin. B. But tan. EA=
cof. E X tan. ES, = cof. E X i”2lJon&* 7 *
Therefore EB : CD —
fin. obliq. eclip.
tan. long. Q
lue found in n* 40. viz.
col. long- Vi—-*1 •
-7^=xip, and CD = EB :
V x—x
If we now fubftkute for CD its va-
3 ;lf>
p- x x, we obtain EB =
11
zT
l q x* x
'X the fluxion of the precdllon of the
3K
cqui-
P R E [
Precefibn. equinoxes occafioned by the adlion of the iun.
fluent of the variable part—r=- = , of which
Vi—x*
the fluent is evidently a fegment of a circle whofe arch
is z and fine x, that is, = ——and the
43 r
Mode or
ufinii the
formulas.
2
whole precefiion, while the fun deferibes the arch z,
is— This is the preceflion of
2 1. 2 * ^
the equinoxes while the fun moves from the vernal
equinox along the arch z of the ecliptic.
~ ... 3't?
In this expreffion, which conflfts of two parts,
xth a ( \
z, and —rfr- V—/, thefirll is incomparably
* ^ ^ • •
greater than the fecond, which never exceeds x/', and is
always compenfated in the fucceeding quadrant. The
$ t k q
preceffion occafioned by the fun will be' z, and
from this expreffion we fee that the preceffion increafes
uniformly, or at leaft increafes at the fame rate with
^th q.
the fun’s longitude z, becaufe the quantity-^Vp" is con-
ftant.
In order to make ufe of thefe formulae, which are
now reduced to very great fimplicity, it is neceflary to
determine the values of the two conftant quantities
3^7
p-, which we (hall call N and P, as factors of
_
4t » 4
the nutation and preceffion. Now t is one fidereal day,
a'-b'
and T is 3665. i is  \ , which according to
466 ] P II E
The figure be thought more probable, the preceffion will be Preceflion.
reduced to about 1 qu annually. But even though the ^
figure of the earth were accurately determined, we'have
no authority to fay that it is homogeneous. If it be
denfer towards the centre, the momentum of the protu¬
berant matter will not be fo great as if it were equally
denfe with the inferior parts, and the preceffion will be
diminifhed on this account. Did we know the propor¬
tion of the matter in the moon to that in the fun, we
could eafily determine the proportion of the whole ob-
ferved annual preceffion of 50^'' which is produced by
the fun’s adtion. But we have no unexceptionable data
for determining this ; and we are jrather obliged to in¬
fer it from the effeft which {he produces in difturbing
the regularity of the preceffion, as will be confldered
immediately. So far, therefore, as we have yet pro¬
ceeded in this inveiligation, the refult is very uncertain.
We have only afeertained unquellionably the law which
is obferved in the folar preceffion. It is probable,
however, that this preceffion is not very different from
2o'f annually ; for the phenomena of the tides fliow the
difturbing force of the fun to be very nearly f of the
difturbing force of the moon. Now 2d1 is of 50 .
But let us now proceed to confider the effeft of the £ffe<5t of
moon’s a&ion on the protuberant matter of the earth ; ti e moun s
and as we are ignorant of her quantity of matter, and
confequently of her influence in fimilar circumftances ]iera,lt mat>
with the fun, we flrall fuppofe that the difturbing force ter of the
of the moon is to that of the fun as w to 1. Then earth.
(extern paribus) the preceffion will be to the folar pre¬
ceffion *- in the ratio of the force and of the time of its
a&ion jointly. Let t and T therefore reprefent a pe¬
riodical month and year, and the lunar preceffion will
m ~r t
Sir Ifaac Newton is
2311— 230
23
“ 115 ; ^
and
are the fine and cofine of 230 28, viz. 0,39822 and
0,91729.
Thefe data give N=  —— and P =■
of
141030 61224
which the logarithms are 4.85069 and 5.21308, viz.
44 the arithmetical complements of 5.14931 and 4.78692.
Examj-le of Let us, for an example of the ufe of this inveftiga-
t^on’ comPute t^ie PreceTion of the equinoxes when
veftigation t^ie ^un ^as moved Bom the vernal equinox to the fum-
mer folftice, fo that z is 90°, or 324000/,.
Log 324000' - a 5‘SIOSS
Log P . _ . 5.21308
Log 5",292 - - 0.72363
The preceffion therefore in a quarter of a year is
5,292 feconds; and, fince it increafes uniformly, it is
21", 168 annually.
We muft now recoiled! the affumptions on which
this computation proceeds. The earth is fuppofed to
be homogeneous, and the ratio of its equatorial diame¬
ter to its polar axis is fuppofed to be that of 231 to
230. If the earth be more or lefs protuberant at the
equator, the preceffion will be greater or lefs in the ra¬
tio of this protuberance. The meafures which have
been taken of the degrees of the meridian are very in-
confiftent among themfelves ; and although a compari-
fon of them all indicates a fmaller protuberancy, nearly
-j-tt inftead of Ytt> their differences are too great to
leave much confidence in this method. But if this
45
AiTunp-
tions on
which the
computa¬
tion piQ-
•cecds.
23^*
be = -r-jT-. This preceffion muft be reckoned on the
plane of the lunar orbit, in the fame manner as the fo:-
lar preceffion is reckoned on the ecliptic. We muft
alfo obferve, that reprefents the lunar preceffion
only on the fuppofition that the earth’s equator is in¬
clined to the lunar orbit in an angle of 23! degrees.
This is indeed the mean inclination ; but it is fometimes’
increafed to above 28°, and fometimes reduced to 18 '.
Now in the value of the folar preceffion the cofine of
the obliquity was employed. Therefore whatever is
the angle E contained between the equator and the lu-
m r-1 Cof. E
nar orbit, the preceffion will be = rp ‘
and it muft be reckoned on the lunar orbit.
Now let ^B (fig. 8.) be the immoveable plane of
the ecliptic, qfED^F the equator in its firft fituation,
before it has been deranged by the aftion of the moon,
AGRDBH the equatqr in its new pofition, after the
momentary adtion of the moon. Let EGNFH be the
moon’s orbit, of which N is the afeending node, and
the angle N=5 5 S' 46'.
Let NT the long, of the node be - a
Sine NT - - • - x
Cofine NT
Sine T= 234
Cofine T - *
Sine N = 5.8.46
Cofine N - -
Circumference to radius i,=:6^28
47
a
b
c
el
e
Force
P R E
Preceflion. Force of the moon - - m
-v  Solar preceflion (fuppofed zl by obfer-
vation)
Revolution of d = 2 7d4- - " *
Revolution of © = 3 66^ - d-
8 Revolution of N=x8 years 7 months - «
Lunar {rr- jn or(]er to reduce the lunar precefiion to the echp-
ttffion m a ^ we recolle<ft that the equator will have the
duecd't^ fame inclination at the end of every half revolution of
the ecliptic, the fun or of the moon, that is, when they pafs through
the equator, becaufe the fum of all the momentary
changes of its politico begins again each revolution.
Therefore if we neglett the motion of the node dining
one month, which is only i-|- degrees, and can produce
but an infenfible change, it is plain that the moon pro¬
duces, in one half revolution, that is, while Ihe moves from
H to G, the greateft difference that Ihe can in the pofition
of the equator. The point D, therefore, half-way from
G to H, is that in which the moveable equator cuts the
primitive equator, and DE and DF are each 90°. But
S being the folftitial point, TS is alfo 90°. Therefore
DSrr^E. Therefore, in the triangle DGE, we have
I'm. ED : fin. G —fin. EG : fin. D, —EG : D. There-
fore D = EG X fin. G, =EGXfin. E nearly. Again,
in the triangle fvDA we have fin. A: fin. 'Y'D (or
cof. ^E) = fin. D : fin. tA, =D : nr A. Therefore
D * Cof. rrE EG • Sin. E • Cof. TE
tAzz
[ 467 ] . p R E
m while the node continually changes its places and in the Preceflior.
fpace of 18 years makes a complete tour of the heavens. ^
We muff, therefore, take the motion of the node aspreCgfljrn
the fluent of comparifon, or we muff compare the flu-and nut.a_
xions of the node’s motion with the fluxions of thepre-don com-
ceflion and nutation ; therefore, let the longitude of the pared,
nodebez, and its monthly change — z ; we ffiall then have
m ■* t
Sin. A ’
Sin. E ’ Cof. E
Cof. VE
Sin. 23T
49
50
Nutation in
the fame
time,
51
May be
confriered
t : n—%
and   . Let T be =1,
e e»/ x —x2
in order that n may be 18,6, and fubftitute for t its
value in the fluxion of the nutation, by putting </ x —
2
=z—db
Sin. ry1 ' Col. CY'-.
This is the lunar preceflion produced in the courfe
of one month, eftimated on the ecliptic, not conllant
like the folar precefiion, but varying with the inclina¬
tion or the angle E or F, which varies both by a change
in the angle N, and alfo by a change in the pofition of
N on the ecliptic.
We muff find in like manner the nutation SR pro¬
duced in the fame time, reckoned on the colure of the
folffices RL. We have R : fin. DS = D : RS, and
RS-D • fin. DS, =D • fin. <yE. But D=EG * fin. E.
171 7t t Cof E
Therefore RSrrEG * fin. E * fin. orE, = Vp .
Xfin. E Xiin. ^E. In this expreflion we muff fubftitute
the angle N, which may be confidered as conftant du¬
ring the month, andthelongitude'Y’N, which is alfp near¬
ly conftant, by obferving that fin. E : fin. T’Nrrfin. N:
m*t Sin.N’Sin.qpN'Cof.E.
fin. TE. Therefore RS=-7p_ X Cof-^ 
But we muff exterminate the angle E, becaufe it changes
by the change of the pofition of N. Now, in the tri¬
angle TEN we have cof.E = cof. TN'fin. N * fin. T —
cof. N • cof. T, =yca—db. And becaufe the angle E
is ne«effarily obtufe, the perpendicular will fall without
the triangle, the cofine of E will be negative, and we
lhall have cof. Ezzbd—acy* Therefore the nutation
, m r t exfbei—acyj
for one month will be X 7  —» the node
, 1 0
being fuppofed all *he while in N.
rI hefe two expreffions of the monthly precefiion and
as motr.en- nutation may be confidered as momentary parts of the
ofthe3™3 rnoon’s a,ffion, correfponding to a certain pofition of
nmon's ac- node and inclination of the equator, or as the
cim. fluxions of the whole variable precefiion and nutation,
# c-
in place of j'. By this fubilitution we obtain m fn-jj
( (!Ax?L—flf.y.v). The fluent of this is m * n
k 1 —x1 eb
(— db yT—A—~—). {Vtde Simpfon’s Fluxions,
^ 77)* But when x is rro, the nutation muff be rr/>,
becaufe it is from the pofition in the equinoctial points
that all our deviations are reckoned, and it is from this
point that the periods of the lunar aClion recommences.
But if we make xzzo in this expreflion, the term
ocx1 _  
vanifhes, and the term —db */1—becomes
therefore our fluent has a conftant part -\-db\
and the complete fluent is ^7 {^db—db \/1—x5' —
a cx* h , . . 0
——y. Now this is equal to m -rn — (dbX verfed
fine, z—?acX verfed fine 2 z) : For the verfed fine
of z is equal to (1— cof. z) ; and the fquare of
the fine of an arch is 4- the verfed fine of twice that
arch.
This, then, is the whole nutation while the moon’s
afeending node moves from the vernal equinox to the
longitude tNzzz. It is the expreflion of a certain
number of feconds, becaufe *, one of its faftors, is the
folar preceflion in feconds; and all the other factors are
numbers, or fractions ot the radius 1 ; even e is exprefled
in terms of the radius 1.
The fluxion of the preceflion, or the monthly precef-
fion, is to that of the nutation as the cotangent of qpE
is to the fine of <Y>* This alfo appears by confidering
figure 7. P/> meafures the angle A, or change of pofition
of the equator; but the preceflion itfelf, reckoned on the
ecliptic, is meafured by Eo, and the nutation hyp 0; and
the fluxion of the precefiion is equal .to the fluxion of
cot. tE _ a db c v
but cot.  ; there-
nutation X
fore
fine T
cot. tE ad-\-bcx/\
— : This, multiplied into
, m t n /a b dx
fine T
the fluxion of the nutation, gives —— ( -7—-— -t-
~ -XX
(b2 — a2) dc—ah c 1.v/*—**3 x ^or t^ic monthly pre¬
ceflion.
m 7 n r
The fluent of this 77^7 \a d2 b z+ib1—a2)
a b c2 x x/i—*a^)> or it is equal
a b c2 z —
to
7i7 nf
-7 Ud'
a d e
fine 2Z^*
■ic2) a bz + [l2—a2 ) dc z—\ a b cl
5%
si
3 N 2
Let
56
T R E [ 468 ] P R E
Let us now exprefs this in numbers : When the node the nutation of 1 8", as £*—a1 to 2 ai; that is, as ra- Frccefiion
dius to the tangent of twice the obliquity of the eclip- , H .
tic. This gives the greateft equation of preceflion Frei?eflilU‘
16 ,8, not differing half a fecond from Bradley’s obfer- JR*, j
vations.
1 hus have we attempted to give fome account of this
curious and important phenomenon. It is curious, be-
caufe it affedfs the whole celeflial motions in a very in¬
tricate manner, and received no explanation from the
quires m to be 2^, and *=16}". But it is evident, more obvious application of mechanical principles, which
fo happily accounted for ail the other appearances. It
is one of the moll illuiirious proofs of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s fagacity and penetration, which catched at a very
remote analogy between this phenomenon and the li-
bration of the moon s orbit. It is highly important to
fine of z and of 22 vanifli, d1 becomes 1 —and the pre' Lht; progrefs of pra&ical and ufeful aftronomy, becaufe
it has enabled us to compute tables of - fuch accuracy,
that they can be ufed with f’nnnrlpnrv* fr..- a. —
lias made a half revolution, we have smBo6, whofe
verfed fine is 2, and the verfed fine of 2 z, or 360% is tic
=20 ; therefore, after half a revolution of the node, the
nutation (n° 52.) becomes 2bd. If, in this ex-
preffion, we fuppofe and 14^", w^e fhall find
the nutation to be 19^".
Now the obferved nutation is about 1 8". This re-
1  .0,  —evident,
that no aftronomer can pretend to warrant the accuracy
of his obfervations of the nutation within tr.
1 o find the lunar precefiion during half a revolution
oi tne node, obferve, that then z becomes zr-, and the
ceffion becomes
. m * n
57
58
Give'* 'he
difturbing
force and
niat:e. oi
the mooi..
and the preceffioh in r8 years is m t « 1—4cx.
We fee, by comparing the nutation and preceffion
for nine years, that they are as ~—
to 1
c near-
^ 59
Greateft
equation of
pr.cefiion.
ly as ! to 174. .’Ihis gives 3 1 precefiion, corre-
fponding to '8 , the obferved nutation, which is about
35' of pr^ceflion annually produced by the moon.
And thus we fee, that the inequality produced by
the moon in the preceffion of the equinoxes, and, more
particularly, the nutation occalioned by the variable ob¬
liquity of her orbit, enables us to judge of her ffiare in
the whole phenomenon ; and therefore informs us of her
diflurbing force, and therefore of her quantity of mat¬
ter. This phenomenon, and thofe of the tides, are the
only fadts which enable us to judge of this matter : and
this is one of the circumftances which has caufed this
problem to occupy fo much attention. Dr Bradley,
by a nice comparifon of his obfervations with the ma¬
thematical theory, as it is called, furnifhed him by Mr
Machin, found that the equation of preceffion compu¬
ted by that theory was too great, and that th* theory
would agree better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe
were fubftituted for Mr Machin’s little circle. He
thought that the fhorter axis of this ellipfe, lying in the
colure of the folfticcs, ffiould not exceed 16". Nothing
can more clearly ffiuw the aftomfhing accuracy of
Bradley’s obfervations than this remark : for it refults
from the theory, that the pole mull really defenbe an
ellipfe, having its ffiorteraxis in the folllitial colure, and
the ratio of the axes mull be that of 1 8 to 16,8 ; for
the mean preceffion during a half revolution of the
, . m * « c*
node is — (— -) ; and therefore, for the longi-
, . z m * n c1
tude z, it will be - (d1— -) ; when this is taken
from the true preceffion for that longitude (n° 54.), it
leaves the equation of preceffion- ~^ J cm
line z —4 a <5 ^ fine 22,) ; therefore, when the node is
in the folftice, and the equation greateft, we have it =
m *n cd
a b e
as infignificant.
(b* a1). We here negledt the fecond term
This greateft equation of preceffion is to
2m* n cd
that they can be ufed with confidence for determining
the longitude of a ffiip at fea. This alone fixes its im¬
portance : but it is ftill more important to the philofo-
pher, affording the moft incoriteftable proof of the uni-
verfal and mutual gravitation of all matter to all matter.
It left nothing in the folar fyftem unexplained from the -
theory of gravity but the acceleration^ of the moon’s
mean motion ; and this has at laft been added to the lift
of our acqufitions by Mr de la Place.
Quas toties animos veterum torfere Sophorum,
Quasque fcholas fruftra rauco certamine vexant,
Obvia confpicimus, nube pellente Mathefi,
Jam dubios nulla caligine praegravat error
Queis fuperum penetrare domos, atque ardua cceli
Scandere fublimis genii conceffit acumen.
Nec fas eft propius mortali attingere divos.
Halley,
PRECISE, (preciusy “ early,)”) the name of the
21 ft order in Linmeus’s fragments of a natural method;
confifting of primrofe, an early flowering plant, and a
few genera which agiee with it in habit and ftruc-
ture, though not always in the charaAer or circum-
ftance expreffed in the title. See Botany, p. 461.
col. 2.
PRECIPITANT, in chemiftry, is applied to any
liquoi, which, when poured on a folution, feparates
what is diffolved, and makes it precipitate, or fall to
the bottom of the veffel.
PRECIPITATE, in chemiftry, a fubftanee which,
having been diffolved in a proper menftruum, is again fe-
parated from its folvent, and thrown down to the bottom
of the veffel, by pouring fome other liquor upon it.
PR EC I PI I AT I ON. See Chemist nr-Index.
PRECOGNITION, in Scots law. See Law, Part
III. n« clxxxvi. 43,
PRECORDIA, in anatomy, a general name for the
parts fituated about the heart, in the forepart of the
thorax: as the diaphragm, pericardium, and even the
heart itfelf, with the fpleen, lungs, &c.
PREDECESSOR, properly lignifies a perfon who
has preceded or gone before another in the fame office
or employment; in which fenfe it is diltinguilhed from
anceftor.
PREDES1INATION, the decree of God, where-The doa#
by he hath from all eternity unchangeably appointed tr,ne ita-
whatfoever comes to pafs ; and hath more efpeciallyccd*
fore-ordained certain individuals of the human race to
everlafting
J’RKOES SION of the EQINOXJ
S' /
^ / V\
/ /] yf
AL'J
sUr^-- f/
1 1
\ \ Bs<;;>#
T / /
xk Tr
/G
y. . /^=
   *"
/
\
 o
rr
P R E [ 4*59 3 P R E
i%rec!e(lina
tion
Not pecu¬
liar to
Chriftiani'
CT-
■ ererlallinff happ!nef», and hath pa.Ted by the reft, and
fore-ordained them to everlafting mifery. The former
of thefe are called the elc£)> and the latter are called the
reprobate.
This do£Vine is the fuhjeft of one of the mod per¬
plexing controvedies that has occurred among mankind.
But it is not altogether peculiar to the Chriltian faith.
The opinion, that whatever occurs in the world at
large, or in the lot of private individuals, is the refult
of a previous and unalterable arrangement by that Su¬
preme Power which prelides over nature, has always
been a favourite opinion among the vulgar, and has been
believed by many fpeculative men. Thus, in that beau¬
tiful feene in the lixth book of the Iliad, Heitor, ta¬
sting leave of his wife and his child, fpeaks thus :
Andromache ! my foul’s far better part,
Why with untimely forrows heaves thy heart ?
No holtile hand can antedate my doom,
Till fate condemns me to the filent tomb.
Fix’d is the term to all the race of earth,
And fuch the hard condition of our birth.
No force can then refill, no flight can fave,
All fink alike, the fearful and the brave. 1. 624.
The ancient Stoics, Zeno and Chiylippus, whom the
Jewifh Effenes feem to have followed, alferted the ex¬
igence of a Deity that, ailing wifely, but neceffarily,
contrived the general fyftem of the world; from which,
by a feries of caufes, whatever is now done in it una¬
voidably refults. I bis feries, * or concatenation of
caufes, they held to be neceffary in every part; and that
God himfelf is fo much the fervant of neceflity, and of
his own decrees, that he could not have made the fmall-
eft objeil in the world otherwife than it now is, much
lefs is he able to alter any thing.
According to the words of Seneca, Ead.m necef
Jit Hi et Dens a'ligat. Irrevorabilis divina par iter atque
hutnana curfus vehit. We ipfe omnium conditor ac rec¬
tor feripjit quidetn fata fed fequilur. Semper pa ret, femel
jvftt. “ The fame chain of neceflity conftrains both
gods and men. Its unalterable courfe regulates divine
as well as human things. Even he who wrote the Fates,
the Maker and Governor of all things, fubmits to them.
Fie did but once command, but he always obeys.” The
ftoical fate differs, however, from the Chriflian prede-
flination in feveral points. They regarded the divine
nature and will as a neceffary part of a neceffary chain
ef caufes ; whereas the Chriflians conhder the Deity as
the Lord and Ruler of the Univerfe, omnipotent and
free, appointing all things according to his pleafure.
Being doubtful of the immortality of the foul, the Stoics
could have no idea of the dodlrine of ele6lion and re¬
probation ; nor did they ever doubt their own freedom
of will, or power of doing good as well as evil, as we
fhall prefently fee the Chriflian predeflinarians have
done.
Mahomet introduced into his Koran the doftrine of
an abfolute predeflination of the courfe of human af¬
fairs. He icprefented life and death, profperity and
adverlity, and every event that befals a man in this
world, as the refult of a previous determination of the
one God who rules over all; and he found this opinion
the heft engine for infpiring his followers with that con¬
tempt of danger which, united to their zeal, has extend¬
ed the empire of their faith over the faireft portion of Pre leftina-
the habitable globe. tiou.
The controverfy concerning predeflination firfl made
its appearance in the Chriflian church-about the begin-when firft
ning of the fifth century f. Pelagius a Britifh, and Coe- agitated in
leflius an Irifh, monk, both lived at Rome during thatfhe chu ch*
period, and pofTcffcd great celebrity on account of their t Mojteim.
piety and learning. They taught that the opinion is 'f/f
falfe, which afferts, that human nature is neceffarily cor- *
rupted by a depravity derived from our firfl parents.—
1 hey contended, that men are born at prefent in a
flate as pure as that in which Adam was originally cre¬
ated ; and that they are not lefs qualified than he was
for ful‘lling all righteoufnefs, and for reaching the
moil fublime eminence of piety and virtue : that the
external grace of God, which is given unto all, and at¬
tends the preaching of the gofpel, is neceffary to call
forth the attention and exertions of men ; but that we
do not want the afliflance of any internal grace to pu¬
rify the heart, and to give it the fxrft impulfe towards
what is good. Having fled into Africa on account of
the Goths, who at that time invaded Italy, A. D. 410,
Cceleflius remained at Carthage as a Prefbyter; but Pe- -
lagius went into the Eafl, where he fettled, and pro-
fpered under the patronage of John bifhop of Jetufa- 4
lem, to whom his fentiments were agreeable. On the Auguftin* r
contrary, the celebrated Augufline, bifhop of Hippo, a P edeki‘
flrenuoufly aflerted the depravity of human nature fince na‘iaa»
the fall of the hrit man, the neceflity of a fpecial inter-
pofltion of divine grace to enable us to do any one good
action; and confequently, that none could obtain' falva-
tion excepting thofe whom God has thought fit to
eledl, and upon whom he bellows this grace. The dif-
pute was carried on with great zeal. Zozimus bifhop
of Rome decided at full in favour of Pelagius and
Cceleflius, whofe followers were called Pelagians ; but
he afterwards filtered his opinion : and by the ac¬
tivity of Augufline, the council of Ephefus was called, -
at which the opinion of his antagonifls was formally con¬
demned.
In the courfe of the fame century, thefe opinions af-
fumed a variety of forms and modifications. One par¬
ty, called Predejlinariansy carried Augufline’s doctrine
fully farther than he himfelf had ventured to do in ex-
prefs words ; and aflerted, that God had not only pre-
deflinated the wicked to pnnijhment, but alfo that he
had decreed that they fhould commit thofe very [ins on
account of which they are hereafter to be punifhed.—-
Another party moderated the doftrine of Pelagius, and
were called Semipelagian:. Their peculiar opinion is
exprefled in a different manner by different writers ; but
all the accounts fufiiciently agree. Thus, fome repre-
fent them as maintaining that inward grace is not ne¬
ceffary to the firfl beginning of repentance, but only
to our pvogrefs in virtue. Others fay, that they ac¬
knowledged the power of grace, but faid that faith de¬
pends upon ourfelves, and good works upon God ; and
it is agreed upon all hands, that thefe Semipelagians
held that predeflination is made upon the forefight of
good works. The afiiftance of Augufline, though then
far advanced in life, was called in to combat thefe te¬
nets, and he wrote feveral treatifes upon the fubjeil.
In all thefe he flrenuoufly maintained, that the prede>
ftin^tion of the cleft was iudependent of any foreiight
? 11 E [ 470 1 P R E
pj^e.’ed i-ria- of their good works, but was according to the good
tioii. pleafure of God only; and that perfeverance comes from
God, and not from man. Thereafter the doftrine of
Auguftine, or St Auilin as he is often called, became
general. He was the oracle of the fchoolmen. They
never ventured to differ fiom him in ientiment ; they
only pretended to difpute about the true fenfe of his
^ writings.
Amt all the The whole of the earlicll reformers maintained thefe
earl left re- opinions of Augultine. They aflumed under Luther a
butimir more Aguiar and fyftematic form than they had ever
tfpec ally formerly exhibited. But as the Lutherans afterwards
Calvin. abandoned them, they are now known by the name
of Calvinijiic DoSrines, from John Calvin of Geneva.
He afferted, that the everlafting condition of mankind
in a future world was determined from all eternity by
the unchangeable decree of the Deity, ariiing from
his foie good pleafure or free will. Being a man of
great ability, induftry, and eloquence, Geneva, where
he taught, and which was a free ftate, foon became the
refort of all the men of letters belonging to the reform¬
ed churches, and was a kind of feminary from which
miflionaries ilfued to propagate the Proteilant doctrines
through Europe. Their fuccefs was iuch, that, ex¬
cepting a part of Germany, the principles of all the
reformed churches are profeffedly Calviniilic or Prede-
6 ftinarian.
Rife of the The opponents of the doctrine of predellination a-
Armnnaus. moT1g t]ie Proteftants ufually receive the appellation of
Arminians or Remonjlrants. They derive the hr It of
thefe appellations from James Arminius, who was, A. D.
* PAaUo 1602, appointed * profefTor of theology at Leyden. He
de Orhlne was violently oppofed by Corner his colleague, and
et Vrogrejfu died A. D. 1609* After his death, the controverfy
Comrwer- was conduced with great eagernefs on both lides.
j.mum m The Calvinills, however, gradually prevailed. A fynod
Bdgiodl0 was called at Dort, A. D. 1618, to which the moft
Vresdtjlina- celebrated divines of different countries were invited.
Bone Fit- There, in a great meafure by the authority and influ-
■htfi a Lim- erice 0f Maurice piince of Orange, the Arminians were
Condemned as heretics; for by this time ambitious and
powerful men found themfelves politically intereited in
this religious contefl. The Arminians prefented to this
fynod a remonftrance, containing a flatement of their
faith upon the fubjedls in difpute; and from this they
derived the appellation of Remonjlrants. This ftatement
contained the following five articles : I. That God from
ail eternity predeftinated thofe to everlafting falva-
tion whom he forefaw w'ould believe in Chrift unto
the end of their lives ; and predeftinated obftinate un¬
believers to everlafting punifhment. 2. Jefus Chrift
died for the whole human race, and for every individual
of it, but believers alone reap the benefit of his death.
3. No man can produce faith in his mind by his own
free will, but it is neceffary that man, who is by nature
wncked and unfit for atting or thinking aright, fhould
be regenerated by the grace of the Holy Spirit, impart¬
ed by God for Chrift’s fake. 4. 'Phis divine grace
Conftitutes the fource, the progrefs, and the fulfilment,
of all that is good in man ; but it is not irrefiftible in
its operation. 5. Believers, by the afliftance of the
Holy Spirit, are abundantly fitted for every good work;
font whether it is poffible for thofe who have once been
ituly fuch to fall away, and to perifti finally, is not clear,
7
and mail be better inquired into by fearching the fa-Predefilna-
cred feriptures. t‘on*
In oppofition to thefe, a counter-remonftrance was v ’
prefented, containing the opinions of the Calvinifts,
which was approved of by the fynod. TJie fubftance
of it wras afterwards adopted, and in nearly the fame ex-
preffions, into theConfeffion of Faith compiled by the ;if-
fembly of divines which met at Weftminfter, A. 1).
1643, and which every clergyman and probationer for
the miniltry in Scotland is at prefent required to fub- 7
feribe previous to his admiflion. To give as clear and C’alviniflic
as fair an idea as pofiible of the Calviniftic doctrine up-do^riIie
on this head, we tranferibe the following paffage from^^ £
that Confeffion : “ God from all eternity did, by the
moft wife and holy ceunfel of his own will, freely and
unchangeably ordain whatfoever comes to pafs ; yet fo, as
thereby neither is God the author of fin, nor is violence
offered to the w ill of the creatures, nor is the liberty or
contingency of fecond caufes taken away, but rather
eftablifhed. Although God knows whatfoever may or
can come to pafs upon all fuppofed conditions; yet
hath he not decreed any thing becaufe he forefaw it as
future, or that which would come to pafs upon fuch
Conditions. By the decree of God, for the manifefta-
tion of his glory, fome men and angels are predeftina¬
ted unto everlafting life, and others are fore-ordained
to everlafting death. Thefe angels and men, thus pre¬
deftinated and fore-ordained, are particularly and un¬
changeably defigned ; and their number is fo certain
and definite, that it cannot be either increafed or dimi-
niftied. Thofe of mankind that are predeftinated unto
life, God, before the foundaton of the world was laid,
according to his eternal and immutable purpofe, and the
fecret counfel and good pleafure of his will, hath cho-
fen, in Chrift, unto everlafting glory, out of his mere
free grace and love, without any forefight of faith, or
good works, or perfeverance in either of them, or any
other thing in the creature, as conditions or caufes mo¬
ving him thereunto ; and all to the praife of his glori¬
ous grace. As God hath appointed the eledf unto glo¬
ry, lo hath he, by the eternal and moft free purpofe of
his will, fore-ordained all the means thereunto. Where¬
fore, they who are elected, being fallen in Adam, are
redeemed by Chrift, are effectually called unto faith in
Chrift, by bis fpirit working in due feafon ; are juftifi-
ed, adopted, fanCtified, and kept, by his power through
faith unto falvation. Neither are any other redeemed
by Chrift effectually called, juftified, adopted, fanCtifi¬
ed, and faved, but the eledt only. The reft of man¬
kind, God was pleafed, according to the unfearchable
counfel of his own will, whereby he extendeth or
with-holdeth mercy as he pleafeth for the glory of his
fovereign power over his creatures, to pafs by, and to
ordain them to diftionour and wrath-for their fin, to the
piaile of his glorious juftice.” 8
_ There are two kinds of Calvinifts or Predeftinarians, Supralap-
viz. the SupralapJ'ananSf who maintain that God did Brians and
originally and exprefsly decree the fall of Adam, as aSu,alaPfar*“
foundation for the difplay of his juftice and mercy ;ans*
while thofe wffio maintain that God only permitted the
fall of Adam, are called Sublap/arians, their fyftem of
decrees concerning election and reprobation being, as it
weie, fubfequent to that event. But, as Dr Prieftley
juftly remarks, if we admit the divine prefcience, there
is
R E
any difference
rredcAina 1S not, in facf, any difference between.
tu,n- fchemes; and accordingly that diftin&ion is now fel-
dom mentioned.
Pifpmes in Nor was the church of Rome lefs agitated by the
the church contett about predeftination than the iirft Protellants
f f Rome OU were> The council of Trent was much perplexed how
the fubjedt ^ matter without giving offence to the Do-
mimcans, who were much attached to the doctrine of
Auguftine, and poffeffed great influence in the council.
After much difpute, the great objeCf came to be, how
to contrive fuch a decree as might give offence to no¬
body, although it fhould decide nothing. Upon the
whole, however, they feem to have favoured the Semi-
pelagian fcheme. Among other things, it was^ deter-
mmed, that good works are of themfclves meritorious to
eternal life ; but it is added, by way of foftening, that
it is through the goodnefs of God tnat he makes his
»wn gifts to be merits in us. Catarin revived at that
council an opinion of fome of the fchoolmen, that God
cbofe a fmall number of perfons, fuch as the bleffed
virgin, the apoftles, &c. whom he was determined to
fave without any forefight of their good works ; and
that he alfo wills that all the reft fhould be faved, pro¬
viding for them all neceffary means, but they are at li¬
berty to life them or not. This is called the Baxterion
fcheme in England, from one of its promoters there.
But at all events, the council of Trent feems to have
been extremely anxious that any opinions entertained
among them .concerning predeftination might have as
little influence as pofftble upon pra&ical morality. “ Let
no man (fay they), while he remains in this mortal ftate,
prefume that he is among the number of the cleft, and
that therefore he cannot fin, or fin without repentance;
for it cannot be known who are elefted without a fpe-
cial revelation from God.” bef. 6. c. I3*
The Jefuits at firft followed the opinion of Auguf-
tine ; but they afterwards forfook it.. Motmay one of
their order, was the author of what is called the mid¬
dle fchtme, or the doftrine of a grace fujjicient for all men,
but fubjeft to the freedom of the human will. _ Janfe-
nius, a doftor of Louvain, oppofed the Jefuits with
great vigour, and fupported the doftrine of Auguftine.
He wrote in a very artful manner. He declared, that
he did not prefume to ftate his own fentiments upon
[ 47* 1 P R E
the two the fubjeft; he pretended only to explain and puhlifliPrci!efl|li;v*
the fentiments of that great father of the church St n^" j
Auguftine. But the Jefuits, in confequence of that in¬
violable fubmiflion to the authority of the pope which
they always maintained, had fufficient intereft at Rome
to procure the opinions of Janfenius to be condemned
there ; but with this addition fubjoined, that nothing
was thereby intended to be done in prejudice of the
doftrine of St Auguftine. This produced an abfurd
difpute about the pope’s infallibility in matters of faft.
The Janfenifts affirmed, that the Pope had made a mi-
ftake in condemning the opinions of Janfenius as diffe¬
rent from thofe of Auguftine; whereas in truth they
are the fame, and the one cannot be condemned with¬
out the other. But the Jefuits affirmed, that the pope
is no lefs infallible in points of faft than he is in quef-
tions of faith ; and he having decided, that the opi¬
nions of Janfenius are different from thofe of St Au¬
guftine, every good Catholic is bound to believe ac¬
cordingly that they are different, Thefe difputes have
never been fully fettled, and ftill divide the Roman Ca¬
tholic churches. Some of the ableft fupporters of pre¬
deftination have appeared among the Janfenifts, and par¬
ticularly among the gentlemen of Port-Royal. to
With regard to Great Britain, the earlieft Englifh an^1
& i i r Scotch re-
reformers were in general Sublapfarians, although fome £ormers
of them were Supralapfarians. But the rigid Predefti-precjeftiEai.
narians have been gradually declining in number inrians.
that church, although they ftill fubferibe the 39 articles
of their faith, which are unqueftionably Calviniftic.
The celebrated Scotch reformer John. Knox having
been educated at Geneva, eftablifhed in this country
the doftrine of predeftination in its ftrifteft form : and
it has probably been adhered to with more clofenefs in
Scotland than in any country in Europe.
Of late years, however, the difpute concerning pre¬
deftination has affumed a form confiderably different
from that which it formerly poffefied. Inftead of being
confidered as a point to be determined almoft entirely
by the facred feriptnres, in the hands of a number of ‘
able writers, it has in a great meafure refolved itfelf in¬
to a queftion of natural religion, under the head of the
philofophical liberty or neceffity of the will (a) ; or,
whether all human aftions are or are not heceffarily de-
fA Dr Prieftley, the moft celebrated Neceffarian of the age, has written a whole feftion of his Illuf rations.
with a view to {how, that between “ the two fehemes of Calviniftic predeftination and philofophical neceffi y,
there is no fort of refemblance, except that the future happinefs or mifery of all men is certainly foreknown and
appointed by God. In all other refpefts (fays he) they are moft effentially different; and even where they
agree in the eW, the difference in the manner by which that end is accomphffied is fo very great,fthat the /«-
jtuence of the two fyftems on the minds of thofe that adopt and aft upon them is the reverfe of one* another
The Calviniftic doftrine of predeftination, according to a very authentic ftatement of that doftnne , is, that SWr
“ God, for his own glory, hath fore ordained vshatfoever comes to pafs.” The fcheme of philoiophical nece it>V
as ftated by an intimate friend and warm admirer of Dr Prieftley’s, is, “ That thing a>
Divine Being ; that whatever has been, muft have been ; and that whatever will be, mull be ; that all event sure; at
pre-ordained by infinite wifdom and unlimited goodnefs ; that the will, m all its determmations, is governed by
the ftate of mind; that this ftate of mind is in every inftance determined by the Deity ; and that there is a con¬
tinued chain of caufes and effefts, of motives and aftions, infeparably eonnefted, and originating from the con¬
dition in which we are brought into exiftence by the Author of our being. \(t aufor o\ comfn ero 1
fame book affirms, “That all motion indeed originates in the Deity; that the Deity is felf-moved ;tha l_.
poffeffes the Angular attribute underived of moving himfelf.” But it is added in t e very ame paragrap . ~
which this Lft fentence is quoted, that “the very argument we employ to prove one underived fource of niot^n.
ri
'Points at
^ffue be¬
tween the
jeft ©f preddlination in the fame manner, avoiding as
far as pofiible any recapitulation o what has been ad¬
vanced under the head of N’^cusairr and Liberty.
From what has been already faid, it will appear that
twe^i the P°*nts chiefly at iffue between the parties are the
predeftina- f°^ow'ng' Firtt, With what views and purpofes did
riant and God create the world and frame his decrees concerning
their opf.o- mankind ? l)id he contrive a great unalterable fcheme
of creation and providence only for the fake of mani-
fefting his own glory and perfe&ions ? Oi“ did he firil
confider the free motions of thofe rational agents whom
he intended to create, and frame his decrees upon the
conflderation of what they might choofe or do in all
the various circumftances in which he intended to
place them ?—The fecond and following quell ions are
branches of this leading one. Did Chrift die for a par¬
ticular portion of the human race, who {hall therefore
certainly be faved ? or was his death intended as a bene¬
fit to all, from which none are excluded excepting thofe
who willingly reject it ? Is the divine grace certainly
and irrefiltibly efficacious in all thofe minds to which it
is given? or does its effeft depend upon the good ufe
which men may or may not make of it ? Can any good
aftion be done without it ? Do thofe who have once
•received it certainly perfevere and obtain eternal falva-
tion ? or is it poffible for any of them to fall away and
periih finally ?
i %
Arguments We fhall begin by ftating the argument on the fide
RE f 472 1 P R E
arifing from the character which tainty, and dependency upon them, which falls fhort 0f ^edefh’na-
infinite perfection. Fie exifted alone, and his councils
could have no object excepting himfelf; he could only
then confider the difplay of his own attributes and per-
feCtion. In doing this, as the end is more important
than the means, Divine Wifdom muft begin its defigns
with that wViir'K 1 C F r\ ft r^> 2  1 . • /•
"Prclefuna- termined by motive
t God has impreffed on our minds, and the train of cir-
cumfiances- amidit which his providence has placed us ?
We have already difeuffed this point (fee Metaphy¬
sics) by giving a candid ilatement of the arguments
on both fides of the queftion. We (hall treat the fub-
•mmJ
for the doc- f " “7 ^ u e argument on me me ly toieleen. It they are certainly forefeen, they mu/}
trine of the predeftmanans, and m the language which they certainly be, and can therefore be no longer continfrent
commonly ufe. But it is necefiarv to make this nre- An _ir _ . ^ „ o *
with that which is to come laft in the execution of
them ; but the conclufion of all things at the lall judge¬
ment will be the complete manifellation of the wifdom,
the goodnefs, and jultice, of God: we muft therefore
hippoie, that, in the order of things, he decreed that
iii It, although with him, in the order of time, there is
no firft nor fecond, but all is from eternity. When
this gieat defign was lajd, the means were next defifrn-
ed. Creation, and its inhabitants of every order, form
the means by which the author and difpofer of all thincrS
accomplifhes his will. But creatures in his fight are
nothing, and are figuratively faid to be lefs than nothing.
V\ e may entertain proud and derated conceptions of
our own dignity if we pleafe ; but if we in our deftmS
regard not the duft on which we tread, or the liveiTof
ants and infefts, the omnipotent Lord of all, from whom
we are more infinitely diftant, muft regard us as at leaft
equally inconfiderabie, and only valuable as we ferve the
acccompiiffiment of his great and myftenous purpofes,
which cannot be us or our aggrandifement, but himfelf
and his own glory.
It is only by this view of the divine condmft that os neceffa.
jome o. the attributes of God can be explained, or their rJ’ ex_
exiftence rendered poffible. In the feriptures he claims?!3’? the
the attribute of preference as his diftinguiffiing preroga-
tive but there can be no prefcience of future contln-
gencies ; for it involves a contradnftion to fay, that
things which are not certainly to be ffiould be certain¬
ly foiefecn. If they are certainly forefeen, they muj}
Galvini
Kejpovf. '
eontra Pig-
bnium, ad
j*utn lib.
commonly ufe. But it is neceffary to make this pre¬
vious remark, that the general* objections to their doc¬
trine are, that it is hoftile to all our ideas of the juftice
of God, reprefenting him as a partial being, rewarding
without merit, and pnniftiing without iin ; that it ren¬
ders him the author of evil, deftroys moral diftinCtions,
makes ufelefs every effort on our part, makes every
prayer abfurd, and even the preaching of the gofpel
vain ; feeing that all things are immutably fixed, and
none can believe or be faved excepting the eleft, and
they muft certainly and at all events be fafe. Againft all
ibis they reafon thus.
1 he great and everlafting Author of all things ex¬
ifted from eternity alone, independent and effentially
perfeef. As there was no other, he could only confider
himlelf and his own glory. He muft therefore have
defigned all things in and for himfelf. To make him
ftay his determinations till he fliould fee what free
creatures would do, is to make him decree with uncer-
8
An uncertain forefight is alfo an imperfeCt ad, as it
may be a rmflake, and is therefore inconfiftent with di¬
vine perfe&ion. On the other fide the difficulty is ea-
iily explained. When God decrees that an event {hall
take place, its exiftence becomes thenceforth certain,
and as fuch is certainly forefeen. For it is an obvious
abfurdity to fay, that a thing happens freely, that is to
fay, that it may he or may not be, and yet that it is cer¬
tainly forefeen by God. He cannot forefee things but
as he decrees them, and confequently gives them a fu-
tura certainty of exiftence; and therefore any prefcience
antecedent to his decree muft be rejeCted as impoffible.
Conditional decrees are farther abfurd, iuafmuch as they
fubjeCI the purpofes of God to the will and the aCtions
of his creatures. Does he will, or wifli that all man¬
kind flaould be faved, and {hall they not all be faved ?
Infinite perfection can wiih nothing but what it can
execute , and if it is fit to wifti, it is alfo fit to execute
its willies. We are indeed certainly informed by the
ferip-
^thffig^rfrthan^left^fH^ '"l ^ 5^nd..^at the ^Ptionof this power to the Divine Being is in faCt
The" piety of thefe ,u.funlltm or ™ther mpoJJibtUhet, if thefe could admit of degrees, f” . F-
poffible that their confiften^ may not an"' °C T ™dd* ? bnt ^ « >^Tcai
Dr Prieftley’s IHuftrations ” wh; a y e pparent. U e would advife all fueh “ to perufe once and again by
rian prejudLs, convince them “ thatThe ^ ftho^ty t(? ^ Wlfl rernove their minds all liberta-
bli the defenders of that hypothefis a e L nJrfe°A ^ m™ntrovc/uh'Y them
ypuuieus are in perieCt harmony with themfelves and with one another 1
P R E I 473 J P R E
f rededina* fcnptnres, that all fhall not be faved ; and we therefore
tioii. as certainly conclude, that God never intended that they
L'~~v foould be fo ; for the counfel of the Lord jiandeth fiy/l, ami
T4 the thoughts of his heart, to all generations.
Chrift died We conclude upon the fame principles, that al-
<>n y for though the bit flings refulting from the death of Chrill
the eledt. are 0fftTe(i to all, yet that intentionally and actually he
only died for thofe whom the Father had chofen and
given to him to be faved by him. That Chrilt ihouid
have died in vain i$ reprefented by the apollle Paul as a
great abfurdity (Gal. ii. 21.) : but if he died for all,
he mud have died in vain with regard to the greater
part of mankind who are not to be faved by him. In
fo far as fome inferior blefiings are concerned, which
through him are communicated, if not to all men, at
lead to all Chridians, he may perhaps judly be faid to
have died for all: but with regard to eternal falvation,
his defign, to avoid rendering it fruitlefs, could go no
farther than the fecret purpofe and eleftion of God.
This is implied in thefe words, all that are given me of
my Father, thine tiny voere, and thou gavejl them me.
To thefe his interceflion is limited; I pray not for the
world, but for thofe that thou hajl given me ; for they are
thine, and all thine are mine, and mine are thine (Jo. xvii.
9, 10.) Univerfal words are indeed ufed with regard
to the death of Chrid : but the reafon is obvious, the
Jewifh religion was confined to the family and defeen-
dants of Abraham. In contradiction to this, the gof-
pel is faid to be preached to every creature, and to all
the world ; becaufe it is not limited to any one race or
•nation, and becaufe the apodles received a general* com-
miflion to teach it unto all who fhould be willing to
receive it. Thefe extenfive expreflions can only be un-
derdood in this manner, becaufe in their drift accepta¬
tion they have never been verified. Nor can their mean¬
ing be carried farther without an imputation upon the
judice of God : for if he has received a fufficient fatis-
faftion for the fins-of the whole world, it is not juA
that all fliould not be favea by it, or at lead have the
offer of falvation made, to them, that they may accept
of it if they pleafe.
But to return to the divine purpofes and attributes
in general: it is in vain to affert that God is partial and
unjud while he prefers without merit, and prededinates
to punifhment thofe who have not yet offended. The
fame error mifleads men here that has fo often feduced
them from the true path of fcientific refearch. Indead
of fubmitting to the patient and humble obfervation of
nature, they boldly form fome plaufible hypothefis of
their own, and vainly attempt to reconcile every appear¬
ance to their favourite fydem. This mode of procedure
never has proved, and never will prove, fuccefsful in any
branch of true philofophy. We are not entitled to
frame to ourfelves certain notions of the judice of God,
and from thefe to decide that thus he mud aft and in
tio other manner. He takes no counfel from us concern¬
ing his conduft, and we have no right to rejudge his
judgments. What he regards as jud or unjud between
himfelf and his creatures, is a quedion of faft not to be
known by ingenious conjeftures, but by the cautious
obfervations of the manner in which he a6ts in the courfe
of his providence, and by attending to what he has de¬
clared concerning himfelf in the facred feriptures. If
from thefe it Ihall appear that he d®es prefer where there
;is no merit, and rejeft where there is no crime ; it will
Vol. XV. Part II.
be in vain thereafter to affert that fuch conduft is un- PrciefUns*
jud: the faft will be on our fide of the quedion, and we tl011,
ihall leave thofe to account for it who infid that their
limited rcafon is capable of comprehending all the myf-
terious ways of an Infinite Being. 15
In the courfe of providence, then, we fee the great-Greit ine-
ed inequalities take place, and fuch as appear alto-111
gether contradiftory to our ideas of judice. We fee ,,3^°courfe
the fins of the fathers puniihed in the perfons of the 0f provi-
children, who often derive debilitated bodies from the in- dencc.
temperance of their parents, and corrupted manners from
the example of their vices. God frequently afflifts
good men in this life for a great length of time, as in
the cafe of Job, only for the manifedation of his own
glory, that their faith and patience may be made mani-
fed. Some fins are punifhed with other fins, and often
with a courfe of fevere miferies in the perfons of thofe
who never committed them. We may transfer this
from time to eternity; for if God may do for a little
time what is inconfident with our notions, and with
our rules of judice, he may do it for a longer duration:
fince it is as impofiible that he can be unjud for a day
as for all eternity : and the fame inequality of manage¬
ment appears in the great as in the private affairs of this
world. During many ages almod the whole human
race were lod in the darknefs of idolatry: even fince the
Chridian religion came into the world, how few nations
have received it; and of thefe few, the number is dill
fmaller of thofe who have enjoyed it in tolerable purity.
If we conlider how many great nations remain under
the delufion contrived by Mahomet; if we refleft upon
the idolatry of the Indies and of China, and the fu-
perdition of the Greek church, and of the church of
Rome—we fhall find that very few nations have poffeffed
the mod ordinary means of grace. Even the blefiings
of civilization, of fcience, and of liberty, are fo rarely
fcattered over the face of the earth, that it is to be re¬
garded as a melancholy truth, that with a very few fa¬
voured exceptions the whole human race have hitherto
been funk in the depth of barbarifm, ignorance, flavery,
and idolatry. When the Arminians think fit to affert,
then, that the doftrine of abfolute decrees is contrary
to their ideas of the impartiality and judice of God, we
can only anfvver that we are forry for them if they have
formed ideas of the charafter of God which are contrary
to the truth. We prefume not * like them to call his * Calvl/ti
attributes before the tribunal of our underdandings; we srait. deE*
only obferve the ways of his providence, and declare
that thus dands the faft. If he leaves whole nations J
in darknefs and corruption, and freely choofes others to
communicate the knowledge of himfelf to them, we need
not be furprifed if he aft in the fame manner with indi¬
viduals. For furely the rejefting immenfe empires for
fo many ages is much more unaccountable than the fe-
leftion of a few individuals, and the leaving others in
ignorance and depravity. It is in vain to allege that
he extends his mercy to thofe who make the bed ufe of
the dim light which they have. This does not remove
the difficulty of a choice and a preference ; as it cannot
be denied that their condition is very deplorable, and
that the condition of others is much more hopeful: fo
that the myderious doftrine of eledtion and reprobation is
an unquedionable truth under the government of God,
feeing that great numbers of men are born in fuch circum-
ftances that it is morally impoffibk they ffiould not pe-
3 O
P R E
T 474 1
P R E
rmlefUna- rifh in them ; whereas others are more happily fituated
uon' and enlightened.
" Nor are we left to common obfervation upon this
point. The language of the facred fcriptures is pofitive
and clear. The whole reafoning in the ninth chapter
. . to the Romans refolves all the a£ts of God’s juftice and
rian^na rnerc7> his hardening as well as his pardoning, into an ab-
folute freedom and an unfearchable depth. More pointed
expreflions for this purpofe can fcarcely be conceived
than thofe actually made ufe of. For the children be¬
ing'not yet born neither having done any good or evil, that
16
The lan¬
guage of
Scripture
means of grace are not bellowed upon thofe who, it is Predeftina-
forefeen, will make a good ufe of them ; nor denied to tlon•
thofe who will make a bad ufe of them. IVo unto thee v
Chorazin, u>o unto thee Bethfaida : for if the mighty avorks
avhich avere done in you h ad been done in Tyre and Sidon,
they would have repented long ago in fackcloth and ajhes.
But the palfages in feripture are innumerable, which de¬
clare that the whole" chara&er and deltiny of every man
is the refult of the counfel and uncontrouled determina¬
tion of God. The expreflion is often repeated in the
book of Exodus ; God hardened the heart of Pharaohy
the purpofe of God according to election might Jland, not fo that he would not let his people go, (Exod. iv. 2i), &c.
An objec¬
tion an-
fwered.
of works, but of him that callelh, it was faid, The elder
Jhall ferve the younger. As it is written, Jacob have I
loved, but Efau have I hated. What (hall we fay then? Is
there unrighteoufnefs with God ? God forbid. For he faith
to Mofes, I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy,
and 1 will have companion on whom I will have compajfion.
So then it is not of him that willelh, nor of him that runneth,
but of God that Jhoweth mercy ; for the feripture faith unto
Pharaoh, Even for this fame purpofe have 1 raifed thee up,
that I might Jhow my power in thee, and that my name
might be declared throughout all the earth. Therefore hath
he mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he
will he hardeneth. If any man fhall Hill be fufliciently
bold to declare that all this is contrary to what he is
pleafed to conlider as juft and impartial, we can only
reply to him in the words of the celebrated John Calvin
f Uht fiipra.®^ Geneva J. Tibi molefum ejl ac odiofum, Deum plus
poffe et facere, quam mens tua capiat; cequali autem tuo in-
terdum concedes, ut fuo judicio fruatur. Et tu in tanto fu¬
rore, Dei mentionem ullam facere audes ? “ Is it painful to
thee that the power and the works of God exceed thy
limited capacity ? Thou fometimes fuffereft thine equal
to judge of his own conduct for himfelf, and dareil thou
in thy folly to cenfure the ways of God?” Or rather we
may reply in thofe words of the apoftle Paul which im¬
mediately follow the paffage already quoted. Thou wilt
fay then to me, Why doth he yet fnd fault ? for who hath
refijled his will ? Nay but, 0 man, who art thou that re-
pliejl againjl God? Shall the thing formed fay to him that
formed it, Why hajl thou made me thus ? Hath not the potter
power over the clay ; of the fame lump to make one vejjel unto
honour, and another unto dijhonour ? Let thefe paftages,
and even the whole of the chapter now alluded to, be ex¬
plained in any* manner that is judged proper, ftill their
import with regard to the prefent argument will remain
the fame. If God loved Jacob fo as to chufe his pofte-
rity to be his people, and rejected or hated Efau and
his pofterity, and this without regard to them or their
future conduit, but merely in confequence of the purpofe
and defign of his eleition ; if by the fame purpofe the
Gentiles were to be grafted upon that ftock from which
the once favoured Jews were cut off; it will follow, not
only that the great and myfterious decree of final elec-
iS
re effi-
It is faid, that God has made the wicked man for the day
of evil, (Prov. xvi. 4). On the other hand, it is faid, as
many believed the gofpel as were appointed to eternal life,
(Aits i. 48.) Some are faid to be written in the book of
life, of the Lambfain from the foundation of the world ( Rev.
xiii 8.) Every prayer that is ufed, or direited to be ufed,
in feripture, is for a grace that opens our eyes, that turns
the heart, that makes us to go, that leads us not into
temptation, but delivers us from evil. All thefe ex-
preffions denote that we defire more than a power or
capacity to ait, fuch as is given to all men. Indeed we
do not, and we cannot, pray earneftly for that which we
know all men as well as ourfelves poffefs at all times.
The grace of God is the medium by which hisfove-g„
reign will and abfolute decrees are accomplifhed. Ac- cacy of
cordingly, it is fet forth in feripture by fuch exprefiions grate,
as clearly denote its fure efficacy ; and that it does not
depend upon us to ufe it or not at our pleafure. It is
faid to be a creation ; we are created unto good works, and
we become new creatures : It is called a regeneration, or
a new birth ; it is called a quickening and a refurrec-
tion, as our former ftate is compared to a feeblenefs, a
blindnefs, and a death. God is faid to work in us both
to will and to do : His people (hall be willing in the day of
his power : He will write his laws in their hearts, and
make them to walk in them. In a paffage already quoted,
the human race are compared to a mafs of clay in the
hands of the potter, who of the fame lump makes at his
pleafure veffels of honour and difonour. Thefe paffages,
and this laft more particularly, prove that there is an
abfolute and a conquering power in divine grace ; and
that the love of God conftrains us, as St Paul expreffes
himfelf. Our Saviour compares the union and influence
that he communicates to believers to the union of an
head with the members, and of a root with the branch¬
es, which imparts an internal, a vital, and an efficacious
influence. The outward means may indeed be- rejetted,
but this overcoming grace never returns empty : thefe
outward means coming from God, the refilling of them
is faid to be the refifing of God, the grieving or quench¬
ing of his fpirit; and in that fenfe we may refill the grace
or favour of God; but we can never withftand him when
he intends to overcome us; For the foundation of God
tion is unfearchably free and abfolute, but alfo that all fandeth fure, having this feat. The Lord knoweth them that
the means of grace are granted or withheld in the fame
unlimited and free manner according to the fovereign
will and good pleafure of God, independent of any fore¬
fight of merit on our part. The words of our Saviour
exprefs- this : I thank thee 0 Father, Lord of heaven and
earth, becaufe thou hajl hid thefe things from the wife and
prudent, aud haf revealed them unto babes : The reafon of
are his, (2 Tim. ii. 19.) Having predefinated us unto
the adoption of children by Jefus Chrifl himfelf, according
to the good pleafure of his will, (Eph. i. 5.)
That the faints lhall certainly perfevere unto the Perfev^-
end is a neceffary confequence of abfolute decrees and of ranee of
efficacious grace : all depends on God. He of his ownthc
will begat us ; and with him there is no variablenefs nor
which is given in the following words. Even fo. Father, Jhadow of turning; whom he loves, he loves to the end:
for fok feemed good in thy fight, (Mat. xi. 26). Tffie paf- and he has promifed that he will never leave nor for-
fage immediately preceding this, • Ihows clearly that the fake thofe to whom he becomes a God, Our Lord
5 hath
P R E [475
Pretieftiira- Katli faid, / give unto them eternal life, and they Jljall never
tion. per)Jh ; neither Jhall any pluck them out of my'hand, (Jo. X.
^ 28.) Hence we muft conclude, that the pnrpcfe and cal¬
ling of God is without repentance, (Heb. xiii. 5.) And
therefore, although good men may fall into great fins,
yet of all thofe who are given by the Father to the Son
to be faved by him, none are loft: The conclufion from
the whole is, that God did in himfelf, and for his own
glory, foreknow a determinate number in whom he would
be both fanftified and glorified. Thefe he predejlinated
to be holy, conformable to the image of his fon : they
are to be called, not by a general calling in the fenfe of
thefe words, many are called, but few are chofen ; but to
be called according to his purpofe. He jufifed them upon
their obeying that calling, and in the conclufion he will
glorify them ; for nothing can feparate us from the love
of God in Chrift, (Rom. ix. 19.) And he is not lefs ab-
folute in his decree of reprobation than he is in his elec¬
tion : for ungodly men are faid to be of old ordained to
condemnation, and to be given up by God unto vile affections,
and to be given over by him to a reprobate mind. f
Arguments Thus far we have defended the dodlrine of predefti-
againft the nation : we proceed next to ftate the arguments ufually
f 0l^ri i6 adduced in favour of the Arminian fyitem.
attributes God is juft, holy, and merciful. In fpeaking of
of Ged. himfelf in feripture, he is pleafed to make appeals to the
human underftanding, and to call upon men to reafon
with him concerning his ways. The meaning of this
is, that men may examine his aftions and his attri¬
butes with that meafure of intelligence which they
poflefs, and they will be forced to approve of them ;
nay, he propofes himfelf to us as a pattern for our imi¬
tation. We are required to be holy as he is holy, and
merciful as he is merciful: which is a proof that he
accounts us not incapable of forming juft notions at
leaft of thefe attributes. What then can we think of
a juftice that (hall condemn us for a fail that we ne¬
ver committed ? that deligns firft of all to be glorified
by our being eternally miferable, and which afterwards
decrees that we {hall commit fins to juftify this pi'evious
decree of our reprobation ? For if God originally de-
figns and determines all things, and if all his decrees
are certainly effeiled, it is inconceivable how there
fhould be a juftice in punifhing that which he himfelf,
by an antecedent and irreverfible decree, appointed to
be done. Or, fetting juftice afide, is it pofiible that
'a being of infinite holinefs, and who is of purer eyes than
to behold iniquity, would by an antecedent decree fix our
committing fo many fins, in fuch • a manner that it is
not pofiible to avoid them ? He reprefents himfelf in
the feriptures as gracious, merciful, flow to anger, and
abundant in goodnefs and truth. It is often faid, that he
defires that no man Jhould perifh, but that all Jhould come
to the knowledge of the truth : this is even faid with the
folemnity of an oath, As I live, faith the Lord, I take
no pleafure in the death of fiv.ners. What fenfe can thefe
words bear if we believe that God did by an abfolute
decree doom fo piany of them to everlafting mifery ?
If all things that happen arife out of the abfolute de¬
cree of God as their firft caufe, then we muft believe
that God takes pleafure both in his own decrees and
in the execution of them, confequently that he doth take
pleafure in the death of finners ; and this in exprefs
contradidtion to the moft pofitive language of ferip-
] P R E
ture. Befides all this, what are we to think of the PredefHna*
truth of God, and of the fincerity of thole ofters of Clt;n' .
grace and mercy, with the exhortations and expoftu-
lations upon them that occur fo frequently in icrip-
ture, if we can imagine that by antecedent afts he de¬
termined that all thefe fhould be ineffectual ? In one
word, are we to regard our exiftence as ablefiing, and
to look up with gratitude to that paternal goodnefs
which has placed us in a land of hope, which formed
our nature, weak indeed and expofed to many imper-
feftions, but capable of riling by virtuous efforts and
by a patient continuance in well-doing to excellence
and to high and immortal felicity ? or, are we to curfe
the hour in which we were born under the dominion of |
a mafter, who is not only fevere, but abfurd, and even
adds infult to cruelty ; who, after placing us in a good¬
ly habitation, binds us hand and foot, locks the door,
blocks up the windows, fets fire to the fabric, and.
then very mercifully calls vpon us to come forth left we
perilh ?
It is not true that rational beings are nothing in
the fight of their Maker. Compared to his Almighty
ftrength and uncreated exiftence, our powers do indeed
diminifti into weaknefs, and our years into a moment:
yet although our interefts may be unimportant in them-
felves, the attributes of God with which they are con-
necled are far from being fo. There was no necefiity
for his calling us into e*iilence; but the inftant he be¬
llowed upon us that gift, and conferred upon us facul¬
ties capable of rifing to happinefs by the contempla-
tiorj of himfelf and of his works, he became our parent,
and granted to us a right to look up to him for protec¬
tion and mercy, and to hope that our 'exiftence and
our faculties were not bellowed in vain. Nor will he
trample upon the juft and reafonable hopes of the mean-
eft of his creatures. He is watchful over our interefts ;
he hath fent his Son to die for us ; his providence has
been exerted for no other purpofe but to promote our
welfare ; and there is joy in heaven even over one finner
that repenteth. Let it J>e allowed, that the univerfe
was formed for no other purpofe but to promote the
glory of God; that glory can furely be little promoted
by the exertion of undiilinguiftring and blind a&s of
power, in the arbitrary appointment to eternal repro¬
bation of millions of unrefifting and undeferving wretch¬
es *. Is it not more honourable to the Deity to con-*
ceive of him as the parent, guide, governor, and judge
of free beings, formed after the likenefs of himfelf, with/™ ™ "CR
and Prifl-
powers of reafon and felf-determination, than to con-/^
ceive of him, as the former and conduftor of a fyftem
of confcious machinery, or the mover and controuler
of an univerfe of puppets, many of whom he is pleafed
to make completely miferable ? The moft important
and fundamental point of religion, conlidered as a fpe-
culative fcience, confifts in our forming high and juft
ideas of God and of his attributes, that from them we
may underftand the maxims of true and perfedl mora¬
lity. But were we to attempt to form our own na¬
tures upon the idea of the divine charafter that is
given us by the doctrine of abfolute decrees, we would
certainly become imperious, partial, and cruel ; at leaft
wc (hould not readily learn the virtues of kindnefs, mer¬
cy, and compaflion. .j
It is true that, fetting afide predeftination, it
not ealy to fitow how future contingencies fhoukl bel)I.efhencs
3 O 2 certainlyfolved.
P R E ' [ 476 ] P R E
FreJeftina* certainly forefcen ; but it is obvious that fucb forefigbt
, tl0ri‘ involves no contradiftion, (fee Metaphysics, n° 308);
" * and if the actions of men be free, we know from the
train of prophecies, which in the facred fcriptures ap¬
pear to have been made-in one age and fulfilled in ano¬
ther, that contingencies are forefeen by that infinite
Being who inhabrteth eternity, and to whom a thou-
fand years are but as one day. The prophecies’concerning
the death and fufferings of Chrift were fulfilled by the
free a6ts of the Jewifh priefts and people : Thefe men
finned in accomplilhing that event, which proves that
they afted with their natural liberty. From thefe and
all the other prophecies both in the old and new Tefta-
ment, it mull be confefled that future contingencies were
certainly foreknown, but where to found that certainty
cannot be ealily refolved. We doubt not, however, that
we may fafely refer it to the infinite perfection of the
, jOivine mind. And it ought to be obferved that this
difficulty is of a very difi vent nature from that to
which our antagonifts are reduced on their fide of the
argument. They are compelled to confefs that they
cannot reconcile their doCtrine with the jultice of God,
an attribute the nature of which we clearly underftand,
and which is held forth to our imitation ; whereas we
are only at a lofs how to explain the mode in which the
divine prefcience is exerted ; an attribute which God
claims as peculiarly his own, and which it is not to be
expefted that we ffiould be aG; in the fmalleft degree
to comprehend. We can go farther than this. Hea¬
ven hath given to man two revelations of itfelf. The
one confilts in the knowledge which we procure by
the right ufe of our rational faculties; and the other
is bellowed by means of the facred fcriptures. With¬
out intending to derogate from the authority of in-
fpiration, it is fair to afiert, that we are mvre terta n
that God is the author and beltower of our reafon,
than that he is the author of the fcriptures; at leaft
it is certain that the lalt cannot contradict the firft, be-
caufe God cannot contradict himfelf. By the primary
revelation from heaven then, that is, by our reafon, we
are informed that God is true, and jult, and good. If
an angel from heaven fhould preach a doCtrine contrary
^ to this, we are entitled to fay with the apoftle, let him
Scripture be accurfed. If our antagonifts then Ihould fucceed in
tradjthe Prov*nS th6 doCtrine of abfolute decrees, which
dear die- reprtfents the Deity as cruel and unjuft, is contained in
tates of fenpture, the confequence would be, not that we would
reafon. believe it, for that is impoffible, but that we ffiould be
reduced to the neceffity of rejeCling the authority of
the fcriptures, becaufe they contradict the previous fure
revelation of God, our reafon. We believe that the
doCtrines contained in the fcriptures are certainly true,
becaufe they were taught by thofe who wrought mi¬
racles and foretold future events in proof of their be¬
ing infpired by the God of truth. But miracles and
prophecy are direQ evidences of nothing but the power
and ivi/dom of their Author; and unlefs we know by
other evidence, that this powerful and wife Being is
likewife the father of truth and juftice, we cannot be
ure that the fcriptures, notwithftanding their fource, are
any thing better than a tiffiie of falfehoods. The Very ar¬
guments therefore by which predeftination isfupported,
tend to fap the foundation of that revelation from which
its advocates pretend to draw them. The cafe is very
different w..en no doCtrine is afferted that is not con¬
tradictory *0 our rcafon,but only above it. For example, Predeftlnsu
when we are told that God can create rational beings, tion-
that he attends without diftraCtion to the minuteft af-'”—
fairs that pafs in a thoufanel worlds, that he knows all
things, the paft, the prefent, and the future, we do
not prefume that we comprehend how he can do all
this : but there is nothing in it that contradicts our
reafon ; we ourfelves poffefs a certain degree of power,
can attend at once to a certain number of objeCts, can
in fome cafes form very fure conjectures about futurity,
and we refolve all the reft into the infinite nature and
perfections of God.
It is farther to be obferved, that prefcience does
not make effeCts certain becaufe they are forefeen ; but
they are fortfeen becaufe they are to be : fo that the
certainty of the prefcience is not the caufe, but the
confequence of the certainty of the event. The Ro¬
man republic has fallen ; but our knowledge or igno¬
rance of that event does not render it more or lefs true
and certain. That it was to fall, was as furely true be¬
fore it happened as it is now ; and had we known it
beforehand, as many men of fenfe probably did, it
would neither have fallen fooner nor later on that ac¬
count. This ftiows that the knowledge which an in¬
telligent being has of a paft or future event need not
have any influence upon the circumflances that produce
that event.
On fome occafions the feripture takes notice of a con- Conditional
ditional prefcience*. God anfwered David, that Saul prefcience.
would come to Keilah, and that the men of Keilah * 1 ,s“m*
would deliver him up : yet both the one and the other xxia' II»
refted upon the condition of his Having there ; and he
going from thence, neither of them ever happened.
Such alfo was the f prophecy of Jonah, at the failure t Chap. iir>
of which he was fo abfurdly offended: and fuch was 4-
Chrift’s faying, That thofe of Tyre and Sidon, Sodom
and Gomorrah would have turned to him, if they had
feen the miracles that he wrought in the towns of Ga¬
lilee. Since, then, this prefcience may be fo certain that
it can never err nor miftead the exertions of providence,
and fince by this, both the attributes of God are vindi¬
cated, and the due freedom of man is afferted, all diffi¬
culties feem to be thus eafily removed.
With regard to the purpofe of Chrift’s death, he is chrift4died
faid to be the propitiation for the fins of the whole world; for the
and the wicked are faid to deny the Lord that bought them, whole
His death, as to its extent, is fet in oppofition to the fins woricb
of Adam ; fo that as by the offence of one judgment
came upon all men to condemnation, fo by the righte-
oufnefs of one the free gift came upon all men to jufti-
fication of life,(Rom, v. 18.) The aid on the one fide
muft be as extenfive as the all on the other: fo, fince all
are concerned in Adam’s fin, all muft likewife be con¬
cerned in the death of Chnft. To this we may add,
that all men are commanded and required to believe
that Chrift died for their fins; but no man can be obli¬
ged to believe what is not true: he muft therefore
have died for all. The following paffages exprefs clearly
the univerfality of the object of Chrift’s death. Jf
any man jin^ we have an advocate with the Father, Jefus
Chrljt the righteous : and he is the propitiation for our fins :
and not for ours only, but alfo for the Jins of the whole
worlds (I Jo. ii. I, 2.) The love of Cbrifl conjlraineth us ;
becaufe we thus judge, that if one died for all, then were
all dead: and that he died for all) that they which live
Jlmdd
P R E f 477
TniMni-JhauU ml Istvrrferlt he unto ihimfitvn, (l Cor. ». 14.) evil,
tier. God fo loved the world that he gave hts only begotten ion,
v—v  (hat whofoever believeth in him might not per'jjh, but might
„c have everlaJUng life, (Jo. iii. 16.)
Freedom But a proper attention to the nature or man \yul
effcniial to fet the juftice of our argument in a Hill ftionger point
moral a- Gf vjew< it is obvious, that fuch an inward freedom as
8cnts* renders a man the matter of his own conduit, and able to
do or not do what he pleafes, is fo neceffary to the_ mo¬
rality of our actions, that without it they are neither
good nor evil, neither capable of rewards noi puniihments.
Madmen, or men afleep, are not to be charged with the
o-ood or evil of what they do ; therefore at lealt fome
fmall degree of liberty mutt be left us, otherwife why
are we praifed or blamed for our conduit ? All virtue
and religion, all difeiphne and indultry, anie out of this
as their firft principle, that there is a power in. us to
govern our own thoughts and aitions, and^ to raife and
improve our faculties. If this is denied, ail efforts, ad
education, all attention beftowed upon ourfelves or
others, become fruitlefs and vain. If a man accounts
himfelf under an inevitable decree, as he will have little
remorfe for the evil he does while he imputes it to that
inevitable force that conftrains him, fo he.will naturally
conclude that it is to no purpofe for him to ftruggle
with impoflibilities. Men are fufficiently inclined to
throw all cenfure off from themfelves, and to indulge in
indolenceand upon the dodlrine of abfolute predtfti-
nation who can blame them, feeing that their elToits can
be of no value"?
Matter is inaaive of itfelf, and only moves in con-
fequence of its being aaed upon by fome other being.
Man is poffeffed of a power to begin motion, and to
determine it in any direaion that he may judge proper.
This power and this intelligence conftitute his liberty,
and form that image of God that is {lamped upon his
nature. Whether man poffeffes this power of ading
originally and of himfelf, or whether he is incapable of
forming any refolution, or making any effoit, .without
being aded upon by a foreign caufe, is not a point to be
reafoned on or difputed about : it is a quettion of fadl,
which, as far as it can poflibly be known, every man
has it in his power to determine by the evidence of his
own confcioufnefs. We do aver, then, that every man
is confcious that he is a free agent, and that it is not
poflible for the moft {launch predeftinarian that has ever
yet appeared ferioufly and practically to convince him¬
felf of the contrary. It is not poffible for a man in his
fenfes to believe, that in all thofe crimes which men
charge them/elves with, and reproach themfelves for, God
is the agent; and that, properly fpeaking, they are no
more agents than a fsvord is when employed to commit
murder. We do indeed, on fome occaiions, feel our¬
felves hurried on fo impetuoufly by violent paffions,
that we feem for an inftant to have loft our freedom ;
but on cool refleftion we Gnd, that we both might and
ought to have reftrained that heat in its firft commence¬
ment. We feel that we can divert our thoughts, and
overcome ourfelves in moft inftances, if we fet ferioufiy
about it. We feel that knowledge, refleftion, and pro¬
per fociety, improve the temper and dilpofition ; and
that ignorance, negligence, and the fociety of the
worthlefs and abandoned, corrupt and degrade the mind.
From all this we conclude, that man is free, and not
under inevitable fate, or irrefiftible motions to good or
16
fftbe-ty or mature
neceffity a
a queft on
ot UCt.
1 P R E
This cor.clufion is confirmed by the. whole ftyle PreGeflina,
of feripture, which upon any other fuppofition becomes ^
a folemn and unworthy mockery. It is full of perfua-
fions, exhortations, reproofs, expoftulations, encourage¬
ments, and terrors. But to what purpofe is it to fpeak
to dead men, to perfuade the blind to fee, or the lame
to run ? If we are under impotence till the irrefiftible
grace comes, and if, when it comes, nothing can with-
fland it, what occafion is there for thefe folemn dif-
courfes which can have no effea ? They cannot render
us inexcufable, unlefs it were in our power to be im¬
proved by them ; and to imagine that God gives light
and blefiings, which can do no goo<^, to thofe whom he
before intended to damn, only to make them more in¬
excufable, and for the purpofe of aggravating their
condemnation, gives fo ftrange an idea of his character
as it is not fit to exprefs in the language that naturally
arifes out of it. , *7
Our antagonifts feem to have formed ideas of theSon-.e^of
divine perfettion and fovereignty that are altogether the^aj* of
falfe. There is no imperfection implied in the hippo-on
lition that fome of the a£ts of God may depend upon ^ cotuiu(5fc
the conduct of his creatures. Perfection conliits in of his crea-
forming the wifeft defigns, and in executing them bytarei.
the moft fuitable means. The author of nature con¬
ducts the planets in their orbits with immutable preci-
fion according to fixed rules : but it would be abfurd
to pretend to manage free agents, or their affairs, in
the fame manner by mathematical or mechanical prin¬
ciples. The providence that is exerted over material
objeCts is fixed and fteady in its operations, be caufe it
is fit that material objeCls which cannot move of them¬
felves {hould be moved in a regular manner: but free
and intelligent beings enjoy a wider range, and ought
not to be confined to a preferibed train of exertions ; it
may therefore be neceffary that the providence which
fuperintends them fhould accommodate itfelf to cncu.m-
ftances. This, however, is not injurious to the divine
fovereignty ; for God himfelf is the author of that free¬
dom of agency which he is pleafed to watch over. He
is not lets the Lord of the univerfe ; and furely his
wifdom and benevolence are more confpicuous when he
brings good out of evil, and renders the peiveiie wan-
derings*3 of the human heart fubfervient to purpofes of
mercy, than wdren he hurls into the immenfity of fpace
the moft enormous mafs ot dead and palfive matter fub-
jeCled to unerring laws. # 28
As for the inequalities of moral fituation that are to The ine-
be obferved in the world, and the giving to fome
tions and perfons the means of improvement, and the a( COunteti
denying them to others* the fenptures do indeed ai- fof#
cribe thefe wholly to the riches and freedom of God’s
grace. And, we confefs, that the ways of Providence
are often dark and myfterious. In this world there are
many things which are hard to be underftood, and many
wrhich appear altogether unaccountable ; we fee the
wicked man profpering in his wickednefs, though it
impofe mifery upon thoufands; wre fee tiuth hiding its
head, and the world governed by fraud and abfurdity.
Still, how'ever, we can venture to affert, that God be¬
llows upon all what is neceffary to enable them to ful¬
fil the obligations expeaed from the ftate in which they
are placed ° and it is elfewhere ttrown, that phyficid evil
is among men the parent of moral good. (See Pro¬
vidence). God winketh at the times of ignorance ;
' much
P R E ' [ 478 ] P R E
PrJd«n na-much ;., required of tliem to uhonircucl, is given ; and time when the Epiftles were written-! fo that it wa» PredeMn*
. , it ihall be more tolerable in the day of judgment for the neceflary for them to clear up this point very fully and tiori>
inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah than for the en- to mention it frequently. But in the beginnim- - r
inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah than for the en¬
lightened cities of Galilee. Thus God will be juft
when he judges ; none will meet with condemnation ex¬
cepting thofe who are inexcufable. For although he
grants more to fome than may be abfolutely neceflary,
yet he grants lefs to none; and where he grants little,
he will fuit his judgments to the little which he gave.
There is no injuftice in this. If it was the intention
or the great Creator that his creation fhould contain
within its ample bofom every pofiible variety of intelli¬
gent natures, it was neceflary that there ftiould be fome-
where fuch a being as man ; and, in forming all poflible
varieties of human minds and fituations, it was neceflary
that every particular individual fhould exift. Hence a
man may as well complain that he was not formed one
of the flaming feraphims that furround the throne of the
Eternal, as that he is not placed in other circumftances
in life than thofe which he now occupies; for if little
is given, little will be required from him. Thus the
deligns of Providence go on according to the goodnefs
and mercy of God. None can complain, though fome
ha\e more caufe for joy than others. AVhat happens
to individuals may happen to nations in a body; fome
may have higher privileges, and be placed in happier
circumftances than others ; but none can complain of
the wife and juft difpofer of all, who has given enough,
although we may have good reafon to complain of our-
felves, for not ufing what was fufiicient.
As to the cafe of thofe who are not bleffed with
the light of the gofpel, we may confider, that if they
ha\e fewer and lefs advantages than others, their nature
and capacities muft likewife be inferior ; to which their
future ftate may be proportioned. God is not obliged
to make all men equally perfedt in the next world any
more than in this ; and if their capacity be rendered lefs
than that ^..,1T  nt \n- 1 1 ^
r^u • 1  y  uf
L.nrntianity there was no need of amufing men with
high and unfearchable fpeculations concerning the de-
cites of God ; the apoftles therefore take up the point
in dftpute, tne calling of the Gentiles in a general man¬
ner. They fliow, that Abraham at firft, and Ifaac and
Jacob afterwards, were chofen by a diferiminating fa-
vour, that they and their pofterity ftiould be in cove¬
nant with God ; but that, neverthelefs, it always wks
the intention of Providence to call in the Gentiles, tho’
it was not executed till thefe later times.
\X ith this Eey we can explain coherently the whole
of St Paul’s difeourfes upon this fubjeft, without aflert-
mg antecedent and fpecial decrees as to particular per-
fons. Things that happen under a permifiive and dired¬
ing Pi evidence, may, by a largenels of expreflion, be a-
fenbed to the will and counfel of God ; for a permiflive
will is really a will, though it is not the agent or caufe
of the effed. The hardening of Pharaoh's heart may be
aferibed to God, though it is faid that his heart har¬
dened itfelf1 becaufe he took advantage of the refpites
which God granted him from the plagues, to encou¬
rage himfelf to longer refiftance. Befides this, he was
a cruel and bloody tyrant, and deferved fuch judgments
for his other lins ; fo that he may be confldered as at that
time under final condemnation, and only preferved from
the firft plagues, to afford a linking inftance of the
avenging juftice of God. That this is the meaning of
the paffage, appears extremely probable from the man¬
ner in which Exod. ix. 16. is rendered in the Vatican
and Aldus s edit, of the LXX. Inftead of faying, as in
om tranflation, “ And in very deed for this caufe have
^ raifid thee up, for to fhow in thee my power, Sic."
God is reprefented in that verfion as faying, “ And in
very deed for this caufe have I kept thee alive till
°f •rd;n?7 ChryHan’ a Wr degree ^ ^ fo fliow,” &c. Whom he addl he hardlleth, L an'ex
happmefs mav fill it. However, wp ^ ’ is an ex
happinefs may fill it. However, we need not be ex¬
tremely felicitous about their ftate, much lefs call any
ungrateful imputations on the Governor of the world
ior not having dealt fo bountifully with them as he has
with ourfelves ; fince we know that Chrift died for the
whole race of mankind ; that every one will at length
be ‘ accepted according to that he has, and not accord-
ing .to that he has not; and that to whomfoever much
29 18 g^en, of him fhall much be required (b).
exnSiol yp°n .thefe PrinclPles’ we can eafily explain all the
explained. 7 m 1 f New Tt‘ftament concerning the purpofe,
tflC clccliotl* the forehnnnj/pAcrfi   ..r
preffion that can only be applied to fuch perfons as
this tyrant was. It is obvious that the words of our
Saviour concerning thofe ‘whom his Father had given
him, are only meant of a difpenfation of Providence,
and not of a decree ; fince he adds, And I have lo/l
none of them except the fon of perdition : for it cannot be
faid that jfudas Ijcariot was in the decree, and yet
was loft. And in the fame paffage in which God is faid
to work in us both to nvill and to do, we are required to
work out our own falvation with fear and trembling.
The word ordained to eternal life alfo fignifies fitted and
tfip ././j- /- / , , , , fo “ ^ to eternal lire ano lignuies fitted and
God Tfi h {0reknow.ledSe> ,and predejlination of difpofed to eternal life. The queftiont Who made the*
God. They relate to the delicm of rallW ? /T n _ .u V . e
God. They relate to the defign of calling the Gen
tile world to the knowledge of the Meflias : This was
kept fecret, though hints had been given of it by feve-
ral of the prophets, fo that it was a myftery ; but it was
revealed when the apoftles, in confequence of Chrift’s
commiffion, to go and teach all nations, went about
preaching the gofpel to the Gentiles. This was a
fomb.mg-block to the Jews, and it was the chief fub-
jett of difpute betwixt them and the apoftles at the
to differ P (i Cor. iv. 7.) refers to thofe extraordinary
gifts which, in different degrees and meafures, were be¬
llowed upon the firft Chriftians, in which they were un-
queftionably pafiive.
. If tlie decrees of God are not abfolute, neither can GrJenot
his grace be fo efficacious as abfolutely and neceffarily irrefiflible.
to determine our condubl, elfe why are we required
not to grieve God's fpirit ? why is it faid, ye do always
reffl the Holy Ghojl; as your fathers did, fo do ye ? How
often
fterfy mam,erhKTl,h«TkC|7/r'/'T<i'’f' 1?” Re,pim< 'v,,1ere th!s quMon Is treated in a very ma.
a biogrephS Sdi uZni^tZe. “ “ °U£ht “ ^ ^ 8”“ ^ °f ^ ^ bare
31
The great-
eft faint on
earth may
fall.
3*
AU rfiffi-
cn'llei
folved at
at the day
of judge-
met)
P R E [47
. often would I have gathered you under my wings, and ye
would not ? What could I have done in my vineyard that
has not been done in it ? T. hefe expreffions indicate a
power in us, by which we not only can, but often do,
refill the motions of grace. But if the determining
efficacy of grace is not acknowledged, it will be much
harder to believe that we are efficacioufly determined to
fin. This fuppoiition is fo contrary both to the holi-
nefs of God, and to the whole ilyle of the facred wri¬
tings, that it is unneceffary to accumulate proofs of it.
0 Ifrael, thou hajt defrayed thyfelf, but in me is ihy help :
ye will not come unto me that ye may have life : Why will
you die, 0 houfe of Ifrael ?
As for perfeverance, we may remark, that the. ma¬
ny- promifes made in the facred feriptures to them
that overcome, that continue JledfaJl and faithful to the
death, do certainly infinuate that a man may fall from
a good ftate. The words of the apoille to the Hebrews
are very clear and pointed : For it is impnffible for thofe
who were once enlightened, and have tajled of the heaven¬
ly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Ghojl, and
have tajled the good word of God, and the powers of the
world to come, if they Jhallfall away, to renew them again
unto repentance (Heb. vi. 4.) It is alfo faid, Fhe jujljhall
live by faith : but if he draw (c) back, my foul /ball have
no pleafure in him, (Heb. x. 38.) And it is faid by the
prophet, When the righteous turnelh away from his righ-
teoufnefs, and committeth iniquity, all his righteoufnefs that
he hath done fall not be mentioned; in his fin that he hath
finnedJhallhe die, (Ezek. viii. 24.) i hefe paffages, with
many others, give us every reafon to believe that a
good man may fall from a good Hate, as well as that a
wicked man may turn from a bad one.
We conclude the whole by obferving, that the on¬
ly difficulty which attends the queftion arifes from the
rnyfterious, and apparently partial and unequal, courfe
of the divine government in our prefent itate ; blit
there is an important day approaching, when God will
condefcend to remove thefe obfeurities, and to vindicate
the ways of his providence to man. On that great day,
we are well allured, that the quellion will be decided
in our favour ; for we know that judgment will be gi¬
ven, not according to any abfolute decree, but accord¬
ing to the deeds which we ourfelves fhall have freely
done in the body, whether they have been good, or whe¬
ther they have been evil.
Thus have we Hated, we hope with fairnefs and im¬
partiality, a fummary of the arguments on both fides of
this long agitated quellion. We need hardly add, that
it is a quellion involved in confiderable difficulties.—
Milton, who was an eminent philofopher and divine,
as well as the lirll of poets, when he wilhed to exhibit
the fallen angels themfelves as perplexed by quellions
above their comprehenfion, fet them to difpute about
predellinatlon.
They reafon’d high, of knowledge, will, and fate,
Fixed fate, free-will, fore-knowledge abfolute ;
And found no end.
in wand’ring mazes loll.
Paradife Lof.
9 ] P R E
The weak fide of the Calvinillic do£lrine confills in Predeftina-
the impoffibility of reconciling the abfolute and uncon- tl5,n
ditional decree of reprobation with our Ideas of the pre(pag
jullice and goodnefs of God. The weak fide of the v— i
Arminian fcheme confifts in the difficulty of account- 33
ing for the certainty of the divine foreknowledge, upon The
the fuppoiition of a contingency of events, or an abfo- ^^riae.
lute freedom of will in man.
To elude the former of thefe difficulties, fome of the
late writers upon philofophical neceffity, and Dr Priell-
ly is among the number, have given up the dodlrine of
reprobation, and alTerted, that this world is only a Hate
of preparation for another, in which all men, of every
defeription and chara£ler, lhall attain to final and ever-
lalting happinefs, when God Jhall be all, and in all.—
On the other fide, fome of the fupporters of free agen¬
cy, and Montefquieu * is among the number, have # Lettrei
been difpofed to deny the divine attribute of prefci--Pf^
ence.
Whatever may be thought of the practical tendency
of the two opinions, there is one remark which we think
ourfelves bound in jullice to make, although it ap¬
pears to us to be fomewhat fingular. It is thi^, that
from the earlieft ages down to our own days, if we con-
fider the charafter of the ancient Stoics, the Jewilh Ef-
fenes, the modern Calvinills, and Janfenills, when com¬
pared ivith that of their antagonifts the Epicureans, the
" Saducees, Arminians, and the Jefuits, we lhall find that
they have excelled in no fmall degree in the pradlice of
the moll rigid and refpedlable virtues, and have been the
highell honour of their own ages, and the bell models
for imitation to every age fucceeding. At the fame time,
it mull be confelfed, that their virtues have in general
been rendered unamiable by a tinge of gloomy and fe-
vere aullerily.
So far as the fpeculative foundation of their princi¬
ples is confidered, however, neither party feems liable to
cenfure in a moral point of view. Each of them wifhes
to fupport, though in a different manner from the other,
the honour of the divine charadler. The Calvinills be¬
gin their argument with the notion of infinite perfec¬
tion, independency, and abfolute fovereignty, and thence
deduce their opinions; making every difficulty yield to
thefe firll and leading ideas. Their opponents are ^jutuaj for-
more jealous of the refpedl due to the divine attributesijearar.ce
of jullice, truth, holinefs, and mercy, and deduce theirrecom-
fentiments from the idea which they have formed ofmei1 e '
thefe. Each party lays down general maxims that are
admitted by the other, and both argue plaufibly from
their firll principles. Dr Burnet, whom we have
here followed very clofely, juilly obferves f, that ^ ■£xpBf.i\(in
“ thefe are great grounds for mutual charity and iox-0j the 39
bearance.” Artistes.
PREDETERMINATION, in philofophy and the-
ology, is that concurrence of God which makes men adl,
aird determines them in all their actions, both good and
evil, and is called by the fchoolmen phyfical predetermi¬
nation or premotion. See Metaphysics, Part III. •
Chap. v. and Predestination.
PREDIAL slaves. See Predial-StAVES.
Pre-
(c) In our tranllation we read, “ If any man draw back,,, &c. ; but the words any man are not in the origi¬
nal j and if they do not make nonfenfe of the text, they mult at lealt be acknowledged to obfeure its meaning.
rre<114
p ii e r 48
PanmAt-Tithes, are thofe that arc paid of things
arifing and growing from the ground only ; as corn,
hay, fruit, &c.
PREDICABLE, among logicians, denotes a ge¬
neral quality which may be predicated, or aflerted of
1’everal things : thus animal is predicable of mankind,
hearts, birds, filhes, &c.
PREDICAMENT, among logicians, the fame with
category. See Category and Philosophy.
PREDICATE, in logic, that which, in a propo¬
rtion, is affirmed or denied of the fubjedt. In thefe
propolitions, /now is white, ink is not white; whiteuefs
is the predicate which is affirmed of fnow, and denied
of ink.
PRE-EMPTION, a privilege anciently allowed the
king’s purveyor, of having the choice and firft buying
of corn and other provifions for the king’s houfe ; but
taken away by the ilatute 19 Car. II.
PREENING, in natural hiftory, the adlion of
birds cleaning, comporting, and dreffing their feathers,
to enable them to glide more eartily through the air.
Tor this purpofe they have two peculiar glands on
their rump, which fecrete an unftuous matter into a
bag that is perforated, out of which the bird occartion-
ally draws it with its bill.
PRE-EXISTENCE, a priority of being, or the
being of one thing before another. T'hus a caufe, if
not in time, is yet in nature pre-exiftent to its effedt.
1 Thus God is pre-exiftent to the univerfe. Thus a hu-
Thc 1 eri- man father pre-exiftent to his rton. The Peripate-
rnaintained t‘cs’ though they maintained the eternity of the world,
the eternity were likewirte dogmatical in their opinion, that the uni-
cf the verfc was formed, adftuated, and governed, by a fove-
woild. reign intelligence. See Arijlotle on the Sou/, and our
articles Creation and Earth. See alfo the Phi/o/o-
phical EJfays of Dr Ifaac Watts, and the Principles of
natural and revealed Religion, by the Chevalier Ramfay,
where the fubjeft of the world’s eternity is difcuffed.
Mr Hume’s rtpeculations alfo, on this abftrufe and ardu¬
ous fubjeft, had a greater tendency to diffipate its gloom
a than that philofopher himfelf could imagine.
Pre-exift- ^he pre-exiftence of the human foul to its corpo-
ence of the real vehicle had been from time immemorial a prevail-
noul taught ing opinion among the Afiatic fages, and from them
hyAfiauc
Lges.
3
Socratic
arguments
lor prt-ex-
iftence re
futed.
was perhaps transferred by Pythagoras to the philo-
fophy of the Greeks ; but his metempfychofxs, or tranf-
migration of fouls, is too trivial either to be ferioufly
propofed or refuted. Neverthelefs, from the fentiments
of Socrates concerning the immortality of the foul, de¬
livered in his laft interview with his friends, it is ob¬
vious that the tenet of pre-exiftence was a doftrine of
the Platonic fchool. If at any period of life, fay thefe
philolophers, you fhould examine a boy, of how many
ideas, of what a number of principles, of what an ex¬
tent of knowledge, will you find him poffeffed : thefe
without doubt could neither be felf-derived nor re¬
cently acquired. With what avidity and promptitude
does he attain the knowledge of arts and fciences, which
appear entirely new to him! thefe rapid and fuccefs-
ful advances in knowledge can only be the effedfs of
reminifcence, or of a fainter and more indiftindt fpe-
cies of recollection. But in all the other operations of
memory, we rtmd retrofpeftive impreffions Attending
every objeCf or idea which emerges to her view; nor does
fhe ever fuggeft any thought, word, or aCtion, without
o f ' P R E
informing un, in a manner equally clear and evident,
that thofe impreffions have been made upon our fenfes, eucf;
mind, or intellect, on feme former occafion. Whoever
contemplates her progrefs, will ealtly difeover, that af-
fociation is her molt faithful and efficacious auxiliary;
and that by joining impreflion with impreffion, idea
with idea, circumftance with circumftance, in the or¬
der of time, of place, of fimilarity or diffimilarity, fhe
is capacitated to accumulate her treafures and enlarge
her province even to an indefinite extent. But when
intuitive principles, or ftmple conclufions, are elicited
from the puerile underftanding by a train of eafy que-
ftions properly arranged, where is the retrofpeClive a<R
of memory, by which the boy recognifes thofe truths as
having formerly been perceived in his mind? Where arc
the crow'ds of concomitant, antecedent, or fubfequent
ideas, with which thofe recolleClions ought naturally
to have been attended ? In a wrord, where is the fenfe
of perfonal identity, which feems abfolutely infeparable
from every aft of memory ? This hypothefis, there¬
fore, will not fupport pre-exiftence. i\fter the Chri-
ftian religion had been confiderably diffufed, and warm¬
ly combated by its philofbphical antagonifts, the fame
doftrine was refumed and taught at Alexandria, by 4
Platonic profelytes, not only as a topic conftituent of t,r e-e-’dft-
their mafter’s philofophy, but as an anfwer to thofe
formidable objeftions which had been deduced fromp'latomib"
the doftrine of original rtin, and from the vices which
ftain, and from the calamities which difturb, human
life : hence they ftrenuoufly afferted, that all the hu¬
man race were either introduced to being prior to
Adam, or pre-exiftent in his perfon ; that they were
not, therefore, reprefented by our lirft parents, but ac¬
tually concurred in their crime, and participated their
ruin.
The followers of Origen, and fuch as entertained the
notion of Pre-adamites *, might argue from the doc- * see pre,
trine of pre-exiftence with fome degree of plauftbility. adamites.
For the human beings introduced by them to the theatre 5
of probation had already attained the capacity or dig-j^o"0of
nity of moral agents; as their crime therefore was vo-or jginai
luntary, their punifhment might be juft. But thofe who
believe the whole human race created in Adam to be
only pre-exiftent in their germs or (lamina, were even
deprived of this miferable fubterfuge ; for in thefe ho¬
munculi we can neither fuppofe the moral nor rational
conftitution unfolded. Since, therefore, their degene¬
racy was not fpontaneous, neither could their fuffer-
ings be equitable. Should it be faid that the evil of
original fin was penal, as it extended to our firft pa¬
rents alone, and merely confequential as felt by their
pofterity, it will be admitted that the diftinftion be¬
tween penal and confequential evil may be intelligible
in human affairs, where other laws, affortments, and
combinations than thofe which are limply and purely
moral, take place. But that a moral government, at one
of the moft cardinal periods of its adminiftration, (hould
admit gratuitous or confequential evil, feems to us ir-
reconcileable with the attributes and conduft of a wife
and juft legiflator. Confequential evil, taken as fuch,
is mifery fuitained without demerit; and cannot refult
from the procedure of wifdom, benignity, and juftice ;
but muft flow from neceffity, from ignorance, from
cruelty, or from caprice, as its only poffible iburces.
But even upon the fuppofltion of thofe who pretend
6 that
P R E
[ 4S1 3
P R E
Pfc-tTtift. tKat wan was mature in all his faculties before the
evce commifhon of original /in, the objeftions againft it will
r prefe<a. ftill remain in full force : for it is admitted by all ex-
Y——• cept the Samian fage, that the confcioufnefs of per-
fonal identity which was felt in pre-exiftence, is obli¬
terated in a fubfequent ftate of being.
Now it may be demanded, whether agents thus refuf-
citated fo’r puniihment have not the fame right to mur¬
mur and complain as if they had been perfe&ly innocent,
and only created for that dreadful catailrophe ? It is
upon this principle alone that the effe&s of puni/hment
can be either exemplary or difeiplinary ; for how is it
poflibki that the puniihment of beings unconfcious of a
crime (hould eve-r be reconciled either to the juftice or
beneficence of that intention with which their fufferings
are infli&ed ? Or how can others be fuppofed to become
wife and virtuous by the example of thofe who are nei¬
ther acquainted with the origin nor the tendency of
their miferies, but have every reafon to think themfelves
afHifted merely for the fake of afflicling i To us it
feems clear, that the nature and rationale of original fin
lie infcrutably retired in the bofom of Providence ; nor
can we, without unpardonable prefumption and arro¬
gance, form the moft fimple conclufion, or attempt the
minutefl difeovery, either different from or extraneous
to the clear and obvious fenfe of revelation. This fenfe
indeed may with propriety be extra&ed from the whole,
or from one paffage collated wnth another ; but inde¬
pendent of it, as reafon has no premiffes, fhe can form
no deductions. The boldnefs and temerity of philofo-
phy, not fatisfied with contemplating pre-exiftence as
merely relative to human nature, has dared to try how
far it wTas compatible with the glorious Perfons of the
facred Trinity. The Arians, w'ho allowed the fubor-
dinate divinity of our Saviour, believed him pre-exiftent
to all time, and before all worlds; but the Socinians,
who efteemed his nature as well as his perfon merely
human, infifted, that before his incarnation he was only
pre-exiftent in the divine idea, not in nature or perfon.
But when it is confidered, that children do not begin
to deduce inftiuCtions from nature and experience, at a
period fo late as we are apt to imagine ; when it is ad¬
mitted, that their progrefs, though infenfible, may be
much more rapid than we apprehend ; when the op¬
portunities of fenfe, the ardour of curiofity, the avidity
of memory’, and the atlivity of underftanding, are re¬
marked—we need not have reoourfe to a pre-exiftent
ftate for our account of the knowledge which young
minds difeover. It may likewile be added, that moral
agents can ®nly be improved and cultivated by moral
diicipline. Such cffeCfs therefore of any ftate, whether
happy or miferable, as are merely mechanical, may be
noxious or falutary to the patient, but can never enter
into any moral economy as parts of its own adminiftra-
tion. Pre-exiftence, therefore, whether rewarded or
puniftied, without the continued impreffion of perfonal
identity, affords no folution of original fin.
PREFACE, fomething introductory to a book, to
inform the reader of the defign, method, &c. obferved
therein, and generally whatever is neceflary to the un-
derftanding of a book.
PREFECT, in ancient Rome, one of the chief ma-
giftrates who governed in the abfence of the kings,
confuls, and emperors.
'1 his power was greateft under the emperors. His
«hief care was the government of the city, takincr cocr-
Vol. XV. Part II.
nizanceof all crimes committed therein and within ic© PrereA
miles. He judged capitally and finally, and even pre- II . !
fided in the fenate. He had the fuperintendance of the ^ re
provifions, building, and navigation.
The prefect of modern Rome differs little from the
ancient prxfsdusy his authority only extending to 40
miles round the city.
Prf.ffct of the Prstorium, the leaderof the pretorian
bands deftined for the emperor’s guards, confifting, ac¬
cording to Oion, of 10,000 men. This officer, accord¬
ing to Suetonius, was inftituted by Auguftus, and ufu-
ally taken from among the knights.
By the favour of the emperors his power grew very
confiderable ; to reduce which, Conftantine divided the
prefedfture of the prsetorium into fom prefectures, and
each of thefe again he fubdivided into civil and military
departments, though the name was only referved to him
who was invefted with the civil authority, and that of
comes lell'i given him who commanded the cohorts.
PREGADI, in hiftory, a denomination given to the
fenate of Venica, in which refides the whole authority
of the republic. At its firft inftitution it was compo-
fed of 60 fenators, to whom 60 more have been added.
See Venice.
PREGNANCY, the ftate of a woman who has con¬
ceived, or is with child. See Midwifery.
PREHNITE, a ftone fo named by Mr Werner, in-
fpeftor of the mines of Freyburg, brought by Colonel
Prehn from the Cape of Good Hope. In the firft vo¬
lume of Chemical Annals there is a chemical anal) fis of
this ftone extradled from the //<??./ Nature Curioforumt
Berlin, tom. viii. p. 2II. an. 1788, part 2. by Klap¬
roth ; from which it appears, that 100 parts of preh-
nite contain lilice - - 43^- grains.
Alnmine - - 30}
Lime - - - i8f
Oxyd of iron - -
Water and air - - 1
Total - loo
Colonel Prehn gave it the name of emerald, and Mr
Bruckmann adopted that denomination, but changed hi$
opinion on conlidering that it had neither the hardnefs,
the bright green colour, nor the property of cryftalli-
zing in hexagonal prifms like the emerald. The Dutch
dealers call it chryfoprafus of the Cape ; but chryfopra-
fus is nothing but quartz tinged green by the oxyd bf
nickel. Profeffor Haquet, in the 4th volume of the
Berlin Tranfaftions, has named it cryfallized prafus.
In the 8th volume, however, Mr Bruckmann confidcrt
it as a cryftallized felt-fpar. Mr Sage calls it chryfolite.
Mr Rone de ITfie claffes it among the fehoerls. To this
claffification Mr Klaproth objects, and is rather difpofed
with MrWerner to confider it as a zeolite ; on the whole,
he thinks it may be conveniently ranked between zeo¬
lite and fchoerk Mr Hafienfratz publifiied in the four-
nat de Phyfique for February 1788 an analyfis of the
fame ftone, under the title of Pterre Si/ice, c die air el, alu-
mineufe, fffr. &c. de cou!eur verte, &c. And according
to his refults, which are fomewhat different from thofe
of Mr Klaproth, and obtained by a different procefs, it
contains, filice 50, lime 13.4, alumine 20.4, oxyd of
iron 4.9, water 0.9, magnefia 0.5= ioq. The fpecifie
gravity of this ftone, according to the experiments of
Mr Briffcn, is 2.9423.. The diffcflion of its cryftals,
made by Abbe Hauy and Mr Haffenfratz, difeovered
3 P one
Definition.
Origin of
prejudice.
P R E f 43
Prejudice, one angle of 60 degrees, as in fehoerls; but it has hi-
*—'v therto been impoflible to determine the others. The
Abbe Haiiy has convinced himfelf, that it bears no re-
femblance to zeolite in its cryftals. This ftone fcratches
glafs, and is itfelf fcratched by rock cryftal.
PREJUDICE, or Prejudgment, from pr<e and
judicium, means a judgment formed beforehand, without
examination ; tlie prepofition pra expreffing an antici¬
pation, not fo much of time as of knowledge and due
attention : hence the fchoolmen have called it anikipa-
tion and a preconceived opinion.
Prejudice arifes from the aiTociating principle, which
we have explained at large in another article (fee Me¬
taphysics, Part I. chap. 5.), and it is a weaknefs
from which no human mind can be wholly free. Some
are indeed much more than others under its influence;
but there is no man who does not occafionally a& upon
principles, the propriety of which he never inveftigated;
or who does not hold fpeculative opinions, into the
truth of which he never ferioufly inquired. Our pa¬
rents and tutors, yea our very nurfes, determine a mul¬
titude of our fentiments : our friends, our neighbours,
the cuftom of the country where we dwell, and the efta-
blilhed opinions of mankind, form our belief; the great,
the pious, the learned, and the ancient, the king, the
prieft, and the philofopher, are chara&ers of mighty
efficacy to perfuade us to regulate our condudf by their
pra&ice, and to receive as truth whatever they may
diftate.
The cafe cannot indeed be otherwife. The occa^
lions of afting are fo frequent, and the principles of ac¬
tion are fo various, that were a man to inveftigate accu¬
rately the value of every Angle motive which prefents
itfelf to his mind, and to balance them fairly againft
each other, the time of adling would in moll iaftances
pafs away long before he could determine what ought
to be done ; and life would be wafted in ufclef& fpecula-
tion. The great laws of religion and morality, which
ought to be the general and leading principles of. adlion,
no man of fcience will take upon truft; but in the
courfe of a bufy life a thoufand circumftances will oc¬
cur in which we muft aft with fuch rapidity, that, after
being fatisfled of the lawfulnefs of what we are about
to do, we muft, for the prudence of it, confide entirely
in the general cuftoms of our country, or in the praftice
of other individuals placed in circumftances fimilar to
ours. In all fuch cafes, though we may aft properly,
we aft from prejudice.
But the dominion of prejudice is not confined to the
aftions of the man of bufinefs: it extends over the fpe-
culations of the philofopher himfelf, one half of whofe
knowledge refts upon no other foundation. All hu¬
man fciences are related to each other (fee Philo¬
sophy, m2.), and there is hardly one of them in
which a man can become eminent unlefs he has fome
general acquaintance with the whole circle ; but no man
could ever yet inyeftigate for himfelf all thofe propofi-
tions which conftitute the circle of the fciences, or even
comprehend the evidence upon which they reft, though
he admits them perhaps as truths incontrovertible. He
muft therefore receive many of them upon the autho¬
rity ot others, or, which is the fame thing, admit them
by prejudice.
To this reafonjpg it may be objefted, that when a
man admits as true abftraft propofitiens, which, though
3
Its exten-
live domi¬
nion.
2 } P R E
not felf-evident, he cannot demonftrate, he admits them Prejudice,
not by prejudice, but upon teftimony, which has been —"'-v—
elfewhere (hewn to be a fufficient foundation for human
belief (fee Metaphysics, n 138.) The objeftion is
plaufible, but it is not folid; for teftimony commands
belief only concerning events which, falling under the
cognizance of the fenfes, .preclude all poffibility of mif-
take ; whereas abftraft propofitions, not felf-evident,
can be proved true only by a procefs of reafoning or by
a Jerks of ^ experiments ; and in condufting both thefe,
the moft vigorous mind is liable to miftake. When Sir
Ifaac. Newton told the world that it was the fall of an
apple which firft fuggefted to him the general law of
gravitation, he bore teftimony to a fadb concerning
which he could not be miflaken ; and we receive his
teftimony for the reafons affigned in the article referred
t0. When he lays down the method of obtaining the
fluxion or momentum of the reftangle or produft of two ,
indeterminate quantities, which is the main point in his
doftrine of fluxions, he labours to eftablifh that method
on the balls of demonilration ; and whoever makes ufe-
of it in praftice, without underltanding that demonftra-
tion, receives the whole doftrine of the modern geom?>-
trical analyfis, not as a matter of fa3 upon the credit
of Sir liaac’s tejiimony, but as a fyftem of abftraft truth
on the credit ot his underloading ; in other words, he is
a fluxionift hy prejudice.
In vain will it be faid, that in mathematical demon-
ftration there is no room for miftake ; and that there¬
fore the man who implicitly adopts the method of
fluxions may be confidered as relying upon the veracity
of its author, who had rto inducement to deceive him,
and whofe comprehenfion was confeffedly greater tban>
his. In fluxionary mathematics, which treat of matters
of which it is extremely difficult, if not impoffible, to
have adequate and fteady conceptions, the moft compre-
henfive mind is liable to miftake : and it is well known
that the celebrated bifliop of Cloyne wrote his Anaiyfl
to prove that the incomparable author of the method of
fluxions had committed tivo mijlakes in his fundamental
propofition, which balancing one another, produced a
true conclufion by falfe reaioning. One or other of
thefe great men, of whom the leaft was an eminent ma¬
thematician, muft have been bewildered in his reafoning,
and have fallen into error; and therefore whoever fol¬
lows either of them implicitly without perceiving the
error of the other, is unqueftionably under the influence
of prejudice. This fs the cafe with the writer of the
prefent article. He perceives not the error of Bifhop
Berkeley’s reafoning, and yet he admits the doftrine of
fluxions on the authority of Sir Ifaac’s demonftration.
That demonftration, however, he pretends not to un*
derftand; and therefore he admits the doftrine through
prejudice. ^
We have made thefe obferrations to point cut the Impoifible
abfurdity of the fafhionable cry againft the harbouring10 eradicate
of any prejudices. To eradicate all prejudices from^^^1’*
the human mind is impoffible ; and if it were poffibie, it the minds
would be very unwife : for we fee that prejudice may
exift on the fide of truth as well as on that of falfehood ;
and that principles profeffed and believed by any indir
vidual may be ufeful and true, though he was brought
to them not by a train of fair and candid reafoning,
but through the medium of prepoffefilon or authority.
Indeed iuch is our nature, and fuch are the laws of af-
3 fociatioR}
P R E
[ 483 1
P R E
tVpjuiice-
5
Which
■would not
’he wrfe if
it w«re
ipollible.
6
Good ef-
fe<5ls of
fome
prejudices
fociation, that many of our beft principles, and our ob¬
ligation to perform many of the molt amiable of our
duties in common life, mull evidently be acquired in
this way.' From endearing allbciations, and authorita¬
tive inltru&ion, we acquire a knowledge of our duty to
our parents, and a facility in performing it, together
with the fir ft principles of religion, without a Angle ef¬
fort of our own reafon. Even when reafon has begun
to aflert its power, «end {hows us the propriety of fitch
duties, we are wonderfully afiilled in performing them
by the amiable prejudices which we had before acquired,
and which now appear to be natural to us. He who
has never had the advantage of fuch allbciations, and
who acquires a knowledge cf the duties fuggefted by
them after he has come to years of difcretion, and
chiefly by the efforts of his own reafon, will feldom,
cateris pdribus, perform thofe duties with an energy and
delight equal to that of the perfon who has. This re¬
mark appears to be confirmed by experience ; for it is
often found, that the children of the great, who have
been given out to nurfe in their infancy, and who have
feldom'been in the company of their parents till their
reafoning faculties have been far advanced, are much
lefs dutiful and affectionate than thefe in the middle or
lower ftations of life, who have fcarcely ever been out
of their parents company.
Would it then be wife, even if it were pra&icable, to
diffolve all thofe aflbeiations which tend fo powerfully
to increafe the mutual aft’eCtions of parents and chil¬
dren ? We c»nnot think that it would; as we believe it
might be eafdy Ihown that public fpirit fprings out of
private affeftion. Plato indeed held an opinion very
different from ours ■; for in order to extend that affec¬
tion which Is ufually lavilhed at home to the whole
ftate, he propofed that children (hould be educated at
the public expence, and never be permitted to know
the authors of their being. But this is only one of
the many vifionary projefts of that great man, of which
daily experience (hows the abfurdity. In modern times,
we are certain that lefs dependence is to be had upon
the patriotijm of the man who, for the love which he
pretends to his country, can overlook or forget his own
partial connexions in it, than on him who, at the fame
time that he wifhes his country well, is feelingly alive
to all the endearments of kindred affeXion.
Such affeXion may be called partial, and very pro¬
bably has its foundation in that which is the fource of
all our prejudices ; but if it be properly trained in early
life, it will gradually extend from our neareft rela¬
tions to the perfons with whom we affociate, and to
the place which not only gave us birth, but alfo fur-
nilhed our youthful and moft innocent enjoyments.
It is thus that the amor patr'ia: is generated (fee Passion
and Patriotism), which in minds unfoduced by falfe
principles is exceedingly ftrong; and though a pailial af¬
feXion, is of the moft general utility. It is this pre¬
judice which reconciles the Laplander to his freezing
fnows, and the African to his burning fun ; which at¬
taches the native of the Highlands or ol Wales as much
to his mountains and rocks, as the apparently happier
ip.habitant of the fouthern counties of England is to
the more fertile and delightful fpot where he d#ew his
firft breath. And we find in faX, that when a native
of Kent and a Scotch Highlander have in fome diftant
r corner of the world gained a competent fortune without
being corrupted by luxury, they return, the one to his Prej’idre.
hop-gardens, and the other to his mountains. Were ''
this prejudice, for fuch it furely is, wholly eradicated
from the human maid, it is obvious that large traXs ot
country which are now full of inhabitants would be to¬
tally deferted; and that the hungry^ barbarians, to make
room for themfelves, would exterminate the proprietors
of more favourable climes. From an affeXion to our
friends and to our country, we naturally contraX an af¬
feXion for that mode of government under which we
live; and unlefs it be particularly oppreffive to our-
felves or any order of citizen's, we come as naturally to
prefer it to all other modes, whether it deferve that pre¬
ference or not. This no doubt is prejudice, but it is a
beneficial prejudice; for were the multitude, who are
wholly incapable of eftimating the excellencies and de¬
fects of the various modes of government, to become
diffatisfied with their own, and rife in a mals to change
it for the better, the moft horrible confequences might
juftly be dreaded. Of this truth the prefent ftate of
Europe affords too melancholy and convincing a proof.
The man therefore who, under the pretence of enlight¬
ening the public mind and extirpating prejudices, paints
to the illiterate vulgar, in aggravated colours, the abule
of that government which has hitherto proteXed them
from the ferocity of each other, is one of the greateft
criminals if his views be felfilh, and one of the worft
reafoners if they be dilinterefted, that human imagina¬
tion can eafily conceive.
With the felfilh patriot we have at prefent no con- Dangcr of
cern ; but we may with propriety alk the dilinterefted improper
lover of truth, whether he thinks it pollible, that in a^t tmj ts to
large community, of which nine-tenths of the members1"^^ °ve
are neceffarily incapable of taking comprehenfive views
of things, or feeling the force of political reafonings, any
form of government can be acceptable to the people at
large, which does not gain their affeXions through the
medium of prejudice ? It has been Ihown by Mr Hume
with great ftrength of argument, that government is
founded on opinion, which is of two kinds, viz. opinion
of intereft, and opinion of right. By opinion oi intereft,
he underftands the fenfe of the general advantage
which is reaped from government, together with the
perfuafion that the particular government which is
eftablilhed is equally advantageous with any other that
could eafily be lettled. The opinion entertained of the
right of any government is always founded in its anti¬
quity ; and hence arifes the pafiionate regard which
under ancient monarchies the people have for the true
heir of their royal family. Thefe opinions, as held by
the philolopher converfant with the hiftory of nations,
are founded upon reafoning more or lefs conclufive; but
it is obvious, that in the minds of the multitude they
can have no other foundation than prejudice. An illi¬
terate clown or mechanic does not fee how one form of
government promotes the general intereft more than
another; but he may believe that it does, upon no other
evidence than the declamation ol a demagogue, who, for
felfilh purpofes, contrives to flatter his pride. The fame
is the cafe with refpeX to the rights of hereditary monar¬
chy. The anatomift finds nothing more in the greateft
monarch than in the meaneft peafant, and the morahft
may perhaps frequently find lefs; but the true philofopher
acknowledges his right to the fovereignty: and though he
be weak in underftanding, or infirm in years, would, for
3 P 2 the
V R E
Prejudice, fake of public peace and the lability of govern
ment, maintain him in his throne again ft ever)- compe¬
titor of the moil fliining talents. The vulgar, however,
who would a£t with this philofopher, are influenced by
no inch views, but merely by their prejudices in favour
of birth and family; and therefore it is ridiculous to
think of changing the public mind with refpeci to any
form of government by pure reafoning. In France a
total change in the minds of the people has indeed been
effected, and from the moft violent prejudices m favour
of royalty, they have now become more violently preju¬
diced in favour of republicaftifm. Bad as their govern¬
ment unqueftionably was, the change that has now taken
place is not the effect of calm realoning and accurate in¬
quiry (for of that the bulk of mankind appears to be in¬
capable), nor are their prejudices lefs violent than they
were before. They are changed indeed; but no one will
deny that prejudice, and that of the moft violent kind,
leads them on at prefent ; nor can any one affert that
their new prejudices have rendered them more happy,
or their country more flouriftung, than their former ones,
which made them ciy Five le Roi under the tyrannic go¬
vernment of Louis XIV.
The influence of prejudice is not more powerful in
fixing the political opinions of men, than in dictating
their religious creed. Every child of a religious father
receives his faith by inheritance long before he be capa¬
ble of judging whether it be agreeable or difagreeable to
the word of God and the light of reafon. This experi¬
ence (hows to be the fafr ; and found philofophy declares
that it cannot be otherwife. Parents are appointed to
judge for their children in their younger years, and to
inftnffft them in what they fhould believe, and what
they fhould pradtife in the civil and religious life. This
is a dictate of nature, and doubtlefs would have been
fo in a ftate of perfed innocence. It is impoflible that
children fhould be capable of judging for themfelves be¬
fore their minds are furnifhed with a competent number
of ideas, and before they are acquainted with any prin¬
ciples and rules of juft reafoning; and therefore they can
do pothing better than run to their parents, and receive
their directions what they fhould believe and what
they fhould pradife.
This mode of tutoring the infant mind, and giving
to our inftrudions the force of prejudice, before reafon
can operate with much effed, will, we know, be high¬
ly difpleafing to many who challenge to themfelves alone
the epithet of liberal. With them it will be cramping
the genius and perverting the judgment: but we cannot
help thinking that fuch an objedion, if it ihould be
made, would be the offspring of ignorance; for it re¬
quires but very little knowledge of human nature to be
able to fee, that if children be net reftrained by authority,
and if we do not infxnuate a love of good principles in¬
to their minds, bad ones will infinuate themfelves, and
a little time will give them the force of inveterate preju¬
dice, which all the future efforts of reafon and philofo-
phy will fmd it difficult to eradicate. The idea of keep¬
ing a child ignorant of the being of a God, and the
grand duties of morality and religion, till lie fhall come
to years of diferetion, and then allowing him to reafon
them out for himfelf, is an abfurd chimera : it is an ex¬
periment which never has. been tried, which to us it ap¬
pears impoflible to try, and which, if it could be tried,
could not jpolfibly produce any good effect. For fup-
r 484 l
P R E
*
Abfurdity
of keeping
children ig
norant of
religion
from the
dread of
prejudice.
pofe we had a youth juft arrived at year* of diferetion, rt-ejudit*.
totally ignorant of all thefe things, and unbiaffed to —v—^
any fyftem of. opinions, oi> rather pofieffed of no opi¬
nions at all—-it would, in the firft place, wc fufpetl, be
abfolutely neceffary to direCl his thoughts into a parti¬
cular train, and for fome perfon to lead him on from
one idea to another, till he fhould arrive at fome conclu-
fion; but in all this there is the influence of autho¬
rity, aflbeiation, and of prejudice.
It being therefore abfolutely neceflary that fentiments Origin of
of religion be inftilled into the minds of children before bigotry,
they be capable of difeovering by the ule of their reafon
whether t-hofe fentiments be juft or not, it need not
excite wonder, nor is it any reflection upon religion,,
that moft men adhere with bigotry to the creed of
their fathers, and fupport that creed by arguments
which could carry convi&ion to no minds but their
own. I he love and veneration which they bear to the
memory of thofe from whom they imbibed their
earlieft opinions, do not permit them to perceive either
the falsehood of thofe opinions, or their little importance^
fuppoling them true. Hence the many frivolous dif-
putes which have been carried on among Chriftians ^
and hence the zeal with which fome of them maintain*
tenets which are at once contrary to feripture, to reafon*
and to common fenfe. A due reflection, however, on
the fource of all prejudices ought to moderate this zeal;
for no- man is wholly free from that bias which he
is fo ready to condemn in others: and indeed a man
totally free from prejudice, would be a more unhappy be¬
ing than the moft violent bigot on earth. In fcience, he
would admit nothing which he could not himfelf de-
monftrate ; in buiineis, he would be perpetually at a
ftand for want of motives to influence his conduct: he
could have no attachment to a particular country; and
therefore mult be without patriotifm, and without the
folaces of friendihip ; and his religion, we are afraid,
would be cold and lifelefs.
What, it will be faid, are the authors of a work v-t 0b^*
which profeffes to enlighten the public mind by layingfionVi^*
beuire it a general view of fcience and literature, become
at laft the advocates of prejudice, which is the bane of
fcience, and the prop of [upcrjlition ? No, we are advo¬
cates for no prejudice which is either inimical to fcience
01 hiendly to abfurdity; but we do not think that the
moralill would acl wifely who ihould defert his proper
bufuiefs to make himfelf mailer of the higher mathema¬
tics, merely that he might not be obliged to trull occa-
ilonally to the demonflrations of others. The writer of
this article is not (killed in trade; but it is not his opi¬
nion that the merchant would foon grow rich, who
ihould never make, a bargain till he had previouily cal¬
culated with matliematieal exaClnefs all the probabili¬
ties of his gain or lofs. That to diffblve all the aflbeia-
tions which are the fource of partial attachments off
kindred, affe&ion, and private friendihip, would tend to
promote the public happinefs,. we cannot pofllbly'believe,.
And we think, that the experience of the prefent event¬
ful day abundantly confirms Mr Hume’s opinion, that
far from endeavouring to extirpate the people’s prejudi¬
ces in favour of birth and family, we ihould cheriili fuch
fentinu *ts, as being abfolutely requifite to preferve a due
fuboruination in fociety. That men would be better
Chriftians if they were to receive no religious inftruClion
till they (hould.be able by their own reaion to judge of
it5
F R E [4^1 ERL
f {t» twftk, daily obfemtion docs not warrant us to con-
Vl^*v—- elude ; for we fee thofe who have feldom heard of God
when children, “ live without hint in the world” when
they are men.
pernicious prejudices we have traced to their fource
elfewhere, and fhown how tliey may be belt prevented
hy proper attention in the education ot children. (>See
Metaphysics, 98). We lhall only add here, that
the earlier fuch attention is paid, the more effectual it
will be found; and that it is much eaiier to keep pre¬
judices out of the miad than to remove them after
they have been admitted. This however mull be fome-
times attempted; and where prejudices are llropg, fe-
veral methods have been recommended for rendering the
attempt fuccefsful. The following are taken mollly from
tt Dr Watts’s improvement of the mind.
Proper me- j. ^ attack the prejudice diretl/y, but lead the per-
removing l'on who is under its influence flep by ftep to the truth.
prejuJjcts. Perhaps your neighbour is under the influence offuper.
Jl'ition and bigotry in the Jimplieiiy of his foul; you mint
not "immediately run upon him with violence, and fhow
him the abfurdity or folly of his own opinions, though
you might be able to fet them in a glaring light; but
you mull rather begin at a diilance, and ellablilh his
aflent to fome familiar and eafy propolitions, which
have a tendency to refute his mttlakes, and to confirm
the truth ; and then filently obferve what impreflion
this makes upon him, and proceed by flow degrees as
he is able to bear, and you mull carry on the work per¬
haps at diflant feafons of converfation. The tender
or difeafed eye cannot bear a deluge of light at once.
Overhajiinefs and vehemence in arguing is oftentimes
the effeft of pride; it blunts the poignancy of the ar¬
gument, breaks its force, and difappoints the end. If
you were to convince a perfon of the falfehood of the
do8nne of tranfubjlantiat’.on, and you take up the con-
fecrated bread before him and fay, “You may fee, and
tafle, and feel, this is nothing but bread; therefore whilll
you aflert that God commands you to believe it is not
bready you moll w’ickedly accufe God of commanding
you to tell a lie.” This fort of language would only
raife the indignation of the perfon againit you, inftead
of making any impreffiorts upon him. He will not fo
much as think at all on the argument you have brought,
but he rages at you as & profane wretch, fetting up
your own fenfe and reafon above facred authority ; fo
that though what you afiirm is a truth of great evi¬
dence, yet you lofe the benefit of your whole argu¬
ment by an ill management, and the unreafonable ufe
of it.
2. Where the prejudices of mankind cannot be con¬
quered at once, but will rife up in arms againll the
evidence of truth, there we mull make fome allow¬
ances, and yield to them for the prefent, as far as
we can fafely do it without real injury to truth ; and
if we would have any fuccefs in our endeavours to
convince the world, we mult praddife this complaifance
for the benefit of mankind. Take a lludent who has
deeply imbibed the principles of the Peripatetics, and
imagines certain immaterial beings, called fujlantial forms,
to inhabit every herb, flower, mineral, metal, fire, wa¬
ter, &c. and to be the fpring of all its properties and
operations ; or take a Platonift, who believes an anima
mundi, “ an univerfal foul of the world,” to pervade all
feodies, to adl in and by them according to their nature,
and indeed to give them their nature and their fpec'al Prej-iuHee
powers ; perhaps it may be very hard to convince thefe
perfons by arguments, and conltrain them to yield up
thofe fancies. Well then, let the one believe his unh
verfalfoul, and the other go on with hie notion offub-
Jlantialforms, and at the lame time teach them how by
certain original laws of motion, and the various fizes,
fhapes, and fituations of the parts o? matter, allow¬
ing a continued divine concourfe in and with all, the
fevend appearances in nature may be folved, and the
variety of effects produced, according to the corpufcu-
lar philofophy, improved by Defcartes, Mr Boyle, and Sir
Ifaac Newton ; and when they have attained a degree
of lie ill in this fcience, they will fee thefe airy notions
of theirs, thefe imaginary powers, to be fo ufelefs and
unneccffary, that they w ill drop them of their own ac¬
cord. The Peripatetic forms w ill vanifh from the mind
like a dream, and the Platonic foul of the world <will ex¬
pire.
We may give another inftance of the fame practice,
where there is a prejudicate fbndnefs of particular words
and phrafes. Suppofe a man is educated in an unhappy form
of fpeech, whereby he explains fome great Jofirine of the
gofpel, and by the means of this phrai'e he has imbibed
a very falfe idea of that doclrine.; yet he is lo bigot-
ted to his form of words, that he imagines if thofe
words are omitted the form is loll. Nowr, if we can¬
not poflibly perfuade him to part with his improper
terms, we will indulge them a little, and tiy to explain
them in a fcriptural fenfe, rather than let him go on in
his millaken ideas. A perfon who has been bred a Pa-
pijl, knows but little of religion, yet he refolvcs never
to part from the Roman CaPoolic faith, and is obllinately
bent again(l a change. Nowr it cannot be unlawful to
teach fuch an one the true Chrillian, i, e. the Prote*
Rant religion, out of the Epfle to the Romans, and fhow
him that the fame dodlrine is contained in the Catholic
Epiflles of St Peter, James, and Jude ; and thus let him
live and die a good Chrillian in the belief of the reli¬
gion taught him out of the-New Tellament, wdrile he
imagines he is a Roman Catholic Hill, becaufe he finds
the do&rine he is taught in the Catholic Epiltles and
in that to the Romans Sometimes w-e may make ufe
of the very prejudices under which a perfon labours^
in order to convince him of fome particular truth, and
argue with him upon his owm profefled principles as
though they were true. Suppofe a Jew lies fick -of a fe¬
ver, and is forbid flelh by his phyfician; hut hearing’
that rabbits w^ere provided for the dinner of the family,
defired earneftly to eat of them ; and fuppofe'he became
impatient, becaufe his phyfician yld not permit him, and
he infilled upon it tlrat it could do. him no hurt—fiirelyr
rather than let him perfift in that fancy and that defire, to*
the danger of his life, we might tell him that thefe animals
were llrangled, a fort of food forbidden by the Jewilhlaw,
though we ourf elves might believe tliat law to be aboliflied.
Where wc find any perfon obllinately perfilling in a
millake in oppofition to all reafon, efpecially if the
miftake be very injurious or pernicious, and we know
this perfon will hearken to the fentiment or authority
of fome favourite name; it is needful fometimes to urge
the opinion and authority of that favourite perfon,fince that
is likely to be regarded much more than reafon. We
are almoil alhamed indeed to fpeak. of ufing any influence
of authority in reafoning or argument; but in fome
ftrantes.
. P R E I
Prejudice cafes it is better that poor, filly, perverfe, obftinate
F’ jlion creaturc,s> Ibould be perfuaded to judge and aft right,
by a veneration for the fenfe of others, than to be
left to wander in pernicious errors, and continue deaf
to all argument, and blind to all evidence. They are
but children of a larger fize ; and frnce they perfift all
.their lives in their minority, and rejeft all true reafon-
ing, furely vve may try to perfuade them to praftife
what is for their own intereil by fuch childilh reafons
as they will hearken to. We may overawe them from
purfuing their own ruin by the terrors of a folemn fha-
dow, or allure them by afugar plum to their own happi-
nefs. But after all, we muft >conclude, that wherefo-
-ever it can be done, it -is belt to remove and root out
thofe prejudices which obftruft the entrance of truth in¬
to the mind, rather than to palliate, humour, or in¬
dulge them ; and fometimes this mult neceffarily be
done, before you can make a perfon part with fome be¬
loved error, and lead him into better fentiments.
   On the whole, we woidd recommend more mutual
forbearance forbearance and lefs acrimony than is commonly found
among writers on difputed fubjefts, as the only means
by which our differences in religion, politics, and fcience,
ever can be healed, and truth certainly difeovered. If
men were lefs violent in defending their particular
opinions, they would always gain a more patient hear-
ing, they would be lefs fufpefted of, and lefs liable to,
prejudice, and of courfe more apt either to convince
or to be convinced. They would likewife by fo doing
fhow, in the molt unequivocal manner, their attention
to found philofophy, and above all to genuine Cirri-
llianity; which, though it is far from encouraging feep-
ticiim, or a temporizing fpirit, recommends, in the
ftrongeft terms, among all its profeffors, untverfal cha¬
rity and mutualforbearance. See Probability, Truth,
and Superstition.
PRELATE, an ecclefiaftic raifed to fome eminent
and fuperior dignity in the church ; as bifhops, archbi-
fhops, patriarchs, &c.
PRELIMINARY, in general, denotes fomething
to be examined and determined before an affair can be
treated of to the purpofe.
PRELUDE, in mufic, is ufually a flourifh or irre¬
gular air, which a mufician plays off-hand, to try if his
\i
Mutual
recom¬
mended.
inttrument be in tune, and fo lead him into the piece
to be played.
PREMISSES, in logic, an appellation given to the
two firft propofitions of a fyllogifm. See Logic.
Premisses, in law, properly fignifies the land, &c.
mentioned in the beginning of a deed.
PREMIUM, or Pfutmium, properly fignifies a re¬
ward or recompenfe : but it is chiefly ufed in a mer¬
cantile fenfe for the fum pf money given to an infurer,
whether of fhips, houfes, lives, &c. See Insurance.
I REMNA, in botany ; a genus of the angiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants.
I he calyx is bilobed ; the corolla quadrifid ; the berry
quadrilocular ; the feeds folitary.
PREMONSTRANTES, or Pr^mon STRATEN-
ses, a religious order ©f regular canons inftituted in
1120, by b. Norbert ; and thence alfo called Norber-
ttnes.
The fii ft monaflery Gf this order was built by N©r-
bert in the Lie of France, three leagues to the weft of
Laon j which he called Pramonjlre, framonflratum, and
4^6 ] P R E
hence the order itfelf derived its name; though as to the Prenvm-
occafion of that name, the writers of that order are di-
vided. At firft the religious of this order were fo very p .
poor, that they had only a fingle afs, which ferved to i cvo'u,a’f
carry the wood they cut down every morning, and fent
to Laon in order to purchafe bread. But they foon re¬
ceived fo many donations, and built fo many monafte-
nes, that in 30 years after the foundation of the order,
they had above ico abbeys in France and Germany :
and in procefs of time the order fo increafed, that it had
monafteries in all parts of Chriftendom, amounting t».
1000 abbeys, 300 provoftihips, a vaft number of prio¬
ries, and 500 nunneries. But they are now greatly di-
minifhed. The rule they followed was that of St Au-
guftme, with fome flight alterations, and an addition of
certain fcverc laws, whofe authority^did not long furvivc
their founder.
The order was approved by Honprius II. in 1126,
and again by feveral fucceeding popes. At firft the
abftinence from flefh was* rigidly obferved. In 1245
Innocent IV. complained of its being neylefted to a
general chapter. In 1 288, their general, William, pro¬
cured leave of pope Nicholas IV. for thofe of the order
to eat flefh on journeys. In 146 , Pius II. granted
them a general permiflion to cat meat, excepting from
Septuagefima to Eafter. The drefs of the religious of
this order is white, with a fcapulary before the caffock.
Out of doors they wear a white cloak and white hat ;
within, a little camail; and at church, a furplice, Ste¬
in the firft monafteries built by Norbert, there was
one for men and another for women, only feparated by
a wall. In 1137, by a decree of a general chapter,
this praftice was prohibited, and the women removed
out of thofe already built, to a greater diftance from
tliofe of the men.
The Praemonftratenfes, or monks of Premontre, vul¬
garly called white canons, came firft into England, A. D.
1x46. Their firft monaftery, called New-houfe, was
erefted in Lincolnfhire, by Peter de Saulia, and dedi- v
cated to St Martial. In the reign of Edward I. this
order had 27 monafteries in England;
PREbJANTHES, in botany; A genus of the
polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngeneiia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der tire 49th order, Compofitce. The receptacle is na¬
ked ; the calyx calyculated ; the pappus is fimple, and
almoft fefiile ; the florets are placed in a fingle feries.
PRENOMEN, Prajnomen, among the ancient Ro¬
mans, a name prefixed to their family name, and an-
fwering to our Chriftian name; fuch are Gains, Lucius,
Marcus, &c.
PRENOTION, PrvEnotio, or Prxcognitio, is a
notice or piece of knowledge preceding fome other in
refpeft of time. Such is the knowledge of the antece¬
dent, which muft precede that of the conclufion. It is
uied by Lord Bacon for breaking of an endlefs fearch,
which he obferves to be one of the principal parts of
the art of memory. For when one endeavours to call
any thing to mind, without fome previous notion or
perception of what is fought for, the mind exerts itfelf
and ftrives in an endlefs manner: but if it hath any
fhort notion before-hand, the infinity of the fearch is
prefently cut off, and the mind hunts nearer home, as
in an inclofure. Thus verfe is eafier remembered than
profe; becaufe if we ftick at any word in a verfe, we
have
P R E [ 487 j P R E
yrepara* have a previous notion that it is fuch a word as mu(l
lion. ftand in a verfe. Hence alfo, order is a manifeft help
"l'n' to memory; for here is a previous notion, that the
thing fought for muft be agreeable to order. Bacon’s
Works A>r. vol. i. p. ' 36. and vol. ii. p. 473.
PREPARATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
difpofing things in fuch a manner as to render any fore-
feen event more, advantageous or lefs hurtful according
to its nature.
Preparation of Diffonances, in mufic, is their dif-
poiition in harmony in fuch a manner, that, by fome-
thing congenial in what precedes, they may be ren¬
dered lefs harlh to the ear than they would be without
that precaution: according to this definition, every
difcord ought to be prepared. But when, in order to
prepare a difibnance, it is exacted that the found which
forms it fhould before have formed a confonance, then
there is fundamentally but one fmgle dilfonance which
is prepared, viz. the feventh. Nor is even this prepa¬
ration neceffary in the chord which contains the fen-
iible note, becaufe then the diflbnance being chara&e-
riftical, both in its chord and in its mode, the ear has
fufficient reafon to expebt it : it accordingly does ex¬
port it, and recognife it; nor is either deceived with re-
fpebt to its chord nor its natural progrefs. But when
the feventh is heard upon a fundamental found which
is not eflential to the mode, it ought then to be prepa¬
red, in order to prevent all ambiguity ; to prevent the
ear, whilft liltening to this note, from lofing its train :
and as this chord of the feventh may be inverted and
combined in feveral different manners, from this arife
likewife a number of different ways by which it may
feem to be prepared, which, in the main, always ilfue
however in the fame thingf.
In making ufe of diffonances, three things are to be
confidered ; viz. the chord which precedes the diffo-
nance, that in which it is found, and that which is im¬
mediately fubfequent to it. Preparation only refpebls
the two firfl; for the third, fee Resolution.
When we would regularly prepare a difcord in or¬
der to arrive at its chord, we muff choofe fuch a ca¬
reer of the fundamental bafs, that the found which
forms the diffonance may be a protraftion into the
perfebl time of the fame note which formed a confo¬
nance formerly ftruck in the imperfebt in the preceding
chord ; this is what we call Jincopatiotn See Smco-
FATION.
' From this preparation two advantages refult; viz.
n That there is neceffarily an harmonical connexion
between the two chords, fince that conneftion is form¬
ed by the diffonance itfelf; and, 2. That this diffo-
nance, as it is nothing elfe but the continuation of the
fame found which had formed a cowfonance, becomes
much lefs harfh to the ear than it would have been
with any found recently ftruck. Now this is all that
we expebt to gain by preparation. See Cadence,
Discord, and Harmony.
By what has been juft laid, it will appear that there
is no other part peculiarly deftined for preparing the
diffonance, except that in which it is heard ; fo that if
the treble (hall exhibit a diffonance, that muft be fm-
copated; but if the diffonance is in the bafs, the bafs
muft he fincopated. Though there is npthing here
but what is quite fimple, yet have mailers of mulic mi-
ferably embroiled the whole matter.
Some diflbnanees may be found which ire never pre- Prepara-
pared : fuch is the fixth fuperadded : fome which are tlon-
very unfrequently prepared j fuch is the diminifhed fe- ’
venth.
Preparations, in pharmacy, the medicines when
mixed together in fuch a manner as to be fit for the
ufe of the patient. See Pharmacy, Part II.
Preparations, in anatomy, the parts of animal
bodies prepared and preferved for anatomical ufes.
The manner of preferving anatomical preparations,
is either by drying them thoroughly in the air, or
putting them into a proper liquor.
In drying parts which arc thick, when the weather
is warm, care muft be taken to prevent putrefablion, Edin'
fly-blows, infebls, &c. This is eafily done by the ufe ^ji’p 3
of a folution of corrofive fublimate in fpirit of wine, • * * *
in the proportion of two drams of fublimate to a
pound of fpirit: the part fhould be moiftened with
this liquor as it dries, and by this method the body of
a child may be kept fafe even in fummer. Dried pre¬
parations are apt to crack and moulder away in keep¬
ing ; to prevent this, their i\;face fhould be covered
with a thick varnilh, repeated as often as occafion re*
quires.
Though feveral parts prepared dry are ufeful, yet
others muft be fo managed as to be always flexible,
and nearer a natural ftate. The difficulty has been to
find a proper liquor for this purpofe. Dr Monro fays,
the beft he knows is a well reftified colourlefs fpirit of
wine, to which is added a fmall quantity of the fpirit
of vitriol or nitre. When thefe are properly mixed,
they neither change their colour nor live conliftence of
the parts, except where there are ferous or mucous
liquors contained in them. The brain, even of a
young child, in this mixture grows fo firm as to admit
of gentle handling, as do alfo the vitreous and cry-
ftalline hnmours of the eye. The liquor of the feba-
ceous glands and the femen are coagulated by this
fpirituous mixture ; and it heightens the red colour of
the injedtion of the blood-veflels, fo that after the part
has been in it a little time, feveral vefiels appear which,
were befor invifible. If you will compare thefe effedts
with what Ruyfch has faid of his balfam, you will find
the liquor above-mentioned to come very near to it.
The proportion of the two fpirits muft be changed
according to the part prepared. For the brain and
humours of the eye, you muft put two drams of fpirit
of nitre to one pound of fpirit of wine. In preferving
other parts which are harder, 30 or 40 drops of the
acid will be fufficient; a larger quantity will make
bones flexible, and. even diffolve them. The part thus
preferved fhould be always kept covered with the
liquor : therefore great care fhould be taken to flop
the mouth of the glafs with a waxed cork and a blad¬
der tied over it, to prevent the evaporation of the
fpirit; fome of which, notwithftanding all this care,
will fly off; therefore frefti muft be added as there is
occafion. When the fpirits change to.a dark tindlure,
which will fometimes happen, they fhouldx be poured
off, and ftefh put in their room} but with fomewhat
lefs acid than at firft.
The glafles which contain the preparations fhould -
be of the fineft fort, and pretty thick ; for through
fuch the parts may be feen very diftinftly, and of a
true colour, and the objeft will be fo magnified as to
fbow
p r e r 488 ] p it e
Prej enfed Hiow vdTds in the glafs wfcidh out of it were not to be
Preroga¬
tive.
feen.
As the glafs when filled with the liquor has a cer¬
tain focus, it is necefiary to keep the preparation at a
proper diftance from the fides of it, which is eaiily
done by little (licks fuitably placed, or by fufpending
it by a thread in a proper fituation. The operator
fhouid be cautious of putting his fingers in this liquor
oftener than is abfolutely neceffary; becaufe it brings
on a numbnefs on the (kin, which makes the fingers unfit
for any nice operation. The bed remedy for this is to
wadi them in water mixed with a few drops of oil of
tartar per deliquium.
Dr Chrift. Jac. Trew prefers the reftined fpirit of
grain for preferving anatomical preparations to fpirit of
wine, or to compofitions of alcohol, amber, camphor,
&c. becaufe thefe foon change into a brown colour,
whereas the fpirit from malt preferves its limpid ap¬
pearance. When any part is to be preferved wet,
wafh it with water till it is no more tindlured. The
water is next to be wafhed away with fpirits, and then
the preparation is to b' put among fpirits in a glafs,
the mouth of which is to be clofely covered with a
glafs head, over which a wet bladder and leaf-tin are
to be tied. Com. hit. Nor'imb, 1731, femeji. \.fpecim. 9.
See alfo holt's Anatomical InJirutHor, and American
Tr tnftiftioniyVoX ii. p. 366.
PREPENSED, in law, denotes fore-thought. In
■which fenfe we fay prepenfed malice^ &e. If, when a
man is fiain upon a hidden quarrel, there were malice
prepenfed formerly between them, it makes it mur¬
der ; and, as it is called in fome (latutes, prepenfed mur-
ther.
PREPOSITION, in grammar, one of the parts of
fpeech, being an indeclinable particle which yet ferves
to govern the nouns that follow it; fuch as pery proy
propter; and through, for, with, &c.
F. Buffier allows it to be only a modificative of a
part of fpeech, ferving to circumllantiate a noun.
PREPUCE, in anatomy, the foredun , being a pro¬
longation of the cutis of the penis, covering the glans.
See Anatomy, n° 107.
PREROGATIVE, an exclufive or peculiar privi¬
lege.
Royal PuRROGATirF, that fpecial pre-eminence which
the king hath over and above all other perfons, and
out of the ordinary courfe of the common law, in
right of his regal dignity. It fignifies in its etymolo¬
gy (from prx and royo') fomething that is required or
demanded before, or in preference to, all others. And
hence it follows, that it muft be in its nature fmgular
and eccentrical ; that it can only be applied to thofe
rights and capacities which the king enjoys alone in
eontradiftin&ion to others, and not to thofe which he
enjoys in common with any of his fubjefts : for if once.
awy one prerogative of the crown could be held in com¬
mon with the fubjeft, it would ceafe to be prerogative
any longer. And therefore Finch lays it down as a
maxim, ^that the prerogative is that law in cafe of the
-king, which is law in no cafe of the fubjeft.
Prerogatives are either direh or incidental The di-
retl are fuch politive fubflantia) parts of the royal cha-
rndler and authority, as are rooted in, and fpring
from, the king s political perfon, confidered merely
fey itfetf, without reference to ary other extrinfic cir-
eumftance 5 as, the right of fending ambaHadars, of Preros**
creating peers, and of making war or peace. But t've
fuch prerogatives as are incidental bear always a re!a» 'Jl *
tion to fomething elfe, diflinffc from the king’s per¬
fon j and are indeed only exceptions, in favour of the
crown, to thofe general rules that ■«re eftablifhed for
the reft of the community: fuch as, that no cofts (haft
be recovered againft the king ; that the king can ne¬
ver be a joint tenant; and that his debt (hall be pre¬
ferred before a debt to any of his fubje&s.
1 hefe fubftantive or direct prerogatives may again
be divided into three kinds: being fuch as regard,
firft, the king’s royal char abler or dignity ; fecondly,
his royal authority or power ; and, laftly, his royal in¬
come. Thefe are necelTary, to fecure reverence to his
perfon, obedience to his commands, and an affluent
fupply for the ordinary expences of government; with¬
out all of which it is impoffible to maintain the exe-
tive power in due independence and vigour. Yet, is
every branch of this large and extenfive dominion, our
free conftitution has interpofed fuch feafonable checks
and reftridtions, as may curb it from trampling on thofe
liberties which it was meant to fecure and eftabliffl.
The enormous weight of prerogative, if left to itfelf,
(as in arbitrary governments it is), fpreads havock and
deflrudlion among all the inferior movements : but, when
balanced and bridled (as with us) by its proper coun-
terpoife, timely and judiciouily applied, its operations
are then equable and regular ; it invigorates the whole
machine, and enables every part to anfwer the end of
its conftrudtion.
I. Of the royal dignity. Under every monarchical
eftablifflment, it is neceflary to diftinguifh the prince
from his fubjedls, not only by the outward pomp and
decorations of majefty, but alfo by aferibing to him
certain qualities as inherent in his royal capacity, di-
ftindl from, and fuperior to, thole of any other indivi¬
dual in the nation. For though a philofophical mind
will (fays Sir William Blackftone) confider the royal
perfon merely as one man appointed by mutual confent
to prefide over many others, and will pay him that re¬
verence and duty which the principles of fociety de¬
mand ; yet the mafs of mankind will be apt to grow in-
folent and refra&ory, if taught to confider their prince
as a man of no greater perftTlion than themfelves. The
law therefore aferibes to the king, in his high politi¬
cal character, not only large powers and emoluments,
which form his prerogative and revenue, but likewiie
certain attributes of a great and tranfeendent nature ;
by which the people are led to confider him in the light
of a fuperior being, and to pay him that awful refpeeft
which may enable him with greater eafe to carry on the
bufinefs of government. This is what we underftand
by the royal dignity; the feveral branches of which we
(hall now proceed to enumerate.
1. And, firft, the law aferibes to the king the at-.
tribute of fovereignty, or pre-eminenc-y. See Sove¬
reignty.
2. (i The law alf® (according to Sir William
Blackftone) aferibes to the king, in his political ca¬
pacity, ablolute perfeSion, ‘ The king can do no
wrong.’ Which ancient and fundamental maxim (fayc
he) is not to be underftood as if every thing tranf-
afled by the government was of courfe juft and law¬
ful ■, but means only two things. Firft, that whatever
P R E [ 430 ] P R E
Trrr^a- Is exceptionable in the conduft of public affairs, is
rive. not to be imputed to the king, nor is he anfwerable
u—~v   for Jt perfonally to his people : for this doftrine would
totally deftroy that conflitutional independence of the
crown, which is neceffary for the balance of power, in
our free and a&ive, and therefore compounded, con-
ftitution. And, fecondly, it means that the preroga¬
tive of the crown extends not to do any injury; it is
created for the benefit of the people, and therefore
Cannot be exerted to their prejudice.—“ The king,
moreover, (he obferves), is not only incapable of do¬
ing wrong, but even of thinking wrong: he can never
mean to do an improper thing : in him is no folly or
weaknefs. And, therefore, if the crown fhould be
induced to grant any franchife or privilege t:o a fubjeft
contrary to reafon, or in anywife prejudicial to the
commonwealth or a private perfon, the law will not
fuppofe the king to have meant either an unwife or an
injurious a&ion, but declares that the king was de¬
ceived in his grant; and thereupon fuch grant is ren-
dered void, merely upon the foundation of fraud and
deception, either by or upon thofe agents whom the
crown has thought proper to employ. For the law
will not call an imputation on that magtftrate whom
it entrufts with the executive power, as if he was ca¬
pable of intentionally difregarding his trull: but attri¬
butes to mere impofition (to which the moll perfetd.
of fublunary beings mull Hill continue liable) thofe
little inadvertencies, which, if charged on the will
of the prince, might lelfen him in the eyes of his fub-
je6ls.”
But this do&rine has been expofed as ridiculous
and abfurd, by Lord Abingdon, in his Dedication to
the colledive Body of the People of England* “ Let us
fee (fays he) how thefe maxims and their comments
agree with the conllitution, with nature, with reafon,
with common fenfe, with experience, with faft, with
precedent, and with Sir William Blackilone himfelf;
and whether, by the application of thefe rules of evi¬
dence thereto, it will not be found, that (from the
want of attention to that important line of dillinclion
which the conllitution has dravyn between the king of
England and the crown of England) what was attri¬
buted to the monarchy has not been given to the mo¬
narch, what meant for the kingfhip conveyed to the
king, what defigned for the thing transferred to the
perfon, what intended for theory applied to practice;
and fo in confequence, that whilll the premifles (of the
perfedlion of the monarchy) be true, the concluixon
(that the king can do no wrong) be not falfe.
“ And, firft, in reference to the conllitution : to which
•if this matter be applied (meaning what it exprefies, and
if it do not it is unworthy of notice), it is fubverfive of
a principle in the conllitution, upon which the prefer-
vation of the conllitution depends.; I mean the prin¬
ciple of refijlance ; a principle .which, whilil no man will
now venture to gainfay, Sir William Blackilone him¬
felf admits, ‘ is jujlifable to the perfon of the prince,
when the being of the Hate is endangered, and the
public voice proclaims fuch refillance necelfaryand
thus, by fuch admifiion, both difproves the maxim,
and overfets his own comment thereupon: for to fay
that ‘ the king can do no wrong,’ and that ‘ he is
incapable even of thinking wrong,’ and then to fidmit
that ‘ refinance to his perfon is jultifiable,’ are fuch
V,ol. XV. Part II,
jarring contradi£lions in themfelves, that, until rcconci- Pieroga-
led, the necefiity of argument is fufpended. , tive~ ,
“With refpeft then, in the next place, to the agree- "
meat of this maxim, and its comment, with nature, with
reafon, and with common fenfe, I Ihould have thought
myfelf fufficiently julliried in appealing to every man’s
own x-efleclion for decifion, if I had not been made
to underhand that nature, reafon, and common fenfe,
had had nothing to do with either. Sir William Black-
Hone fays, ‘ That though a philofophical mind will con-
fider the royal perfon merely as one man appointed
by mutual confent to prefide over others, and will
pay him that reverence and duty which the principles
of fociety demand, yet the mafs of mankind will be
apt to grow infolent and refractory if taught to confi-
der their prince as a man of no greater perfection than
themfelves ; and therefore the law aferibes to the
king, in his high political chara&er, certain attributes
of a great and tranfeendent nature, by which the
people are led to confider him in the light of a fu-
perior being, and to pay him that awful refpeft which
may enable him with greater eafe to carry on the bu-
linefs of government.' So that, in order to govern
with greater eafe (which by the bye is mere affertion
without any proof), it is necefiary to deceive the mafs ,
of mankind, by making them believe, not only what
a philofophical mind cannot believe, but what it is im-
pofiible for any mind to believe; and therefore, in the
xnveiligation of this fubjedl, according to Sir William,
neither nature, reafon, nor common fenfe, can have any
concern. 
“ It remains to examine in how much this maxim and
its comment agree with experience, with faCl, with pre¬
cedent, and with Sir William Blackflone himfelf. And
here it is matter of moll cui-ious fpeculation, to obferve
a maxim laid down, and which is intended for a rule
of government, not only without a fingle cafe in fup-
port of it, but with a firing of cafes, that may be car¬
ried back to Egbert the firft monarch of England, in
diredl oppofition to the dodtrine. Who is the man,
thaf, reading the pad hiflery of this country, will {how
us any king that has done no wrong ? Who is the read¬
er that will not find, that all the wrongs and injuries
which the free conflitution of this country has hitherto
fuffered, have been folely derived from the arbitrary
meafures of our kings ? And yet the mafs of mankind
are to look upon the king as a fuperior being; and
the maxim, that ‘ the king can do no wrong,’ is to
remain as an aiticle of belief. But, without pufhlng
this inquiry any farther, let us fee what encourage¬
ment Sir William Blackilone himfelf has given us for
our credulity. After Hating the maxim, and prefent-
ing us with a moll lively pidlure, ‘ of our fovefeign
lord thus all perfect and immortal' what does he make
this all-perfedlion and immortality in the end to come
to? His words are thefe : ‘ For when king Charles’s
deluded brother attempted to enflave the nation,’ (no
wrong this, to le fire), ‘he found it was beyond his
power: the people both could, and did, refill him ; and
in confequence of fuch refinance, obliged him to quit
his enterprife and his throne together*.”
\ The fum of all is this : That the crown of England * ^oyment.
and the king of England are diHinguiftxable, and not^°^IV
fynonymous terms : that allegiance is due/o crown,
and through the crown to the king: that the attributes
3 0,
]> R E F 49° ] P R E
P: eroga. 0f the crown are fovereignty, perfefUon, and perpetuity;
tive but that it does not therefore follow that the king can
* v do no wrong- It is indeed to be admitted, that in
high refpedt for the crown, high refpeft is alfo due to
the wearer of that crown ; that is, to the king : but
the crown is to be preferred to the king, for the frit
veneration is due to the conftitution. It is likewife to
le fuppofed that the king will do no wrong : and as, to
prevent this, a privy council is appointed by the con-
ftitution to afTiil the king in the execution of the go¬
vernment ; fo if any wrong be done, i: thefe men,’
as Montefquieu exprelfes it, ‘ may be examined and
puniihed (a).’
“ But if any future king fhall think to fcreen thefe
evil counfellors from the juft vengeance of the people,
by becoming his own minijler ; and, in fo doing, fhall
take for his fanftion the attribute of perfection, lhail truft
to the deception of his being a fuperior being, and cloak
himfelf under the maxim that the king can do no wrong;
I fay, in fuch a cafe, let the appeal already made to
the conftitution, to nature, to reafon, to common fenfe,
to experience, to faft, to precedent, and to Sir Wil¬
liam Blackflone himfelf, fuffice ; and preclude the ne-
ceffity of any further remarks from me (b).”
To proceed now to other particulars : The law de¬
termines, that in the king can be no negligence, or
xaches; and therefore no delay will bar his right.
Nullum tempos occurrit regi, is the Handing maxim upon
all occafions : for the law intends that the king is al¬
ways bufied for the public good, and therefore has not
leifure to alfert his right with-Vi the times limited to
Mtdf. fubje&s. In the king alfo can be no ftain or corrup-
Cemment, tjon 0f blood : for if the heir to the crown were at¬
tainted of treafon or felony, and afteiwards the crown
ftiould defcend to him, this would purge the attainder
ipf) fafio. And therefore, when Henry VII. who as
earl of Richmond flood attainted, came to the crown,
it was not thought neceffary to pafs an aft of parliament
to reverfe this attainder; becaufe, as Lord Bacon in
his hiftory of that prince informs us, it was agreed that
the affumption of the crown had at once purged all at¬
tainders. Neither can the king, in judgment of law,
as king, ever be a minor or under age; and therefore
his royal grants and aflents to a&s of parliament are
good, though he has not in his natural capacity at¬
tained the legal age of 21. By a ftatute, indeed, 28
Hen. VIII. e. 17. power was given to future kings to Pre-og**
rtfeind and revoke all a<5ls of parliament that fhould be l‘ve'
made while they were under the age of 24: but this
was repealed by the ftatute 1 Edward VI. c. 11. fo far
as related to that prince, and both ftatutes are declared
to be determined by 24 Geo. II. c. 24. It hath alfo
been ufually thought prudent, when the heir-apparent
has been very young, to appoint -a prote&or, guardian,
or regent, for a limited time : but the very neceflity of
fuch extraordinary provifton is fufficient to demonftrate
the truth of that maxim of common law, that in the
king is no minority ; and therefore he hath no legal
guardian. See Regent.
3. A third attribute of the king’s majefty is his per.
petuity. The law aferibes to him, in his political capa¬
city, an abfolute immortality. The king never dies.
Henry, Edward, or George, may die ; but the king fur-
vives them all. For, immediately upon the deceafe of
the reigning prince in his natural capacity, his kingfhip
or imperial dignity, by a£t of law, without any interreg¬
num or interval, is veiled at once in his heir ; who is, eo
injlanti, king to all intents and purpofes. And fo ten¬
der is the law of fuppofing even a poiTibility of his death,,
that his natural dilfolution is generally called his demife ;
dimiffio regis vel eorona : an exprefiion which ftgnifies
merely a transfer of property ; for, as is obferved in Plow-
den, when we fay the demile of the crown, we mean
only, that, in confequence of the difunion of the king’s
body-natural from his body^politic, the kingdom is tranf-
ferred or demifed to his fucceflbr, and fo the royal dig¬
nity remains perpetual. Thus, too, when Edward the
fourth, in the tenth year of his reign, was driven from
his throne for a few months by the houfe of Lancalter,
this temporary transfer of his dignity was denominated
his demife ; and all procefs was held to be difeontinued,
as upon a natural death of the king.
II. We are next to confider thofe branches of the
royal prerogative which invell this our fovereign lord
with a number of authorities and powers ; in the exertion
whereof confifts the executive part of government. This
is wifely placed in a Angle hand by the Britilh conftitu¬
tion, for the fake of unanimity, llrength, and difpatch.
Were it placed in many hands, it would be"- fubjetl to
many wills : many wills, if difunited and drawing differ¬
ent ways, create weaknefs in a government; and to unite
thofe feveral wills, and reduce them to one, is a work of
more
(a) Except the parliament, which is the great council of the nation, the judges, and the peers, who, being
the hereditary counfellors of the crown, have not only a right, but are bound in foro confdtntia to advife the
king for the public good, the conftitutfon knows of no other counlel than the privy council. Any other coun-
fel, like Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Alhley, Lauderdale, and, as the initial letters of thefe names ex-
prefs, is a CABAL, and as fuch fhould be fuppreffed. Nat. Bacon, fpeaking of the lofs of power in the grand
council of lords, fays, “ The fenfe of ftate once contra&ed into a privy-council, is foon recontra&ed into a
cabinet-council, and laft of all into a favourite or two ; which many times brings damage to the public, and
both themfelves and kings into extreme precipices; partly for want of maturity, but principally through the pro¬
vidence of God over-ruling irregular courfes to the hurt of fuch as walk in them.” Pot. Difc. part 2. p. 201.
(b) For experience, fafl, and precedent, fee the reigns of king John, Henry III. Edward. II. Richard IL
Charles I. and James II. See alfo Mirror of Jujlices ; where it is faid, “ that this grand affernbly (meaning
the now parliament, or then Wittena-gemotte) is to confer the government of God’s people, how they may
be kept from fin, live in quiet, and have right done them, according to the cuftoms and laws; and more
tfpecialiy of wrong done by the ‘~ing, queen, or their children to which Nat. Bacon adds this note : “ At this
time the king might do wrong, &c. and fo fay Bradton and Fleta of the kings in their time.” Difc. part 1. p. 37.
Loud. 1739.
P R E ' [ 49T ] P R E
Preroj'i- nicre time and delay than the exigencies of Hate will af-
tive. fQj.j, Xhe king of England is therefore not only the
U'“’"'v chief, but properly the ible, magiftrate of the nation ;
all others aeling by commiflion from, and in due fubor-
dination to, him : in like manner as, upon the great re¬
volution in the Roman date, all the powers of the an¬
cient magiftracy of the commonwealth were concentered
in the new emperor; fo that, as Gravina exprefles it, in
ejus unius perfona vtteris rel public# vis atyue majejlas per
cvmulatas magiftratuum potejlates exprimebatur.
In the exertion of lawdul prerogative the king is held
to be abfolute ; that is, fo far ablolute, that there is no
legal authority that can either de-lay or refill him. He
may reject what bills, may make what treaties, may coin
what money, may create what peers, may pardon what
offences, he pleafes : unlefs where the conftitution hath
exprefsly, or by evident confequence, laid down fome
exception or boundary ; declaring, that thus far the pre¬
rogative lhall go and no farther. For otherwife the
power of the crowTn would indeed be but a name and a
lhadow, infufficient for the ends of government, if, where
Bladft.* jurildidtion is clearly elhablifhed and allowred, any
jn‘hl'u ' man or body of men were permitted to difobey it, in
the ordinary courfe of law: we do not now fpeak of
thofe extraordinary recourfes to the firft principles, which
are neceffary when the contrails of fociety are in danger
of diffolution, and the law proves too wreak a defence
againll the violence of fraud or opprefiion. And yet
the want of attending to this obvious diftinition has oc-
cafioned thefe dodlrines, of abfolute power in the prince
and of national refiftance by the people, to be much
mifunderftoed and perverted, by the advocates for fiave-
ry on the one hand, and the demagogues of faftion on the
other. The former, obferving the abfolute fevereignty
and tranfeendent dominion of the crown laid down (as
it certainly is) moll ftrongly and emphatically in our
- law-books as well as our homilies, have denied that any
cafe can be excepted from fo general and pofitive a rule ;
forgetting how impollible it is, in any practical fyllem
of laws, to point out beforehand thofe eccentrical re¬
medies, which the fudden emergence of national diftrefs
may di&ate, and which that alone can juftify. On the
other hand, over-zealous republicans, feeling the abfurd-
ity of unlimited paffive obedience, have fancifully (or
fometimes fadioully) gone over to the other extreme :
and, becaufe refiftance is juftifiable to the perfon of the
prince when the being of the Hate is endangered, and
the public voice proclaims fuch refiftance neceffary, they
have therefore allowed to every individual the right of
determining this expedience, and of employing private
force to refill even private oppreffion. A dotftrine pro¬
ductive of anarchy, and (in confequence) equally fatal
to civil liberty as tyranny itfelf. For civil liberty, right¬
ly underftood, confifts in protecting the rights of indi¬
viduals by the united force of fociety : fociety cannot
be-maintained, and of courfe can exert no protection,
without obedience to fome fovereign power ; and obedi¬
ence is an empty name, if every individual has a right
to decide how far he himfelf lhall obey.
In the exertion, therefore, of thofe prerogatives which
the law has given him, the king is irrefillible and ab¬
folute, according to the forms of the conftitution. And
yet, if the confequence of that exertion be manifellly to
the grievance or dilhonour of the kingdom, the parlia¬
ment will call his advifers to a juft and fevere account.
For prerogative confifting (as Mr Locke has wrcll defined Preroga-
it) in the diferetionary power of aCling for the pubhc, 1:1 j'e'
good where the pofitive laws arc filent, if that difere¬
tionary power be abufed to the public detriment, fuch
prerogative is exerted in an unconilitutional manner*
Thus the king may make a treaty with a foreign Hate,
which lhall irrevocably bind the nation j and yet, when
fuch treaties have been judged pernicious, impeachments
have purfued thofe minifters by whofe agency or advice
they were concluded.
The prerogatives of the crown (in the fenfe under
which wre are now confidering them) refpeft either this
nation’s intercourfe with foreign nations, ar its own do- f
meftic government and civil polity.
With regard to foreign concerns, the king is the dele¬
gate or reprefentative of his people. It is impofiible
that the individuals of a Hate, in their colledlive capaci¬
ty, can tranfadl the affairs of that ftate with another
community equally numerous as themfelves. Unanimi¬
ty mull be wanting to their meafures, and llrength to
the execution of their counfels. In the king therefore,
as in a centre, all the rays of his people are united, and
form by that union a confiftency, fplendor, and power,
that make him feared and refpedled by foreign poten¬
tates ; wTho would fcruple to enter into any engagement,
that mull afterwards be revifed and ratified by a popular
affembly. What is done by the royal authority, with
regard to foreign powers, is the adl of the whole nation :
what is done without the king’s concurrence, is the adfc
only of private men, And io far is this point carried
by our law, that it hath been held, that Ihould all the
fubjedfts of England make war with a king in league
with the king of England, without the royal affent, fuch
wrar is no breach of the league. And, by the ftatute
2 Hen. V. c. 6. any fubjedt committing adls of hofti-
lity upon any nation in league with the king, was de¬
clared to be guilty of high treafon: and, though that
a£l was repealed by the ftatute 20 Hen. VI. c. ri.
fo far as relates to the making this offence high trea¬
fon, yet ftill it remains a very great offence againft the
law of nations, and punilhable by our laws, either ca¬
pitally or otherwife, according to the circumftances of
the cafe.
1. The king therefore, confidered as the reprefen¬
tative of his people, has the foie power of fending am-
baffadors to foreign Hates, and receiving ambaffadors
at home.
2. It is alfo the king’s prerogative to make treaties,
leagues, and alliances, with foreign ftates and princes.
For it is, by the law of nations, eflential to the. goodnefs
of a league, that it be made by the fovereign power ;
and then it is binding upon the whole community: and
in Britain the fovereign power, quoad hoc, is veiled in
the perfon of the king. Whatever contracts therefore
he engages in, no other power in the kingdom can le¬
gally delay, refill, or annul. And yet, left this pleni¬
tude of authority Ihould be abufed to the detriment of
the public, the conftitution (as was hinted before) hath
here interpofed a check, by the means of parliamentary
impeachment, for the punilhment of fuch minifters as
from criminal motives advife or conclude any treaty,
which lhall afterwards be judged to delegate from the
honour and intereft of the nation.
3. Upon the fame principle the king has alfo the
foie prerogative of making war and peace. For it in
3 0^2 held
Frero^a-
tiv'.
P R R [ 492 ]
held by all the writers on the law of nature and nations, in due form to
P R E
all that feel themfelves grieved.
that the right of making war, which by nature fubiiil-
ed in every individual, is given up by all private perfons
that enter into fociety, and is veiled in the fovereign
power : and this right is given up, not only by indi¬
viduals, but even by the entire body of people that are
under the dominion of a fovereign. It would indeed be
extremely improper, that any number of fubje&s fhould
have the power of binding the fupreme magiitrate, and
putting him againil his will in a ilate of war. Whatever
hoiUlities, therefore, may be committed by private ci¬
tizens, the ilate ought not to be affeAed thereby ; un-
lefs 'that ihould juilify their proceedings, and thereby
become partner in the guilt. And the reafon which
is given by Grotius, why, according to the law of na¬
tions, a denunciation of war ought always to precede
the a&ual commencement of hoftiKties, is not fo much
that the enemy may be put upon his guard (which is
matter rather of magnanimity than right), but that it
may be certainly clear that the war is not undertaken
by private perfons, but by the will of the whole com¬
munity ; whofe right of willing is in this cafe transfer¬
red to the fupreme “magi Urate by the fundamental laws
of fociety. So that, in order to make a war completely ef-
fe&ual, it is neceffary with us in Britain that it be pub¬
licly declared and duly proclaimed by the king’s autho¬
rity ; and then, all parts of both the contending nations,
from the higheil to the loweft, are bound by it. And
wherever the right refides of beginning a national war,
there alfo mull refide the right of ending it, or the
power of making peace. And the fame check of par¬
liamentary impeachment, for improper or inglorious
conduft, in beginning, condufting, or concluding a na¬
tional war, is in general fufficient to rellrain the minifters
of the crown from a wanton or injurious exertion of this
great prerogative.
4. But, as the delay of making war may fometimes
be detrimental to individuals who have fuffered by de¬
predations from foreign potentates, our laws have in
fome refpefts armed the fubjedl with powers to impel
the prerogative; by dire&ing the miniiters of the crown
to iflue letters of marque and reprifal upon due demand:
the prerogative of granting which is nearly related to,
and plainly derived from, that other of making war;
In'l ,!Jdced,°uly an ineomPjete Hate of hoftilities, De named therein by Ipecial and particular words. The
7 ding 3 Y)rmial dt’nunciatl°n of war. molt general words that can be devifed (any perfon or
1 heh letteis are grantable, by the kw of nations, when- perfons, bodies politic, or corporate, &c. faffed not
bv thofe of J!fothf °ne f •te/VHre .OP!Pre.^d and miured him in the lead> ^ they may tend to reitrain or diminilh
ian°thZ’ a,nd Juftlce ? de™ed by that Hate any of his rights or interellk For it would be of moll
Marque.
. 5* Upon exa&ly the fame reafon Hands the preroga¬
tive of granting fafe-conduds ; without which, by the
law ot nations, no member of one fociety has a right to
intrude into another.. And therefore Puffendorf very
jiillly refolves, that it is left in the power of all Hates
to take fuch meafures about the admiffion of ftrangers
as they think convenient; thofe being ever excepted
who are driven on the coafts by neceffity, or by any
caufe that deferves pity or compaffion. Great tender-
nefs is Hi own by our laws, not only to foreigners in
di.Hrefs (fee Wreck), but with regard alfo to the ad-
million of Hrangers who come fpontaneoufly: for fo
long as their nation continues at peace with ours, and
they themfelves behave peaceably, they are under the
king’s proteAion ; though liable to be fent home when¬
ever the king fees occafion. But no fubjeA of a na¬
tion at war with us can, by the law of nations, come
mto the realm, nor can travel himfelf upon the hio-h feas,.
or fend his goods and merchandize from one place to
another, without danger of being feized by our fubjeAs,
unlefs he has letters of fafe-eonduA; which, by divers
ancient Hatutes, mull be granted under the king’s great:
feal and inrolled in chancery, or elfe they are of no effeA;
the king being fuppofed the bell judge of fuch emer¬
gencies, as may del'erve exception from the genera! law
of arms. But paffports under the king’s lign-manual,
or licences from his ambaffadors abroad, are°now more
ufually obtained, and are allowed to be of equal validity.
Thefe are the principal prerogatives of the king re-
fpeAing tins nation s intercourfe with foreign nations ;■
in all of which he is confidered as the delegate or re-
prefentative of his people. But in domeHic affairs, he
is conlldered in a great variety of charaAers, and from*
thence there arifes an abundant number of other pre¬
rogatives.
1. He is a conHituent part of the fupreme legifla-
tive. power; and, as fuch, has the prerogative of re-
jeAing fuch proviiions in parliament as he judges im¬
proper to be paffed. The expediency of which conlli-
tution has before been evinced at large under the article
Parliament. We fhall only farther remark, that the
king is not bound by any aA of parliament, unlefs lie
be named therein by fpecial and particular words.
to which the oppreffor belongs. In this cafe, letters of
marque and reprifal (words in themfelves fynonymous,
and iigmfying a taking in return) may be obtained, in
order to feize the bodies or goods of the fubjeAs of the
offending Hate, until fatisfaAion be made, wherever they
happen to be found. And indeed this cuflom of repri-
fals lee ms dictated by nature herfelf; for which reafon
we.find in the moH ancient times very notable inftances
cl it. . But here the neceffity is obvious of calling in the
iovereign power, to determine when reprifals may be
made; elfe every private fufferer would be a judge in his
own came. In purfuance of which principle, it is
with us declared by the llatute 4 Hen. V. c. 7. that
B any fubjeAs of. the realm are oppreffed in time of
truce by any foreigners, the king will grant marque
mifehievous confequence to the public, if the ffrength1
of the executive power were liable to be curtailed,
without its own exprefs confent, by conHruAions and-
implications of the fubjeA. Yet, where an aA of par¬
liament is exprefsly made for the prefervation of public-
rights and the fuppreffion of public wrongs, and does
not interfere with the eHabliHied rights ot the crown
it is faid to be binding as well upon the king as upon
the fubjeA: and, likewife, the king may take the be¬
nefit of any particular aA, though he be not efpecially
named.
2. 1 he king is conlidered, in the next place, as the
generaliffimo, or the firlt in military command, within
the kingdom. 1 lie great end of fociety is to proteA
the ^weaknefs of individuals by the united ftrength of
the
P R E [ 493 1 P R E
and the principal ufe of government which are the inlets ajid gates of the re ill m : and there-
’ nr forej fQ CHr]y as the reign of king John, we find imps
the community , „ r
is to direa that united ftrength in the belt and molt el-
feaual manner, to anfwer the end prepofed. Monar¬
chical government is allowed to be the fitteft of any lor
this purpofe i it follows therefore, from the veiy end of
its inftitution, that in a monarchy the military power
muft be trailed in the hands of the prince.
In this capacity, therefore, of general of the king¬
dom, the king has the foie power of railing and regula¬
ting fleets and armies. The manner in which they are
raifed and regulated is explained under the article Mi-
litjirt Stutc. We are now only to conflder the prero¬
gative of enlilling and of governing them : which in-
*deed was difputed and claimed, contrary to all reafon
and precedent, by the long parliament of king Cha. I.;
but, upon the reftoration of his fon, was folemnly de¬
clared by the llatute 13 Charles II. c. 6. to be in the
king alone : for that the foie fupreme government and
command of the nnhtia within all his majefty s realms
and dominions, and of all forces by fea and land, and
of all forts and places of ftrength, ever was and is the
undoubted right of his majefty, and his royal predecef-
fors, kings ,and queens oi England; and that both or
cither houfe of parliament cannot, nor ought to, pretend
to the fame.
This ftatute, it is obvious to obferve, extends not
only to fleets and armies, but alfo to forts and other
places of ftrength within the realm ; the foie preroga¬
tive, as well of erecting, as manning and governing ol
which, belongs to the king in his capacity of general
©f the kingdom : and all lands were formerly fubjeft to
a tax, for building of caftles wherever the king thought
proper. This was one of the three things, from con¬
tributing to the performance of which.no lands were
exempted, and therefore called by the Anglo-Saxons,
the trinoda ntcejfitas ; fc. pontis repardtio, arcis conjlt udio,
tt expeditio contra hojlcm. And this they were called
upon to do fo often, that, as Sir Edward Coke fiom hi.
Paris allures us, there were in the time of Henry II.
j 115 caftles fubfifting in England. The inconvenien.
eies of which, when granted out to private fubjefts, the
lordly barons of thole times, were feverely felt by the
whole kingdom ; for, as William, of Newburgh remarks
Jn the reign of king Stephen, erant in Anglia quodammo-
do tot reges, vel potius tyranni, quot domini cajleilorum ;
but it was felt by none more fenfibly than by two fuc-
ceeding princes, king John and king Henryr III. And
therefore, the greateft. part of them being demolilhed
in the baron’s wars, the kings of after times have been
very cautions of fullering them to be rebuilt in a loi ti¬
lled manner:. and Sir Edward Coke lays it dov/n, that
no fubjeft can build a caftlc, or houfe of ftrength un-
battled, or other fortrefs defenlible, without the licence
of the king; for the danger which might enfue, if every
man at his pleafure might do it.
It is partly upon the fame, and partly upon a fifeal
foundation, to fecure his marine revenue, that the king
has the prerogative of appointing- ports and havens, or
fuch places only, for perfons and merchandize to pafs
into and out of the realm,, as he in his wifdom fees pro¬
per. By the feudal law, all navigable rivers and havens
were computed among the regalia, and were fubjeft to
the fovereign ol the Hate. And in England it hath al¬
ways been held, that the king is lord of the whole fhore,
and particularly is the guardian of the ports and havens.
feized by the king’s officers for putting in at a place
that was not a legal port. Thefe legal ports were un¬
doubtedly at firft affigned by the crown ; hnce to. each
of them a court of portmote is incident, the jurifdiftion
of which muft flow from the royal authority : the great
ports of the fea are alfo referred to, as well known and
eftabliffied, by ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 20. which prohi¬
bits the landing elfewhere under pain of confiication : •
and the ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 11. recites, that the franchife
of lading and difeharging had been frequently granted
by the crown.
But though the king had a power of granting the
franchife of havens and ports, yet he had not the power
of refumption, or of narrowing and confining their li¬
mits when once eftablilhed; but any perfon had a right
to load or difeharge his merchandife in any part of the
haven : whereby the revenue ol the cuftom was much
impaired and diminilhed, by fraudulent landings in ob-
feure and private corners. TL his occafloned the ftatutes
of 1 Eliz. c. II. and 13 and 14 Car. II. c. II. § 14.
which enable the crown by commiffion, to afeertain the
limits of all ports, and to affign proper wharfs and
quays in each port, for the excluhve landing and loading
of mereliandife-
The erection of beacons, light-houfes, and fea-marks,
is alfo a branch of the royal prerogative: whereof the
firft was anciently ufed in order to alarm the country,
in cafe of the approach of an enemy ; and all of them
are fignally ufeful in guiding and preierving vcllels at
fea by night as well as by day. See Beacon.
3. Another capacity in which the king is confidered -
in domeftic affairs, is as the fountain of juftice and gene¬
ral confervator of the peace of the kingdom. See the
article Fountain of Justice-
4. The king is likewife the fountain of honour, of
office, and of privilege : and this in a different fenfe-
from that wherein he. is ftyled the fountain of jujlice; for
here he is really the parent of them.- See the articles
Fountain of Justice and Fountain of Honour.
5. Another light, in wffiich the law’s of England
coniider the king with regard to domdtic concerns, is as
the arbiter of commerce. By commerce, we at prefent
mean domeftic commerce only; for the king’s preroga¬
tive with regard to which, fee B.egulation of Weights
and Mcafures, Money, &c.
6. The king is, laftly, confidered by the laws of
England as the head and fupreme governor of the na¬
tional church.
To enter into the reafons upon which this prerogative
is'founded is matter rather of divinity than of law. We.
ftrall therefore only obferve, that by ftatute 26 Hen..
VIII. c. 1. (reciting that the king’s majefty juitly and
rightfully is and ought to be the fupreme head of the
clmrch of England ; and fo had been recognifed by the
clergy of that kingdom in their convocation) it is enact¬
ed, that the king ffiall be reputed the only fupreme.
head in earth of the church of England ; and fliall have,
annexed to the imperial crowm of this realm, as well the
title and ftyle thereof, as all jurifdi&ions, authorities,
and commodities, to the faid dignity of fupreme head
of the church appertaining. And another ftatute to.
the fame purport wras made, 1 Eliz. c. 1.
la virtue of this authority the king convenes, pro-
^ rogues*
P R E L 494- ] P R E
Frercrrft rogues, reflrajns, regulates, and difTolves, all ccclciiafti-
cal fynods or convocations. This was an inherent pre-
i’rcfliurg ^ogative of the crown long before the time of Henry
c—-y—— VIII. as appears by the llatute 8 Hen. VI. c. i. and
the many authors, both lawyers and hiftorians, vouched
by Sir Edward Coke. So that the ilatute 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 19. which reftrains the convocation from ma¬
king or putting in execution any canons repugnant to
the king’s prerogative, or the laws, culloms, and fta-
tutes of the realm, was merely declaratory of the old
common law: that part of it only being new, which
makes the king’s royal affent actually neceffary to the
walidity of every canon. The convocation or ecclcliafti-
cal fynod, in England, differs confiderably in its confli-
tution from the fynods of other Chriftian kingdoms:
thofe confiding wholly of bifhops ; whereas in England
the convocation is the miniature of a parliament, where¬
in the archbifhop prefides with regal date; the upper
houfe of bifhops reprefents the houfe of lords ; and the
lower houfe, compofed of reprefentatives of the feveral
tliocefes at large, and of each particular chapter therein,
reftmbles the houfe of commons with its knights of the
dure and burgefles. This conditution is faid to be ow¬
ing to the policy of Edward I. who thereby at one and
the fame time let in the inferior clergy to the privileges
of forming ecclefiadical canons (which before they had
not), and alfo introduced a method of taxing ecclefiadi-
cal benefices, by confent of convocation.
From this prerogative alfo, of being the head of the
church, arifes the king’s right of nomination to vacant
bifhoprF , and certain other ecclefiadical preferments.
As head of the church, the king is likewife the der¬
nier refort in all ecclefiadical caufes ; an appeal lying
ultimately to him in chancery from the fentence of every
ecclefiadical judge: which right was redored to the
«rown by datute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 9.
III. The king’s fifeal prerogatives, or fuch as regard
* his revenue. See the article Revenue.
Prercga-tivE-Court, an Englifh court edablifhed for
flie trial of all tedamentary caufes, where the deceafed
hath left Iona notabilia within two different diocefes.
In which cafe the probate of wills belongs to the arch-
bilhop of the province, by way of fpecial prerogative.
And all caufes relating to the wills, adminidrations, or
kgacies ot fuch perfons, are originally cognizable here¬
in, before a judge appointed by the archbifhop, called
the judge of the prerogative-court ; from whom an appeal
lies by datute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. to the king in
chancery, indead of the pope as formerly.
PRESAGE, in antiquity, denotes an augury, orfign
of fome future event; which was chiefly taken from the
flight of birds, the entrails of vi&ims, &c. See Augu¬
ry and Aruspices.
PRESBURG, the capital of the kingdom of Tow¬
er Hungary, called by the inhabitants Pofeny and Pre-
fporen, fituated on the Danube, about 46 miles ead from
Vienna, and 75 from Buda. I he cadle, in which the
regalia ai e kept, dands on a hill above the town. Here
the dates affemble; and in the cathedral, dedicated to
St Martin, the king is crowned. The town is not very
large, nor well built; but is very ancient, pleafantly fitu¬
ated, and enjoys a good air. Its fortifications are only
a double wall and ditch. In the lower fuburbs is a hill,
where the king, after his coronation, goes on horfeback,
.and brand;dies St Stephen’s fword towards tiie four car¬
dinal points, intimating, that he will defend his country Prefbyt*
againd all its enemies, Befides the cathedral, there are ^
feveral other Popish and one Lutheran church, with a *
Jefuits college, three convents, and two hofpitals. It „ —Tf-y
gives name to a county ; and is the refidence of the
archbifhop of Gran, who is primate, chief fecretary, and
chancellor of the kingdom, iegatus natus of the Papal
fee, and prince of the holy Roman empire, E. Long.
17. 30. N. Lat. 48. 20.
PRESBYTJE, perfons whofe eyes are too flat to re¬
fract the rays fufficiently, fo that unlefs the objedt is at -
fome didance, the rays coming from it will pafs through
the retina oefore their union, confequently vidon is con-
fufed; old people are ufually the fubjedts of this dif-
eafe. In order to remedy, or at lead to palliate, this
defect, the perfon fhould fird ufe glaffes which do not
magnify, and from them pafs gradually to more convex
fpedtacles, which ihorten the focus.
PRESBYTER, in the primitive Chridian church,
an elder, one of the fecond order of ecclefiadics ; the
other two being bifhops and deacons. See the articles
Bishop and Deacon.
Prefbyter or elder is a word borrowed from the
Greek tranflation of the Old Tedament, where it com¬
monly fignifies ruler or governor; it being a note of of¬
fice and dignity, not of age ; and in this fenfe bifhops
are fometimes called prcjbytcrs in the New Tedament.
The prefbyters might baptize, preach, confecrate, and
adminider the eucharid in the bifhop’s abfence, or in
his prefence if he authorifed and deputed them ; and
the bifhops did fcarce any thing in the government of
the church without their advice, confent, and amicable
concurrence.
The grand difpute between the followers of the Ge¬
neva and Roman difeipline, is about the famenefs and
difference of prefbyters and bifhops at the time of the
apodles. See Episcopacy, Independents, and the
following article. r
PRESBYTERIANS, Protedants, fo called from Diktimi-
their maintaining that the government of the church natir K
appointed in the New Tedament was by prefbyteries, [henp,^fky
that is, by aflbeiations of miniders and ruling elders, tcrians.
poffeffed all of equal powers, without any fuperiority
among them either in office or in order.
The Prefbyterians believe, thatthe authority of their
miniders to preach the gofpel, to adminider the facra-
ments of baptifm and the Lord’s Tapper, and to feed the
flock of Chrid, is derived from the Holy Ghod by the
impofition of the hands of the prefbytery; and they
oppofe the independent fcheme of the common rights
of Chridians by the fame arguments which are ufed for
that purpofe by the Epifcopalians (fee Episcopacy).
They affirm, however, that there is no order in the
church as edablifhed by Chrid and his apodles fupevior
to that of prelbyters ; that all miniders being ambaffa-
dors of Chrid, are equal by their commiffion ; that
prejbyter and liffjop, though different words, are of the
fame import; and that prelacy was gradually edablifhed
upon the primitive pradrice of making the moderator or
fpeaker of the prefbytery a permanent officer. %
Thefe pofitions they maintain againd the Epifcopa-Scriptural
lians by the following fcriptural arguments. "They ob-argument*
ferve, that the apodles planted churches by ordaining a£?in^ c* \
bifhops and deacons in every city ; that the miniders ^ vC>1 aC^
which in one verfe are called bifhops are in the next
perhaps
P R E
Prrfby'c perhaps denominated preihyters ; that we nowhere read
rian*. [n the ]sjew Teftament of bifttops, prefbyters, and dea-
cons, in any one church; and that therefore we are un¬
der the neceffity of concluding b'ifhop and prefbyter to
be two names for the fame church officer. This is ap¬
parent from Peter’s exhortation to the elders or prefuy-
ters who were among the jevvifh Chriftians. “ The
elders (prefbyters) which are among you I exhort, who
am alfo an elder, and a witnefs.of the fufferings of
Chrift, and alfo a partaker of the glory that fhall be re¬
vealed : Feed the flock of God which is among you,
taking the overfight thereof adting as bi-
%fhnps thereof), not by conftraint, but willingly ; not for
filthy lucre, but of a ready mind; neither as being
lords over God’s heritage, but being enfamples to the
* X. Peter flock'*.” From this paflage it is evident, that the
v«i>2j3- prefbyters not only fed the flock of God, but alfo go¬
verned that flock with epifcopal powers ; and that the
apoflle himfelf, as a church officer, was nothing more
than a prefbyter or elder. The identity of the of¬
fice of bifhop and prefbyter is flill more apparent from
Heb. xiii. 7. 17. and 1 ThefT. v. 12. ; for the bifhops
are there reprefented as governing the flock, fpeaking
to them the word of God, watching for their fouls, and
difeharging various offices, which it is impofilble for
3 any man to perform to more than one congregation.
Reafons for From the laft cited text it is evident, that the bifhops
fuppofing (irgoicrlatifvouf) of the Theflalonian churches had the paf-
preftn ters toral care °f no more fouls than they could hold perfo-
of the fame nal communion with in God’s worfhip ; for they were
order. fuch as all the people were to kno'w, ejieem, and love,
as thofe that not only were over them, but alfo “ clofely
laboured among them and admonifhed them.” But
diocefan bifhops, whom ordinarily the hundredth part
of their flock never hear nor fee, cannot be thofe bi¬
fhops by whom that flock is admonifhed, nor can they
be what Peter requires the bifhops of the Jewifh con¬
verts to be enfamples to the flock. It is the opinion of
Dr Hammond, who was a very learned divine, and a
zealot for epifcopacy, that the elders whom the apoltle
f Chap. v. James defiresf the fick to call for, were of the higheft
>4- permanent order of ecclefiaftical officers ; but it is felf-
evident that thofe elders cannot have been diocefan bi¬
fhops, otherwife the fick muff have been often without
the reach of the remedy propofed to them.
There is nothing in Scripture upon which the Epif-
eopalian is more ready to reft his caufe than the alleged
epifcopacy of Timothy and Titus ; of whom the former
is faid to have been bifhop of Ephefus, and the latter
bifhop of Crete ; yet the Prefbyterian thinks it as clear
as the noon-day fun, that the prefbyters of Ephefus were
fupreme governors under Chrift of the Ephefian church¬
es, at the very time that Timothy is pretended to have
been their proper diocefan.
In A&s xx. 17, &c. we read, that “ from Miletus
Paul fent to Ephefus, and called the elders (prefbyters)
of the church. And when they were come to him, he
faid unto them, Ye know, from the firft day that I
came into Afia, after what manner I have been with
you, at all feafons. And new I know that ye all,
among whom I have gone preaching the kingdom of
God, fhall fee my face no more. Wherefore I take
you to record this day, that I am. pure from the blood
of all men. For I have not ihunned to declare unto
you all the counftl cf God.. Take heed therefore unto
p R E
yourfelves, and to all the flock over which the Holy P.tfbyte-
Ghoft hath made you overfeers (fTio-xovour bfhops), to r,ans- (
feed the church of God, which he hath purchafed with v
his own blood. For I know this, that after my depar¬
ture fhall grievous wolves enter in among you, not fpa-
ring the flock. Alfo of your ownfelves fhall men arife,
fpeaking perverfe things, to draw away diiciples after
them. Therefore watch, and remember, that by the
fpace of three years, I ceafed not to warn every one
night and day with tears. And now, brethren, I re¬
commend you to God, and to the word of his grace,”
&c. 4
From this paffage, it is evident that there was in the naflyn
city of Ephefus a plurality of paftors of equal authority
without any fuperior pallor or bifhop over them; for the authority,
apoftle diredls his difeourfe to them all in common, and
gives them equal power over the whole flock. Dr Ham¬
mond indeed imagines, that the elders whom Paul called
to Miletus were the b'fhops of slfla, and that he fent
for them to Ephefus, becaufe that city was the metro¬
polis of the province. But were this opinion well-
founded, it is not conceivable that the facred writer
would have called them the elders of the church of
Ephefus, but the elders of the church in general, or the
ciders of the churches in Slfia. Befides, it is to be re¬
membered, that the apoftle was in fuch hafte to be at
Jerufalem, that the facred hiftorian meafures his time
by days ; whereas it mull have required feveral months
to call together the bifhops or elders of all the cities of
Afu ; and he might certainly have gone to meet them
at Ephefus in lefs time than would be requifite for their
meeting in that city and proceeding thence to him at
Miletus. They mull therefore have been either the
joint paftors of one congregation, or the paftors of dif¬
ferent congregations in one city : and as it was thus in
Ephefus, fo was it in Philippi ; for we find the apoflle
addreffing his epiftle “ to all the faints in Chrift Jefus
which are at Philippi, with the bifhops and deacons.”
From the paflage before us it is likewife plain, that the
prefoyters of Ephefus had not only the name but the
whole power of bifhops given to them by the Holy
Ghoft ; for they are enjoined to do the whole work of
bifhops—r^aivfi* tk* tou 6t™—which fignines,
to rule as well as feed the church of God. Whence we
fee, that the apoflle makes the power of governing iufe-
parable from that of preaching and watching ; and that
according to him, all who are preachers of God’s word,
and watchmen of fouls, are necefiarily rulers or gover¬
nors of the church,- without being accountable for their
management to any prelate, but only to their Lord
Chriil from whom their power is derived.
It appears therefore, that the apoftle Paul left in the Timorhy
church of Ephefus, which he had planted, no other fuc-no bifrop,
ceffbrs to himfelf than prtfbyter-lijhops or Prefbyterian
mihifters,. and that be did not devolve his power upon
any prelate. Timothy, whom the Epifcopalians allege
to have been the firft bilhop of Ephefus, was prefent
when this fettlement was made * ; and it is furely not to # Aits xx;
be fuppofed, that, had he been their bifhop, the apoftle 5-
would have devolved the whole epifcopal power upon
the prefbyters before his face. If ever there was a fea-
fon fitter than another for pointing, out the duty of
this fuppofed bifhop to his diocefe, and bis prefbyters
duty to him, it was furely when Paul was taking his
final leave of them, and difeourfing fo pathetically con-
0 terning;
[ 4^5 3
Freftv
p RE t 49s 1
cernin? the duty of overfecn, the etmfing of ravenous any fucce(U)r3.
In tin
p R E
apoftolic office there were 'In-
Prrfnyt*"
6
But an e-
vaugciilt.
f % Tim.
4. 5-
wolves, and the confequent liazard of the flock. In
this farewel diicourfe, he tells them that “ he had not
Ihunned to declare unto them all the counfel of God.”
But with what truth could this have been faid, if obe¬
dience to a diocefan biihop had been any part of their
duty either at the time of the apoille’s {peaking or at
any future period ? He forefavv that ravenous wolves
would enter in among them, and that even fome of
themfelves (hould arife fptaking perverfe things ; and
if, as the Epifcopalians allege, diocefan epifeopacy was
the remedy* provided for thofe evils, is it not ftrange,
pafling ftrange, that the infpired preacher did not fore-
iee that Timothy, who was {landing befide him, was
deitined to fill that important office ; oi- if he dicl fore¬
lee it, that he omitted to recommend hirn to his luture
charge, and to give him proper inltrudlions for the dif-
charge of his duty? _ .
But if Timothy was not bifliop of Ephefus, what, it
may be afked, was his office in that city ? for that he
refided there for fome time, and was by the apoifle
invelled with authority to ordain and rebuke prefbyters,
are fafts about which aH parties are agreed, and which
indeed cannot be controverted by any reader of Paul’s
epiftles. To this the Preflryterian replies with confi¬
dence, that the power which Timothy exercifed in the
church of Ephefus was that of an evangelift f, and not
a fixed prelate. But, according to Eufebius, the work
of an evangelift was, “ to lay the foundations of the
faith in barbarous nations, and to conllitute among
them pallors; after wdiich he palfed on to other coun¬
tries.” Accordingly we find, that Timothy was refi-
dent for a time at Philippi and Corinth % as well as
at Ephefus, and that he had as much authority over
thofe churches as over that of which he is faid to have
xvi. xo)been the fixed bifliop. “ Now, if Timotheus come,
fee that he may be with you without fear, for he work-
eth the work of the Lord, as I alfo do. Let no man
therefore defpife him.” This text might lead us to fup-
pofe, that Timothy was bifliop of Corinth as well as of
Ephefus; for it is (Longer than that upon which Jus
epifeopacy of the latter church is chiefly built. I he
apoftle fays, “ I befought thee* to abide Hill at Ephe¬
fus, when I went into Macedonia, that thou mighteft
charge fome that they teach no other do&rine.” But
had Timothy been the fixed bifliop of that city, there
would furely have been no neceffity for befeech'mg him to
abide with his flock. It is to be obferved, too, that the
firft epiftle to Timothy, which alone was written Xo
him during his refidence at Ephefus, was of a date prior
to Paul’s meeting with the elders of that church at Mi¬
letus ; for in the epiltle he hopes to come to him fliort-
]y, whereas he tells the elders at Miletus that they
fliould fee his face no more. This being the cafe, it is
evident that Timothy was left by fhe apoille at Epneius
only to fupply his place during his temporary abience
at Macedonia, and that he could not poflibly have been
conllituted fixed bifhop of that church, fince the epil-
copal powers were afterwards committed to the prelby-
ters by the Holy Ghoil in his prelence.
The identity of the office of biihop and prelbyter be-
lait jng thus clearly eftabliflied, it follows, that the prefby-
h;gheftyer-^erate Jfigheft permanent office in the church,
file u!\hf~ and that every faithful pallor of a flock is fucceffor to
Jhurch. w the apoflles in every thing in which they' were to have
{ Phil
19
i
*7
II
or. iv.
* i Tim
i. 3*
Prefby ce¬
rate the
deed fome things peculiar and extraordinary, fuch as n^‘e' ,
their immediate call by Chrift, their infallibility, their
being witnefles of our Lord’s refurreftion, and their
unlimited jurifdiftion over the whole world. Thefe
powers and privileges could not be conveyed by impofi-
tion of hands to any fucceffors, whether called prefby-
ters or bilbops ; but as rulers or office-bearers in par¬
ticular churches, we have the confeffion of “ the very
chiefeft apoftles,” Peter and John, that they were no¬
thing more than prefbyters or parifh minifters. This
being the cafe, the difpute, which in the early part of
the paffing century was fo warmly agitated concerning
the validity of Prefbyterian ordination, may be foon de¬
cided ; for if the ceremony of ordination be at all efien-
tial, it is obvious that fuch a ceremony performed by
prefbyters mull be valid, as there is no higher order of
ecclefiaftics in the church by whom it can be performed.
Accordingly we find, that Timothy himfelf, though
faid to be a bifhop, was ordained by the laying^ on of
the hands of a prelbytery. At that ordination indeed
St Paul prefided, but he could prefide only as pn-
mut in paribus; for we have fecn that, as permanent of¬
ficers in the church of Chrift, the apoftles themfelves
were no more than preffiyters. If the apoftles hands
were impofed for any other purpofe, it mull have been
to communicate thofe charifmata or miraculous gifts of
the Holy Spirit, which were then fo frequent; but
which no modern preffiyter or biihop will pretend to
give, unlefs his underftanding be clouded by the grofieft
ignorance, or perverted by the moil frantic enthu-
fiafm. . .
But if the office of biffiop and prefbyter was ongi-^.^* «*
nally the fame, how, it will be afleed, came diocefan e-p ^ 1
pifcopacy to prevail fo univerfally as it is confefled to
have done before the converfion of Conilantine and the
civil eftabliihment of Chriilianity in the Roman em¬
pire? To give a fatisfadlory anfvver to this queflion is
certainly the moft arduous talk which the advocate for
preibytery has to perform ; but it is a talk not infur-
mountable. . . .
From many paffages in the New Teftament *, it is *
evident, that when the apoftles planted churches in dif-*9^x»»- •
ferent cities, they generally fettled more than one pa* rit it
ftor in the fame church, to feed and govern it with
joint authority. The propriety of this conilitution is
obvious. In thofe days, when the diiciples of Thrift
were perfecuted for their religion, and often obliged
to meet in the “ night for fear of the Jews, they
could not with any degree of prudence aflemble in
laro-e numbers; and therefore, had there been no more
tshan one pallor in a city, the Chriftian converts, though,
when affembled, they might have amounted to but a
fmall congregation, could not all have enjoyed the be¬
nefit of public worftiip on the fame day ; at leaft it
is obvious that they could not poffibly have aflembled
for this purpofe fo often as their want of inftruftion,
and the duty of “ breaking of bread and of prayer,”
required them to meet. It was therefore with great
wifdom that the apoftles ordained feveral prelbyters in
the fame church ; but as thefe prefbyters would have
occafion to meet frequently, and to deliberate on the
ilate of the flock which it was their duty to feed, and
over which they had all equal authority, they would
be under the necefiity of electing one of their own
number
P R E [ 497 1 P R E
p -efbyte. number to be prefident or moderator of tne prefbytery, the rife and progiefs of this ecclefiaitical ufurpation, Preftyte-
rians. that or(jer mJght be preferved, and all things done with as the Prefbyterian calls it; but the reader who wifhes naiTa‘ .
v decency. At firft there is reafon to believe that thofe for fuller information, after ftudying the remains of the
prefidents held their office no longer than while the four firft centuries of the Chriftian church, may confult
prefbyteries fat in which they were eletted. Among An Inquiry into the Conjlitutlon, Difciplins, and IVor/hip,
the apoftles themfelves there was no fixed prefident. of the Primitive Church, laid to have been written by Sir
Peter indeed appears to have been moil frequently ad- Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor of England,
mitted to that honour ; but there is one very memo- As an impartial lover of truth, he will do well to con-
A<5Uxv. rable occafion on record f, when James the Lord’s {u\t atio zkook mCtXeA An oritinal Draught of the Pri-
brother prefided in an affembly of apoftles, elders, and mitive Church, which was publiffied as an anfwer to the
brethren, held at Jerufalem, to determine the queftion Inquiry; and he may read with much advantage to himfelf
concerning the neceffity of circumcifing the Gentiles, A Letter from a parochial bijhop to a prelatical gentleman,
and commanding them to keep the law of Mofes. with An Apology for the church of Scotland, both writ-
Upon this model were the primitive prefbyteries ten by Mr Wilfifon fome time mini tier in Dundee, and
formed. They confifted of feveral prefbyters pofTeffed both evincing confiderable learning and great ingenui-
©f equal powers, who at their meetings appointed one ty in their pious author. . IO
of their own number to difeharge the "office of mode- Of the churches at prefent formed upon this mo-The church
rator or temporary prefident; but to this prefident they del, we believe, that without incurring the imputation of ScotUnd
gave no prelatical powers or negative voice over the of national prejudice, we may fafely affirm the church
9 deliberations of his brethren ; for, as Jerome informs us, of Scotland to be by much the moil refpeaable. Her
According church was then governed communi prefhyterorum con- mode of worfhip is fimple and folemn ; her eftablifhed
to Jeiome. nY/0, « by a common council of prefbyters.” It appears, faith agreeable to the confeflions of mofl other Pro-
however' that when an apoftle, an apoftolical man, or' teftant churches ; her judicatories are calculated to
an evangelift, fixed his refidence in any city, and took' maintain the rights of the people ; and her pallors are
upon himfelf the pafloral care of part of the flock, confefledly men of liberal and enlightened minds. On
his co-prefbyters, from refpeft to his fingular gifts, thefe accounts it appears to us, that we cannot more
made him their conftant and fixed moderator. Hence properly conclude this article than with a fhort view of
Timothy, during his abode at Ephefus, was modera- her conllitution, as being that in which our Prefbyterian
tor of the prefbytery ; and hence too Mark the evan- readers are undoubtedly moft iuterefled.
gelift, who refided many years in Alexandria, has been No one is ignorant, that from the firft dawn of re¬
called the firft bifhop of that church, though he ap- formation among us, till the era of the revolution,
pears to have been nothing more than permanent mo- there was a perpetual flrtiggle between the court and
derator. Wc advance this upon the authority of Je- the people for the eftablifhment of an Epifcopal or a
rome, one of the moft learned fathers of the Chriftian Prdbyterian form of church government: The former
church, who informs us, that upon the death of the model of ecelefiaflical polity was patronifed by the houfe
evangelift, the prefbyters of Alexandria, for more than of Stuart on account of the fupport which it gave to
200 ye^rs, chofe their bilhops from their own number, the prerogatives of the crown ; the latter was the fa-
and placed them in the epilcopal chair, without dream- vourite of the majority of the people, perhaps not fo
mg that they ought to be raifed to a higher order by much on account of its fuperior claim to apoflolical in-
a new confecration ; — Prfbyteri unum ex fe elcclum in flitution, as becaufe die laity are mixed with the clergy
excetfiori graciu collocatum, ep feopum nominabant. As this in church judicatories, and the two orders, which un~
pradlice of making the moderator of the prefbytery of der cpiicopacy are kept fo diilinft, incorporated, as
Alexandria a permanent officer, was thought a good it were, into one body. In the Scottifh church, every
expedient to guard the infant churches againft fchifms regulation of public worfhip, every aft of difeipline,
and divifions, thofe churches gradually adopted it. For, as and every eccklxaflical cenfure, which in other churches 11
Jerome tells us, Pcflquam unufquifjue tos quosIctptizaverat, flows from the authority of a dioceSan bishop, or from
fuos put aba t ejfe, non Chrijli, in toto orle decretum ejl, a convocation of the clergy, is the joint work of a cer-myc“‘fj "
ut vnus de pnfbytais eletlus, fuperpotteretur artcris, ad tain number of clergymen and laymen afting together iayroen.
quern omnis ecctefue cura pertinent, et fchifmatum femina with equal authority, and deciding every queftion by a
tollerentur. plurality of voices. The laymen who thus form an
The advantages which, in difplaying his talents and eflential part of the ecclefialtical courts of Scotland,
authority, the perpetual prefident or fpeaker of any are called ruling elders ; and hold the fame office, as well
affembly has over his colleagues in office, are fo ob- as the fame name, with .thofe brethren* who joined # A(ftsx.v
vious, that when the praftice of elefting their mode- with the apoftles and elders at Jerufalem in determi-
rators for life became univerfal among the prefbyteries ning the important queftion concerning the neceffity of
of the primitive church, it is eafy to conceive how am- impoling upon the Gentile converts the ritual obfervan-
bitious men might fo magnify the difficulties and im- ces of the law of Mofes. T hefe lay-elders Paul cn-
portance of their ftatkm, as to introduce the cuftom joined Timothy $ to account worthy of double honour, ^ Tim ^
of filling it by a new confecration of the bifhop cleft, if they fhould rule well, and difeharge the duties for ^
But when this was done, diocefan epifcopacy, with all which they were feparated from the multitude of their
its powers and prerogatives, would follow as a thing of brethren. In the church of Scotland every parifh has
couife, until “ by little and little (as Jerome exprefles two or three of thofe lay-elders, who are grave and fe-
himfelf) the whole pafloral care of the flock was de- nous perfons chofen from among the heads of families,
volved upon one man.” of known orthodoxy and fleady adherence to the wor-
Our limits will not permit us to trace more minutely fhip» difeipline, and government ot the church. Be-
Vol. xv. Pait II. ' 3 R In£
ia
The kirk-
feHion.
r3
'Hie pref-
kytery.
Tt4
The pro-
•vincial fy-
fiod.
P R E [ 49
ing folemnly engaged to ufe their utmoft endeavours
for the fappreffion of vice and the cherifhing of piety
and virtue/and to exercife difclpline faithfully and dili¬
gently, the minifter, in the prefence of the congrega¬
tion, fets them apart to their office by folemn prayer ;
and concludes the ceremony, which is fometimes called
ordination, with exhorting both elders and people to
their refpe&ive duties.
The kirk-feffion, which is the lowed ecclefiallical ju¬
dicatory, confdls of the minifter and thofe elders of the
congregation. The minifter is ex ojficw moderator, but
has no negative voice over the decifion of the feffion ;
nor indeed has he a right to vote at all, unlefs when
the voices of the elders are equal and oppofite. He
may indeed enter his proteft againft their fentence, if he
think it improper, and appeal to the judgment of the
prefbytery; but this privilege belongs equally to every
elder, as well as to every perfon who may believe him-
felf aggrieved by the proceedings of the feffion. The
deacons, whofe proper office it is to take care of the
poor, may be prefent in every feffion, and offer their
counfel on all queftions that come before it; but except
in what relates to the diftribution of alms, they have no
decifive vote with the minifter and elders.
The next judicatory is the prejbytery, which confifts of
all the pallors within a certain diftridl, and one ruling
elder from each parilh commiffioned by his brethren
to reprefent, in conjunftion with the minifter, the
feffion of that parilh. The prelbytery treats of fuch
matters as' concern the particular churches within
its limits; as the examination, admiffion, ordination,
and cenfuring of minifters ; the licenfing of probation¬
ers, rebuking of grofs or contumacious finners, the
dire&ing of the fentence of excommunication, the de¬
ciding upon references and appeals from kirk-feffions,
refolving cafes of confcience, explaining difficulties in
do&rine or difcipline ; and cenfuring, according to the
word of God, any herefy or erroneous dodftrine which
hath been either publicly or privately maintained with¬
in the bounds of its jurifditlion. Partial as we may be
thought to our own church, we frankly acknowledge
that we cannot altogether approve of that part of her
conftitution which gives an equal vote, in queftions of
herefy, to an illiterate mechanic and his enlightened
pallor. We are perfuaded that it has been the fourcc
of much trouble to many a pious clergyman; who, from
the laudable defire of explaining the fcriptures and de¬
claring to his flock all the counfel of God, has employ¬
ed a variety of expreffions of the fame import, to illuf-
trate thofe articles of faith, which may be obfcurely ex-
prefled in the eftablilhed ftandards. The fa£l however
is, that, in prelbyteries, the only prerogatives which the
pallors have over the ruling elders, are the power of or¬
dination by impofition of hands, and the privilege of
having the moderator chofen from their body.
From the judgment of the prelbytery there lies an
appeal to the provincial fynod, which ordinarily meets
twice in the year, and exercifes over the prelbyteries
within the province a jurifdi&ion fimilar to that which
is veiled in each prelbytery over the feveral kirk-feffions
within its bounds. Of thefe fynods there are in the
church of Scotland fifteen, which are compofed of the
members of the feveral prelbyteries within the refpecftive
provinces which give names to the fynods.
The higheft authority in the church, of Scotland is
Prefcrip-
tion.
8 ] P R E
the general affembly, which confifts of a certain number Prsfby e
of minifters and ruling elders delegated from each pref¬
bytery, and of commiffioners from the univerfities and
royal boroughs. A prelbytery in which there are fewer
than twelve parilbes, fends to the general affembly two
minifters and one ruling elder : if it contain between
12 and 18 minifters, it fends three of thefe, and one ru-
ling elder: if it contain between 18 and 24 minifters,bly.
it lends four minifters and two ruling elders; and of 24
minifters, when it contains fo many, it fends five with
two ruling elders. Every royal borough fends one ruling
elder, and Edinburgh two ; whofe election mull be at-
tefted by the kirk-feffions of their refpedlive boroughs.
Every univerfity fends one commiffioner from its own
body. The commiffioners are chofen annually fix weeks
before the meeting of the afl'embly; and the ruling elders
are often men of the firft eminence in the kingdom for
rank and talents. In this affembly, which meets once
a year, the king prefides by his commiffioner, who is
always a nobleman ; but he has no voice in their delibe¬
rations. The order of their proceedings is regular,
though fometimes the number of members creates a
confufion, which the moderator, who is chofen from
among the minifters to be, as it were, the fpeaker of
the houfe, has not fufficient authority to prevent. Ap¬
peals are brought from all the other ecclefiallical courts
in Scotland to the general affembly ; and in queftions
purely religious no appeal lies from its determinations.
—In the fubordiiiation of thefe aflemblies, parochial,
prefbyterial, provincial, and national, the lefs unto the
greater, confifts the external order, ftrength, and ftedfuft-
nefs of the church of Scotland.
PRESCIENCE, in theology, previfion, or fore¬
knowledge ; that knowledge which God has of things
to come.—The do£lrine of predeftination is founded an
the prefcience of God, and on the fuppofition of all fu¬
turity’s being prefent to him. See Predestination.
PRESCRIPTION, in medicine, is the affigning a
proper and adequate remedy to the difeafe, from an ex¬
amination of its fymptoms, and an acquaintance with
the virtues and effedls of the materia medica.
Prescription, in law, is a title acquired by ufe
and time, and allowed by law; as when a man claims
any thing, becaufe he, his anceftors, or they whofe
eilate he hath, have had or ufed it all the time whereof
no memory is to the contrary : or it is where for conti¬
nuance of time, ultra memoriam hominis, a particular per¬
fon hath a particular right againft another.
There is a difference between prefeription, cuftom,
and ufage. Prefcription hath refpeft to a certain perfon,
who by intendment may have continuance for ever; as for
inftance, he and all they whofe efate he hath in fuch a
thing, this is a prefcription : but, Cujlom is local, and
always applied to a certain place j as, time out of mind
there has been fuch a cujlom in fuch a place, &c. And
prefcription belongeth to one or a few only; but cujlom is
common to all. Ufage differs from both, for it may be
either to perfons or places ; as to inhabitants of a town to
have a way, &c.
A cuftom and prefcription are in the right; ufage is
in the poffeffion; and a prefcription that is good for the
matter and fubftance, may be bad by the manner of let¬
ting it forth: but where that which is claimed as a cujlom,
in or for many, will be good, that regularly will be fo
when claimed by prefeription for one. Prefcription is to
be
I
P R E
[ 499 1
P R E
t’l-fTerip- be lime out of mind; though it is not the length of time
(i(un that begets the right of prefeription, nothing being done
t:on.
Prefenta- ^7 time., although every thing is done in time ; but it is
a prefumption in law, that a thing cannot continue fo long
euiet, if it was ayainjl right, or injurious to another.
Prescription, in Scotch law. See Law, p. 698,
and 725.
Prescription, in theology, was a kind of argument
pleaded by Tcrtullian and others in the 3d century
againft erroneous doctors. This mode of arguing has
been defpifed by fome, both becaufe it has been ufed by
Papiits, and becaufe they think that truth has no need
of Inch a fupport. But furely in difputed points, if it
can be fliown that any particular doctrine of Chriftiani-
ty was held in the earlieft ages, even approaching the
apoltolic, it mud have very confiderable Weight; and in¬
deed that it has fo, appears from the univerfal appeals
of all parties to thofe early times in fupport of their
pai'ticular opinions. Befides, the thing is in itfelf natu¬
ral; for if a man finds a variety of opinions in the world
upon important paffages in feripture, where (hall he be
fo apt ts get the true fenfe as from cotemporary writers
or others who lived very near the apodolic age ? and if
fuck a man (hall find any doftrine or interpretation to
have been univerfally believed in the fird ages, or as
Vincentius Lirinenfis words it, femper ubique. et ab onmi-
Ius, he will unquedionably be difpoied to think fuch
early and univerfal confent, or fuch prefeription, of very
coniiderable weight in determining his opinion.
PRESENCE* a term of relation, wfed in oppofition
to abfence, and lignifying the exidence of a perfon in
a certain place.
Prfsent ‘Tenf, in grammar, the fird tenfe of a verb,
exprefiing the prefent time, or that fomething is now
performing ; as feribo, I write, or am writing. See
Grammar.
PRESENTATION, in ecclefiadical law. See Pa¬
tronage.
P resent ation of the Virgin,'^ a fead of the Romifii
church, celebrated on the 2 id of November, in memo¬
ry of the Holy Virgin’s being prefented by her parents
in the temple, to be there educated. Emanuel Comne-
nus, who began to reign in 1143, makes mention of
this fead in his Conditution. Some imagine it to have^
been edablifhed among the Greeks in the 1 ith century;
&nd think they fee evident proofs of it in fome homilies
of George of Nicomedia, who lived in the time of Pho-
tius. Its inditution in the Wed is aferibed to Gregory
XI. in 1372. Some think it was indituted in memory
of the ceremony pradtifed among the Jews for their new¬
born females ; correfponding to the circumcifion on the
eighth day for males.
Presentation of our Lady alfo gives the title to three
orders of nuns. The fird, projedfed in 1618, by a maid
named Joan of Cambray. The habit of the nuns, ac¬
cording to the vifion fhe pretended to have, was to be
a grey gown of natural wool, &c.; but this projedt was
never accomplifhed. The fecond was edabliihed in
France, about the year 1627, by Nicholas Sanguin, bi-
fhop of Senlis; it was approved by Urban VIII. This
order never made any great progrefs. The third was
edablidied in 1664, when Frederic Borromeo, being
«podolical vifitor in the Valteline, was intreated by fome
devout maids at Morbegno to allow them to live in com¬
munity in‘a retired place ; which he granted, and erec¬
ted them into a congregation, under the title of congre*
gation of our Lady. They live under the rule of St
Augudine.
PRESENTMENT, in law. See Prosecution, v
A prefentment, generally taken, is a very compre*
heniive term ; including not only prefentments properly
fo called, but alfo inquiiitions of office, and indidfments
by a grand jury. A prefentment, properly fpeaking,
is the notice taken by a grand jury of any offence from
their own knowledge or obfervation, without any bill
of indidlment laid before them at the fuit ol the king :
As the prefentment of a nuifance, a libel, and the like ;
upon which the officer of the court mud afterwards
frame an indidlment, before the party preiented can be
put to anfvver it. An inquifition of office is the adf of
a jury, fummoned by the proper officer to inquire of
matters relating to the crown, upon evidence laid be¬
fore them. Some of thefe are in themfelves convidlions,
and cannot afterwards be traverfed or denied; and
therefore the inqued, or jury, ought to hear all that
can be alleged on both tides. Of this nature are all
inquifitions o{ flo de fe ; of flight in perfons accufed of
felony ; of deodands, and the like ; and prefentments
of petty offences in the fheriff’s tourn or court-leet,
whereupon the prefiding officer may let a fine. Other
inquifitions may be afterw-ards traverfed and examined ;
as particularly the coroner’s inquifition of th* death of
a man, when it finds any one guilty of homicide ; for
in fuch cafes the offender fo prefented mud be arraign¬
ed upon this inquifition, and may difpute the truth of
it ; which brings it to a kind of indictment, the mod
ufual and effectual means of profecution. See Indict¬
ment.
PRESIDENT, Prasses, is an officer created or
eledted to prefide over a company or affembly ; fo called
in contradidintlion to the othei members, who are term¬
ed rejidents.
Lord President of the Council, is a great officer of
the crown, who has precedence next after the lord
chancellor and lord treafurer ; as ancient as the time of
King Tohn, when he was dyled confdiarius capitalis.—
His office is to attend on the king, to propofe bufinefs
at the council-table, and to report to the king the feve-
ral tranfaftions there. See PRivr-Council.
PRESIDIAL, was a tribunal, or bench of judges,
edablilhed (before the Revolution) in the feveral confi-
derable cities of France, to judge ultimately, or in the
lad refort, of the feveral cauies brought before them
by way of appeal from the fubaltern judges. The
prefidials made one company with the officers of the
bailliages and fenefehauffees, where they were eflablidied.
PRESS (Prelum), in the mechanic arts, a machine
made of iron or wrood, ferving to fqueeze or comprefs
any body very clofe.
The ordinary preffes confid of fix members, or
pieces ; viz. two flat fmooth planks; between wdiich
the things to be preffed are laid ; twro ferews, or
worms, fadened to the lower plank, and paffing through
two holes in the upper ; and twro nuts, in form of an
S, ferving to drive the upper plank, which is move-
able, againd the lower, which is dable, and without
motion.
Presses ufed for expreffing of Liquors', are of various
kinds; fome, in mod refpe&s, the fame with the com¬
mon preffes, excepting that the under plank is per-
3 R 2 forated
Pff fr-rtf.
ment
1! '
P.ef3.
P R E
Jh'tf'. forated with a great number of holes, to let the juice
exprefied run through into a tub, or receiver, under-
A very ufeful machine for a prefs, in the procefs of
cyder-making, has been lately conftrufted by Mr An-
ftice, who, with his well-known zeal for the improve¬
ment of mechanics, permits us to lay before our readers
the following defcription of it.
Plat- A A, n° i. two pieces of timber, 21 feet long, 12 by 6
CCCCXV. inches, laid fide by lide at the diilance of 12 inches,
and fecured in that fituation by blocks placed between
and bolts palling through them ; this frame forms the
bed of the machine. BB, two uprights, 12 feet long,
6 by K inches, morticed upon them, and fecurcd in their
pofition by pins and iron fquares. CC, two uprights,
five feet long, fix by to inches, morticed near the end
of the under frame, and fecured as before. D, a lever,
17 feet long, 12 by 13 inches, turning on a large bolt
which palfes through the Ihort uprights, alfo through
iron Itraps, which fecure them to the bed infide, and a
ftirrup of iron which palfes over the end of the lever,
and which makes the turning point in the line of its
lower fide, and not through its middle. E, a lever 20
feet long, fix by eight inches at its larged part, and ta¬
pering towards the other end : this lever turns on a bolt
in the uprights BB. F, 1, 2, 3, 4. four pieces of oak
(which ht calls net dies ^ 10 feet long), four by two and
an half inches, morticed loofely into the upper lever, and
hung thereto by bolts, fo as to fwing perpendicularly,
and play in a long mortice or channel cut through the
large lever to receive them. Thefe needles have inch-
holes pretty clofely bored through them (in a direc¬
tion eroding the machine), from the lower ends, as far
upwards as the great lever will reach, when it is as high
as it can go. G, a bed to receive what is to be prelT-
ed, H, a frame to fupport a winch worked by a
handle at I. At the end of the ftnall lever two blocks
or pulleys are fixed, one above, and the other below it ;
a rope of about half an inch diameter is then fadened to
the cieling (or continuation of the uprights of the
winch frame if necefiary) at K ; then paded through the
upper block on the lever, from thence palfed through
a block at L, and then goes with four turns round the
winch, from whence it is earned through the block un¬
der the lever, and fadens to the machine at M ; by this
means, if the winch be turned one way, it raifes the
end of the fmall lever if the other deprefles it.
To work the machine. If we fuppofe the great
lever bearing on the matter to be pred'ed, an iron pin
mud be put into one of the holes in the needles above
the great lever ; and when the fmall lever is worked as
far as it will go, either up or down, another bolt is to
be put into the hole, which comes neared above the
great lever on the other fide of the uprights BB, and
the winch then turned the conti ary way, by which
means ihe.preffing goes on whether the fmall lever rifes
or falls. Before the refidance is very great, the needles
farthed from the fulcrum of the fmall lever are ufed ;
after that the neared are employed, which doubles the
power of the machine. In raifing the great lever, or
lowering it to ks bearing, the needles mod didant from
the fulcrum of the fmall lever, are ufed under indead
of over it. As the rope is liable to dretch and get
Hack, he paffes it, after taking two turns on the
winch, through a pulley, to which is fufpeuded a weight
PEE
of half a hundred, and then takes two turns more be¬
fore it is carried through the other block, by which
means the Hack is ccndantly gathered in, and the weight
holds on without increafing the friction, as by hanging
under the winch it countcradls the prtflure upwards on
its axis.
The power of this machine is very great, being as 1
to 1136 nearly, and capable by a trifling addition of
any other proportion. It is applicable to many pur-
pofes befide cyder-prtffing, and is more fimple. and lefs
liable to injury, than any other which has fallen under
our obfervation. Perhaps, however, it would be an im¬
provement to ufe, indead of the ropes and pulleys, by
which the lever E is moved, a fmall wheel or pinion of
10 or 12 teeth, on the axis of the winch W (n° 2.),
and a did beam e n down from the lever, having on its
lower end an iron rack, of which the teetli take into
thofe of the pinion. The adtion of thefe teeth would,
in our opinion, be lefs diminifhed by fridtion and obli¬
quity, than the pulleys are by fridtion and the diffnefs
of the rope ; and the machine would retain all its other
advantages.
Pkess ufed by Joiners, to keep clofe the pieces they
have glued, efpecially panels, &c. of wainfeot, is very
fimple, confiding of four members; viz. two ferews,
and two pieces of wood, four or five inches fquare, and
two or three feet long ; whereof the holes at the two
ends ferve for nuts to the ferews.
Press vfed by Inlayers, refembles the joiner’s prefs*..
except that the pieces of wood are thicker, and that
only one of them is moveable ; the other, which is in
form of a trefiel, being fudained by two legs or pillars,
jointed into it at each end. This prefs ferves them for
fawing and cleaving the pieces of wood required in mar¬
quetry or inlaid work.
Founder's Press, is a drong fquare frame, confiding
of four pieces of wood, firmly joined together with te¬
nons, &c. This prefs is of various fizes, according to
the fizes of the moulds ; two of them are required to
each mould, at the two extremes whereof they are pla¬
ced ; fo as that, by driving wrooden wedges between the
mould and the fides of the prefles, the two parts of the
mould wherein the fnetal is to be run may be prefled
clofe together.
Printing- Press. See Pr inting-Prefs.
Rolling-Press, is a machine ufed for the taking off
prints from copper-plates. It is much lefs complex than
that of the letter-printers. See its defcription and ufe
under the article Rolling-prefs Printing.
Press, in Coining, is one of the machines ufed in ftri-
king of money ; differing from the balance, in that it
has only one iron bar to give it motion, and prefs the
moulds or coins ; is not charged with lead at its ex¬
treme, nor drawn by cordage. See Coining.
Binder’s Cutting-Press, is a machine ufed equally by
book-binders, llationers, and pafteboard-makers'*, con¬
fiding of two large pieces of wood, in form of cheeks,
connected by two ftrong wooden ferews; which, being
turned by an iron bar, draw together, or fet afunder,
the cheeks, as much as is neceffary for the putting in
the books or paper to be cut. The cheeks are placed
lengthwife on a wooden ftand, in the form of a cheft,
into which the cuttings fall. Afide of the cheeks are
two pieces of wood, of the fame length with the ferews,
ferving to dired the cheeks, and prevent their opening
8. unequally.
[ 5=0 1
P: sir
—/—
I'iaie. C C C C!X\T.
U/rif/t.
i ff/’nv culttJ
rtnn/JJ.
Os rs* cslui rttr '
Pref-',
Prdluu;.
P R E
Upon the cheeks the
[
rot ] P R E
i i i.„ ThU manner of DrelTitv* was only invented to cover the Prrfh g,
ean^'knife bv "‘faew- 'wfiich drfeSs of the ftuffs , and, accordingly, it has been ire- ^ gr_
rtw. 'to difnioiint it, on occafion, to be drarp- See lMrRES!IN0.
CnThe plough confifts of feveral^art, i^n^the reft [“Xe kind ofhoS^tr raiher
“urofthe twofeet Stolt on the cheeks, brings an endeavour to move impreffed on a flurd medium, and
"be knife to the book or paper which is fatlencd m the “ F '4',a. See Pneumatics.
preis between two boards. I his fcrew, whK:h is pre y 0J Fluids. See Hyprostatics andPNEU-
W, has two direttoms, which refemble thofe oi the J
fcrews of the prefs. ^ To make the p oug Tia^ PREST, is -ufed for a duty in money, to be paid
and even on the cheeks, fo that the knife mi y b h lheriff on his accoUnt, in the exchequer, or for
equal paring, that foot of the Plouf Joncy left or remaining in his hands : 2 6c 3 Edw. VI.
not fixed, Hides m a kind of groove, fattened along one ^ y
Laftly, the kmfe is a piece * ^ktST-Afon?v, is fo called from the French word pra/7,
that is, prompt us, txpedttus ; for that it binds thofe who
of the cheeks. ——y, B 5 .
or feven inches long, flat, thin, and (harp,- terminating
at one end in a point, like that of a fword, and at the
other in a fquare form, which ferves to fatten it to the.
ploueh. See Booic-Binding. . n 1
As the long knives ufed by us m the cutting of books
or papers, are apt to jump m the cutting thick books,
the Dutch are faid to ufe circular knives, with an edge
all round ; which not only cut more fteadily, but lait
longer without grinding. . ,
Press, in the [Vool’c’i ManufaSory, is a large wooden
machine, ferving to prefs cloths, ferges, rateens, &c.
thereby to render them fmooth and even, and to givc
them a glofs. ,
This machine confifts of feveral members; the prin¬
cipal whereof are the cheeks, the nut, and the worm
or ferew, accompanied with its bar, which ferves to
turn it round, and make it defeend perpendicularly on
the middle of a thick wooden plank, under which the
fluffs to be preffed are placed. The calender is alio
a kind of prefs, ferving to prefs or calender linens, iilkb,
Sc 0
B forty of the Press. See Liberty of the Prefs.
PRESSING, in the manufactures, is the violently
fqueezing a cloth, fluff, &c. to render it fmooth and
b There are two methods of preffing, viz. ccid and
As to the former, or cold prefling : After the fluff
has been fcoured, fulled, and {horn, it is folded fquare
in equal plaits, and a fkin of vellum or pafteboard put
between each plait. Over the whole is laid a fquare
wooden plank, and fo put into the prefs, which is ferew-
ed down tight by means of a lever. After it has lain
a fufficient time in the prefs, they take it out, remo¬
ving the pafteboards, and lay it up to keep. Some
only lay the fluff on a firm table after plaiting and
pafteboarding, cover the whole with a wooden plank,
and load it with a proper, weight. . n. m
The method of preffing hot is this : When the fluff
has received the above preparations, it is fpnnkied a
little with water, fometimes gum-water; then plaited
equally, and between each two plaits are put leaves ot
paffeboard ; and between every fixth and leventh phut,
as well as over the whole, an iron or brafs p.atc we
heated in a kind of furnace. This done, it is laid upon
the prefs, and forcibly ferewed down. Under this preis
are laid five, fix, See. pieces at the fame timt, a 1 an
nifhed with their pafteboards and iron-plates. un
the plates are well cooled, the fluffs are taken out and
ftitched a little together to keep them in the plaits.
receive' it, to^be ready at all times appointed, being com¬
monly meant of foldiers.
PRESTATION-money, is a fum of money paid
yearly by archdeacons and other dignitaries to their
btthop, pro exteriors jurifdidione.
Prestation (prajlatio)> was anciently ufed for other
payments : Et quieti jint de prxjlatione muragii. Chart,
lien. VII. Sometimes alfo for pourveyance.
PRESTEIGN is a town in Radnorlhire, diftant
iqy miles weff-north-wefl from London, in the dnee..
road to Aberyilwith, and throughout South Wales, in
N. Lat. 52° 12', bounded to the north and north-eail
by Hereiordfhire. It is a neat well built town, with
clean and regular ftreets, and is the refidence of many
genteel families. M he neighbourhood abounds with all
the comforts and conveniencies of life. It is ieated on
a gravelly foil on the banks of the river Lug, and at the
head of a very fertile vale : the mountains to the weft
and north-weft of the town forming, as it were, an.
amphitheatre round it. ihe name of it in Welih is
Slan-Andras> which is fuppofed to be derived from the
church, which is dedicated to Saint Andrew. The
town is divided into four wards, which have each a Se¬
parate jurifdidlion, feparate officers, levies, &c. The
curfew-bell of William the Conqueror flill remains in
this place, and is rung every night. It is a borough by
prefeription, and is governed by a bailiff annually elec¬
ted, and fworn in by a fteward appointed by the crown.
The living is a redtory and vicarage united, and report¬
ed to be worth from L. 500 to L. 600 per annum ; the
parilh lying in two counties. Here is an excellent free
ichool well endowed. The county hall, the county gaol,
the county bridewell, and houfe of corredlion, are kept
in this place. The markets are held on Saturdays; and
there are two fairs in the year. About a century and
a half ago Prefteign was coniiderably larger ; had a
good woollen manufactory, of which the very large
buildings now Handing (formerly belonging to clothiers)
bear ample teflimony ; but a fire, fucceeded by the
plague, in the town about the year 1636, reduced the
fame, and with it, its confequence as a manufacturing
town. The healthinefs of its fituation cannot be better
afeertained than by the regifler of births and burials.
The parilh embraces at leall a circle of 19 miles ; and
the average of burials for the laft feven years was only
26 perfons per annum^ and that of births for the fame
time was 42 ; aud of the former upwards of 18 were
from 80 to 100 years old.
. PRES"
P R E [ 502 ] p R I
r PR.E'STER (John, or Jean), an appellation former*
r t tj , ty glven to an emperor of the Tartars who was over*
T ^ ' come and Jiilled by Jenghiz Khan. Since that time it
has been given to the emperor of Abyffinia or Ethio¬
pia ; however, in Ethiopia itfelf this name is utterly
unknown, the emperor being there called the grand ne-
gus.
Prester, a meteor, confiding of an exhalation
thrown from the clouds downwards with fuch violence,
as that by the collilion it is fet on fire. The word is
Greek, the name of a kind of ferpent; called
alfo dipfas, to which this meteor is fuppofed to bear a
refemblance. i he prefter differs from the thunderbolt
in the manner of its inflammation ; and in its burning
and breaking every thing' it touches with greater vio¬
lence.
Pr ester, a word ufed by fome to exprefs the ex¬
ternal part of the neck, which is ufually inflated in an-
ger.
PRESTIMONY, in canon law, is derived a pr^Jla-
t 'wne qvotidiana ; and is, by fome, defined to be a kind
of benefice, ferved by a fingle prieft. Others fay, it*is the
incumbency of a chapel, without any title or collation;
fuch as are molt of thofe in caltles, where prayers or mafs
are faid; and which are mere unendowed oratories.
Whence the term is alfo applied, in the Romifh church,
to certain perpetual offices bellowed on canons, religi¬
ous, or others, for the faying of maffes, by way of aug¬
mentation of their livings. Others think it is a leafe,
or conceffion of any ecclefialtical fund or revenue, be¬
longing to a monaltery, to be enjoyed during life. Du
Moulin calls it a profane benefice, which, however, has a
perpetual title, and an ecclefialtical office, with certain
revenues attached to it 5 which the incumbent is allow¬
ed to fell, and which may be poffeffed without tonfure ;
fuch as the lay 'church-wardens of Notre-dame. He
adds, that, in propriety, the canonries of chapels are
benefices of this nature. The molt probable opinion
feems to be, that preltimony is a fund, or revenue, ap¬
propriated by the founder for the fubfillence of a prieit,
without being eredted into any title of benefice, chapel,
prebend, or priory ; and which is not fobject either to
the pope or to the ordinary, but whereof the patron,
and thole who have a right from him, are the collators,
and nominate and confer plena jure*
PRESTO, in the Italian mufic, intimates to perform
quick ; as prefhjfimo does extremely quick.
PRESTON, a town of Lancalhire in England, feat-
ed on the river Ribble, over which there is a handfome
Hone bridge. Here is held a court of chancery, and o-
ther offices of jullice for the county palatine of Eauca-
ller. It is noted for the defeat of the rebels here in
I7I5, when they were all made prifoners, and fent up
to London. W. Long. 2. 26. N. Lat. c?. ar.
PRES i RE. See Vauban.
PRETENSED or pretended right, in law, is
where one is in polfeffion of lands and tenements, which
another, who is out, claims and fues for. Plere the
pretenfed right is in him who fo claims or fues.
PRETERITE, in grammar, a tenfe which expreffes
tue time palt, or an adtion completely finilhed; as,
fcripfi, “ I have written.” See Perfect and Gram-
-MAR. 4.,
PEE I ERIT ION, or pretermission, in rhetoric.
a figure whereby, in pretending to pals over a thing un- Pretext
touched, we make a fummary mention thereof. / w // !l
not fay he is valiant, he is learned, he is juft, &c. The Priam‘
molt artfiu praifes are thofe given by way of preterition. v
See Oratory.
PRE TEXT, a colour or motive, whether real or
feigned, for doing'fomething.
I oga PRETEXT A, among the ancient Romans,
a long white gown, with a border of purple round the
edges, and worn by children of quality till the age of
puberty, t/'z. by the boys till 17, when they chan¬
ged it for the toga virilis ; and by the girls till mar¬
riage.
PRETIUM sepulchri, in old law books,&c. thofe
goods accruing to the church wherein a corpfe is buri¬
ed. In the Irifh canons, lib. xix. cap. 6. it is ordered,
that along with every body that is buried, there go his
cow, horfe, apparel, and the furniture of his bed ; none
of which may be difpofed of otherwife than for the pay¬
ment of debts, &c. as being familiars and domeftics of
the deceafed.
PRE FOR, a magiftrate among the ancient Ro¬
mans, not unlike our lord chief juliices, or lord chan-
cellor, or both in one ; as being, veiled with the power
ol diilnbuting jullice among the citizens. At firlt there
was only one pretor; but afterwards, another being
created, the firlt or chief one had the title of prattar ur-
banus, or the “ city preton” the other was called pere->
grinus, as being judge in all matters relating to foreign¬
ers. But, belides thefe, there were afterwards created
many provincial pfetors; who were not only judges, but
alfo allilled the conluls in the government of the pro¬
vinces, and even were invefted with the government of
provinces themfelves.
PRETORIAN guards, in Roman antiquity, were
the emperor’s guards, who at length were increafed to
10,000: they had this denomination, according to fome,
fiom then being llationed at a place called reetonum •*
their commander was ttyled prxfetlus prtetorii.
PRETORIUM, or Pr^torium, among the Ro¬
mans, denoted the hall or court wherein the pretor lived,
and wherein he adrniniltered jullice.
It likewife denoted the tent of the Roman general,
wherein councils of war, &c. were held : alfo a place in
Rome where the Pretorian guards were lodged.
PREVAR1CA I ION, in the civil law, is where the
informer colludes with the defendants, and fo makes on¬
ly a lham profecution.
Prevarication, in our laws, is when a man falftly
feems to undertake a thing, with intention that he mar
dellroy it ; where a lawyer pleads booty, or a£ts by col¬
lation, &c.
It alio denotes a fecret abufe committed in the exer-
cife of a public office, or of a commiffion given by a
private perlon.
PRIAM, king of Troy, was the fon of Laomedon.
He was carried into Greece after the taking of that city
by Hercules ; but was afterwards ranfomed, on which
he obtained the name of Priam, a Greek word fignify-
ing “ ranfomed.” At his return he rebuilt Ilium, and
extended the bounds of the kingdom of Troy, which
became very flourilhing under bis reign. . He married
Hecuba, the daughter of Ciffeus king of Thrace, by
whom ne had 19 children ; and among the reit Paris,
«7 who
P R I [ 503 3 P R I
IV'apilnni' who carried off Helen, and occafioned the ruin of I roy,
II which is fuppofed to have been facked by the Greeks
1>r  about 1184 15. C. when Priam was killed by Pyrrhus
the fon of Achilles at the foot of an altar where he had
taken refuge, after a reign of 52 years. See Troy.
PRIAPISMUS, or priapism, is an ere&ion of the
penis without any concomitant pain, or the confent of
other parts. It is thus called, becaufe the perfon in
this ftate refembles the lewd god Priapus. Ccelius Au-
relianus fays it isapalfy of the feminal veffels, and other
nerves diftributed to the parts about the penis, by the
diftenfion of which this diforder is produced. It is ol
the fame nature as the fatyriafis. See Medicine, n° 372.
PRIAPUS, in Pagan worfhip, the fon of Bacchus
and Venus, who prefided over gardens and the molt in¬
decent aftions.j He was particularly adored at Lampfa-
eus, a city at the mouth of the Hellefpont, faid to be the
place of his birth ; and his image was placed in gardens
to defend them from thieves and birds deftruitive to
fruit. He was ufually reprefented naked, with a Hern
countenance, matted hair, and holding either a wooden
fword or liekle in his hand, and with a monftrous pri¬
vity ; from whence downward his body ended in a Ihape-
lefs trunk. The1 facrifice offered to this obfeere deity
was the afs ; either on account of the natural uncomeii-
nefs of this animal, and its propenfity to venery, or from
the difappointment which Priapus met with on his at¬
tempting the chaftity of Vella, while that goddefs was
alleep, when Ihe efcaped the injury defigned her by her
being awaked by the braying of c)ld Sllenus’s afs.
PRICE (Rev. Richard), X). D. L. L. 13. fellow of
the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of
Sciences, Newr England, was born at Tynton in Gla-
morganlhire, February 22. 1723. His father was a
diffenting minifter at Bridgend in that county, and
died in 1739. At eight years old he was placed under
a Mr Simmons of Neath ; and in four years removed
to Pentwyn in Caermarthenfhire under the Rev. Samuel
Jones, whom he reprefented as a man of a very enlar¬
ged mind, and who fird infpired him with liberal fenti-
ments of religion. Having lived as long with him as
with Mr Simmons, he was fent to Mr Griffith’s acade¬
my at Talgarth in Breconlhire. In 1740 he loll his
mother; and on this he quitted the academy and came
to London. Here he was fettled at that academy, of
which Mr Eames was the principal tutor, under the pa¬
tronage of his uncle the Rev. S. Price, who was co-
pallor> with Dr Watts upwards of 40 years. At the
end of four years he left this academy, and redded with
Mr Streatfield of Stoke Newington in the quality of
domeffic chaplain, while at the fame time he regularly
affifted Dr Chandler at the Old Jewry, and occaiionally
affifted others. Having lived with Mr Streatfield near
13 years, on his death and his uncle’s he was induced
to change his fituajlon, and in 1757 married Mifs S.
Blundell of Leicefterffiire. He then fettled at Hack¬
ney, but being ffiortly after chofcn minifter at Newing¬
ton Green, he lived there until the death of his wife,
which was in 1786, when he returned to Hack¬
ney. He was next chofen afternoon-preacher at the
meeting-houfe in Poor Jewry-ftreet, but this he refign-
td on being elefted pallor of the Gravel-pit meeting
Hackney, and afternoon-preacher at Newington Green.
Thefe he' refigned with a farewel-fermon in February
xygi. Shortly after he was attacked wuth a nervous
fever, which difappearing was fucceeded by a diforder Pf*ce-
in his bladder, which reduced him to fuch a degree v
that, worn out with agony and difeafe, he died without
a groan on the 19th April 1791. He left his property
to a lifter and two nephews.
Dr Kippis, fpeaking of his learning and purfuits,
obferves *, that “ his chief aim was to lay a foundation * A,Id refs
for folid knowledge, by an application to fciences of the'1*
nobleft kind. It was on the great and fundamental ~r' ’
principles and obligations of morality, on the higher
fpecies of mathematics, on the fublimer p^rts of natu¬
ral philofophy, on the true bafts of government, and on
the queftions which relate to the elfential welfare and
dignity of man, that his lludies were employed ; and in
the profecution of thefe ftudies he not only enriched
his own mind, but was enabled to become of eminent
fervice to his country and to the world. In his moral
writings he has laboured with diftinguifhed ability to
build the fcience of ethics on an immutable bafts ; and
what .he has advanced will always Hand high in eftima-
tion as one of the ftrongeft efforts of human reafon in
favour of the fyllem he has adopted. For myfelf (adds
Dr Kippis), I fcruple not to fay, that I regard the
treatife referred to as a rich treafure of valuable infor¬
mation, and as deferving to be ranked among the firft:
produ&ions of its kind. With refpect to his other
ethical works, every one mull admire the zeal, carneft-
nefs, and ftrength, with which he endeavours to lead
men into pious views of God, of providence and prayer;
and to promote the exercife of devout and amiable
difpofitions. In confeq-uence of his profound know¬
ledge in mathematical calculations, he was qualified at
a particular crifts for being of lingular utility to his
fellow-citizens. A number of fchemes for infurance
for lives, and the benefit of furvivorfhip, promifing
mighty advantages, were riling up in the metropolis-
Thefe ruinous fchemes would have been carried to great
excefs had not Dr Price Hepped forward and difpelled
the delufion. Gratitude will not allow us to forget the
ability and fpirit with which he awakened the attention-
of his countrymen tp the redutlion of the national debt.
With him it was that the fcheme of the prefent minifter
for that purpofe is underftood to have originated. What
crowned the whole of his chara&er was, its being an
affemblage of the moll amiable and excellent private vir¬
tues. His piety was fincere, humble, and fervent; his
foul pure and elevated ; in his views diftnterefted and
noble ; and in his manners mild and gentle : the ap-
plaufe of his talents and virtues will be tranfmitted to
future ages, and he will be united in the catalogue with
the moll eminent benefadlors of mankind.”
This is the panegyric of a friend; but with few abate¬
ments it will be admitted by every candid reader. In
morals Dr Price’s principles were thofe of Cudworth '
and Clarke; and by many who have themfelves adopted
a very different theory, he is allowed to have defended
thofe principles with greater ability than any other
writer in the Englifli language (fee Moral Philofophy,
n 14.) In metaphyfics he was perhaps too great an
admirer of Plato, from whom he has borrowed a doc¬
trine concerning ideas which we confefs ourfelves unable
to comprehend. He was a firm believer in the imma¬
teriality of the foul; but, with Dr Law, the late learn¬
ed biffiop of Carlifle, he thought, that from death' to
the refurredlion of the body it remains in a dormant or
, ‘ quit.
qujtfcent ftate. He contended for its indivifibility, but
maintained at the fame time its extenfion ; which fur-
nifhed Dr Prieftley with feme advantages in their ce¬
lebrated controverfy, which his own acutenefs would
never have obtained. In propagating his political prin¬
ciples, which were republican, he fometimes exprefled
himfelf with undue vehemence ; and he was a zealous
enemy to all religious eftablifhments which, in his opi¬
nion, encroach upon that liberty wherewith Chrift has
made us free. His faith refpe&ing the Son of God
was what has been called fometimes low Arianlfm and
fometimes Smi-arianifm. From a very early age he
claimed the privilege of thinking for himfelf on every
fubjedi. His father was a rigid Calvinilt, and fpared
no pains to inftil his own theological dogmas into the
tender mind of his fon ; but young Richard would
• often ftart his doubts and difficulties, and fometimes
incur the old man’s difpleafure by arguing againll his
favourite fyftem with an ingenuity that perplexed, and
a folidity that could not be eafily overturned. He had
■once the misfortune to be caught reading a volume of
Clarke’s fermona, which his father in great wrath fnatch-
. ed from him and threw into the fire. Perhaps he could
not have taken a more effeftual method to make the
book a favourite, or to excite the young man’s curiofity
after the other works of the fame author ; and it is by
no means improbable that this orthodox bigotry con¬
tributed more than any other circumftance to lay the
'foundation of his fon’s Arianifm.
But whatever may be thought of Dr Price’s fpecu-
lative opinions, whether political or religious, his vir¬
tues in private life have never been called in queilion.
Of his practical religion it is impoffible to fpeak in
terms too high. There was a fervour even in his
public prayers which indicated the ftrongeft fenfibili-
ty as well as fincerity in himfelf, and communicated
its warmth to thefe who joined with him. But in
his family devotions he gave ftill luller fcope to the
pious emotions of his foul, and proved to thofe friends
who were occafionally prefent at them how deeply he
felt religious impreffions, and how happily he blended
in this as well as in other things the cool decifions of
•the underflamling with the amiable and exalted fenfibi-
lities of the heart.
But it was not in devotion only that thefe fenfibili-
ties were difplayed. He was as exemplary in affedtion
to his relatives as in love to his Maker. Of this he
gave a ftriking though private inltance before he firft
quitted his native place to try his fortune in London.
His father had left to an elder brother by a former
marriage a very coniiderable fortune ; to Richard he
left a mere trifle ; and to each of two fillers ftill lefs.
Our author divided his fhare between his fillers, refer-
ving to'himfelf only a few pounds to defray the expences
of his journey, and trufting for his future fupport to
the bkffing of God upon his talents and his induftry.
As in early life he was an affetflionate and generous
brother, in old age he was a loving and attentive huf-
band. His wife, who for a eonftderable time before
her death was almofl wholly helplefs, found during the
fall years of her life hardly any enjoyment except in a
game at whift; and though our Do6lor difliked cards
as a wafte of time, and never touched them on any
©ther occafion, to amufe her he would fit down every
evening to the card-table, and play till it was late, with
a cheerfuinefs and good humour which charmed every
perfon who had the happinefs of viewing him in that
endearing fituation.
Yet, though thus attentive to the obligations of do-
meftic life, he did not fuffer his private affeftions to en¬
croach upon his focial duties. FI is talents and his la¬
bours were ever ready at the call of friendfhip ; nay,
fo much did his nature abound with the .milk of human
kindnefs, that he could not refill without extreme reluc¬
tance even troubiefome and unreafonabli folicitations.
His hours of ftudy and retirement were frequently bro¬
ken in upon by applications for affiftance and advice,
efpecially in matters relating to annuities and life-infu-
rances ; and in this way he facrificed much of his per-
fonal convenience to individuals of whom he knew but
little, and from whom he would accept of no pecuniary
recompenfe. His good nature in this refpedt amounted
almoft to a foible ; and fubjefted him to importunities
and lofs of time, of which he would fometimes com¬
plain as interfering materially with more important and
more generally ufeful ftudies.
Whftft he thus obliged the rich by his mental talents,
he fuccoured the poor with his earthly fubflance. A
fifth part of his annual income was regularly devoted
to charitable purpofes; and he was laudably anxious to
diftribute it in fuch a way as might produce the great-
eft good. In the pradlice of this, and indeed of all his
virtues, he was utterly devoid of oftentation. Simpli¬
city and humility were among the ftrong features of
his charafter. No man was ever lefs fenfible of his own
excellence, or lefs elated by his own celebrity ; and in
no man was the dignity of artlefs manners and unaffcdlcd
modefty more happily difplayed.
Flis face was the true index of his mind. It beam¬
ed with philanthropy ; and when lighted up in conver-
fation with his friends, affumed an afpedt peculiarly
pleafing. His perfon was flender, and rather below
the common fize, but poffefled of great mufcular ftrength
and remarkable aftivity. A habit of deep thought had
given a ftoop to his figure, and he generally walked a
brifk pace with his tyes on the ground, his coat button¬
ed, one hand in his pocket, and the other fwinging by
his fide.
It is natural to fuppofe that fuch a man as Dr Price,
fume of whofe writings were tranflated into foreign
languages, would be very generally refpedted in the re¬
public of letters, and have many correfpondents. The
fuppofition is well founded. In 1763 or 1764 he was
chofen a fellow of the Royal Society, and contributed
largely to the tranfaftions of that learned body ; in
1769 he received from Aberdeen a diploma creating
him DD.; and in 1783 the degree of LL.D. was con¬
ferred upon him by tire college of Yale in Connedricut.
As in 1770 he had refufed an American degree which
had been conveyed to him by Dr Franklin, his accep¬
tance of one 13 years aftenvards can be attributed only
to his extravagant attachment to a republican form of
government; which was the greateft delict in his eha-
rufter, and fhows what prejudices the moil vigorous
mind will imbibe by thinking always on the fame fub-
je6ts, and in the fame track. Among his correfpon¬
dents, the moil eminent in his own country were the
late Lord Chatham, Lord Stanhope, Lord Lanfdowne,
the late bifhops of Carlifle and St Afaph, and the pre-i
fent bifhop of LandafF; Mr Hume, Mr Harris of Sa-
P R I
r 5°s ]
P R I
Price. Kfluiry, Dr Gregory of Edinburgh, and the celebrated
v  Mr Howard, who lived with him on terms of the great-
elt intimacy ; in America he correfponded with Dr
Franklin, Dr Chauncey, Mr Adams, and others ; and
in Fiance with the celebrated Tu-got, the Duke de
Rochefoucault, and feveral of the firft national aflembly.
One of his female correfpondents flvetched his character
with great juftnefs many years ago under the fictitious
but well applied name of Simplicius; and with this cha¬
racter we (hall clefe thefe.fhort memoirs.
“ While the vain man is painfully ftriving to out-
fliine the company and to attract the admiration by
falie wit, forced compliments, and fludied graces, he
mufl furely be mortified to obferve how conftantly Sim¬
plicius engages their attention, refpeft, and complacen¬
cy, without liaving once thought of himfelf as a perfon
of any confequence among them. Simplicius imparts
his fuperior knowledge, when called upon, as eafily and
naturally as he would tell you what it is o’clock ; and
with the fame readinefs and good will informs the moft
ignorant or confers with the moft learned. He is as
willing to receive information as to give it, and to join
the company, as far as he is able, in the moft trifling
converfation into which they may happen to fall as. in
the moll ferious and fublime. If he difputes, it is with
as much candour on the moft important and interefting
as on the moft infignificant fubjefts; and he is not lefs pa¬
tient in hearing than in anfwering his antagonift. If you
talk to him of himfelf or his works, he accepts praife or
acknowledges defeats with equal meeknefs, and it is im-
pofTible to fufpeft him of affeftation in either. We are
more obliged by the plain unexaggerated expreffions of
his regard, than by the compliments and attentions of
- the moft accomplifhed pattern of high breeding ; be-
caufe his benevolence and fincerity are fo ftrongly mark¬
ed in every look, word, and action, that wre are convin¬
ced his civilities are offered for our fakes, not for his
own, and are the natural effects of real kindnefs, not
the ftudied ornaments of behaviour. Every one is de-
firous to fhow him kindnefs in return, which we know
will be accepted juft as it is meant. All are ready to
pay him that deference which he does not defire, and
to give him credit for more than he affumes, or even
more than he poffeffes. With a perfon ungraceful, and
with manners unpolifhed by the world, his behaviour is
always proper, eafy, and refpe&able; as free from con-
ftraint and fervility in the higheft company, as from
haughtinefs and infolence in the loweft. His dignity
arifes from his humility ; and the fweetnefs, gentlenefs,
and franknefs of his manners, from the real goodnefs
and rettitude of his heart, which lies open to infpeCtion
in all the fearleffnefs of truth, without any need of dif-
guife or ornament.”
Such was Dr Price.—Of his public principles men
will think differently; of his private worth there can
be but one opinion. He will live in the memory of his
friends till memory has loft her power. To pofterity
his works will be his monument. They are : A Re¬
view of the principal Queftions and Difficulties in Mo¬
rals, Bvo, 1758; Differtations on Providence, &c. 8vo,
1767; Obfervations on Reverfionary Payments, &c.
8vo, 1771 ; Appeal on the National Debt, &c. 8vo,
2773 ; Obfervations on the Nature of Civil Liberty,
1776; on Materialifm and Neceffity, in a correfpon-
Vov, XV. Part II.
dence between Dr Price and Dr Prieftley, 17795 ©ft
Annuities, Affurances, Population, &c. 8vo, 1779; on "
the Population of England, 1780; on the Public Debts,
Finances, Loans, &c. 8vo, 1783 ; on Reverfionary
Payments, 2 vols, 1783 ; on the importance of the A-
merican Revolution, 1784 : befides Sermons, and a va¬
riety of papers in the Philofophical Tranfadtions on
aftronomic^ and other philofophical fubje&s.
PRIDE, inordinate and unreafonable felf-efteem, at¬
tended with infolence and rude treatment of others.—
It is frequently confounded with vanity, and fometimes
with dignity ; bnt to the former paffion it has no re-
feml^lance, and in many circumftances it differs from the
latter. Vanity is the parent of loquacious boafting;
and the perfon fubjeft to it, if his pretences be admit¬
ted, has no inclination to infult the company. The
proud man, on the other hand, is naturally filent, and,
wrapt up in his own importance, he feldom fpeaks but
to make his audience feel their inferiority. It is this
circumftance which diftinguifhes pride from dignity,
and conftitutes its finfnlnefs. Every man poffeffed of
great powers of mind is confcious-of them, and feels
that he holds a higher rank in the fcale of exiftence than
he whofe powers are lefs. If he recollect, at the fame
time, that he has nothing which he did not receive, and
that his fuperiority is owing to the good pleafure of
Plim who forms his creatures differently, as the potter
forms his clay ; he will be fo far from infulting his in¬
feriors, that when neceffarily in company with them,
he will bear with their foibles, and, as far as is proper,
make them lofe light of the diftance which the laws of
God and man have for ever placed between them and
him. This condefcenfion, however, if he be a man of
dignity, will never lead him to join with them in any
mean or dirty adtion. He will even excufe in them
many things which he would condemn in himfelf, and
give them his good wilhes, after they have forfeited his
efteem. Such a charadler is amiable and refpeftable,
and what every man Ihould labour to obtain. From the
weaknefs of human nature, however, it is too apt to de¬
generate into pride.
To a man of great intelledlual powers and various
erudition, the converfation of ordinary perfons affords
neither inftrudtion nor amufement ; and fuch converfa¬
tion, when often repeated, muft, from the nature of
, things, become tedious and irkfome. But it requires
great command of temper and of manners to prevent
uneafinefs long felt from fometimes betraying itfelf by
external fymptoms, fuch as peevilh expreffions, a for¬
bidding look, or abfence of mind ; and thefe are the in¬
fallible indications of contempt for the company, the
very worft ingredient in the paffion of pride. It this
contempt be often excited, it will be formed into a ha¬
bit ; and the proud man will be fo much und£r its influ¬
ence, as to infult his inferiors, and fornetimes his equals,
without forming the refolution to infult either the one
or the other. Such a character is hateful to every
company, and is fo far from indicating true dignity of
mind in him to whom it belongs, that it is obvioufly
affociated with meannefs, and indicates a confcioufnefs
of foipe radical defect. He who poffeffes real and con-
fpicuous merit has no occafion to deprefs others lor the
purpofe of railing himfelf; his fuperiority will be cheer¬
fully acknowledged: but when a man of undoubted
3 S cmi*
Pi iit.
P R I . [ S°5 ] P R I
Chain}’er s
‘Jraurh in
dfia IVli.
eminence in one refpeft, is fo fwollen with pride as to
make him vvifh to appeal* great in all refpe&s, he has
no other means of enforcing his ill-founded claim, than
difplaying his acknowledged fuperiority, with fuch in-
folence as may drive at a diftance from him every per-
fon by whom he is confcious that in many inftances he
might be more than rivalled. Whoever is proud of
knowledge, would do well to confider how much know¬
ledge he wants.
The fame obfervations which we have made on pride
of parts will apply to every other fpecies of pride, fuch
as pride of birth, office, or riches, &c. The peace and
order of fociety require difference of rank, accompanied
with different degrees of authority ; and he who inhe¬
rits a title or office from his anceftors, may without
pride be confcious of his fuperiority, provided he forget
not that fuch fuperiority is conferred on families and
individuals, not for their own fakes, but for the good
of the community. The peer, who keeps this circum-
ftance in mind, may maintain his ftation, and reprefs
the forward petulance of the plebeian, without giving
offence to any thinking man ; but if he dwell upon his
rank with too much complacency, he will in procefs of
time be apt to confider himfelf and his family as fupe-
rior by nature to thofe upon whom no title has been
conferred, and then his pride will become intolerable.
If we could trace our defcents, fays Seneca, we ffiould
find all flaves to come from princes, and all princes from
(laves. To be proud of knowledge, is to be blind in
the light; to be proud of virtue, is to poifon ourfelves
with the antidote ; to be proud of authority, is to make
our rife our downfal. The bed way to humble a proud
man is to negleft him. ,
PRIDEAUX (Humphry) was born at Padftow in
Cornwall in 1648, and was he flourably defeended by
both parents. Three years he itudied at Weftminfter
under Dr Bufby; and then was removed to Chrilt-
church, Oxford. Here he publifhed, in 1676, his
Marmora Oxonknfia ex Arundelianis, Stldenianis, aliif-
que conflata, cum perpetuo Commentario. This introdu¬
ced him to the lord chancellor Finch, afterward earl
of Nottingham, who in 1679 prefented him to the rec-
tory of St Clements near Oxford, and in 1681 beftowed
on him a prebend of Norwich. Some years after he was
engaged in a controverfy with the Papiits at Norwich,
concerning the validity of the orders of the church of
England, which produced his book upon that fubjedl.
In i6bb he was inftalled in the archdeaconry of Suf¬
folk ; to which he was collated by Dr Lloyd, then bi-
(hop of Norwich. In 1691, upon the death of Dr
Edward Pococke, the Hebrew profefforffiip at Oxford
being vacant, was offered to Dr Prideaux, but he re-
fufed it. In 1697, he publifhed his Life of Mahomet,
and in 1702 was inftalled dean of Norwich. In 1710
he was cut for the ftone, which interrupted his ftudies
for more than a year. Some time after his return to
London, he proceeded with his Conneaion of the Hi-
ftory of the Old and New Teftament ; which he had
begun when he laid afide the defign of writing the
Hiilory ot Appropriations. He died in I 724.
PRIENE, an ancient town of Afia Minor. It is
now called Samfun, and Samfun-kateji, which do not
however appear to-be very recent. It was taken in
1391 by Bajazet, who fubdued Ionia. It had former¬
ly, without including the citadel, three gateways ; one
of which was towards Kelibefh, an adjoining village j Priefb
and without it are vaults of fepulchres. The entrance
was not wide. A part of the arch, confifting of a
fingle row of maffive ftones, ftill remains ; but thofe on
which it refts are fo corroded by age, broken, or di-
ftorted, as to feem every moment ready to yield and let
down their load. A rugged way leads to a fecond
opening in the wall oppofite to this, and about a mile
from it; beyond which are likewife vaults of fepulchres.
Between thefe was a gate facing to the plain ; and on
the left hand going out of it is a hole, refembling the
mouth of an oven, in the fide of a fquare tower ; and
over it an infeription in fmall charadlers, exceeding¬
ly difficult to be read. It fignifies, that a certain
Cyprian in his deep had beheld Ceres and Profer-
pine arrayed in white; and that in three vifions they
had enjoined the worftiip of a hero, the guardian of the
city, and pointed out the place where, in obedience to
them, he had erefted the god. This was probably
fome local hero, whofe little image was fet in the wall,
and whofe name and memory have perifhed.
PRIEST, a perfon fet apart for the peformance of
facrifice, and other offices and ceremonies of religion.
Before the promulgation of the law of Mofes, the firft-
born of every family, the fathers, the princes, and the
kings, were priefts. Thus Cain and Abel, Noah, A-
braham, Melchizedec, Job, Ifaac, and Jacob, offered
themfelves their own facrifices. Among the Ifraelites,
after their exod from Egypt, the priefthood was con¬
fined to one tribe, and it confifted of three orders, the
^/j-prieft, priejis, and Levites. The priefthood was
made hereditary in the family of Aaron, and the firft-
born of the oldeft branch of that family, if he had no
legal blemifti, was always the high-prieft. This divine
appointment was obferved with ccsifiderable accuracy
till the Jews fell under the dominion of the Romans,
and had their faith corrupted by a falfe philofophy.—
Then, indeed, the high-priefthood was fometimes fet
up to fale, and inftead of continuing for life, as it ought
to have done, it feems, from fome paffages in the New
Teftament, to have been nothing more than an annual
office. There is fufficient reafon, however, to believe,
that it was never difpofed of but to fome defeendant
of Aaron, capable of filling it, had the older branches
been extinft. (For the confecration and offices of
the Jewifh priefthood, we refer our readers to the
books of Mofes). In the time of David, the inferior
priefts were divided into 24 companies, who were to
ferve in rotation, each company by itfelf, for a week.
The order in which the feveral courfes were to ferve was
determined by lot; and each courfe was in all fucceed-
ing ages called by the name of its original chief.—All
nations have had their priejh. The Pagans had priejls of
Jupiter, Mars, Bacchus, Hercules, Ofiris, and Ills, &c. ;
and fome deities had priejieja. The Mahometans have
priefts of different orders, called fchiek, and mufti ; and
the Indians and Chinefe have their bramins and bonzes.
It has been much difputed, whether, in the Chri-
ftian church, there be any fuch officer as a prkj}, in the
proper fenfe of the word. The church of Rome, which
holds the propitiatory facrifice of the has of courfe
her proper priejihood. In the church of England, the
word priejl is retained to denote the fecond order in her
hierarchy, but we believe with very differentfignifications,
according to the different opinions entertained of the
Lord’s
P R I [ 5°7 J P R I
Primse Lord’s {upper. Some few of her divines, of great learn-
p er an<^ undoubted Proteliantifm, maintain that the
Lord’s flipper is a commemorative and eucharijlicalfacri-
Jice. Thefe conlider all who are authorifed to admini-
fter that facrament as in the ftriftelt fenfe prlejls.
Others hold the Lord’s fupper to be a feaji upon the
one facrifice, once offered on the crofs; and thefe too
mud confider themfelves as clothed with fome kind of
priefthood. Great numbers, however, of the Englifh
clergy, perhaps the majority, agree with the church of
Scotland, in maintaining that the Lord’s fupper is a
rite of no other moral import, than the mere comme¬
moration of the death of Chrift. Thefe cannot conli¬
der themfelves as priejh in the rigid fenfe of the word,
but only as prejbyters, of which the word priejl is a con-
traftion of the fame import with elder. See Supper of
the Lord.
PRIMtE vi^;, among phyficians, denote the whole
alimentary du£t; including the oefophagus, itomach,
and inteftines, with their appendages.
PRIMAGE, in commerce, a fmall duty at the
water-fide, ufually about i2d. per ton, or 6^. per bale,
due to the mailer and mariners of a {hip.
PRIMARY, firft in dignity, chief, or principal.
Primary Qualities of Bodies. See Metaphysics,
n° 152.
PRIMATE, in church-polity, an archbilhop, wdio
is invefted with a jurifdidtion over other bifhops.
PRIME, primus, an appellation given to whatever
is firil in order, degree, or dignity, among feveral
things of the fame or like kind ; thus we fay, the prime
minifter, prime coll, &c.
Prime is fometimes ufed to denote the fame with de¬
cimal, or the tenth part of an unit.
Prime-Figure, in geometry, one which cannot be
divided into any other figures more fimple than itfelf,
as a triangle among planes, and the pyramid among
folids.
For prime numbers, in arithmetic, fee the article
Number.
Prime of the Moon, is the new moon when {he firlt
appears, which is about three days after the change.
Prime Vertical, is that vertical circle which pafles
through the poles of the meridian, or the call and weft
points of the horizon; whence dials projected on the
plane of this circle are called prime vertical, or north-
and-fouth dials.
Prime, in the Romilh church, is the firft of the ca¬
nonical hours, fucceeding to lauds.
Prime, in fencing, is the firft of the chief guards.
See Guard.
PRIMER seasin, in feodal law, was a feodal
burden, only incident to the king’s tenants in capite,
and not to thafe who held of inferior or mefne lords.
It was a right which the king had, when any of his
tenants in capite died feized of a knight’s fee, to re¬
ceive of the heir (provided he were of full age) one
whole year’s profits of the lands if they were in im¬
mediate poflHlion, and half a year’s profits if the
lands were in reverfion expectant on an eftate for life.
This feems to be little more than an additional relief,
(fee Relief) ; but grounded upon this feodal reafon,
1 hat, by the ancient law of feods, immediately upon
the death of a vaffal the fuperior was entitled to enter and
take leifin or poflefiion of the land, by way of pro- Pri nhg
teftion againft intruders, till the heir appeared to I!
claim it, and receive inveftiture : and for the time the Primo*^-
lord fo held it, he was entitled to take the profits; mc'irc,_J
and unlefs the heir claimed within a year and day, it
was by the ftridl law a forfeiture. This pra&ice how¬
ever feems not to have long obtained in England, if
ever, with regard to tenures under inferior lords ; but,
as to the king’s tenures in capite, this prima feifina was
exprefsly declared, under Hen. III. and Ed. II. to
belong to the king by prerogative, in contradiftinclion
to other lords. And thq king was entitled to enter
and receive the whole profits of the land, till livery
was fued ; which fuit being commonly within a year
and day next after the death of the tenant, therefore
the king ufed to take at an average the ffl-fruits, that
is to fay, one year’s profits of the land. And this
afterwards^gave a handle to the popes, who claimed to
be feodal lords of the church, to claim in like manner
from every clergyman in England the firft year’s
profits of his benefice, by way of primitiee, or firit-
fruits.—All the charges arifing by primer feilin were
taken away by 12 Car. II. c. 24.
PRIMING, in gunnery, the train of powder that
is laid, from the opening of the vent, along the gutter
or channel on the upper part of the breech of the
gun : which, when fired, conveys the flame to the
vent, by which it is further communicated to the
charge, in order to fire the piece. This operation is
only ufed on fliipboard at the proof, and fometimes in
garrifon ; for, on all other occalions, tubes are ufed for
that purpofe.
Priming-IFire, in gunnery, a fort of iron needle
employed to penetrate the vent or touch-hole of a piece
of ordnance, when it is loaded : in order to difeover
whether the powder contained therein is thoroughly
dry and fit for immediate fervice ; as likewife to fearch
the vent and penetrate the cartridge, when the guns are
not loaded with the loofe powder.
Priming, among painters, fignifies the laying on of
the firft colour.
PRIMIPILUS, in antiquity, the centurion of the
firft cohort of a legion, who had the charge of the Ro¬
man eagle.
PRIMITIVE, the firft-fruits gathered of the earth,
whereof the ancients made prefents to the gods.
PRIMITIVE, in grammar, is a root or original
word in a language, in contradiftindtion to derivative ;
thus, God is a primitive ; godly, a derivative ; and god¬
like, a compound.
PRIMOGENITURE, the right of the firft-born,
has among moft nations been very confiderable. The
firft-born fon in the patriarchal ages had a fuperiority
over his brethren, and, in the abfence of his father, was
prieft to the family. Among the Jews, he was confe-
crated to the Lord, had a double portion of the inheri¬
tance, and fucceeded in the government of the family or
kingdom. It is, however, remarkable, and unque-
ftionably fhows the connexion between this inftitutkm
and the birth and office of our Saviour, that if a wo¬
man’s firft child was a girl, neither flie, nor the children
that came after her, were confecrated.
In every nation of Europe, the right of primogeni¬
ture prevails in fome degree at prefent, but it did not
3 S 2 prevail
P R I [ 5°8 3 P R 1
IVimorle, pj^vail always. The law which calls the elder-born to
Fiimuia. the crown> preferably to the others, was not mtrodu-
 ced into France till very late ; it was unknown to the
fu-ft race of kings, and even to the fecond. The four
fons of Clovis lhared the kingdom equally among
themfelves; and Louis le Debonnaire did the fame : it
was not till the race of Hugh Capet, that the preroga¬
tive of fucceffion to the crown was appropriated to the
hril-born.
By the ancient cuftom of Gavel-kind^ udl prelerved
in fome parts of our ifland, primogeniture is of no ac¬
count ; the paternal elfate being equally iliared by all
the fons. And it has been a matter of violent and
learned difpute, whether, at the death of Alexander
HI. Baliol or Bruce was, by the law as it then ftood,
heir to the crown of Scotland* lie formei had un¬
doubtedly the right of primogeniture, but the latter
Hood in one degree ol nearer relation to the deceafed
fovereign ; and the Scottilh barons, not being ab.e to
determine whole claim was bell founded, referred thu
queftion to Ldward I. of Lngland, and thereby invol¬
ved their country in a long and ruinous war. See Scot¬
land.
PRIMORXE, is a name given by the Slav! to that
traft of fea-coah which lies between the two rivers Cet-
tina and Narenta, the firll of which is the Neltus and
Tiluras, and the fecond the Narus, of the ancients; com-
prifmg what was properly called Dalmatia two ages be¬
fore our era, and which was known to the Greeks of
the low times under the name of Paratalaflia. Appian
informs us, that the Ardei or Vardei poffelfed many ci¬
ties there, part of which they feized before the invafion
ef the Romans, and part they built themfelves. We
learn alfo from the Tabula Pentingeriana, that after the
conqueft many of thofe cities remained, and were inha¬
bited by the conquerors, who alio founded new lettle-
ments. And indeed were thefe proofs wanting, the
numerous infcriptions found near the fea, and fometimes
among the hills, would render it at lealt probable. The
coaft is extremely pleafant, the foil fertile, and the fitu-
ation molt convenient for commerce with the inland
provinces. By bad management, however, much ground
has been loll near the fea, by its being covered with
'gravel, and by imprudent cultivation of the hills, the
impetuous fury of the mountain torrents has rendered
a part of it uninhabitable. Maearfka is now the only
town in the territory, and it appears to have rifen out
©f the ruins of the ancient Rataneum of Pliny. It
formed a part of the Narentan Hate for feveral ages, and
afterwards, together with the relt of Primorie, palfed un¬
der, the obedience of various ChriRiau princes. It after¬
wards became fubjeft to the Ottoman Porte, and at lall
voluntarily fubjedted itfelf to the Venetian republic,
bee Dalmatia and Macarska. See alfo Fortis’s
Travels into Dalmatiay p. 265 3*^*
PRIMULA, the Primrose : A genus of the inono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 21H or¬
der, Prec'uE, The involucrum lies under a fimple umbel;
the tube of the corolla cylindrical; with the mouth or
limb patulous. This, genus, including alfo the polyan¬
thus and auricula, furnilhes an excellent colleftion of low,
fibrous-rooted, herbaceous flowery perennials.
1. The primula veris, or fpring primrofe, has thick
and very fibrous roots, crowned by a duller of large
oblong indented rough leaves, and numerous flower- Prim
flafks, from about three or four, to five or fix inches~V
high peach terminated commonly by one flower. — I he
varieties are, common yellow-flowered primrofe of the
woods —white primrofe — paper-white—red—double
red—double yellow, and double white.—All thefe
flower abundantly in March and April, and continue
for a month or fix weeks.
The cowflip primrofe, or cowflip, has very thick
fibrous roots, crowned by a duller ol oblong, in¬
dented round leaves, and upright, firm, flower-Halks
five :or fix inches high, terminated each by a duller
of fmall flowers. The varieties are, Common fingle
yellow cowflip of the meadows—double yellow cowflip
—fcarlet cowflip—hofe-and-hofe cowflip ; one flower
growing out of the bofom of another, the lower moll
ferving as a calyx ; all of which varieties have the •
flower-Halks crowned by many flowers in branches.—•
They flower in April and May, continuing in fuc-
ceflion a month or fix weeks.
2. The polyanthus, has thick fibrous roots, increafing
into large bunches, crowned with a cluiler of large
oblong indented rough leaves ; amidil them upright
flower-Halks fix or eight inches high, terminated mwfi-
ly by a duller of feveral fpreading flowers of many
different colours in the varieties. The principal are,
purple, red, gold, orange-coloured, &c. They all
flower beautifully in April and May, and frequently
again in autumn ; and fometimes even in winter, il the
feafon is mild. The polyanthus is one of the noted
prize-flowers among the floriffs ; many of whom are
remarkably induftrious in railing a confiderable vauety
of different forts, as well as in ufing every art to blow
them with all requifite perledion ; for, among tne
virtuofi, a polyanthus muff poffefs feveral peculiar pro¬
perties in order to be admitted in their colledions.
The chief properties required in a flonil s polyanthus
are, 1. The Hem or flower-ffalk ihall be upright,
moderately tall, with ilrength in proportion, and
crowned by a good regular bunch of flowers on fhort
pedicles, Hrong enough to fupport them nearly in an
upright pofition. 2. The florets of each branch.
Ihould be equally large, fpreading open flat, with the
colours exquifite, and the ftripes and variegations
lively and regular. 3. The eye in the centre of each
floret fhould be large, regular, and bright; and the
antherae, by the flonils called the thrum^ fhould rift,
high enough to cover the mouth of the tube or hollow
part in the middle of. the florets, and render them
what they call thrum-eyed; but when the ffyle elevates
the lligma above the antherse., the eye of the tube ge¬
nerally appears hollow, fhowing the iligma in the
middle, like the head of a pin, and is. rejeaed as an
incomplete flower, though its other properties Ihould
be ever fo perfea. This pin-eyed polyanthus, how¬
ever, though rejeaed by the floriffs, is the flower in its
moil perfea Hate, and great numbers of them are of
as beautiful forms and colours as the thrum-eyed varie-
ties.
3. The auricula has a thick fibrous root, crowned
by a chiller of oblong, flelhy, broad, ferrated, fmooth
leaves, refembling the lhape of a bear’s ear; and
amidil them upright flower-ilalks from about three or
four to fix or eight inches high, terminated by an um¬
bellate duller of beautiful, flowers, of many different
colours
primum,
Prince.
P R I r509
colours in the varieties. AH of thefe have a circular by a new
eye in the middle of each flower, and of which there
—v
are different colours; whence the auriculas are diftin-
guifhed into yellow-eyed, white-eyed, &c. 1 he petals
of moll of the kinds are powdered with an exceeding
fine farina or mealy powder, which contributes greatly
to the beauty of the flower. -They all flower in April
or May, continuing a month or fix weeks in beauty,
and ripening plenty of feeds in June.
Culture. All the varieties of the common fpnng
primrofe multiply fo fall by the roots, that it is fcarce
worth while to raife them from feeds. However, though
many fingle kinds may be raifed from feed, yet parting
the roots is the only method by which the double kind
can be preferved ; and the fame thing is to be obferved
of all the reil.
PRIMUM mobile, in the Ptolemaic aftronomy, the
ninth or higheft fphere of the heavens, whofe centre is
that of the world, and in comparifon of which the
earth is but a point. This they will have to contain
all other fpheres within it, and to give motion to them,
turning itfelf, and all them, quite round in 24 hours.
PRINCE, Princeps, in polity, a perfon invtfted
with the fupreme command of a ftate, independent ot
any fuperior.
Prince alfo denotes a perfon who is a fovereign m
his own territories, yet holds of fome other as his fu¬
perior ; fuch are the princes of Germany, who, though
abfolute in their refpe&ive principalities, are bound to
the emperor in certain fervices.
Prince alfo denotes the iffue of princes, or thofe of
the royal family. In France, before the revolution, they
were called princes of the bloody and during the fhort coni_i-
nuance of the conftitutionof 1791, French princes. In Eng-^
land the king’s children are called Jons and daughters of
England; the eldeft fon is created prince of Wales,-the
cadets are created dukes or earls as the King pleafes ,
and the title of all the children is royal highnefs : all
fubjefts are to kneel when admitted lO kiis then iiand,
and at table out of the king’s prefence they are ferved
on the knee. See Rorji Family.
Pr 1 ncr of the Senate, in old iRome, the perfon who
was called over firfi: in the roll of fenators, whenever it
was renewed by the cenfors : he was always of confular
and cenfonan dignity. See the article Senate..
Prince's Metal, a mixture of copper and zinc, in
imitation of gold. See Chemistrv, n - 1154*
Princetown. See New Jersey-.
Prince of IVales's IJland, or Pulo Penany, is fituated in
Kiln. Tin t4e entrance of the ftraits of Malacca, in 100 degrees of
t n eaft longitude, and in five degrees of north latitude. It is
about feven leagues in length and three in breadth. Its
northern extremity runs nearly parallel witli the main
land at a diitance of about two miles, by which
channel is formed, where the greateil fleets might lide in
perfect fafety, the height of the furrounding mountains
a cling as a barrier againft the force or the. prevailing
winds. The climate, confidering its vicinity, to the
equator, is remarkably mild. Eighty degrees is about
the mean height of the thermometer at noon, which,
during the night, is feldom above 70. Its healthful-
nefs is certainly not furpaffed by that of any European
fettlement on the coaft. Out of a garrifon of 300
troops (natives of Hindoftan), not one died for the
Ipace of 14 months; a Angular fad to be experienced
] P R I
fettlement in an uncleared country. This PrEce.
great falubrity is perhaps the effed of a conftant ven-
tilation, fupported by almofl continued but gentle
breezes, added to the drynefs of the foil, the uniform
but gradual elevation from the fea to the foot of the
hills preventing thofe flagnations of water which, in tro¬
pical latitudes, are fo highly prejudicial to the health
of man.
A ridge of beautiful mountains, deeply indented
with valleys, and covered with evergreens, divides the
ifland longitudinally. Innumerable rivulets receive their
origin from thefe mountains, and are remarkable for
the tranfparency and coolnefs of their waters. H he
foil, which is light and fandy near the fea, gradually
changes to a rich clay as it approaches to the high
lands. There the fugar-cane grows with the- utmoit
luxuriance, and the moll plentiful crops of rice are
everywhere produced. The gardens have already fur-
nifhed the inhabitants with cabbages and potatoes;
and when indullry fhall have reached the tops of the
mountains, it will be no furprife to fee in the planta¬
tions moll of the productions of Europe in their ut-
moil perfection. In decorating the landfcapes of this
little ifland, nature has been peculiarly lavifh. An af-
femblage of flowering trees and flirubs in perpetual
bloflbm, and endlefs in the variety of their fpecies,
form the firll lhade. Thefe are overtopped by forelt
trees of an immenfe height, which fpread their vail
branches on every fide, and are covered with the rich-
ell foliage. Here ftrangers feel with rapture the ef¬
fect of the breezes, which, from whatfoever quarter
they blow, are llrongly impregnated with the fragrance
of the groves.
The original animal produ&ions of this ifland are
very limited. Of quadrupeds, the wild hog, deer, and
fquirrel, nearly comprehend the whole; but the abfence
of the tiger and leopard, whofe numbers and ferocity
almoll render the oppofite fliores uninhabitable, amply
compenfates for this deficiency. The flying fox and
fquirrel are natives of this ifland ; the former a non-
defeript, and a great natural curiofity. Of birds there
are alio but few, and only one which is remarkable for
the melody of its notes. The crow and fparrow, the
never-failing attendants on population, have but lately
made their appearance. They arc now, however, ra¬
pidly increafing and multiplying. All the domeftic
animals arrive here at great pet fedrion.
The fea which furrounds- the ifland, affords a vaft
variety of filh of the moll delicious flavour, and its
Ihores abundance ot the finell turtle and oylters. In
no fituation indeed are the conveniencies and luxuries
of life enjoyed in greater profufion. The advantages
of the ifland in a political and commercial view, are too
obvions to require to be pointed out.
Prince. William's Sound, fituated on the north-well
coall of America, and fo named by Captain Cook in
1778. The men, women, and children of this found
are all clothed in the fame manner. Their ordinary
drefs is a fort of elofe frock, or rather robe, which
fometimes reaches only to the knees, but generally
down to the ancles. Thefe frocks are compofed of the
fleins of various animals, and are commonly worn with
the hairy fide outwards. The men often paint their
faces of a black colour, and of a bright red, and fome¬
times of a bluifli or leaden hue ; but not in any regu-
, Jar
P R I [51
Prinee, Jar iigur^. The women pun&ure or flain the chin
J'nr.cipal. wjt[1 black, that comes to a point in each of their
cheeks. Their canoes are of two forts ; the one large
and open, the other fmall and covered. The framing
conlifts of (lender pieces of wood, and the outfide is
compofed of the (kins of feals, or other fea animals,
ilretched over the wood. Their weapons, and imple¬
ments for hunting and fifhing, are the fame as thofe
iifed by the Greenlanders and Efquimaux. Many of
their fpears are headed with iron, and their arrows are
generally pointed with bone. The food they were feen
to eat was the fle(h of fome animal, either roafted or
broiled, and dried f(b. Some of the former that was
purchafed had the appearance of bear’s dedi. They
alfo eat a larger fort of fern-root, either baked or dref-
fed in fome other method. Their drink, in all proba¬
bility, is water; for, in their canoes, they brought
fnow in wooden veflels, which they fwallowed by mouth¬
fuls. Our knowledge of the animals of this part of the
American continent is entirely derived from the (kins
that were brought by the natives for fale. Thefe were
principally of bears, common and pine martins, fea-ot-
ters, feals, racoons, fmall ermines, foxes, and the whitilh
cat or lynx. The birds found here were the halcyon,
or great king’s-fifher, which had fine bright colours ;
the white-headed eagle, and the humming-bird. The
fi(h that were principally brought to market for fale
were torlk and halibut. The rocks were almoft defti-
tute of (hell-fi(h; and the only other animal of this tribe
that was obferved was a reddifh crab, covered with
very large fpines. Few vegetables of any kind were
obferved; and the trees that chiefly grew about this
found were the Canadian fpruce pine, fome of which
were of a confiderable fize. E. Loner, nr. 21. N.
kat- 59- 33-
PRINCIPAL, the chief and mod neceflary part of
a thing. The principal of a college or hall is the ma¬
iler thereof.
In commerce, principal is the capital of a fum due
or lent; fo called in oppofition to intereft. See Inte¬
rest.
It alfo denotes the firft fund put by partners into a
common (lock, by which it is diftinguifhed from the
calls or accefiions afterwards required.
Principal, in mufic. See Fundamental, in mufic,
and Generator, in mufic.
Principal, in law, is either the aftor or abfolutje
perpetrator of the crime, who is called a principal^ in
the (irft degree; or he who is prefent, aiding and abet¬
ting the (adt to be done, who is denominated a princi-
tl lack ft.
Comment,
3 pal in the fecond degree. I he prefence of a principal
need not always be an adlual immediate (landing by,
within fight or hearing of the fad ; but there may be
alfo a conftrudlive prefence, as when one commits a
robbery or murder, and another keeps watch or guard
at fome convenient diftance. And this rule has alfo
other exceptions; for, in cafe of murder by poifoning,
a man may be a principal felon by preparing and laying
the poifon, or giving it to another (who is ignorant of
its podonous quality) for that purpofe ; and yet not
admimfter it himfelf, nor be prefent when the very
deed of poifoning is committed. And the fame rea-
fonmg will hold, with regard to other murders com¬
mitted in tae abfence of the murderer, by means which
he had prepared before-hand, and‘which probably could
0 j P R I
not fail of their mifehievous e(Fe<ft. As by.laying a Principal
trap or pit-fall for another, whereby he is killed ; let- II
ting out a wild bead,' with an intent to do mifehief; Principle, j
or exciting a madman to commit murder, fo that death
thereupon enfues: in every one of thefe cafes the party
offending is guilty of murder as a principal, in the
firft degree. ^ For he cannot be called an aeceffory,
that neceffarily pre-fuppofmg a principal; and the poi¬
fon, the pit-fall, the bead, or the madman, cannot be
held principals, being only the inftruments of death.
As therefore he mud be certainly guilty, either ag
principal or accedbry, and cannot be fo as accedbry, it
follows that he mud be guilty as principal; and if prin¬
cipal, then in the (irft degree; for there is no other cri¬
minal, much lefs a fuperiorin the guilt, whom he could
aid, abet, or aflift.
Principal Point, in perfpedlive, is a point in the per-
fpeftive plane, upon which a line is drawn from the eye,
perpendicular to the plane falls.
This point is in the interfeftion of the horizontal and
vertical plane ; and is alio called the point of fight, and
point of the eye. See Perspective.
Principal Ray, in perfpe&ive, is that which pafies
perpendicularly from the fpedlator’s eye to the perfpec-
tive plane, or picture.
Whence the point where this ray falls on the, plane,
is by fome alfo called the principal point, which other
writers call the centre of the picture, and the point of concur ~
rence.
PRINCIPATO, the name of a province of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, which is divided into two
paits, called by the Italians the Principato Ultra and
the Principato Citra, that is, the Hither and Farther
Principato. The Hither Principato is bounded on the
north by the Farther Principato and part of the Terra-
di-Lavoro, on the weft and fouth by the Tufcan Sea,
and on the ead by the Bafilicata. It is about 60 miles
in length, and 30 in breadth; the foil is fertile in
wine, corn, oil, and faffron; and they have a great *
deal of frlk, befides feveral mineral fprings. The capi¬
tal town is Salerno. The Farther Principato is bound¬
ed on the north by the county of Molefe and the Ter-
ra-di-Lavoro, on the weft by the Tufcan Sea, on the
fouth by the Hither Principato, and on the eaft by the
Capitanata. It is about 37 miles in length, and 30
in breadth. The Apennine mountains render the air
cold ; and the foil is not very fertile either in corn or
wine, but it produces chefnuts, and paftures in great
plenty. Benevento is the capital town.
PRINCIPLE, principium, in general, is ufed for
the caufe, fource, or origin of any thing.
Principle, in human nature. See Disposition.
Principle, in fcience, is a truth, admitted without
proof, from which other truths are inferred by a chain
of reafoning. Principles are of two kinds, primary and
general; and to the lad the name of axioms is ufually
given on account of their importance and dignity. An
axiom ox general principle, when the terms in which
it is exprefled are underftood, mud be a felf-evident
truth ; but from its very nature it cannot be afr/l
truth. Our firft truths are all particular. A child knows
that two particular lines, each an inch long, are equal
to one another, before he has formed any general no¬
tions of length and equality. “ Things equal to one
and the fame thing are equal to one another,” is the
1 ’ fir ft;
PHI [ 511 ] PHI
Principle firft of EuclM’s axioms; and an axiom it undoubtedly
Pringle. ^ut to n0 man ^as it been a j[rJl truth. It is, if
we may ufe the expreflion, a genus or clafs of truths
comprehending under it numberlefs individuals. Were
a full-grown man introduced into the world, without
a fingle idea in his mind, as we may fuppofe Adam to
have been, he would inftantly perceive, upon laying
together three pieces of wood each a foot long, that
they were all equal in length; and if he were to cut
another to the fame length with any one of them, he
would find upon trial, that it was of the-fame length
with them all. After a few fimple experiments of this
kind, he would, by a law of human thought, infer that
all things equal in length or in any other dimenfion,
to any one thing, are in that dimenfion equal to one ano¬
ther.
It was not therefore wdth fuch weaknefs as fome
have imagined, that Hobbes affirmed thofe propofitions
commonly called axioms, not to be primary but fecon-
dary principles. A primary principle deferves not the
name of an axiom, as it is only a particular truth in¬
cluding in it no other truth. There is not one of Eu¬
clid’s axioms which has not been the refult of induction,
though we remember not the time at which the induc¬
tion was made. That the whole is greater than any
of its parts is a general truth which no man of com¬
mon fenfe can controvert; but every one difcovered
that truth by obferving that his body was larger than
his head, his foot, or his hand; that a mountain is
larger than a mole-hill in the middle of it ; and that a
piece of timber meafuring what is called a yard is longer
than any one of the divifions marked upon it, and
termed inches. The particular obfervations are made
through the fenfes and treafured up in the memory ;
and the intelleft, by its conllitution, compares them
together, marks in what they agree and difagree, and
thence draws its axioms or general principles. He, there¬
fore, who fhould admit the truth of an axiom, and
deny the evidence of fenfe and perception, would add
as abfurdly as he w’ho accepts payment in a bank-bill,
and refufes it in the individual pieces of gold or filver
which that bill reprefents. General axioms are of
infinite ufe in the purfuits of fcience ; but it is not be-
caufe they create new truths; they only fhorten the
procefs in the difcoveiy of fuch as might be found, with
labour, through the medium of particular propofitions.
See Campbell's Philofophy of Rhetoric and Talbum's Chart
and Scale of‘Truth.
Principles, in phyfics, are often confounded with
elements, or the firft and fimpleft parts whereof natural
bodies are compounded, and into which they are again
refolvable by the force of fire.
PRINGLE (Sir John), an eminent phyfician and
philofopher, was a younger fon of Sir John Pringle of
Stitchel, in the (hire of Roxburgh, Baronet ; took the
degree of M. D. at Leyden, 1730; and publifired there
Dfjertatio Inaugurahs cle Marcore Senili-, qto. After
having been fome years profefibr of moral philofophy
at Edinburgh, he was in June 1745 appointed phyfi¬
cian to the duke of Cumberland, and phyfician-general
to the hofpital of the forces in Flanders, where the
earl of Stair appears to have been his patron. In Fe¬
bruary 1746, Dr Pringle, Dr Armftrong, and Dr
Barker, were nominated phyficians to the hofpital for
lame, maimed, and fick foldiers, behind Buckingham-
houfe j and in April 1749, Dr Pringle was appointed
phyiician in ordinary to the king. In 1750 he pub-
lifhed “ Obfervations on the Nature and Cure of Hof¬
pital and Gaol Fevers, in a Letter to Dr Mead,” 8vo
(reprinted in 1755) ; and in 1752 he favoured the
public with the refult of his long experience in an ad¬
mirable treatife under the title of “ Obfervations on
the Diforders of the Army in Camp and Garrifon,”
8vo. On the 14th of April 1752, he married Char¬
lotte, fecond daughter of Dr Oliver, an eminent phyii¬
cian at Bath. In 1756 he was appointed jointly with
Dr Wintringham (now Sir Clifton Wintringham,Bart.)
phyfician to the hofpital for the fervice of the forces of
Great Britain. A fter the acceffion of his prefent ma-
jefty, Dr Pringle was appointed phyfician to the queen’s
houfehold, 1761; phyfician in ordinary to the queen in
1763, in which year he was admitted of the college of
phylicians in London ; and on the 5th of June 1766,
he w'as advanced to the dignity of a baronet of Great
Britain. In 1772 he was eledtcd prefident of the
Royal Society, where his fpeeches for five fucceffive
years, on delivering the prize-medal of Sir Godfrey
Copley, gave the greateft fatisfaftion. Sir John Pringle
in 1777 was appointed phyfician-extraordinary to the
king. Fie was alfo a fellow of the College of Phyfi¬
cians at Edinburgh, and of the Royal Medical Society
at Paris ; member of the Royal Academies at Paris,
Stockholm, Gottingen, and of the Philofophical So¬
cieties at Edinburgh and Haerlem; and continued pre¬
fident of the Royal Society till November 1778 ; after
which period he gradually withdrew from the world,
and in 1781 quitted his elegant houfe in Pall Mall
(where he had long diftinguifhed himfelf as the warm
friend and patron of literary men of every nation and
profeffion), and made an excurfion to his native coun¬
try. He returned to London in the latter end of that
year ; died greatly beloved and refpe&ed January 18.
1782 ; and having no children, was fucceeded in eftate,
and alfo (agreeably to the limitation of the patent) in
title, by his nephew, now Sir James Pringle, Bart. A-
mong this worthy phyfician’s communications to the
Royal Society, the following are the principal : 1.
“ Some Experiments on Subftances refilling Putre¬
faction,” Phil. Tranf. N° 495, p. 580 ; and N° 496,
p. 525, 550 ; reprinted, with additions, in Martin’s
Abridgment, vol. xi. p. 1365. 2. “ Account of fome
Perfons feized with the Gaol Fever by wrorking in
Newgate, and of the manner by which the Infection
was communicated to one entire Family,” vol. xlviii.
p. 42. At the requeft of Dr Hales, a copy of this
ufeful paper was inferted in the Gentleman’s Magazine,
1753, p. 71, before its appearance in the TranfaCtions.
3. “A remarkable Cafe of Fragility, Flexibility, and
Dilfolution of the Bones,” ib. p. 297. 4. “ Account
of the Earthquakes felt at Brulfels,” vol. xlix. p. 546.
5. “ Account of finking of a River near Pontypool,
in Monmouthfhire,” 'b . 6. “ Account of an
Earthquake felt Feb. A f 7./ along the coall of
England, between Mi' . . nd Dover,” ib. p. 579. 7.
“Account of the L bur D felt at Glafgow and
Dumbarton; alfo of bhov t r of Dud falling on a
Ship between Shetland a d Iceland,” ib. p. 509. 8.
“ Several Accounts ol tin. Fiery Meteor which appeared
on Sunday, November 26. i 758, between eight and nine
at night,” vol. 1. p. 218. 9. “ Account of the Vir¬
tues
Pr'ng'e.
—/
P R I
[
Prinog tues of Soap in difiblving the Stone, in the Cafe of
.11 . the Reverend Mr Matthew Simfon,” il>. p. 22 r. 10.
Pfuifipo. u Account of tiie Effeas of Elearicity in Paralytic
m ' Cafes,” ib. p. 481. And fee a letter to him on that
fubjed from Profeffor Winthorp. “ Some Account
of the Succefs of the Fitrum Cerntum AnUmoniiF was
printed in the Edinburgh Medical Eflays, vol. v.
PRINOS, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
v order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 43d order,
Duma Ice. The calyx is fexfid ; the corolla monopeta-
lous, and rotaceous ; the belly hexafpermous.
PRINTER, a perfon who compofes and takes im-
prefiions from moveable charaders ranged in order, by
means ofTnk, and a prtfs.
PRINTING, the art of taking imprefiions from
charaders or figures, moveable and immoveable, on pa¬
per, linen, filk, &c. There are three kinds of print¬
ing : the one from moveable letters, for books ; ano¬
ther from copper-plates, for pidures ; and the laft from
blocks, in which the reprefentation of birds, flowers,
&c. are cut, for printing calicoes, linen, &c. The full
is called common or letter-prcfs printing ; the fecond,
rolllng-ptefs printing; and the lafl, calico, &c. printing.
The principal difl'erence between the three coniills in
this, that the firil is call in relievo, in dillind pieces ;
the fecond engraven in oreux ; and the third cut in re¬
lievo, and generally Aamped, by placing the block up¬
on the materials to be printed, and Ariking upon the
* back of it. 1
Of the above branches, Letter-press PRINT-
Letter,
jx-efs print¬
ing.
ING is the moA curious, and deferves the molt par¬
ticular notice: for to it aie owing chiefly our de¬
liverance from ignorance and error, the progrefs of
learning, the revival of the fciences, and numberlels
improvements in arts, which, without tins noble inven¬
tion, would have been either loft to mankind, or con-
x fined to the knowledge of a few. “ To the art of print-
TJtility of ing (fays an elegant eflayiit*), it is acknowledged we
th/Sa/r owe ^1C reformation. It has been juAly remarked,
* Dr Knox. ^ 0f Luther had been multiplied only
by the flow procefs of the hand-writing, they mull have
been few, and would have been eafily iupprelled by the
combination of wealth and power : but, poured forth
in abundance from the prefs, they fpread over the land
with the rapidity of an inundation, which acquires
additional force from the efforts ufed to obffrudl its
progrefs.- He who undertook to prevent the difper-
iion of the books once iffaed from the pvefs, attempted
a talk no lefs arduous than the dellrudtion of the hy¬
dra. Refillance was vain, and religion was reformed: and
we who are chiefly interelled in this happy revolution
muff remember, amidll the praifes bellowed on Luther,
that his endeavours had been ineffedlual, unafliAed by
^ the invention of Fauilus.
Good and “ How greatly the caufe of religion has been promo-
evii refult- ted by the art, mull appear, when it is confidered, that
ing from it. place<l thofe facred books in the hand of every
individual, which, bdides that they were once locked
up in a dead language, could not be procured without
great difficulty. The numerous comments on them of
every kind, which tend to promote piety, and to form
the ChriAian philofopher, would probably never have
been cempofed, and certainly would not have extend-
2 ] P R I
ed their beneficial influence, if typography had Hill been Priming^
unknown. Ry that art, the light, which is to illu- —
minate a dark world, has been placed in a lituation
more advantageous to the emiffion of its rays : but if
it has been the means of iliuArating the dodlrines, and
enforcing the practice of religion, it has alfo, particu¬
larly in the prefent age, Aruck at the root of piety and
moral virtue, by propagating opinions favourable to the
fceptic and the voluptuary. It has enabled modern au¬
thors wantonly to gratify their avarice, their vanity,
and their mifanthropy, in diffeminating novel fyAems
fubverfive of the dignity and happinefs of human na¬
ture : but though the perverffon of the art is lamen¬
tably remarkable in thofe volumes which iffue, with of*
’ fenfive profufion, from the vain, the wicked, and the
hungry, yet this good refults from the evil, that as
truth is great and will prevail, fhe muA derive frefh
luAre, by difplaying the fuperiority of her Arength in
the conflidt with fophUlry.
“ Thus the art of printing, in whatever light it is view¬
ed, has deferved refpeft and attention. From the in¬
genuity of the contrivance, it has ever excited mecha¬
nical curioflty ; from its intimate conne&ion with learn¬
ing, it has juAly claimed luflorical notice ; and from its
extenlive influence on morality, politics, and religion,
it is now become a fubjedl of very important fpeculation. 4
“ gut however we may felicitate mankind on the in-^ g^od
vention, there are perhaps thofe who wifh, that, toge'OVert,alanc$
ther with its compatriot art of manufacturing gunpow- ,he bad,
der, it had not yet been brought to light. Of its effects
on literature, they affert, that it has increafed the num¬
ber of books, till they diAradl rather than improve the
mind ; and of its malignant influence on morals, they
complain, that it has often introduced a falfe refinement,
incompatible with the fimplicity of primitive piety and
genuine virtue. With refpeft to its literary ill confe-
quences, it may be faid, that though it produces to the
•world an infinite number of worthlefs publications, yet
true wit and fine compofition wall Hill retain their value,
and it will be an eafy talk for critical difeernment to fe-
leCt tbefe from the furrounding mafs of abfurdity : and
though, with refpea to its moral effe&s, a regard to
truth extorts the confeffion, that it has diffufed immo¬
rality and irrehgion, divulged with cruel impertinence
the fecrets of private life, and fpread the tale of fcandal
through an empire ; yet thefe are evils which will either
fhrink away unobferved in the triumphs of time and
truth over falfehood, or which may, at any time, be fup-
preffed by legiflative interpolition.” < s
Some writers have aferibed the origin of this art to Hiftory oF
the EaA, and affixed a very early period to its inven-the inven¬
tion ; particularly P. Jovius, (HiJLXih. xiv. p. 226. ed.
Florent. 1550), from whom Oforius and many others 1
have embraced the fame opinion. But thefe have evi¬
dently confounded the European mode of printing with
the engraved tablets which to this day are ufed in Chi¬
na. The invention of thefe tablets has been aferibed.by
many writers even to an earlier period than the com-
jnencement of the ChriAian era ; but is with more pro¬
bability affigned, by the very accurate Phil. Couplet, to
the year 930. The Hiftoria Sinenfts of Abdalla, written
in Perfic in 1317, fpeaks of it as an art in very common
ufe. Meerman, vol. i. p. 16. 218, 219, vol.ii. p.186. N.
Trigauit afferts that the Chinefe pradifed the art of
printing
P R I J Ji
^rintinf. printing five centuries before. Count Perre Rezzonico
kui»»-y found at Lyons plates with words and names engraven
by a Nuremberger 1380.
The honour of having given rife to the European me¬
thod has been claimed by the cities of Harlem^ Mentz,
and Strajburg. And to each of thefe it may be afcribed
in a qualified fenfe, a5 they made improvements upon
6 one another.
Otaim of qqie £rfl- teflimony of the inventor is that recorded
tiariem. Hadrian Junius, in his Batavia, p_ 253, ed. Lugd.
Bat. 1588 ; which, though it hath been rejeded by
many, is of undoubted authority. Junius had the re¬
lation from two reputable men ; Nicolaus Galius (a),
who was his fchoolmafter; and Quirimus I alefius, his
intimate and correfpondent. He aferibes it to Lau-
•rentius, the fon of John (iEdituus, or Cuftos, of the
cathedral at HARLEM, at that time a relpeftable
office), upon the teffimony of Cornelius, fome time a
fervant to Laurentius, and afterwards bookbinder to the
cathedral, an office which had before been performed by
Francifcan friars. His narrative was thus: it 1 hat,
walking in a wood near the city (as the citizens of opu¬
lence ufe to do), he began at firft to cut fome letters
upon the rind of a beech-tree ; which for fancy’s fake,
being impreffed on paper, he printed one or two lines,
as a fpecimen for his grand-children (the fons of his
daughter) to follow. This having happily fucceeded,
he meditated greater things (as he was a man of inge¬
nuity and judgment) ; and firft of all, with his fon-in-
law Thomas Peter (who, by the way, left three fons,
• who all attained the confular dignity), invented a more
glutinous writing-ink, becaufe he found the common
ink funk and fpread ; and then formed whole pages of
wood, with letters cut upon them ; of which iort I
have feen fome eflays, in an anonymous work, printed
tmly on one fide, intitled, Speculum nojlra falutu ;. in
which it is remarkable, that in the infancy of printing
{as nothing is complete at its firft invention) the back
fides of the pages were pafted together, that they might
not by their nakednefs betray their deformity. Thefe
fceechen letters he afterwards changed for leaden ones,
and thefe again for a mixture of tin and lead [Jlanneas'}
as a lefs flexible and more folid and durable fubftance.
Of the remains of which types, when they were
turned to wafte metal, thofe old wine-pots were caft,
that are ftill preferved in the family-houfe, which
looks into the market-place, inhabited afterwards by his
Treat-grandfon Gerard Thomas, a gentleman of reputa¬
tion ; whom I mention for the honour of the family,
and who died old a few years fince. A new invention
nevei fails to engage curiofity. And when a commo¬
dity never before feen excited purchafers, to the advan¬
tage of the inventor, the admiration of the art increaf-
ed, dependents were enlarged, and workmen multiplied;
Vol. XV. Part II.
t 1 • P R I
the firft calamitous incident! Among tbefe was one Printing.
John, whether, as we fufpeft, he had ominoufly the —-v—““
name of Faujlus (b), unfaithful and unlucky to his
mafter, or whether it w'as really a perfon of that name,
I (hall not much inquire ; being unwilling to moleft the
filent {hades, who fuffer from a confcioufnefs of their
paft adtions in this life. This man, bound by oath to
keep the fecret of printing, when he thought he had
learned the art of joining the letters, the method of
cafting the types, and other things of that nature,
taking the moft convenient time that wras poflible, on
Chriftmas eve, when every one was cuftomarily employ¬
ed in luftral facrifices, feizes the colle&ion of types, and
all the implements his mafter had got together, and,
with one accomplice, marches off to Amfterdam, thence
to Cologne, and at laft fettled at Mentz, as at an afylum
of fecurity, where he might go to work with the tools
he had ftolen. It is-certain, that in a year’s time, viz.
in 1442, the Doftrinale of Alexander Galius, which was
a grammar much ufed at that time, together with the
Trafts of Peter of Spain, came forth there, from the
fame types as Laurentius had made ufe of at Harlem.”
Thus far the narrative of Junius, which he had fre¬
quently heard from Nicolaus Galius; to whom it was
related by Cornelius himfelf, who lived to a great age,
and ufed to burft into tears upon reflefting on the lofs
his mafter had fuftained, not only in his fubftance, but in
his honour, by the roguery of his feA’ant, his former
affociate and bedfellow. Cornelius, as appears by the
regifters of Harlem cathedral, died either in 1515, or
the beginning of the following year; fo that he might
very well give this information to Nicolaus Galius, who
was fchoohnafter to Hadrian Junius.
Though this oircumftance is probable as to the main
fa£t, yet we muft fet afide the evidence of it in fome
particulars. 1. The firft obvious difficulty is noticed
by Scriverius; “ that the types are faid to be made of
the rind of beach, which could not be ftrong enough to
bear the impreffion of the prefs though this is re¬
moved, if, inftead of the bark, we fubftitute a bough of
the beach. The idea of the bark, when Junius vrrote Rwer tni
this, was perhaps ftrong in his mind, from what Virgil
tells us (Eel. v. 13.) of its being ufual to cut words on
the bark of a beech ; and thence he was eafily led to
make a wrong application of it here.
2. The letters were at firft; •wooden, and are faid to be
afterwards exchanged for metal types ; from which the
wine-pots were formed, remaining in the time of Junius.
According to tradition, printing w'as carried on in the
fame houfe long after the time of Laurentius : thefe
pots might therefore be formed from the wafte metal of
the printing-houfe, after the ufe of fajile types became
univerfal. — But Laurentius feems to have carried the
art no farther than feparate wooden types. What is a
2 T remarkable
(A) Galius feems to be the fame w:ho is called Claes Lottynfz. Gael, Scabinus Harlemi, ac it is in the Fafti of
that city, in the years 1531, 1533, and 1535. Quirinius in the fame Fafti is called Mr Qiuryn Dirkkoon.
He wras many years amanuenfis to the great Erafmus, as appears from his epiftle, 23d jMy 15_29' t°m* iii. Oper.
p. 1222. He was afterwards Scabinus in 1537 & feq. and Conful in 1552 '■* 111 troubles of
Holland he was cruelly killed by the Spaniffi foldiers, May 23. 1573. There are fome letters of Hadrian Junius
to this Talefius, in the p. I9^* . n .
( b ) John Faujl, or Fuji, is by many fuppofed to have derived his name ivom faujlus, “ happy and Dr Fauitus
feems to carry an air of grandeur in the appellation : but very erroneoufly. John Faujl, or b ujl, is no meu
than John Hand, whence our name Fiji.
P R I . f
Printing*, remarkable confirmation of this, bTenry Spiechel, wlio
 wrote, in the 16th century, a Dutch poem intitled
Htrtfpiegel, exprefies himfelf thus : “ Thou firil, Lau-
rentius, to fupply the defect of wooden tablets, adaptedll
wooden types, and -afterwards didft conned them with a
thread, t« imitate writing. A treacherous fervant fur-
reptitioufly obtained the honour of the difeovery. But
truth itfelf, though deftitute of common and wide-fpread
fame ; truth, I fay, ftill remains.” No mention in the
poem of metal types ; a circumftance which, had he been
robbed of fuch, as well as of wooden ones, would fcarcely
have been paffed over in filence.
When Laurent ius firft devifed his rough fpecimen of
the art, can only be guelfed at. He died in 1440, af¬
ter having publifhed the Speculum Belgicum,. and two
editions of Donat us, all with different wooden types;
which it is probable (confidering the difficulties he had
to encounter, and the many artifts whom he mult necef-
farily have had occafion to con full) coll him. fome years
to execute ; fo that the firil efiay might be about 1430,
which nearly agrees with Petrus Scriverius, who fays
the invention was about 10 or 12 years before 144CV
See Laurextius.
3. What was the fpecimen he firll diverted himfelf
with in cutting, at the dillance of three centuries, one
would think impoffible to be difeovered. And yet
Joh. Enfchedius, a printer, thinks he was fo happy as
to find it, being an old parchment Horarium, printed
on both Tides, hi eight pages, containing the Letters of
the Alphabet, the Lord’s Prayer, the Apollles Creed,
and three Ihort prayers. And Mr Meerman having
4 3 P R I
lliown this to proper artids who were judges ef thefc printing,
matters, they gave it as their opinion that it agreed
exadlly with the defeription of Jumps. It is conforma¬
ble to the firll edition of the Dutch Speculum Salvationist
and the fragments of both Donatus's of Holland, both
which are the works of the fame Laurentius, and were
preceded by this. In tliefe types, which are certainly
moveable, cut, and uneven, there is a rudenefs which
Mr Meerman has not obferved in any other inllances.
i here are no numbers to the pages, no fignatures, no
direSion-wcrds, no divifions at the end of the lines ; on
the contrary, a fyllable divided in the middle is feen,
thus, Sp iritii, in p. 8. 1. 2, 3, There are neither dii-
tindtions nor points, which are feen in the other works
of Laurentius; and the letter / is not marked with an
accent, but with a dot at the top. 'I he lines through¬
out are uneven. The (hape of the pages not always
the fame ; not (as they Ihould be) rectangular, but
fomqtimes rhomb-like, fometimes an ifofcele trapezium ;
and the performance feems to be left as a Ipecimen both
of his piety, and of his ingenuity in this elfay of a new
invented art. Mr Meerman has given an exa£l engrav¬
ing of this fingular curiofity.
But, whatever elfe may appear doubtful in the nar¬
rative of Junius, it is very clear, that the firll efi'ays
of the art are to be attributed to Laurentius, who ufed
only feparate wooden types. See the article Lauren¬
tius. 7
II. Some of Laurentius’s types were Itolen from himcla'm
by one of his fervants (c), John Grinshrich fenior ; Meiltz*
who lied therewith to MENTZ. Having introduced
the
(c) Authors differ as to the perfon who committed this robbery. It is clear from all accounts that his name
was John ; but what his furname was is the difputed point. Junius, after fome hefitation, aferibes it to Johii
Full; but with injullice : for he was a wealthy man, who affilted the firll printers at Mentz with money; and
though he afterwards was proprietor of a printing-office, yet he never, as far as appears, performed any part of
the bufinefs with his own hands, and confequently he could never have been a fervant to Laurentius. Nor is
the conjecture of Scriverius better founded, which fixes it upon John Gutenberg, who (as appears by authentic
tellimonies) refided at Straffiurg from 1436 to 1444, and during all that period employed much fruitlefs labour
and expence in endeavouring to attain this art. Mr Meerman once thouglit, “ it might be either John Meiden-
bachius, (who, we are told by Seb. Munller and the author of Chronographia Moguntinenfis, was an affillant to
the firll Mentz printers) ; or John Peterffieimius (who was fome time a fervant to Full and Schoeffer, and fet
up a printing-houfe at Francfort in 1459) : or, lallly, fome other perfon, who, being unable through poverty to
carry on the bulinefs, difeovered it to Geinsfleich at Mentz.” But more authentic intelligence afterwards con¬
vinced him there were two perfons of this name ; and that John Geinsfleich
fenior * was the diflionell fervant, who was born at Mentz, and who in the papers
publilhed by Kohlerus, we find there in the .year 1441, a»d not before: fbr
though he was of a good family, yet he was poor, and feems to have been obliged,
as well as his brother, to feck his livelihood in a foreign country ; and perhaps-
was content to be under Laurentius, that, when he had learned the art, he might
follow it in his own. But, to leave conjeClure, we may produce fome certain
tellimonies.
1. It is what Junius himfelf fays, that the perfon who Hole the types did it with,
a view to fet up elfewhere ; nor is it likely that he would either make no ufe of an
art he had feen fo profitable to Laurentius, or that he would teach it to another
and fubmit to be again a fervant.
2. The Lambeth Record (which is printed below, from Mr Atkyns) tells us,
that “ Mentz gained the art by the brother of one of the workmen of Harlem,
who learned it at home of his brother, who after fet up for himfelf at Mentz.”—
By the ftriftell examination of the bell authorities, it is plain, that by thefe two
brothers the two Geinsfleiches mull be meant. But as the younger (Gutenberg)
was never a fervant to Laurentius, it mull be the fenior who carried off the types,
and inftrufted his brother in the art ; who firll applied himfelf to the bufinefs at
Stralburg, and afte.wards joined his elder brother, who had in the mean time
fettled at Mentz.
* He was called Geinsfleich xar*
(%0X*V' the other was diftinguilhed
by the name of Gutenberg. They,
vtsjre both poor ; though of a familyt
dilttnguilhed by knighthood. They
were hoth married men; and were
mod probably brothers, as it was-
not uncommon in that age for two.
brothers to have the fame Chriftian
name. Thefe both appear in a difrepu-
table light.. The ekleit robbed ills ma¬
iler, with many aggravating circum-
flance*. The youngeit was remark-
ably contentious; and, after enter¬
ing into a contrail of maniage with
Anna, a noble girl of The Iran Gate,
refufed to marry her till compelled
by a judicial decree; and afterwards
cared not what became of the lady.,
but left her behind at Straiburg when
he removed to Muntz. He had not
only frec;uent quarrels with his wife;
but with Andrew Drizehen, Andrew.
Heilmann, and John RitF, all of whom,
were aflbeiated with him at Straf-
tmrg in his differsut employments of
making of looking glades, polifhmg
of precious ftones, and endeavour¬
ing to attain the art of printing : and
with thefe he involved himfelf in
three law-fuits. See Meerman, vol. i.
p. 163, &C. N.
Wha;.
PR I . . [5
TrintiB?. tHe art from Harlem into this his native city, he fet
'""•'V’— with all diligence to cany it on ; and publilhed, in 144Z,
sIlexjindri Galli DoBrinale, and Petri Hisrani Trac-
iatus ; two works, which, being fmall, beft fuited his
circumftances ; and for which, being much ufed in the
fchoolf, he might reafonably expedt a profitable fale.
They were executed with wooden types, cut after the
piodel of thofe he had ftolen.
In 1443 -he hired the houfe Sum ^ungftt * and was
afiiited with money by Fust, a wealthy perfon, who in
return had a fiiare of the bufinefs : and about the fame
time John Meuletibachius was admitted a partner, as were
feme others whofe names are not tranfmitted to our
times ; and in 1444 they were joined by Gutenberg,
who for that purpofe quitted Strafhurg. Woodea
types being found not fufficiently durable, and not an-
fwering expedtation in other relpedls, the two brothers
firll invented cut metal types. But while thefe were pre¬
paring, which muft have been a work of time, feveral
works wrere printed, both on wooden feparate types and
on wooden blocks; which were well adapted to fmall
books of frequent ufe, fuch as the Tabula Alphabetica,
the Catholicon, Donati Grammatica, and the Confejfiona-
Ua.
From the above-mentioned printers in conjundtion, af¬
ter many fmaller efiays, the Bible was publifhed in 1450,
with large cut metal types (d). And it is no wonder,
confidering the immenfe labour this work coft, that it
fhould be feven or eight years in completing. In this
fame year the partnerlhip wras difiblved, and a new one
entered into, in Auguft, between Pu/l and Gutenberg ;
«5 ] P It I
the former fupplying the money, the latter flcill, for Printing,
their common benefit. Various difficulties arifing, 1 » "
occaftoned a law-fuit for the money which Fuft had ad¬
vanced ; which was determined againft Gutenberg. A
difiblution of this partnerfhip enfued in 1455 ; ancl *n
145 7 a magnificent edition of the Pfalter was publifhed
by Fu/i and Scboeffir, with a remarkable commendation,
in which they affumed to themfelves the merit of a new
invention, (viz of metal types), ad inventionem artificiofam
'imprintendi ac charaBer\%andi. This book was uncom¬
monly elegant, and in fome meafure the work of Gu¬
tenberg j as it was fotir years in the prefs, and came
out but 18 months after the partnevfhip was difiblved
between him and Fuft.
’The latter continued in pofleffion of the printing-
office : and Gutenberg, by the pecuniary affifiance of
Conrad Humery fyndic of Mentz (e), and others,
opened another office in the fame city ; whence appear¬
ed, in 1460, without the prirtter’s name, the Gatholicon
Jo. de Janua, with a pompous colophon in praife of its
beautyr, and afcribing the honour of the invention to the
city of Mentz. It was a very’ handfome book, though
inferior to the Pfalter which had been publifhed in 1457
by Full and Schoeffer. Both the Pfalter and Catbolicen
were printed on cut metal types (r). It may not be im¬
proper to obferve here, that as the Pfalter is the earliefl
book which is known to have a genuine date, it be¬
came a common praftice, after that publication, for
printers to claim their own performances, by adding
their names to them.
III. The progrefs of the art has been thus traced
3 T 2 through
What is ftill ftronger, two chronologers of Strafburg, the one named Dan Spek/inus, the other anony¬
mous (in Meerman’s Documenta, n° lxxxv. lxxxvi.), tells us exprefsly’, that John Geinsfkich (viz. the
fenior, whom they diftinguifhed from Gutenberg), having learned the art by being fervant to its JrJl inventor,
carried it by theft into Mentz his native country. They are right in the fa£t, though mifiaken in the
application of it; for they make Strafburg the place of the invention, and Mentelius the inventor, from
•whom the types were ftolen. But this is plainly an error : for Geinsfleich lived at Mentz in 1441, as appears
from undoubted teftimonies; and could not be a fervant to Mentelius, to whom the before mentioned writers
aferibe the invention in 1440, though more ancient ones do not attempt to prove that he began to print before
1444 or 1447* Nor will the narrative agree better with Gutenberg, who was an earlier printer than Mentelius j
fince, among the evidences produced by him in his law-fuit, 1439* no Geinsfleich fenior appears, nor any other
fervant but Laurentius Beildek. The narration therefore of the theft of Geinsfleich, being fpread byr various re¬
ports throngh the world, and fubfifting in the time of thefe chronologers, was applied by them (to ferve the
caufe they wrote for) to Strafhurg ; but ferves to confirm the truth, fince no writer derives the printing fpoils
from any other country than Holland or Alfatia. The chronologers have likevvife, inftead of Fuft, called Guten¬
berg the wealthy man ; who, from all circumftances, appears to have been poor. They alfo call Schoeffer the
fon-in-law of Mentelius ; when it is clear that he married the daughter of Fuft.
(d) Many writers have fuppofed that this was the edition of which fome copies were fold in France, by Fuft,
as manuferipts, for the great price of 500 or 600 crowns, which he afterwards lowered to Go, and at laft to left
than 40. But it was the fecond and more expenfive edition of 1462, that was thus difpofed of, when Fuft
went to Paris in 1466, and which had coft 4000 florins before the third quaternion (or quire of four ftieets) was
prirtted. Meerman, vol. I. p. 6. 151, 152.
( e) At the death of Gutenberg, Conrad Humery took pofleffion of all his printing materials ; and engaged to
the archbifhop Adolphus, that he never w’ould fell them to any one but a citizen of Mentz. They were, howr-
cver, foon difpofed of to Nicholas Bechtermuntze of Altavilla, who, in 1469, publifhed Vocabularium Latino*
Teutonicum, which was printed wfith the fame types which had been ufed in the Catholicon. This very carious
and fcarce Vocabulary was fhown to Mr Meerman, by Mr Bryant, in the Duke of Marlborough’s valuable
library at Blenheim. It is in quarto, gy lines long, contains many extrafts from the Catholicon, and is called Ex
quo, from the preface beginning with thofe words. Meermav, vol. II. p. 96.
(f) Gutenberg never ufed any other than either wooden or cut metal types till the year 1462. In 14-65 he wra9
admitted inter jlulicos by the eleftor Adolphus, with an annual penfion ; and died in February 1468. His eldctf
brother Geinsfleich died in 1462. Their epitaphs are printed by Mr Meerman, vol. IT. p. 154, 295.
F R X
Piintinor. through its fecovd periodj the invention of cut metal types,
  But the honour of completing the difcovery is due to
8 Peter Schof.ffer (g) de Gerniheim.
Invention A very clear account of this final completion of the
of caft tYpes is preferved by Trithemius ( h ). Pojl h<tc inventis
types. juccejjerunt fubtiliora, Inveneruntque modum fundendi for¬
mas omnium Latini alphabeti literarum, quas ipji matrices
nominabant : ex quibus rurfum aneos Jive Jl antic os charac¬
ter es fundebant, ad omnern prejuram fujjiaentes, quos prius
mantbus fculpebant. Et revcra Jicuti ante xxx ferine annos
ex ore Petri Opilionis de Gernjheimt civis Moguntini, qui
gener erat primi artis invent oris, audivi, magnum a primu
inventionis face lute ars imprejjoria habuit dijjicultatcm, — Pe¬
trus aulem memoratus OpUio, tunc famulus pqftea gener, ficut
diximus, invt nt-oris primi, "Johannis Fuji, homo ingeniofus et
prudens, faiiliorem modum fundendi chara&eres excogita-
nit, et artem. ut nunc ejl, complevit.
Another ample teftimony in favour of SehoefFer is
given by Jo. 1 rid. Pauli us of Afchaffenburg, from pa¬
pers preferved in his family:. “ Peter Schoeffer of Gernf-
heim, perceiving his mailer Full’s defign, and being
himfelf ardently defirous to improve the art, found out
(by the good providence of God) the method of cut-
ing (inci lendi) the characters in a matrix, that the let¬
ters might eafily be fingly cnjl, inltead of being cut.
He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet ; and
when he fhowed his mailer the letters call from thefe
matrices, Full was fo pleafed with the contrivance, that
he promifed Peter to give him.his only daughter, Chrif-
tina, in marriage; a promife which he foon after per¬
formed. But there were as many difficulties at firll
with thefe letters, as there had been before with wooden
ones ; the metal being too foft to fupport the force of
the impreffion : but this defedl was foon remedied, by
mixing the metal with a fuhftance which fufficiently
hardened it (i ).”
Full and Schocffer concealed this new improvement,
by adminillering an oath of fecrecy. to all whom they
intrulled, till the year 1462 ; when, by the ditperfion
of their lervants into different countries, at the fackmg
ox Mentz by the archbilhop Adolphus, the invention
was publicly divulged.
The firll book printed with thefe improved types was
Durandi Rationale,, in 1459; at which time, however,
P R I
they feem to have had only one Jbze of cajl letters, alT Printing,
the larger characters which occur being cut types, as ~" -
appears plainly by an infpeCtion of the book. From
this time to 1466, Full and Schoeffer continued to print
a confiderable number of books ; particularly two fa¬
mous editions of Fully's Offices. In their earlieft books,
they printed more copies on. vellum than on paper, which
was the cafe both of their Bibles and Fully's Offices.
This, however, was foon inverted y and paper introdu¬
ced for the greatell part of their imprellions ; a few
only being printed on vellum for curiofities, and for
the purpofe of being illuminated. How long Full lived,
is uncertain ; but in X471 we find Schoeffer was in part-
nerlhip with Conrad Henlif and a kinfman of his mailer
Full. He publilhed'many books after the death of his
father-in-law ; the lall of which that can be di(covered
is a third edition of the Pfalter in 1490, in which the
old cut types of the firft edition were ufed. 9
IV. With regard to the claim of STRASBURG : Claim of
It has been already mentioned, that Gutenberg wa3f^Lra*kur£i-
engaged in that city in different employments ; and,
among others, in endeavouring to attain the art of print¬
ing. That tbefe endeavours wore unfuccefsful,. is plain
from an authentic judicial decree of the fenate of Straf-
burg in 1439,. after the deathof Andrew Drizehen ( k).
But there are many other proofs that Gutenberg
and his partners were never able to bring the art to
perfection.
1. Wimphelingius*, the oldeft. writer in favour of* Epitome
Stralburg, tells us, that Gutenberg was the inventor Qp^erum Oer»
“ a new art of writing,.” ars imprcjforic, which mighte ^
allb be called a divine benefit, and which he happily 1^05,
completed at Mentz; but does not mention one bookMeerman,
of his printing: though he adds, that Mentelius print-vo^ 1-
ed many volumes correctly and beautifully, and acquired^
great wealth ; whence we may. conclude that he per-135,,
fedled what Gutenbero- had in vain effavsd.
2. Wimphelingius, in another bookt, tells us, the t,
art of printing was found out by Gutenberg incomplete;
which implies, not that he pradtifed the art in an im-i_jo8,
perfedl manner (as I,aurentius had done at Harlem), Meerman^
but rather that he had not been able to accomplilh whatut ^uPr*»
he aimed at.
3. Gutenberg, when lie left Straflburg in 1444 or
the
I 5*6 ]
( g) In German, ©djeeffer ; in Latin, Opilio ; in Englifh, Shepherd. He is fuppofed by Mr Meerman to
have been the firll engraver on copperplates.
(h) Annales Hirfaugierfes, tom. ii. ad aim. 1450-—As.tills book.was finifhed in 15x4, anu Trithemius tells
us he had the narrative from Schoeffer himfelf about 30 years before ; this will bring us back to 1484, when
Schoeffer mull have been advanced in years, and Trithemius about 22 years old, who died in 1516. Bee Vojjf.
Hilt. Lat-l, x. c. 10. Fair. Med. & Infim. Ait. 1. 9.
(1) See Meerman, vol. I. 9. 183. who copied this teftimony from Woliius, Monument, Fypograph. voli i. p. 468.
feq. . .... ...
(k) Their firft attempts were made about 143d with wooden types.. Mr Meerman is of opinion that Gemsfleich.
junior (who was of an enterpnfing genius, and had already engaged in a variety of projects) gained forae little
infight into the bufinefs by vifiting his brother who was employed by Laurentius at Haerleim, but not fufficient
to enable him to pradtife it. It is certain that, at the time of the law-fuit in I439> much money had been ex¬
pended, without any profit having arifeu j and the unfortunate Drizehen, in I43^> 011 his death-bed, lamented
to his confeffor, that he had been at great expence, without having been reimburfed a fingle obvlus. Nor did
Gutenberg (who perfifted in his fruitlefs. endeavours) reap any advantage from them ; for, when he quitted/
Strafburg, he was overwhelmed in debt, and under a neceffity of felling every thing he was in pofieffion off
[Meerman, vol. I. p. 198- 202.] All die depofitions in the law-fuit above-mentioned (with die judicial de¬
cree) are printed by Mr Meerman, vol. II. p. 58—88. N.
Printing.
$ Mterm tin
ut fupra.
U Annal.
Hirfauf.
Vt fupra, et
Cbrcn.
Sponheim.
Ste Meer-
tnan, vol.
ii. p. 103.
127.
* ('.bronico .
C./onLc,
10
Introduc¬
tion of the
art into
£ritaiu.
PR1 [
the following year, and entered into partnerihip with
Geinsfleich lenior and others, had occafion for his bro¬
ther’s afiiftance to enable him to complete the art;
which {hows that his former attempts at Strafburg had
been unfuccefsful
4. Thefe particulars are remarkably confirmed by
Trithemius, who tells us, in two different places ||, that
Gutenberg fpent all his fubftance in queft of this art ;
and met with fuch iufuperable difficulties, that, in de-
fpair, he had nearly given up all hopes of attaining it,
till he was affilled by the liberality of Full, and by his
brother’s (kill, in the city of Mentz.
5. Ulric Zell fays * the art was completed at Mentz ;
but that fome books had been publifhed in IF '.Hand
earlier than in that city. Is it Lkely that Zell, who
was a German, wrould have omitted to mention htrai-
burg, if it had preceded Mentz in printing’ ?
There is little doubt therefore that all Gutenberg s
labours at Strafburg amounted to no more than a fruit-
lefs attempt, which he was at laft under the neceffity of
relinquifhing : and there is no certain proof Oi a iingle
book having been printed in that city till after the dii-
perfion of the printers in 1462, when Mentelius and
Eggeftenius fuccefsfully. puifued the bulinefs.
In fine, the pretenfions of Strojburg fall evidently to
be fet afide. And as to the other two cities, Harlem
and Mentz, the difputes between them feem eafily clear¬
ed up, from the twofold invention of printing above-
mentioned : the fir ft with feparate wooden types at
Harlem, by Laurentius, about 1430, and after conti¬
nued by his family ; the other with metal types, firft
mt, and afterwards cajL which were invented at Mentz,
but not ufcd in Holland till brought thither by Theodo-
ric Martens at Aloft about 1472.
From this period printing made a rapid prog refs in
tnoft of the principal towns of Europe. In I49°>
reached Conflantinople ; and, according to Mr Palmer,
p. 2S1, See. it was extended, by the middle of the next
century, to Africa and America. It was introduced
into Ruffia about 1560: but, from motives either of
policy or fuperftition, it was fpeedily fuppreffed by the
ruling powers ; and, even under the prelent enlightened
emprefs, has fcarcely emerged from its obfeurity. —That
it was early praftifed in the inhofpitable regions of Ice¬
land, we have the refpeftable authority of Mr Bryant :
** Arngrim Jonas was born amidft the fnows of Ice¬
land ; "yet as much prejudiced in favour of his country
as thofe who are natives of an happier climate. This
is vifible in his Crymogatt ; but more particularly in his
jinatomt Blefkiniana. I have in my pofTe’flion this cu¬
rious little treatdfc, written in Latin by him in 1ns own
country, and printed Typis Holenfibus in IJlandia Boreali,
anno 1612. Hola is placed in fome maps within the
Arflic circle, and is certainly not far removed {rom it.
I believe it is the fartheft north of any place where arts
and fciences have ever relided.” Observations and Inqui¬
ries relating to various parts of AncientHfiory, I'jO’], p.
277.
It was a conftant opinion, delivered down by ourhifton-
ans, as hath been obferved by Dr Middleton, that the Art
of Printing was introduced and firft prattifed in England
by William Coxton, a mercer and citizen of London ; who,
by his travels abroad, and a reiidence of many years in
Holland, Flanders, and Germany, in the affairs of trade,
had an opportunity of informing himfelf of the whole-
517 1 p R 1
method and procefs of the art; and by the encourage- Printing. _
ment of the great, and particularly of the abbot of v'—’T.
Weftminfter, firft fet up a prefs in that abbey, and be¬
gan to print books foon after the year I471*
This was the tradition of our writers; till a book,
which had fcarce been obferved before the Reftoration,
was then taken notice of by the curious, with a date of
its impreffion from Oxford, anno 1468, and was confi-
dered immediately as a clear proof and monument of
the exercife of printing in that univerfity feveral years
before Caxton began to deal in it.
This book, which is in the public library at Cam¬
bridge, is a fmall volume of 41 leaves in 4U1, with this
title : Expoftio Sancti Jeronieri in Simbolum Apojlolorum
ad Papam Laurentium : and at the end, Explicit ex-
pnftio, iffc- ImpreJJa Oxcnie, iy fnita Anno Domini
M.CCCC.LXVili. xvii die Decembris. Ir
Flic appearance of tins book lias robbed Caxton of ffie firft
a glory that he had long poffeffed, of being the author
of printing in this kingdom ; and Oxford has ever fince m Engian&
carried the honour ol the firft prefs. i he only difficulty was at O**-
was, to account for the filence of hiftory in an event foford.
memorable, and the want of any memorial in the univer¬
fity itfelf concerning the eftablilhinent of a new art a-
mongft them ol fuch ule and beneht to learning. But
this likewife lias been cleared up by the difeovery of a
record, which had lain obfeure and unknown at Lam»
beth-palace, in the Regifter of the See of Canterbury ;
and gives a narrative of the whole tranfa&ion, drawn up
at the very time.
An account of this record was firft publiflied in a thin
quarto volume, in Englifti ; with this title : “ I he O-
riginal and Growth of Printing, colle&ed out of Hi¬
ftory and the Records of this Kingdome r wherein is
alfo demonftrated, that Planting appertaineth to the Pre¬
rogative Royal, and is a Flower ol the Crown of Eng¬
land. By Richard Atkyns, efq. — Whitehall, April the
25. 1 664. By order and appointment of the right ho¬
nourable Mr Secretary Morrice, let this be printed.
Tho. Rycaut. London: Printed by John. S treater, for
the Author. 1664.” 410.
It fets forth in {hart, “ That as foon as the art of
printing made fome noife in Europe, Thomas Bour-
ehier, archbiftiop of Canterbury, moved the then king
(Henry VI.) to ufe all poffible means for procuring a
printing-mould (for fo it. was then called) to be brought
into this kingdom. The king (a good man, and much
given to works of this nature) readily hearkened to the
motion ; and, taking private advice haw to effe<ft his-
defign, concluded it could not be brought about with¬
out great fecrecy, and a confiderable funv of money gi¬
ven to fuch perfon or perfons as would draw off fome
of the workmen of Harlem in Holland; where John
Gutenberg had newly invented it, and was himfelt per-
fonally at work. It was refolved, that lefs than 1000
merks would not produce the defired efterit; towards
which fum the faid archbilhop prefented the king 300
merks. The money being now prepared, the manage¬
ment of the defign was committed to Mr Robert L ur—
nour ; who then was mailer of the robes to the king , and
a perfon moll in favour with- him of any of his condition.
Mr Tumour took to his affiftance Mr Caxton, a citizen
of good abilities, who traded much into Holland ; which
was a creditable pretence, as well for his going, as ftay
in the Low Countries. Mr Tumour was in difguite-
3 t,li6
P R I [ si8
Friftting. teard and hair fhavcn quite off)} but Mr Caxton
appeared known and public. They, having received
the faid fum of iooo merks, went firft to Amllerdam,
then to Leyden, not daring to enter Harlem itfelf; for
the town was very jealous, having imprifoned and ap¬
prehended divers perfons who came from other parts for
the fame purpofe. They ftaid till they had fpent the
whole thoufand merks in gifts and expences : fo as the
king was fain to fend ?oo merks more, Mr Tumour
having written to the king that he had almoft done his
work ; a bargain, as he faid, being Itfuck betwixt him
and two Hollanders, for bringing off one of the under¬
workmen, whofe name was Frederick Corfells (or rather
Corfellis), who late one night ftole from his fellows in
difguife into a veffel prepared before for that purpofe ;
and fo, the wind favouring the defign, brought him fafe
to London. It was not thought fo prudent to fet him
on work at London : bnt, by the archbifhop’s means
(who had been vice-chancellor and afterwards chancellor
of the univerfity of Oxon) Corfellis was carried with a
guard to Oxon ; which guard conLantly watched, to
prevent Corfellis from any pofiible efcape, till he had
made good his promife in teaching them how to print.
So that ai Oxford printing was firlt fet up in England,
which was before there was any printing-prefs or prin¬
ter in France, Spain, Italy,or Germany (except the ci¬
ty of Mentz), which claims feniority, as to printing,
even of Harlem itfelf, calling her city, Urlem Mogun-
tinam artis typographic* inventricem primam ; though it is
known to be otherwife, that city gaining the art by
the brother of one of the workmen of Harlem, who
had learnt it at home of his brother, and after fet up for
himfelf at Mentz. This prefs at Oxon was at leak ten
years before there was any printing in Europe, except
at Harlem and Mentz, where it was but new-born. This
prefs at Oxford was afterwards found inconvenient to
be the foie printing-place of England ; as being too far
from London and the fea. Wherefore the king fet up a
prefs at St Alban’s, and another in the city of Weltmin-
fter, where they printed feveral books of divinity zn<\ phyfic:
for the king (for reafons beft known to himfelf and coun¬
cil) permitted then no law-books to be printed ; nor did any
printer exercife that art, but only fuch as were the king’s
Iworn fervants ; the ktug himfelf having the price and emo¬
lument for printing books.—By this means the art grew
fo famous, that anno prime Richard III. c. 9. when an
aft of parliament wa$ made for reftraint of aliens for
tiling any handicrafts here (except as fervants to na¬
tives), a fpecial provifo was inferted, that ftrangers
might bring in printed or written books to fell at their
pleafure, and exercife the art of printing here, notwith-
1’tanding that aft : fo that in the fpace of 40 or 50
years, by the indulgence of Edward IV. Edward V.
Richard III. Henry VII. and Henry VIII. the Eng-
hlh proved fo good proficients in printing, and grew fo
numerous, as to furnilh the kingdom with books ; and
fo Ikilful, as to print them as well as any beyond the
feas ; as appears by the aft 25 Hen. VIII. c. 15. which
abrogates the faid provifo for that reafon. And it
was further enafted in the faid ftatute, that if any per-
fon bought foreign books bound, he fhould pay 6s. 8d.
per book. And it was further provided and enafted,
that in cafe the faid printers or fellers of books were
un reafon able in their prices, they Ihould be moderated
by the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, the two lords
] P R I
chief juflicea, ar any two of them} who alfo ha<j powe? Priming,
to fine them 3 s. 4d. for every book whofe price fhouhi
be enhanced.— But when they were by charter corpo-
rated with bookbinders, bookfllers, and founders of letters,
3 & 4 Philip and Mary, and called The Company of
Stationers—they kick’d againfi: the power that gave them
life, &c.—Queen Elifabeth, the firft year of her reign,
grants by patent the privilege of foie printing all books
that touch or concern the common laws of England, to
Tottel a fervant to her majelty, wrho kept it entire to
his death ; after him, to one Yell Weirt, another fer¬
vant to her majefty ; after him, to Weight and Norton;
and after them, king James grants the fame privilege to
More, one oi the fignet} which grant continues to this
day, &c.” , J%
b rom the authority of this record, all our later wri- Whether
ters declare Corfellis to be the firll printer in England ; Caxton or
Mr Anthony Wood, the learned Mr Maittaire, Palmer,
and one John Bagford, an indultrious man, who had ^
publilhed propofals for an Hiltory of Printing, (Phil, ten
Pranf. for April 1707). But Dr Middleton has called
in queftion the authenticity of this account, and has ur- '
ged feveral objeftions to it, with the view of fupport-
ing Caxton’s title to the precedency with refpeft to the
introduftion of the art into this country ; of which wre
fhall quote one or two, with the anfwers that have been
made to them.
Objeftion 1.—“ The filence of Caxton concerning a
faft in wkich he is faid to be a principal aftor, is a fuf-
ficient confutation of it: for it wras a conllant cullom
with liim, in the prefaces or conclufions of his wxmks,
to give an hiftorical account of all his labours and tranf-
aftions, as far as they concerned the publifhing and
printing of books. And, what is Hill ftronger, in the
continuation of the Polychronicon, compiled by himfelf,
and carried down to the end of Henry the fixth’s reign,,
he makes no mention of the expedition in quell of a
printer s which he could not have omitted, had it been
true; whillt in the fame book he takes notice of the inven¬
tion and beginning of printing in the city of Mentz.”
Anfwer.—As Caxton makes no mention in his Poly¬
chronicon of his expedition in quef of a printer; fo nei¬
ther does he of his bringing the art into England, which
it is as much a winder he Ihould omit as the other.
And as to his faying that the invention of printing was
at Mentz, he means, of printing on fufile feparate types.
In this he copies, as many others have, from the Faf
ciculus Temporum ; a wrork written in 1470, by Wer-
nerus Rolevinch de Laer, a Carthufian monk, a MS.
copy of which was in the library of Gerard Jo. Volfius
(fee lib. hi. de Hiftor. Latin, c. 6.) ; and afterwards
continued to the year 1474, when it was firlt printed
at Cologne typis Arnoldi ter Huernen. It wras republilhed
in 1481 by Heinricus Wirczburgh de Vach, a Cluniac
monk, without mentioning the name either of the prin¬
ter or of the place of publication. It is plain that Cax¬
ton had one at lealt, or more probably both, of thefe
editions before him, when he wrote his continuation of
Polychronicon, as he mentions this work in his preface,
and adopts the fentiments of its editor. (See Meer-
man, vol. ii. p. 37. and his Bocumenta, N VII. XXIV.
and XXV.)
Obj. 2.- There is a farther circumllance in Caxton’s
hiftory, that it feems inconfiftent with the record; for
we find him Hill beyond fea, about twelve years after
the
p r r
Priqtinf the fuppofed tnnft&ions, “ learning with great charge
U-v-—' anci trouble the art of printing” (Rccule of the Hi/lories
ofTroye, in the end of the 2d and 3d books) ; which
he might have done with eafe at home, if he had got
CorfeSis into his hands, ns the record imports, fo many
years before : ,but he probably learnt it at Cologne,
where he refided in 1471, (Recule, &c. ibid.), and
whence books had been firll printed with date the year
before.”
Anf.—Caxton tells us, in the preface to The H'.Jlory
afTroye, that he began that translation March 1. 1468,
at Bruges; that he proceeded on with it at Ghent;
that he hnilhed it at Cologne in 1471 ; and printed it,
probably, in that city with his own types. He was 30
years abroad, chiefly in Holland ; and lived in the court
of Margaret duchefs of Burgundy, idler of Edward
XV. It was therefore much eafier to print his book at
Cologne, than to crofs the fea to learn the art at Oxford,
But further, there was a fpecial occafion for his print¬
ing it abroad. Corfellis had brought over fo far the
art of printing as he had learned it at Harlem, which
was the method of printing on wooden feparate types,
having the face of the letter cut upon them. But the
art of caJUng metal types being divulged in 1462 by the
workmen of Mentz, Caxton thought proper to learn
that advantageous branch before he returned to Eng¬
land. This method of calling the types was fuch an
improvement, that they looked on it as the original of
printing ; and Caxton, as moll others do, afcribes that
to Mentz.—Caxton was an afiillant with Tumour in
getting off Corfellis ; but it is nowhere fuppofed that
he came with him into England. (See Meerman, vol.
ii. p. 34. B.)
Obj. 3.—“ As the Lambeth record was never heard
of before the publication of Athyn's book, fo it has never
iince been ften or produced by any man ; though the
regifters of Canterbury have on many occaflons been di¬
ligently and particularly fearched for it. They were
examined, without doubt, very carefully by archbilhop
Parker, for the compiling his Antiquities of the Britijh
Church ; where, in the life of Thomas Bourchier, tho’
he congratulates that age on the noble and ufeful in¬
vention of printing, yet he is fdent as to the introduc¬
tion of it into England by the endeavours of that arch¬
bilhop : nay, his giving the honour of the invention to
Strafburg clearly fliows that he knew nothing of the
ftory of Corfellis conveyed from Harlem, and that the
record was not in being in his time, l^almer himfelf
owns, “ That it is not to be found there now ; for that
the late earl of Pembroke allured him, that he had em¬
ployed a perfon for fome time to fearch for it, but in
vain {Hifl. of Printing, p. 314.) On thefe grounds
we may pronounce the record to be a forgery ; though
all the writers above-mentioned take pains to fupport its
credit, and call it aa authentic piece.
Atkyns, who by his manner of writing feems to have
been a bold and vain man, might poflibly be the inven¬
tor; for he had an interell in impoflng it upon the
world, in order to confirm the argument of his book,
that printing was of the prerogative royal; in oppofition
to the company of Jtationers, with whom he was engaged
in an expenfive fuit of law, in defence of the king’s pa¬
tents, under which he claimed Jorne exclufive powers of
printing. For he tells us, p. 3. * That, upon conli-
dering the thing, he-could not but think that a public
[ 5*9 1
P R I
perfon, more eminent than a mercer, and a public purfe, Pnivfing,
mull needs be concerned in fo public a good-: and the
more he confidered, the more inquifitive he was to find
out the truth. So that he had formed his hypothefis
before he had found his record ; which fie publilhed, he-
fays, as a friend to truth ;1 not to fuffer one man to be
intitled to the worthy atchievements of another ; and as
a friend to himfelf, not to lofe one of his bell arguments
of entitling the king to this art.’ But, if Atkyns was
not himfelf the contriver, he was impofed upon at leall
by fome more crafty man; who imagined that his interell
in the caufe, and the warmth that he lliowed in profecu-
ting it, would induce him to fwallow for genuine what¬
ever was offered of the kind.”
Anf.—On the other hand, is it likely that Mr Atkyns
would dare to forge a record, to be laid before the king
and council, and which his adverfaries, with whom he
was at law, could difprove ?—(2.) pie fays he received
this hillory from a perion of honour, who was fome time
keeper of the Lambeth library. It was eafy to have
confuted this evidence, if it was falfe, when he publilhed
it, April ay. 1664.--(3.) John Bagford (who was
born in Eagland 1651, and might know Mr Atkyns,
who died in 1677), in his Hiilory of Printing at Ox¬
ford, blames thole who doubted of the authenticity of
the Lambeth MS.; and tells us that he knew Sir John
Birkenhead had an authentic copy of it, when in 1665’
[which Bagford by fome millake calls 1664, and is fol¬
lowed in it by Meerman] he was appointed by the houfe
of commons to draw up a bill relating to the exercife
of that art. This is confirmed by the Journals of that
houfe, Friday Oft. 27. 1665. vol. VIII. p. 622. where
it is ordered, that this Sir John Birkenhead Ihould carry
the bill on that head to the houfe of lords for their con-
fent.—The aft was agreed to in'the upper houfe on
T uefday Oft. 31. and received the royal affent on the
fame day ; immediately after which the parliament was
prorogued. See Journals of the Houfe of Lords, Vol.
XL p. 700.—It is probable, then, that after Mr
Atkyns had publilhed his book in April 1664, the par¬
liament thought proper, the next year, to inquire into
the right of the king’s prerogative ; and that Sir John
Birkenhead took care to infpeft the original, then in
the cullody of archbilhop Sheldon : and, finding it not
fufficient to prove what Mr Atkyns had cited it for,
made no report of the MS. to the houfe ; but only mo¬
ved, that the former law Ihould be renewed. The MS.
was probably never returned to the proper keeper of it ;
but was afterwards burnt in the fire of London, Sept.
13. 1666.—(4.) That printing was praftifed at Ox¬
ford, was a prevailing opinion long before Atkyns. Bry¬
an T wyne, in his Apologia pro Antiquit ate Academiee Ox-
onienfis, publilhed 16.08, tells us, it is fo delivered down
in ancient writings ; having heard, probably, of this
Lambeth MS. And king Charles I. in his letters pa¬
tent to the Univerlity of Oxford, March 5. in the ele¬
venth of his reign, 1635, mentions printing as brought
to Oxford from abroad. As to what is objcfled, “ that
it is not likely that the prefs Ihould undergo a ten or
eleven years lleep, viz. from 1468 to 1479,” it is pro¬
bably urged without foundation. Corfellis might print
feveral books without date or name of the place, as Ul-
ric Zell did at Cologne, from 1467 to 1473, and from
that time to 1494. Corfellis’s name, it may be faid,
appears not in any of his publications; but neither does
4 that
P R I f ^20 ] P R I
Printing, that of Joannes Peterniemius. [See Meerman, vol. I.
  p. 34.; vol. II. p. 21—27, &c.
Further, the famous Shakelpeare, who was born in
1564, and died 1616, in the Second Part of Henry VI.
aft iv. fc. 7. introduces the rebel John Cade, thus up¬
braiding Lord Treafurer Say : “ Thou haft molt traite-
roufly corrupted the youth of the realm, in creating a
grammar-fchool: and whereas, before, our forefathers
had no other book but the fcore and the tally, thou haft
caufed Printing to be ufed ; and, contrary to the king,
bis crown, and dignity, thou haft built a paper-mill.” —
Whence now had Shakefpeare this accufation againft
lord Say ? We are told in the Poetical Regifter, vol. II.
p. 231. ed. Lond. 1724, that it was from Fabian, Pol*
Vergel, Hall, Holling'ftied, Grafton, Stow, Speed, &c.
But not one of thefe afcribes printing fo the reign of
Henry VI. On the contrary, Stow, in his Annals,
printed at London 1560, p. 686, gives it exprefsly to
William Caxton, 1471. “ The noble fcience of printing
was about this time found out in Germany at Magunce,
by one John Guthumburgus a knight. One Conradus
an Almaine brought it into Rome : William Caxton of
London mercer, brought it into England about the
year 1471, and firft praftifed the fame in the Abbie of
St Peter at Weflminfter ; after which time it was like-
wife praftifed in the Abbies of St Auguftine at Can-
terburie, Saint Albons, and other monafteries of Eng¬
land.” What then ftiall we fay, that the above is an
anachronifm arbitrarily put into the mouth of an igno¬
rant fellow out of Shakefpeare’s head ? We might be¬
lieve fo, but that we have the record of Mr Atkyns con¬
firming the fame in king Charles II.’s time. Shall we
fay, that Mr Atkyns borrowed the Itory from Shake¬
fpeare, and publilhed it with fome improvements of
money laid out by Henry VI. from whence it might
be received by Charles II..as a prerogative of the crown ?
But this is improbable, fince Shakefpeare makes Lord
Treafurer Say the inftrument of importing it, of whom
Mr Atkyns mentions not a word. Another difference
there will ftill be between Shakefpeare and the Lambeth
MS.; the poet placing it before 1449, in which year
Lord Say was beheaded; the MS. between 1454 and
1459, when Bourchier was archbiftiop.. We muft fay,
then, that lord Say firft laid the fcheme, and fent fome
one to Harlem, though without fueeefo; but after fome
years it was attempted happily by Bonrchrer. And
we muft conclude, that as the generality of writers have
overlooked the invention of printing at Harlem with
wooden types, and have aferibed it to Mentz where metal
types were firft made ufe of; fo in England they have
paffed by Corfellis (or the firft Oxford Printer, whoever
be was, who printed with wooden types at Oxford), and
only mentioned Caxtou as the original artift who prin¬
ted with metal types at Weltminfter. [See Meerman,
vol. ii. 7, 8. J It is ftrange, that .the learned commen¬
tators on our great dramatic poet, who are fo minutely
particular upon iefs important occafions, fhould every
one of them, Dr Johnfon excepted, pafs by this curious
paffage, leaving it entirely unnoticed. And how has
Dr Johnfon trilled, by llightly remarking, “ that Shake-
fj^eare is a little ton early with this accufation 1”—The
great critic had undertaken to decipher obfolete words,
and inveftigate unintelligible phrafes; but never, per¬
haps-, bellowed a thought on Caxton or Corfellis, on
Mr Atkyns or the authenticity of the Lambeth Re- Printing.’
cord. —"v """"4
But, independent of the record altogether, the book
Hands firm as a monument of the exerclfe of printing in
Oxford fix years older than any book of Caxton’s with
a date. In order to get clear of this ftrong faft Dr
Middleton,
1. Suppofes the date in queftion to have been falfified
originally by the printer either by defign or miftake; and
an X to have been dropped or omitted in the age of its
impreffion. Examples of this kind, he fays, are common
in the hiftory of printing. And, “ whilft I am now
writing, an unexpefted inftance is fallen into my hands,
to the fupport of my opinion ; an Inauguration Speech of
the IVoodwatdian Profejfor, Mr Mafon, juft frelh from
the prefs, with its date given 10 years earlier than it
ftiould have been, by the omiflion of an x, viz.
moccxxiv; and the very blunder exemplified in the laft
piece printed at Cambridge, which I fuppofe to have
happened in the firft from Oxford.” —To this it has
been very properly anfwered. That we fhould not pre¬
tend to fet afide the authority of a plain date, without
very ftrong and cogent reafons; and what the Doftor
has in this cafe advanced will not appear, on examina¬
tion, to carry that weight with it that he feems to ima¬
gine. There may be, and have been, miftakes and for¬
geries in the date both of books and of records too ;
but this is never allowed as a reafon for fufpefting fuch
as bear no mark of either. We cannot from a blunder
in the laft book printed at Cambridge, infer a like blun¬
der in the firft book printed at Oxford. Befxdes, the
type ufed in this our Oxford edition feems to be no
fmall proof of its antiquity. It is the German letter,
and very nearly the fame with that ufed by Fuft [who
has been fnppofed to bej the firft printer; wLereas
Caxton and Rood ufe a quite different letter, fomething
between this German and our old Englifh letter, which
was foon after introduced by De Worde and Bynfon.
2. “ For the probability of his opinion (he fays),
the book itfelf affords fufficicxit proof; for, not to infill
on what is lefs material, the neatnefs of the letter, and re¬
gularity of the page, &c. above thofe of Caxton, it has
one mark, that feems to have carried the matter beyond
probable, and to make it even certain, viz. the vfe of fig-
natures, or letters of the alphabet placed at the bottom
of the page, to ihow the fequel of the pages and leaves
of each book ; an improvement contrived for the direc¬
tion of the bookbinders ; which yet was not praftiled
or invented at the time when this book is fuppofed to
be printed ; for we find no fignatures in the books of
Fault or Schocffer at Mentz, nor in the improved or
beautiful impreflions of John de Spira and Jenfon at
Venice, till feveral years later. We have a book in our
library, that feems to fix the very time of their invention,
at leaft in Venice; the place where the art itfelf received
the greateft improvements: Baldi le&ura juper Codic.
&c. printed by fohn de Colonia and Jo. Manthem de
Gherretxem, anno mccccexxuii. It is a large and fair
volume in folio, without fignatures, till about the middle
of the book, in which they are lirff introduced, and fo
continued forward : which makes it probable, that the
firft thought of them wras fuggefted during the impref¬
fion ; for we have likewife Ledura Bartholi fuper Codic.
&c. in two noble and beautiful volumes in folio, printed
the
p It I
r 52* t
P R I
iKc year before at the fame place, by Vindelin de Spira,
without them: yet from this time forward they are ge¬
nerally found in all the works of the Venetian printers,
and from them propagated to the other printers of Eu¬
rope. They were uied at (l) Cologne, in 1475; at
Paris, 1476 ; by Caxton, not before 1480 : but if the
difcovery had been brought into England, and pra&ifed
at Oxford 12 years before,it is not probable that he would
have printed fo long at Weftminiler without them.
Mr Palmer indeed tells us, p. 54, 180, that Anthony
Zarotwas efteemed the inventor of fignatures; and that
they are found in a Terence printed by him at Milan
in the year 1470, in which he firft printed. I have not
feen .hat Terence; and can only fay, that I have ob-
ferved the want of them in fome later works of this,
as well as of other excellent printers of the fame place.
But, allowing them to be in the Terence, and Zarot
the inventor, it confutes the date of our Oxford book
as effectually as if they were of later origin at Venice ;
as I had reafon to imagine, from the teitimony of all
the books that I have hitherto met with.” As to
thefe proofs, firft, the neatnefs of the letter, and the re¬
gularity of the page, prove, if any thing, the very re-
verfe of what the Doftor afferts. The art of printing
was almoft in its infancy brought to perfection; but af¬
terwards debafed by later printers, who confulted rather
the cheapnefs than the neatnefs of their work. Our
learned differtator cannot be unacquainted with the la¬
bours of Euft and Jenfon. He muftknow, that though
other printers may have printed more correCtly, yet
fearce any excel them, either in the neatnefs of the
letter, or the regularity of the page. The fame may
be obferved in our Englifh printers. Caxton and
Rood were indifferently good printers ; De Worde and
Pynfon were worfe ; and thofe that follow them moft
abominable. This our anonymous Oxford printer excels
them all; and for this very reafon we Ihould judge him
to be the moft ancient of all. Our differtator lays great
ftrefs on the ufe of fignatures. But no certain conclu-
fion can be drawn either from the ufe or non-ufe of
thefe leffer improvements of printing. They have in
different places come in ufe at different times, and have
not been continued regularly even at the fame places.
If Anthony Zarot ufed them at Milan in 1470, it
is certain later printers there did not follow his exam¬
ple; and the like might happen alfo in England. But,
what is more full to our purpofe, we have in the Bod¬
leian library an JEfop’s Fables printed by Caxton.
This is, it is believed, the firft book which has the
leaves numbered. But yet this improvement, though
more ufeful than that of the fignatures, was difufed
both by Caxton himfelf and other later printers in Eng¬
land. It is therefore not at all furprifing (if true) that
Vol. XV. Part II.
the fignatures, though invented by our Oxford printer, Printing,
might not immediately come into general ufe. And * r“'1-
confequently, this particular carries with it no fuch
certain or effectual confutation as our differtator boafts
of.
3. What the DoCtor thinks farther confirms his opi¬
nion is, “ That, from the time of the pretended date of
this book, anno 1468, we have no other fruit or produc¬
tion from the prefs at Oxford for 11 years next follow¬
ing ; and it cannot be imagined that a prefs, eftablifhed
with fo much pains and expence, could be fuffered to
be fo long idle and ufelefs.”—To this it may be an-
fwered, in the words of Oxonides, iff, That his books
may have been loft. Our firft printers, in thofe days
of ignorance, met with but fmall encouragement; they
printed but few books, and but few copies of thofe
books. In after-times, when the fame books were re¬
printed more correCUy, thofe firft editions, which were
not as yet become curiofities, were put to common ufes.
This is the reaibn that we have fo few remains of our
firft printers. We have only four books of Theodoric
Rood, who feems by his own verfes to have been a very
celebrated printer. Of John Lettou-William de Mach-
linia, and the fchoolmafter of St Alban’s, we have fcarce
any remains. If this be conlidered, it will not appear
impojjible that our printer Ihould have followed his bufi-
nefs from 1468 to 1479, and yet time have deftroyed
his intermediate works. But, 2dly, We may account
ft ill another way for this diftance of time, without alter¬
ing the date. The Civil Wars broke out in 1469:
this might probably oblige our Oxford printer to Ihut
up his prefs; and both himfelf and his readers be other-
wife engaged. If this were the cafe, he might not re¬
turn to his work again till 1479; and the next year,
n®t meeting with that encouragement he deferved, he
might remove to fome other country with his types.
Dr Middleton concludes with apologizing for his
“ fpending fo much pains on an argument fo inconfider-
able, to which he was led by his zeal to do a piece
of juftice to the memory of our worthy countryman
William Caxton ; nor fuller him to be robbed of the
glory, fo clearly due to him, of having^fry? imported in¬
to this kingdom an art of great ufe and benefit to man¬
kind : a kind of merit that, in the fenfe of all nations,
gives the belt title to true praife, and the bell claim to
be commemorated with honour to pofterity.” j.
The faft, however, againft which he contends, but The real
which it feems impoflible to overturn, does by no means claims of
derogate from the honour of Caxton, who, as has been
ftiown, was the firft perfon in England that pra&ifed the rcfpeit-V(;.
art of printing with fufile types, and confequently the firft ly.
who brought-it to perfe&ion ; whereas CorfelUs printed
with feparate cut types in rivoodt being the only method
3 U which
(l) Dr Middleton is miftaken in the time and place of the invention of fignatures. *lhey are to be found
even in very ancient MSS. which the earlieft printers very ftudioufiy imitated ; and they were even ufed in fome
editions from the office of Lawrence Coffer (whence Corfellis came), which confiited of wooden cuts, as in Fi-
gurx typica et antitypuee Novi Tejlamenti; and in fome editions with metal types, as in Oafp. Pergamerjis epijloLz, pub-
liffied at Paris, without a date, but printed A. D. 1470, (Maittaire*, Annal. vol. i. p. 25.) ; and in Mnmmetretlus,, gee
printed by Helias de Llouffen, at Bern in Switzerland, 1470; and in De Tondeli vtftone, at Antwerp, 1472.
Venice, therefore, was not the place where they were firft introduced.—They began to be ufed in Paldus, it
feems, when the book was half linilhed. The printer of that book might not know, or did not think, of the
tife of them before. See Meerman, vol. ii. p. 18. j and Phil. TranJ. vol xxiii. n° 208. p. I5°9*
P R I [ 52
Printing. he ]iad learned at Harlem. Into this detail,
^ ' therefore, we have been led, not fo much by the im¬
portance of the queilion, as on account of feveral anec¬
dotes conne&ed with it, which feemed equally calculated
to fatisfy curiofity and afford entertainment.
Caxton had been bred very reputably in the way of
1 P R I
Whereof tld au&or Walter Hilton was
And Wynkyn de Worde this hath fett in print
In William Caxftons hows fo fyll the cafe,
God reft his foule. In joy ther mot it ftynt.
Impreflus anno falutis MCCCGLXxxxiin.
Pr'ni?RR
trade, and ferved an apprenticefhip to one Robert Large
a mercer; who, after having been fheriff and lord mayor
of London, died in the year 1441, and left by will, as
may be feen in the prerogative-office, xxim merks to
his apprentice William Caxton: a confiderable legacy in
thole days, and an early teftimonial of his good character
and integrity.
From the time of his mafter’s death, he fpent the
following thirty years beyond fea in the bufinefs of mer-
chandife: where, in the year 1464, we find him employ¬
ed by Edward IV. in a public and honourable negocia-
tion, jointly with one Richard Whitehill, Efq; to tranf-
arit and conclude a treaty of commerce between the
king and his brother-in-law the duke of Burgundy, to
whom Flanders belonged. The commiffion ftyles them,
ambaffiatores, procuratores, nuncivs, & deputatos fpeciaus ;
and gives to both or either of them full powers to treat,
&c.
Whoever turns over his printed works, muft contract
a refperit for him, and be convinced that he preferved
the fame character through life, of an honeft, modeft,
man ; greatly induftrious to dt> good to his country, to
the beft of his abilities, by fpreading among the people
fuch books as he thought ufeful to religion and good
manners, which were chiefly tranflated from the French.
The novelty and ufefulnefs of his art recommended him
to the fpecial notice and favour of the great; under
whole protection, and at whofe expence, the greateft
part of his works were publiihed. Some of them are
addreffed to king Edward IV. his brother the duke of
Clarence, and their filler the duchefs of Burgundy ; in
whofe fervice and pay he lived many years before he
began to print, as he often acknowledges with great
gratitude. He printed likewife for the ufe, and by
the exprefs order, of Henry VII. his fon prince Ar¬
thur, and many of the principal nobility and gentry of
that age.
It has been generally afferted and believed, that ail
his books were printed in the abbey of Weltminfter;
yet we have no affurance of it from himfelf, nor any
mention of the place before tire year 1477 : fo that
he had been printing feveral years without telling us
where.
There is no clear account left of Caxton’s age: but
he was certainly very old, and probably above fourfeore,
at the time of his death. In the year 1471 he com¬
plained of the infirmities of age creeping upon him,
and feebling his bodyyet he lived 23 years after,
and purfued his bufinefs, with extraordinary diligence,
in the abbey of Weftminfter, till the year 1494, in
which he died; not in the year following^ as all who
write of him affirm. This appears^ from fome verfes
at the end of a book, called “ Hilton’s Scale of Per-
ieflion,” printed in the fame year:
Infynite laud with thankynges many folde
\ yieid to God me focouryng with his grace
! his boke to finyffie which that ye beholde
Scale of Perfection ealde in everyplace
Though he had printed for the ufe of Edward IV.
and Henry VII. yet there appears no ground for the
notion which Palmer takes up, that the firft printers,
and particularly Caxton, were fworn fervants and prin¬
ters to. the crown ; for Caxton, as far as can be obfer-
yed, gives not the leaft hint of any fuch chara&er or
title ; though it feems to have been inftituted not long
after his death ; for of his two principal workmen,
Richard Pynfon and Wynkyn de Worde, the one was
made printer to the king, the other to the king’s mo¬
ther the Lady Margaret. Pynfon gives himfelf the firft
title, in The imitation of the Life of Chrijl; printed by
him at the commandment of the Lady Margaret, who
had tranflated the fourth book of it from the French,
in the year 1504: and Wynkyn de Worde affumes the
fecond, in The feven Penitential Pfalms, expounded by
Biffiop Fiflrer, and printed in the year 1509. But there
is the title of a book given by Palmer, that feems to
contradict, what is here faid of Pynfon : viz. Pfalterium
ex mandato vidloriofjfimi Anglia: Regis Henrici Septimi, per
GulielmumFanque, imprejforem regium, ?mno mdiiii; which
being the only work that has ever been found of this
printer, makes it probhble that he died in the very year
of its impreffion, and was fucceeded immediately by
Richard Pynfon. No book hath yet been difeovered
printed in Scotland in this period, though the Englifli
printers were able to export fome of their works to
other countries. See Henry’s Hijlory of Great Britain,
vol.v. p.471.. ’ T4
Before 1465, the uniform chara&er was the old Go-Different
thic or German ; whence our Black was afterwardschara<a:ers
formed. But in that year an edition of La&antius was^"^1'1'4
printed in a kind of SembGothic, of great elegance, pdntmg. >
and approaching nearly to the prefent Roman type ;
which laft was firft ufed at Rome in 1467, and foon af¬
ter brought to great perfection in Italy, particularly by
Jenfon.
Towards the end.of the 5th century, Aldus invent¬
ed the Italic character which is now in ufe, called, from
his name, Aldine or curftvns. This fort of letter he
contrived, to prevent the great number of abbreviations
that were then in ufe. ty
The firft effays in Greek that can be difeoveredof the
are a few fentences which occur in the edition of Tul- <^ree!1
ly’s Offices, 1^65, at Mentz ; but thefe were miferably■
incorret and barbarous, if we may judge from the fpe- •!
cimens Mr Maittaire has given us, , of which the follow¬
ing is one :
OTjcaraaxafT^axaTa xct< rararaxa.
In. the fame year,* 1465, was publiffied an edition o£
Latantius’s Infiitutes, printed in monafierio Suhlacenfi,
in the kingdom of Naples, in which the. quotations from
the Greek authors are printed in a very neat Greek
letter. They ieem to have had but a very fmall quan¬
tity of Greek types in the monaftery ; for, in the firft
part of the work, whenever a long fentence occurred, a
blank was left, that it might be written in with a pen :
alter the middle of the work, however, all the Greek
that occurs is printed.
5 The
P R I [5.
Printing. The fir ft printers who fettled at Rome were Conrad
4*—v  Svveynheim and Arnold Pannartz, who introduced t|e
prefent Roman type, in 1466, in Cicero’s Epi/lola Fa-
mi/iares: in 1469 they printed a beautiful edition of
/lulus Gellius, with the Greek quotations in a fair cha-
rafter, without accents or fpirits, and with very few ab¬
breviations.
The firft whole book that is yet known is the Greek
Grammar of Conftantine Lafcaris, in quarto, revifed by
Demetrius Cretenfis, and printed by Dionyfius Palavi-
finus, at Milan, 1476. In 1481, the Greek Pfalter
was printed here, wdth a Latin tranflation, in folio; as
was /Efop’s Fables in quarto.
Venice foon followed the example of Milan ; and in
i486 were publifhed in that city the Greek Pfalter and
the Batrachomyvmachia, the former by Alexander, and
the latter by Laonicus, both natives of Crete. They
were printed in a very uncommon character ; the latter
of them with accents and /pints, and alfo writh fcholia.
In 1488, however, all former publications in this
language were eclipfed by a fine edition of HomePs
Works at Florence, in folio, printed by Demetrius, a
native of Crete. Thus printing (fays Mr Maittaire,
p. 185.) feems to have attained its of perfeftion,
after having exhibited molt beautiful fpecimens of La¬
tin, Greek, and Hebrew.
In 1493, a fine edition of Ifocrates was printed at
Milan, in folio, by Henry German and Sebaftian ex
Pantremulo.
All the above works are prior in time to thofe of
Aldus, who has been erroneoufly fuppofed to be the
iirjl Greek printer: the beauty, however, corre&nefs,
and number of his editions, place him in a much higher
rank than his predecelfors ; and his characters in gene¬
ral were more elegant than any before ufed. He was
born in 1445, an^ died in 1515.
Though the noble Greek books of Aldus had railed
an univerfal defire of reviving that tongue, the French
were backward in introducing it. The only pieces
printed by them wrere fome quotations, fo wretchedly
performed, that they wrere rather to be gueffed at than
read ; in a character very rude and uncouth, and with¬
out accents. But Francis Tiflard introduced the ftudy
of this language at Paris, by his BiSkoc » in
1507 ; and that branch of printing was afterwards fuc-
ccfsfully praCtifed by Henry, Robert, and Henry Ste¬
phens. Sec the article Stephens.
The earliefl edition of the nvhole Bible was, ftriCtly
fpeaking, the Complutenfian Polyglott of Cardinal
Ximenes; but as that edition, though finilhed in 1517,
was not publiihed till 1522, the Venetian Septuagint
of 1518 may properly be called the firft edition of the
whole Greek Bible ; Erafmus having publilhed the New
the firft Teftament only at Bafil in 1516.
Hebrew A very fatisfa&ory account of Hebrew printing is
printing thus given by Dr Kennicott in his Annual Accounts of
the Collation of Hebrew MSS. p. 11 2. “ The method
which feems to have been originally obferved in print*
ing the Hebrew Bible was juft what might have been
expefted-: 1. The Pentateuch in 1482. 2. The Prior
Prophets, in .1484. 3. The Pollerior Prophets, in i486.
4. The Hagiographa, in 1487. And, after the four
great parts had been thus printed feparately (each with
a comment), the whole text (without a comment) was
juiuted in one volume in 1488; and the text continue
13 1 p r 1
to be printed, as in thefe firft editions, fo in feveral Printing,
others lor 20 or 30 years, without marginal Keri or
Major a, and with greater arguments to the more an¬
cient MSS. till about the year 1520 fome of the Jews
adopted later MSS. and the Mafora; which abfurd pre¬
ference has obtained ever fince.”
1 hus much for the ancient editions given by Jews. i
In 1642 a Hebrew Bible was printed at Mantua un¬
der the care of the molt learned Jews in Italy. This
Bible had not been heard of among the Chriftians in
this country, nor perhaps in any other; though the
nature of it is very extraordinary. The text indeed is
nearly the fame with that in other modern editions; but
at the bottom of each page are various readings, amount¬
ing in the whole to above 2000, and many of them of
great confequence, collected from manufcripts, printed
editions, copies of the Talmud, and the works of the
moft renowned Rabbies. And in one of the notes is
this remark :—“ That in feveral paffages of the He¬
brew Bible the differences are fo many and fo great,
that they know not which to fix upon as the true
readings.”
We cannot quit this fubjeCt without obferving, on
Dr Kennicott’s authority, that as the firft printed
Bibles are more correCt than the latter ones ; fo the va¬
riations between the firft edition, printed in 1488, and
the edition of Vander Hooght, in 1705, at Amfterdam,
in 2 vols 8vo, amount, upon the whole, to above 12001
bee further Bowyer and Nichols, p. 112—117.
When the art of printing was fivlt difcovered, they te#
only made ufe of one fide of a page : they had not yet printing,
found out the expedient of imprelling the other. When
their editions were intended to be curious, they omit¬
ted to print the firft letter of a chapter, for which they
left a blank fpace, that it might be painted or illumina¬
ted at the option of the purchafer. Several ancient vo¬
lumes of thefe early times have been found, where thefe
letters are wanting, as they negleCted to have them
painted.
When the art of printing was firft eftablifhed, it was
the glory of the learned to be correftors of the prefs
to the eminent printers. Phyiicians, lawyers, and bi-
fhops themfelves, occupied this department. The prin¬
ters then added frequently to their names thofe of the
corre&ors of the prefs ; and editions were then valued
acccording to the abilities of the corrector.
In the productions of early printing may be diftin-
guifhed the various fplendid editions they made of Pri¬
mers or Prayer-books. They were embelliihed with cuts
finifhed in a moft elegant tafte : many of them were lu¬
dicrous, and feveral were obfcene. In one of them an'
angel is reprefented crowning the Virgin Mary, and
God the Father himfelf afiifting at the ceremony. We
have feen in a book of natural hiftory the Supreme Be¬
ing reprefented as reading on the feventh day, when he
relted from all his works. Sometimes St Michael is
feen overcoming Satan ; dnd fometimes St Anthony ap¬
pears attacked by various devils of moft hideous forms.
The Prymer of Salijbury, 1533, ^ °* cuts: at the
bottom of the title page there is the following remark¬
able prayer:
God be in my Bede,
And in my Underftandynge.
God be in my Even,
And in my Lokynge.
3U2
God
Frinting.
C——y——i
l8
Method of
printing.
Plate
CCCCXV.
P R I [ J24 1 P R I
God be in my Mouthe,
And in my Spekynge.
God be in my Herte,
And in my thinkinge.
God be at myn ende.
And at my departynge.
The workmen employed in the art of printing are of
two kinds : compofitors, who range and difpofe the let¬
ters into words, lines, pagesr &c. according to the copy
delivered them by the author; and preflmen, who apply
ink upon the fame, and take off the impreffion. The
types being caff, the eompofttor diftributes each kind
by itfelf among the divilions of two wooden frames, an
upper and an under one, called cafes ; each of which is
divided into little cells or boxes. rI hofe of the upper
cafe are in number 98 : thefe are all of the fame lize ;
and in them are difpofed the capitals, fmall capitals,
accented letters, figures, &c. the capitals being placed
in alphabetical order. In the cells of the lower cafe,
which are 54, are placed the fmall letters, with the
points, fpaces, &c. The boxes are here of different
fizes, the largeft being for the letters molt ufed ; and
thefe boxes are not in alphabetical order, but the cells
which contain the letter oftenell wanted are nearelt
the compofitor’s hand. Each cafe is placed a little
aflope, that the compofitor may the more eafily reach
the upper boxes. The inftrument in which the letters
are fet is called a compofingfluk (n-1 1.), which confifts
of a long and narrow plate of brafs or iron, &c. on the
right fide of which arifes a ledge, which runs the whole
length of the plate, and ferves to fuftain the letters, the
fides of which are to reft agamft it; along this ledge is
a row of holes, which ferve for introducing the fcrew a,
in order to lengthen or Ihorten the extent of the line,
by moving the lliders b c farther from or nearer to the
fhorter ledge at the end d. Where marginal notes are
required in a work, the two Hiding pieces b c are open¬
ed to a proper diftance from each other in fuch a man¬
ner as that while the diftance between d c forms the
length of the line in the text, the diftance between the
two Hiding-pieces forms the length of the lines for the
notes on the fide of the page. Before the compofitor
proceeds to compofe, he puts a rule or thin flip oi brafs-
plate, cut to the length of the li»e, and of the fame
height as the letter, in the compofing-ftick, againft the
ledge, for the letter to bear againft. Things thus pre¬
pared, the compofitor having the copy lying before him,
and his ftick in his left-hand, his thumb being over the
Aider c ; with the right he takes up the letters, fpaces,
&c. one by one, and places them againft the rule, while
he fupports them with his left thumb by prefiing them
to the end of the Aider c, the other hand being con-
flantly employed in fetting in other letters : the whole
being performed with a degree of expedition and ad-
drefs not ealy to be imagined.
A little being thus compofed, if it end with a word
or fyllable, and exadtly fill the meafure, there needs no
further care ; otherwife, more fpaces are to be put in,
or elie the diftances leffened, between the feveral words,
in order to make the meafure quite full, fo that every
line may end even. The fpaces here ufed are pieces of
metal exadtly (haped like the flianks of the letteis : they
are of various thickneffes, and ferve to fupport the let¬
ters, and to preferve a proper diftance between the
words; but not reaching fa high as the letters, they PHntiag
make no imprefiion when the work is printed. The 'r~mm
firft line being thus finiftied, the compofitor proceeds to’
the next; in order to which he moves the brafs-rule
from behind the former, and places it before it, and thus
compofes another line againft it after the fame manner
as before; going on thus till his ftick is full, when he
empties all the lines contained in it into the gaily.
The compofitor then fills and empties his compofing-
ftick as before, till a complete page be formed ; when
he ties it up with a cord or pack-thread; and fetting
it by, proceeds to the next, till the number of pages to
be contained in a flieet is completed ; which done, he
carries them to the impdfing-ftone, there to be ranged
in order, and faftened together in a frame called a chafe;
and this is termed impoftng. The chafe is a reftangular
iron frame, of different dimenfions according to the fize
of the paper to be printed, having two crofs-pieces of
the fame metal, called a long andJhort crofs, mortifed at
each end fo as to be taken out occafionally. By the
different fituations of thefe croffes the chafe is fitted for
different volumes: for quartos and O&avos, one traverfes
the middle lengthwife, the other broadwife, fo as to in-
terfedl each other in the centre : for twelves and twen-
tv-fours, the fiiort crofs is fhifted nearer to one end of
the chafe ; for folios, the long crofs is left entirely out,
and the ftiort one left in the middle ; and for broad-
fides, both croffes are let afide. To drefs the chafe, or
range and fix the pages therein, the compofitor makes
ufe of a fet of furniture, confifting of flips of wood of
different dimenfions, and about half an inch high, that
they may be lower than the letters: fome of thefe are
placed at the top of the pages, and called bea.t-Jlicks ;
others between them, to form the inner margin ; others
on the fides of the croffes, to form the outer margin,
where the paper is to be doubled ; and others in the
form of wedges to the fides and bottoms of the pages.
Thus all the pages being placed at their proper diftan-
ces, and fecured from being injured by the chafe and
furniture placed about them, they are all untied, and
faftened together by driving fmall pieces of wood called
quoinsy cut in the wedge-form, up between the flanting
fide of the foot and the fide fticks and the chafe, by
4
means of a piece of hard wood and a mallet; and all
being thus bound fall together, fo that none of the let¬
ters will fall out, it is ready to be committed to the
preffmen. In this condition the work is called a form ;
and as there are two of thefe forms required for every
flieet, when both fides are to be printed, it is neceffary
the diftances between the pages in each form (hould be
placed with fuch exaftnefs, that the impreffion of the
pages in one form ftiall fall exa&ly on the back of the
pages of the other, which is called regijle-.
As it is impoflible but that there muft be fome mif-
takes in the work, either through the overfight of the
compofitor, or by the cafual tranfpofition of letters in
the cafes ; a (beet is printed off, which is called a proof,
and given to the corrector; who reading it over, and
rectifying it by the copy, making the alterations in the
margin, it is delivered back to the compofitor to be cor¬
rected.
rI he compofitor then unlocking the form upon the
correCting-ftone, by loofening the quoins or wedges
which bound the letters together, rectifies the miitakes
by
P R I
f 5*5 1
P R I
Printi'r:#-
Plate
GCCCXV
bv picking out the faulty or wrong letters with a lien'
der fharp-pointed fteel-bodkin, and putting others into
their places. After this another proof is made, fent to
to the author, and corre&ed as before ; andlaftly, there
is another proof called a rtvife, which is made in order
to fee whether' all the miflakes marked in the lall proof
are corre&ed. .
The preflman’s bufxnefs is to work oft the forms thus
prepared and corre&ed by the competitor; . in doing
which there are four things required, paper, ink, balls,
and a prefs. To prepare the paper for ufe, it is to be
firft wetted by dipping feveral Iheets together in water:
thefe are afterwards laid in a heap over each other ; and
to make them take the water equally, they are all pref-
fed dole down with a weight at the top. The ink is
made of oil and lamp-black ; for the manner of prepa¬
ring which, fee Printing-lNK. The balls, by which the
ink is applied on the forms, are a kind of wooden fun¬
nels with handles, the cavities of which are filled with
wool or hair, as is alfo a piece of alum leather or pelt
nailed over the cavity, and made extremely foft by
focking in urine and by being well rubbed. One of
thefe the preffman takes in each hand; and applying
one of them to the ink-block, daubs and works them
together to diftribute the ink equally; and then black¬
ens the form which is placed on the prefs, by beating
with the balls upon the face of the letter..
The printing-prefs, reprefented n’ 2. is a very cu*
* rious though complex machine. The body confifts of
two llrong cheeks a a, placed perpendicularly, and join¬
ed together by four crofs-pieces ; the cap b ; the head
c, which is moveable, being partly fuftained by two iron
pins or long bolts, that pafs the cap ; the till or fhelf
dd, by which the fpindle and its apparatus are kept in
their proper polition ; and the winter e, which bears
t}ie carriage, and lulfauis the effort of the prefs beneath.
The fpindle / is an upright piece of iron pointed with
fleel, having a male ferew which goes into the female
one in the head about four inches. Through the eye g
of this fpindle is faftened the bar /•, by which the preff-
man makes the imprefiioru The fpindle paffes through
a hole in the middle of the till; and its point works in¬
to a brafs pan or nut, fupplied with oil, which is fixed
to an iron plate let into the top of the platten. I he
body of the fpindle is fuftained in the centre of an open
frame of polifhed iron, I, I, 2, 2, 3> 3’ it in
fuch a manner as, without obftru&ing its free play, to
keep it in a fteady dire&ion ; and at the fame time te
ferve for fufpending the platten. This frame confifts
of two parts ; the upper called the garter, i, I ; the
under, called the crane, 2, 2. Thefe are conne&ed to¬
gether by two fhort legs or bolts, 3> 3 5 which being
fixed below in the two ends of the crane, pafs upward,
through two holes in the till, and are received at top
into two eyes at the ends of the garter, where they are
fecured by ferews. The carnage / / is placed a foot
below the platten, having its fore-part lupported by a
prop called the fore-fiay, while the other refts on the
winter. On this carriage, which fuftains the plank,
are nailed two long iron bars or ribs ; and on the plank
are nailed fhort pieces of iron or fteel called cramp irons,
equally tempered with the ribs, and which Hide upon them
when the plank is turned in or o,ut. Under the carriage
is fixed a long piece of iron called the Jpit, with a double
wheel in the middle, round which leather-girts are faf- ^1"‘in^,1
tened, nailed to each end of the plank: and to the out- * "v
fide of the fpit is fixed a rounce m, or handle to turn
round the wheel. Upon the plank is a fquare frame or
coffin, in which is inclofed a polifhed ftone on which
the form n is laid; at the end of the coffin are three
frames, vi%. the two tympans and frifket: the tympans
o are fquare, and made of three flips of very thin wood,
and at the top a piece of iron ftill thinner; that called
the outer tympan is faftened with hinges to the coffin :
they are both covered with parchment; and between
the two are placed blankets, which are neceffary to take
off the impreffion of the letters upon the paper. The
frifket /> is a fquare frame of thin iron, faftentd with
hinges to the tympan : it is covered with paper cut in
the neceffary places, that the fheet, which is put be¬
tween the frifket and the great or outward tympan,
may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the
margins. To regulate the margins, a fheet of paper
is faftened upon this tympan, which is called the tympan
feed; and on each fide is fixed an iron point, which
makes two holes in the fheet, which is to be placed on
the fame points when the impreffion is to be made on
the other fide. In preparing the prefs for working,
the parchment which covers the outer tympan is wetted
till it is very foft, in order to render the impreffion
more equable ; the blankets are then put in, and fecured
from flipping by the inner tympan: then while one
prefsman is beating the letter with the balls q, covered
with ink taken from the ink-block, the other perfon
places a fheet of white paper on the tympan-fheet;
turns down the frifket upon it, to keep the paper clean
and prevent its flipping ; then bringing the tympans.
upon the form, and turning the roimce, he brings
the form with the ftone, &c. weighing about 300 lbs.
weight, under the platten ; pulls with the bar, by
which means the platten preffes the blankets and paper
clofe upon the letter, whereby half the form is printed;
then eafing the bar, he draws the form ftill forward ;
gives a fecond pull; and letting go the bar, turns back
the form, takes up the tympans and frifket, takes out
the printed fheet, and lays on a frefh one ; and this is
repeated till he has taken off the impreffion upon the
full number of fheets the edition is to confift of. One
fide of the fheet being thus printed, the form for the
other is laid upon the prefs, and worked off in the fame
manner.
Chinefe Printing, is performed from wooden planks
or blocks, cut like thofe ufed in printing of callico,
paper, cards, &c.
Rolling-orefs Printing, is employed in taking off
prints or impreffions from copperplates engraven, etch¬
ed, or feraped, as in mezzotintos. See Engraving.
This art is laid to have been as ancient as the year
1540, and to owe its origin to Finiguerra, a Floren¬
tine goldfmith, who pouring fome melted brimftone
on an engraven plate, found the exa& impreffion of
the engraving left in the cold brimftone, marked with
black taken out of the ftrokes by the liquid fulphur:
upon this he attempted to do the fame on filver plates
with wet paper, by rolling it fmoothly with a roller ;
and this fucceeded : but this art was not ufed in Eng¬
land till the reign of king James I. when it was brought,
from Antwerp by Speed, The form of the rolling-
6 prefs.
P R I
Printing, prefs, the compofition of the ink ufed tlierein, and the
—^ manner of applying both in taking oil prints, are as fol¬
low.:
Plate The rolling-prefs AL, n° 3. may be divided into two
CCCCXV, partSj the body and carriage: the body confifts of
two wooden cheeks PP, placed perpendicularly on a
iland or foot LM, which fuftains the whole prefs.
prom the foot likewife are four other perpendicular
pieces c, cy c, cy joined by other crofs or horizontal
ones d, d, d, which ferve to fuftain a fmooth even plank
or table HIK, about four feet and a half long, two feet
ynd a half broad, and an inch and a half thick. Into the
cheeks go two wooden cylinders or rollers, DE, FG,
about fix inches in diameter, borne up at each end by
the cheeks, whole ends, which are leffened to about
two inches diameter, and called trunnions, turn in the
cheeks about two pieces of wood in form of half¬
moons, lined with polilhed iron to facilitate the mo¬
tion. Laftly, to one of the trunnions of the upper rol¬
ler is faftened a crofs, confifting of two levers AB, or
pieces of wood, traverfing each other, the arms of
which crofs ferve inftead of the bar or handle of the
letter-prefs, by turning the upper roller, and when the
plank is between the two rollers, giving the fame mo¬
tion to the under one, by drawing the plank forward
and backward.
The ink ufed for copperplates, is a compofition
made of the Hones of peaches and apricots, the bones
of Iheep and ivory, all well burnt, and called Frank¬
fort black, mixed with nut-oil that has been well boil¬
ed, and ground together on a marble, after the fame
manner as painters do their colours.
The method of printing from copperplates is as
follows: They take a fmall quantity of this ink on a
rubber made of linen-rags, ftrongly bound about each
other, and therewith fmear the whole face of the plate
as it lies on a grate over a charcoal fire. The plate be¬
ing fufficiently inked, they fxrlt wipe it over with a
foul rag, then with the palm of their left hand, and
then with that of the right; and to dry the hand and
forward the wiping, they rub it from time to time in
whiting. In wiping the plate perfectly clean, yet
without taking the ink out of the engraving, the ad-
drefs of the workman confilts. The plate thus prepa¬
red, is laid on the plank of the prefs ; over the plate
is laid the paper, firit well moiitened, to receive the
impreffion ; and over the paper two or three folds of
flannel. Things thus difpoied, the aims of the crofs
are pulled, and by that means the plate with its furni¬
ture palled through between the rollers, which pinching
very itrongly, yet equally, prefles the moiltened paper
into the lirokes of the engraving, whence it licks out
the ink.
Prints, the impreffions taken from a copperplate.
See the latl article, and Engraving.
Strutt's From the facility of being multiplied, prints have
T>i{t. of derived an advantage over paintings by no means incon-
Engravers. fiderable. They are found to be more durable ; which
may, however, in fome degree be attributed to the dif¬
ferent methods in which they are preferved. Many of
the bell paintings of the early mailers have generally
had the misfortune to be either painted on walls, or de-
polited in large and unfrequented, and confequently
damp and deltm&iye, buddings; vvhilft a print, palling,
p R I
at diltant intervals, from the portefeuille of one cotle&or Printing,
to that of another, is preferved without any great exer- Prior-
tion of its owner : And hence it happens, that whillt
the pictures of Raphael have mouldered/ from their walls,
or deferted their canvas, the prints of his friend and co¬
temporary Mark Antonio Raimondi continue in full
perfedtion to this day, and give us a lively idea of the
beauties of thofe paintings, which, without their alfilt-
ance, had been loll to us for ever; or at leall, could
have been only known to us, like thofe of Zeuxis and
Apelles, by the deferiptions which former writers on
thefe fubjedts have left us.
Independent of the advantages which prints afford
us, when confidered as accurate reprefentations of paint¬
ings, and imitations of fuperior produdlions, they are
no lefs valuable for their pofitive merit, as immediate
reprefentations of nature. For it muff be recolledted,
that the art of engraving has not always been confined
to the copying other produ&ions, but has frequent¬
ly itfelf afpired to originality, and has, in this light,
produced more inllances of its excellence than in the
other. Albert Durer, Goltzius, and Rembrandt,
amongft the Dutch and Germans ; Parmigiano and
Della Bella amongft the Italians, and Callot amongft
th$ French, have publithed many prints, the fubjedts of
which, there is great reafon to fuppofe, were never
painted. Thefe prints may therefore be confidered as
original pidtures of thofe mailers, deficient only in thofe
particulars in which a print muft neceffarily be inferior
to a painting.
The preceding diftindlion may perhaps throw fome
light on the proper method of arranging and clafling a
colledtion of prints, which has been a matter of no fmall
difficulty. As an art imitating another, the princi¬
pal fhould take the lead, and the delign, compofition,
and drawing, in a print, being previous requifites to the
manner of execution and finifhing ; prints engraved af¬
ter paintings fhould be arranged under the name of the
painter; and every perfon who looks upon engraving
only as auxiliary to painting, will confequently adopt
this mode of arrangement. But when engraving is
confidered as an original art, as imitating nature with¬
out the intervention of other methods, then it will cer¬
tainly be proper to regulate the arrangement according
to the names of the engravers.
PRIOR, in general, fomething before or nearer
the beginning than another, to which it is compared.
Prior, more particularly denotes the fuperior of a
convent of monks, or the next under the abbot. See
Abbot.
Priors are either clavflral or conventual. Conven¬
tual are the fame as abbots. Claujlral prior, is he
who governs the religious of an abbey or priory in
commendam, having his jurifdidtion wholly from the
abbot.
Grand Prior, is the fuperior of a large abbey,
where feveral fuperiors are required.
Prior (Matthew), an eminent Englifh poet, w?as
born at London in 1664. His father dying while he
was very young, an uncle a vintner, having given him
fome education at Weilminfter fchool, took him home
in order to breed him up to his trade. However, at
his leiiure hours he prolecuted his ttudy of the daf¬
fies, and efpecially of his favourite Horace, This in¬
troduced
t 526 1
I
P R I
Prior, trorfuced him to fome polite company, who frequent-
““"V—'1 e(i his uncle’s houfe ; among whom the earl of Dor-
fet took particular notice of him, and procured him to
be fent to St John’s college in Cambridge, where, in
j 686, he took the degree of A. B. and afterwards be¬
came fellow of that college. Upon the revolution, Mr
Prior was brought to court by the earl of Dorfet; and
in 1690 he was made fecretary to the earl of Berkeley,
plenipotentiary at the Hague; as he was afterward
to the ambafiador and plenipotentiaries at the treaty
of Ryfwick in 1697; and the year following to the
carl of Portland, ambaffador to the court of France.
He was in 1697 made fecretary of Hate for Ireland;
and in 1700 was appointed one of the lords commif-
fioners of trade and plantations. In 1710, he was
fuppofed to have had a ftiare in writing The Examiner.
In 1711, he was made one of the commiflioners of the
culloms; and was fent minilter plenipotentiary to
France, for the negotiating a peace with that king¬
dom. Soon after the acceffion of George I. to the
throne in 1714, he prefented a memorial to the court
of France, requiring the demoliihing of the canal and
new works at Mardyke. The year following he was
recalled; and upon his arrival wTas taken up by a
warrant from the houfe of commons, and ftridtly exa¬
mined by a committee of the privy-council. Robert
Walpole, Efq; moved the houfe of commons for an
impeachment againft him ; and Mr Prior was ordered
into clofe cuftody. In 1717, he was excepted out of
the aft of grace ; however, at the clofe of that year*,
he was fet at liberty. Tire remainder of his days he
fpent in tranquillity and retirement and died in 1721.
His poems are well known, and juftly admired. He
is faid to have written the following epitaph for him-
** Nobles and heralds, by your leave,
Here lie the bones of Matthew Prior,
The fon of A dam and of Eve :
Let Bourbon or Naffau go higher.”
j4t!en Priories, were cells of the religious houfes In
England which belonged to foreign monalterxes : for
when manors or tithes were given to foreign convents, the
monks, either to increafe their own rule, or rather to
have faithful ftewards of their revenues, built a fmall
convent here for the reception of fuch a number as they
thought proper, and conftituted priors over them.—
Within thefe cells there was the fame dnlinction as in
thofe priories which were cells fubordinate to fome
great abbey ; fome of thefe were conventual, and, ha¬
ving priors of their own choofing, thereby became entire
focieties within themfelves, and received the revenues
belonging to their feveral houfes for their own ufe and
benefit, paying only the ancient apport (a), acknow¬
ledgment, or obvention, at firil the furplufage, to the
foreign houfe ; but others depended entirely on the fo¬
reign houfes, who appointed and removed their priors
at pleaiure. Thefe tranfmitted all their revenues to
the foreign head houfes; for which reafon their eftates
were generally feized to carry on the wars between
t 527 1
P R I
England and France, and reftored to them again on re¬
turn of peace. Thefe alien priories were moil of them
founded by fuch as had foreign abbeys founded by them-
felves or by fome of their family.
The whole number is not exaftly afeertained ; the
Monafticon hath given a lift of 100 : Weever, p. 338^
fays 11 o.
Some of thefe cells were made indigenous or deni¬
zen, or endenized. The alien priories were firft feized
by Edward I. 1285^ on breaking out of the war
between France and England ; and it appears from a
roll, that Edward II. alfo feized them, though this is
not mentioned by our hiftorians; and to thefe the aft
of reftitution 1 Ed. III. feems to refer.
In 1337, Edward III. confifcated their eftates,
and let out the priories themfelves with all their lands
and tenements, at his pleafure, for 23 years ; at the
end of which term, peace being concluded between the
two nations, he reftored their eftates 1361, as appears
by his letters patent to that of Montacute, county of So-
merfet, printed at large in Rymer, vol. vi. p. 311. and
trauflated in Weever’s Funeral Monuments, p. 339. At
other times he granted their lands, or lay penfions out
of them, to divers noblemen. They were alfo feoue-
ftered during Richard II.’s reign, and the head mona-,
fteries abroad had the king’s licence to fell their lands to
other religious houfes here, or to any particular perfons
who’wanted to endow others.
Henry IV. began his reign with fhowing fome fa¬
vour to the alien - priories, reftoring all the conventual
ones, only referving to hinrrfelf in time of war what they
paid in time of peace to the foreign abbeys.
They were all diffolved by aft of parliament 2.
Henry V. and all their eftates veiled in the crown,
except fome lands granted to the college of Fothering-
hay. The aft of diftolution is not printed in the fta-
tute books, but it is to be found entire in Rymer’s Fa¬
der a, IX. 283. and in the Parliament Rolls, vol. iv.
p. 22. In general, thefe lands were appropriated to-
religious ufes. Henry VI. endowed his foundations at
Eton and Cambridge with the lands of the alien prio¬
ries, in purfuance of his father’s defign to appropriate
them all to a noble college at Oxford. Others were
granted in fee to the prelates, nobility, or private pe.r-
fons. Such as remained in the crown-were granted by
Henry VI. 1440, to archbifhop Chichley, &c. and-
they became part of his and-the royal foundations.
See Some Account of Alien-Priories, 8cc. in two volumes
oftavo.
PRIORITY, the relation of fomething confidered
as prior to another. ' ,
Priority, in law, denotes an antiquity of tenure,
in comparifon of another lefs ancient.
PRISCIANUS, an eminent grammarian, born at
Ccefarea, taught at Conftantindple with great reputa¬
tion about the year 525. Laurentius Valla calls Pri-
feian, Donatus,. and Servius, triumviri in re grammatica ;
and thinks none of the ancients who wrote after them
fit to be mentioned with them. He compofed a work
De arts grammatica, which was firft printed by Aldus
at
Prior
II
Prifcianus.
. —.i.
(a) Apportus or apport agium (from port ere), an acknowledgment, oblation, or obvention, to the mother houfe
Fu Cange.
or church.
P R I [ 528 1 P R I
prifcillla' at Venice in 1476 ; and another De naturalilus qua-
JHonibus, which he dedicated to Chofroes king of Per-
Pri^i9 fia: befxde which, he tranflated Dionyfius’s defcrip-
., n , tion of the world into Latin verfe. A perfon who
writes falfe Latin, is proverbially laid to “ break Prii-
cian’s head.”
PRISCILLIANTSTS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian
heretics, fo called from their leader Prifcillian, a Spa¬
niard by birth, and biihop of Avila. He is faid to
have pra&ifed magic, and to have maintained the prin¬
cipal errors of the Manichees ; but his peculiar tenet
was, That it is lawful to make falfe oaths in order to
fupport one’s caufe and interefts.
PRISM, an oblong folid, contained under more
than four planes, whofe bafes are equal, parallel, and
alike fituated. See Optics, nJ 142.
PRISON, a gaol, or place of confinement.
Lord Coke obferves, that a prifon is only a place
of fafe cuftody, fal<va cujlodia, not a place of punifh-
ment. If this be fo, and it cannot be queftioned, pri-
fons ought not to be, what they are in moll parts of
of Europe, loathfome dungeons. Any place where
a perfon is confined may be faid to be a prifon; and
when a procefs is iffued againft one, he muft, when
arrefted thereon, either be committed to prifon, or be
bound in a recognizance with fureties, or elfe give bail,
according to the nature of the cafe, to appear at a cer¬
tain day in court, there to make anfwer to what is al¬
leged againft him. Where a perfon is taken and fent
to prifon, in a civil cafe, he may be releafed by the
plaintiff in the fuit ; but if it be for treafon or felony,
he may not regularly be difeharged, until he is inditted
of the faft and acquitted. See Indictment, and the
next article.
PRISONER, a perfon reftrained or kept in prifon
upon an aftion civil or criminal, or upon commend-
ment: and one may be a prifoner on matter of record
or matter of faft. A prifoner upon matter of record,
is.he who, being prefent in court, is by the court com¬
mitted to prifon ; and the other is one carried to pri¬
fon upon an arreft, whether it be by the Iheriff, con-
ftable, or other officer.
PRISTIS, the sawfish, is generally confidered
as a fpecies of the fqualus or Jhark genus, comprehending
under it ieveral varieties. Mr Latham, however, is of
opinion that it ought to be confidered as a diftintft ge¬
nus itfelf, and that the charafteriftics of the feveral
varieties are fufficient to conftitute them diftinft fpe¬
cies. According to him therefore the prijlis is a genus
belonging to the order of amphibia nantes ; and its cha-
rafters are as follow 5 A long plane beak or fnout, with
{pines groVing like teeth out of both edges ; four or
five fpiracula, or breathing apertures, in the fides of the
rteck : the body is oblong and almoft round, with a
rough coriaceous ikin ; the mouth is fituated in the
lower part of the head ; and the noftrils, before the
mouth, are half covered with a membranaceous lobe;
behind the eyes are two oval holes ; the ventral fins ap¬
proach one another, and in the male are placed about
the organs of generation ; there are no fins at the anus.
Ox this genus our author enumerates five fpecies.
I. Prijlis antiquorum. The head is rather flat at top;
-the eyes large, with yellow irides; behind each is a
hole, which fome have fuppofed may lead to an organ
ef hearing. The mouth is well furniffied with teeth,
but they are blunt, ferving rather to bruife its prey
than to divide it by cutting. Before the mouth are ''“"'V
two foramina, fuppofed to be the noftrils. The ro-
Jirum% beak, or fnout, is in general about one-third of
the total length of the fifn, and contains in fome 18,
in others as far as 23 or 24 fpines on each fide; thefe
are very ftout, much thicker at the back-part, and
channelled, inclining to an edge forwards. The fins
are feven in number—viz. two dorfal, placed at fome
diftance from each other—two peftoral, taking rife
juft behind the breathing-holes, which are five" in num¬
ber— two ventral, fituated almoft underneath the firlt
dorfal—and laftly the caudal, occupying the tail both
above and beneath, but longeft on the upper part. The
general colour of the body is a dull grey, or brownifh,
growing paler as it approaches the belly, where it is
nearly white, z. Pe8\natus> which, with the former
fpecies, grows to the largeft fize of any that have yet
come under the infpeftion of the naturalift, fome fpe-
cimens meafuring 17 feet in length. The pe&inatus
differs from the priftis antiquorum, in having the fnout
more narrow' in proportion at the bafe, and the w'hole
of it more flender in all its parts ; whereas the firft is
very’broad at the bafe, and tapers confiderably from
thence to the point. The fpines on each fide alfo are
longer and more flender, and vary from 25 to 34 in the
different fpecimens: we have indeed been informed of
one which contained no lefs than 36 fpines on each fide
of the fnout; but w-e muft confefs that we have never
been fortunate enough to have feen fuch a fpecimen.
3. Cufpidatus, of Which our author has feen only tw-o
fpecimens, the one about a foot and a half in length,
and the other more than two feet and a half. In both
of thefe were 28 fpines on each fide ; but the diftin-
guifhing feature is in the fpines themfelves, being par¬
ticularly fiat and broad, and ihaped at the point more
like the lancet ufed by furgeons in bleeding, than any
other figure. We believe that no other author has
hitherto taken notice of this fpecies. 4. Microdon, of
which the total length is 28 inches, the fnout occupy¬
ing 10 ; from the bafe of this to that of the pedtoral
fins four inches ; between the peftoral and ventral fins
fix. The two dorfal fins occupy nearly the fame pro¬
portions in refpedt to each other; but the hinder one
is the fmalleft, and all of them are greatly hollowed
out at the back-part, much more fo than in the tw'o
firft fpecies. The fnout differs from that of every
other, in feveral particulars : it is longer in proportion,
being more than one-third of the wdiole fiffi. The
fpines do not ftand tout from the fides more than a
quarter of an inch, and from this circumftance feem
far lefs capable of doing injury than any other fpecies
yet known. 5. Cirratus, of which, continues our au¬
thor, we have only met with one fpecimen, which w-as
brought from Port Jackfon in New Holland. It is a
male, and the total length about 40 inches : the fnout,
from the tip of it to the eye, 11 : the fpines widely
different from any of the others; they are indeed
placed, as ufual, on the edge, but are continued on
each fide even beyond the eyes. The longer ones are
flender, fharp, fomewhat bent, and about 20 in num¬
ber ; and between thefe are others not half the length
of the primal ones, between fome three or four, be¬
tween others as far as fix ; and in general the middle
one of thefe fmaller feries is the longeft : befide thefe a
feries
/
p r i r 52
Trivft^cffre feriej of miRUtc ones rnay be perceived beneath, at the
1!. very edge. In the fnout likewife another fmgularity
privative.. ,_about the middle of it, on each fide, near
"""' the edge, ariles a flexible, ligamentous cord, about
three inches and a half in length, appearing not un¬
like the beards at the mouth of fome of the gadus or
cod genus, and no doubt as pliant in the recent ftate.
The colour of the fifli is a pale brown : the. breathing
apertures four in number : the mouth furnifhed with
five rows of minute, but very (harp teeth. See Plate
CCCCXVI. where the fnout marked 1 is that of the
priftis antiquorum ; that marked 2, of pedlinatus ; and
that marked 4, of microdon : the entire filh is the cir-
ratus.
PRIVATEERS, are a kind of private men of war,
the perfons concerned wherein adminifler at their own
cofts a part of a war, by fitting out thefe fliips of
force, and providing them with all military floies;
and they have, initead of pay, leave to keep what
they take from the enemy, allowing the admiral his
{hare, &c.
Privateers may not attempt any thing againfl: the
laws of nations ; as to aflault an enemy in a port or
haven, under the prote&ion of any prince or republic,
whether he be friend, ally, or neuter ; for the peace
of fuch places muft be inviolably kept: therefore, by
a treaty made by Ring William and the States of Hol¬
land, before a commihion fhall be granted to any pri¬
vateer, the commander is to give fecurity, if the (hip
be not above 150 tons, in L. 1500, and if the (hip
exceeds that burden, in L. 3000, that they will make
fatisfadlion, for all damages which they (hall commit in
their courfes at fea, contrary to the treaties with that
ftate, on pain of forfeiting their commiflions ; and the
(hip is made liable.
Befides thefe private commiflions, there are fpecial
Jacob's commiflions for privateers, granted to commanders of
ni£i' {hips, &c. who take pay ; who are under a marine
difeipline ; and if they do not obey their orders, may
be punifhed with death,: and the wars in later ages
have given occafion to princes to iflue thefe commif-
fions, to annoy the enemies in their commerce, and
hinder fuch fupplies as might ftrengthen them or
lengthen out the war; and likewife to prevent the re¬
paration of {hips of greater force from their fleets or
fquadrons.
Ships taken by privateers were to be divided into
five parts; four parts whereof to go to the perfons in-
terefted in the privateer, and the fifth to his Majefty
and as a farther encouragement, privateers, &c. de-
ftroying any French man of war or privateer, (hall re¬
ceive, for every piece of ordnance in the fhip fo taken,
L. 10 reward, &c.
By a particular ftatute lately made, the lord admi¬
ral, or commifiioners of the admiralty, may grant com¬
miflions to commanders of privateers, for taking flops,
&c. which being adjudged prize, and the tenth part
paid to the admiral, See. wholly belong to the owners
of the privateers and the captors, in proportions agreed
on between themfelves.
PRIVATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the ab-
fence or want of fomething ; in wdiich fenfe darknefs is
only the privation of light.
PRIVATIVE, in grammar, a particle, which, pre¬
fixed to a word, changes it into a contrary fenfe. Thus,
Vql. XV. Part II.
9 ] P R I
among the Creeks, the « is ufed as a privative ; as in Privernuw
a-Bsof, atbei/i, acephalus, See.—-—The Latins have their
privative in; as, incurrigibilis. indeclinabilis. See. The n. 1
Englifli, French, &c. on occafion borrow both the La¬
tin and Greek privatives.
PRIVERNUM, (Livy, Virgil) ; a town of the
Volfci, in Latium, to the eaft of Setia. Privernatesf
the people. Whofe ambafladors being afked, What,
punifhment they deferved for their revolt ? anfwered,
What thofe deferve who deem themfelves worthy of
liberty. And again, being afleed by the Roman con-
ful, fhould the puniftiment be remitted, W hat peace
was to be expefted with th'em ? If you grant a good
peace, you may hope to have it fincere and lafting;
but if a bad one, you may well expert it of fliort con¬
tinuance. At which anfwer, the Romans were fo far
from being difpleafed, that by a vote of the people
they had the freedom of the city granted them. Pri-
vernas, atis, the epithet. The town is now called Pi-
penio Vecchio, lituated in the Campania of Rome. E.
Long. ic. o. N. Lat. 41. 30.
PRIVET, in botany. See Ligustrum.
PRIVILEGE, in law’, fome peculiar benefit grant¬
ed to certain perfons or places, contrary to the ufual
courfe of the law. ,
Privileges are faid to be perfona! or real.
Perfonal privileges are fuch as are extended to peers,
ambaffadors, members of parliament, and of the con¬
vocation, &c. See Lords, Ambassador, Parlia¬
ment, Arrest, &c.
A real privilege is that granted to fome particular
place; as the king’s palace, the courts at Weftminfter,
the univerfities, &c.
PuiriLFGEs of the Clergy. See Clergy.
PRIVY, in law, is a partaker, or perfon having
an intereft, in any aftion or thing. In this fenfe they
fay, privies in blood : every heir in tail is privy to re¬
cover the land intailed. In old law-books, merchants
privy are oppofed to merchants ftrangers. Coke men¬
tions four kinds of privies. Privies in blood, as the
heir to his father; privies in reprefentation, as execu¬
tors and adminiftrators to the deceafed; privies in eftate,
as he in reverfion, and he in remainder donor and do¬
nee ; lefibr and leflee : laftly, privy in tenure, as the
lord by efeheat; i. e. when land efeheats to the lord for
want of heirs.
Pftirr-Council. See Council. The king’s will it
the foie conftituent of a privy counfellor ; and it alfo
regulates their number, wdiich in ancient times w’as
about twelve. Afterwards it increafed to fo large a
number, that it w’as found inconvenient for fecrecy
and difpatch ; and therefore Charles II. in 1679, li¬
mited it to 30 ; whereof 15 were principal officers of
ftate, and to be counfellors ex officio ; and the other 15
were compofed of 10 lords and five commoners of the
king’s choofing. Since that time however the number
has been much augmented, and now continues indefi¬
nite. At the fame time alfo, the ancient office of lord
prefident of the council was revived, in the perfon of
Anthony earl of Shaftefbury. Privy-counfellors are
made by the king’s nomination, without either patent
or grant; and, on taking the neceflary oaths, they be¬
come immediately privy-counfellors during the life of
the king that choofes them, but fubjeft to removal at
his diferetion.
3 X Any
P R I r J30 ] PRO
. Any natural born fubjeft of England Is capable of
being a member of the privy-council; taking the pro¬
per oaths for fecurity of the government, and the tell
for fecurity of the church. By the a£l of fettlement,
12 and 13 W. III. cap. 2. it is enabled, that no perfon
beam out of the dominions of the crown of England,
vinlefs be '-n of Engliffi parents, even though natura¬
lized by parliament, fiiall be capable of being of the
privy-council. The duty of a privy-counfellor appears
from the oath of office, which confifts of feven articles.
1. To advife the king according to the bell of his cun¬
ning and difcrction. 2. To advife for the king’s
honour and good of the public, without partiality,
through affefltion, love, meed, doubt, 01- dread. 3.
To keep the king’s counfel fecret. 4. To avoid cor¬
ruption. 5. To help and flrengthen the execution of
what fhall be there refolved. 6. To with ft and all per-
. fons who would attempt the contrary. And, laftly,
in general, 7. To obferve, keep, and -do all that a good
and true counfellcr ought to do to his fovereign lord.
The privy-council is the priwum mobile of the ftate,
and that which gives the motion and direfhion to all
the inferior parts. It is likewife a court of juftice of
great antiquity ; the primitive and ordinary way of go¬
vernment in England being by the king and privy-
council. It has been frequently ufed by all our kings
for determining controveriies of great importance :
the ordinary judges have fometimes declined giving
judgment till they had eonfaked the king and privy-
council ; and the parliament have frequently referred
fnatters of high moment to the fame, as being by long
experience better able to judge of, and, by their fe-
crecy and expedition, to t ran fact fome ftate affairs, than
the lords and commons. At prefent, the privy-coun¬
cil takes cognizance of few or no matters except fuch
as cannot well be determined by the known laws and
ordinary courts ; fuch as matters of complaint and fud-
den emergencies : their conftant bufinefs being to con-
fult for the public good in affairs of flate. This power
of the privy-council is to inquire into all offences againfl
the government, and to commit the offenders to fafe
cuftody, in order to take their trial in fome of the
courts of law. But their jurifdiftion herein is only to
inquire, and not to punifh ; and the perfons committed
by them are entitled to their habeas corpus by llatute
j6 Car. I. cap. to. as much as if committed by an or¬
dinary juftice of the peace.
In plantation or admiralty caufes, which arife out of
the jurifdwStion of this kingdom, and in matters of lu¬
nacy and idiocy, the privy-council has cognizance,
even in queftions of exteniive property, being the court
of appeal in fuch caufes ; or, rather, the appeal lies to
the king’s majefty himfelf in council. From all the
dominions of the crown, excepting Great Britain and
Ireland, an appellate jurifdidion (in the lafl refort)
is veiled in this tribunal1; which ufually exereifes its judi¬
cial authority m a committee of the whole pnvy-coun-
eil, who hear the allegations and proofs, and make
their report to his majefty in council, by whom the
judgment is finally given.
Anciently, to llrikc in the houfe of a privy-counfel-
lur, 01 tifewhere in his prefence, was grievoufly punifh-
ed : by 3 Hen. VII. cap. 14. if any of the king’s fer-
vants or his houfehold confpire or imagine to take
away the life of a privy-cotuifellor, it is fdony, though
nothing fhall be done upon it; and by 9 Ann, cap. 16. Privy-
it is enacted, that any perfons who fhall unlawfully at- II
tempt to kill, or fhall unlawfully aflault, and ftrike, or *'r01,
wound, any privy-counfellor in the execution of his of- ' ^
fice, fhall he felons, and fuffer death as fuch. With
advice of this council, the king iffiies proclamations
that bind the fubjcct, provided they be -not contrary
to law. In debates, the lowefl delivers his opinion firfl,
the king laft ; and thereby determines the matter. A
council is never held without the prefence of a fecretary
of ftate.
The diffolution of the privy-council depends upon
the king’s pleafure ; and he may, whenever he thinks
proper, difeharge any particular member, or the whole
of it, and appoint another. By the common law alfo
it was diffolved tpfofacto by the king’s dtmife, as deri¬
ving all its authority from him. But now, 'to prevent
the inconveniences -of having no council in being at the
acceffion of a new prince, it is enafted, by 6 Ann,
cap. 7. that the privy-council fhall continue for fix
months after the demife of the crown, unlcfs fooner de¬
termined by the fucceffor. BtacijL Com- book i. p. 229*
&c.
The officers of the privy-council are four clerks of
the council in ordinary, three clerks extraordinary, a
keeper of the records, and two keepers of the council-
chamber. See President,
PKirr Seal, a feal which tire king ufes previoufly to
fuch grants, &c. as are afterwards to pafs tire great feal.
The privy feal is alfo fometimes ufed in matters of lefs
confequenee, which do not require the great feal.
Lord Puirr Seal. See Kbspek. of the Privy Seal.
Clerks of the pRirr Seal. See Clerk.
Pript Chamber. See Chamber.
PRIZE, or Prise, in maritime affairs, a veffel
taken at fea from the enemies of a flate, or from pi¬
rates ; and that either by a man of war, a privateer,
&c. having a eommiffion for that purpofe.
Veffels are looked on as prize, if they fight under
any other ftandard than that of the flate from which
they have- their commiffion ; if they have no charter-
party, invoice, or bill of lading aboard ; if loaded with
effeCls belonging to the king’s enemies, or with contra¬
band goods.
In Ihips of war, the prizes are to be divided among
the officers, feamen, &c. as his Majefty ftiall appoint
by proclamation ; but among privateers, the divifion is
according to the agreement between the owners.
By flat. 13 Geo. II. c. 4. judges and officers, fail¬
ing of their duty in refpe£l to the condemnation of
prizes, forfeit L. 500, with full colls of fait; one moiety
to the king, and the other to the informer.
PROA, flying, in navigation, is a name given to
a veffel ufed in the fouth feas, became with a brifk
trade-wind it fails near 20 miles an hour. In the con-
flrudlion of the proa, the head and flern are cxa&Iy
alike, but the fides are very different; the fide intend¬
ed to be always the lee-fide being flat ; and the wind¬
ward fide made rounding, in the manner of other vtffels j
and, to prevent her over-fetting, which from her fmall
breadth, and the ftraight run of her leeward fide,
would, without this precaution, infallibly happen, there
is a frame laid out to her from windward, to the end
of which is faflened a log, fafhioned into the fhape of
a fmall boat, and made hollow. The weight of the
frame
PRO
frame is intended to balance the proa, and
boat is by its buoyancy (as k is always in the water)
to prevent her overfetting to windward ^ and this frame
is ufually called an outrigger. The body of the vef-
fel is made of two pieces joined endvvife, and fewed to¬
gether with bark, for there is no iron ufed about her ;
die is about two inches thick at the bottom, which, at
the gunwale, is reduced to lefs than one. The fail
is made of matting, and the mart, yard, boom, and
outriggers, are all made of bamboo. See Anjou's Voyagiy
quarto, p. 341.
PROBABILITY is a word of nearly the fame im¬
port with likelihood. It denotes the appearance of
truth, or that evidence arifmg from the preponderation -
of argument which produces opinion. (See Opinion.)
Locke clafles all arguments under the heads of clemon-
Jiratrve and probable: Hume with greater accuracy di¬
vides them into demotjlrations, proofs, and probabilities,
Demonftration produces fcience ; proof, be/wj ; and pro¬
bability, opinion.
Hardly any thing Is fufeeptible of ftrift demonftration
befides the mathematical iciences, and a few proportions
in metaphyfical theology. Phyiics rell upon principles
capable, fome of them, of complete proof by experience,
and others of nothing more than probability by analogi¬
cal reafoning. What has uniformly happened, we expert
with the fulleft confidence to happen again in fimilar
circumftances ; what has frequently happened, we like-
wife expeft to happen again; but our expectation is not
confident. Uniform experience is proof; frequent experi¬
ence is probability. The ttrongeit man has always been
able to lift the greateft weight; and, therefore, knowing
that one man is rtronger than another, we expeCt, with
confidence, that the former will lift more than the lat¬
ter. The bell difeiplined army has generally proved
victorious, when all other circumftances were t qual. We
therefore expeft that an army of veterans will, upon fair
ground, defeat an equal number of new levied troops :
but as hidden panics have fometimes feized the oldelt
ibldiers, this expectation is accompanied with doubt,
and the utmoft that we can fay of the expeCted event is,
that it is probable; whereas in the competition between
the two men, we look upon it ■&<$, morally certain. (See
Metaphysics, part 1. chap. vii. fee. 3.) When two
or three perfons of known veracity atteft the fame thing
as confident with their knowledge, their teftimony
amounts to proof, if not contradiCled by the teilimony
of others ; if contradiCled, it can, at the utmoft, amount
only to probability. In common language we talk of
circutnflantial proofs and prefumptive proofs ; but the
exprefilons are improper, for fuch evidence amounts to
nothing more than probability. Of probability there
are indeed various degrees from the confines of certain¬
ty down to the confines of impoflibility; and a variety
of circurnfiances tending to the fame point, though they
amount not to what, in ftriCtnefs of language, fiiould be
called proof, afford to the mind a very high degree of
evidence, upon which, with the addition ef one dired
teftimony, the laws of many countries take away the life
-of a man.
PRGBjiBiurr of an Event in the DoBrine of Chances,
is greater or lefs according to the number of chances
by which it may happen or fail. (See Expectation).
'The probability of life is liable to rules of computation.
In the Enryclopedie Methochqne, we find a table of the
Probity
F 531 ] P R O
the fmall probabilities of the duration of life, conftructed from Probat#
that which is to be found in the feventh volume of the
Supplement a PHifioire de M. de Bujfon; of which the <
following is an abridgement.
Of 23,9.94 children born at the fame time, there will
probably die
In one year
7c ^
l ITT.
Remaining y or 15996
In eight years
Remaining i or 11997
In thirty eight years
Remaining \ or 7998
In fifty years
Remaining i or 5998
In fixty one years *
Remaining or 3999
In feventy years
Remaining or 2399
In eighty years
Remaining or 599
In ninety years
Remaining T-£rS or 80
In an hundred years
Remainingor 2.
7998
1199^
15996
17994
19995
21595
22395
- 239x4
- . 23992
See Bills of Mgr?a*
PROBATE of a will or teftament, in law, is the
exhibiting and proving of lad wills and teftameiits be¬
fore the ecclefiaftical judge delegated by the bifhop,
who is ordinary of the place where the party died.
PROBATION, in the univerfities, is the examina¬
tion and trial of a fiudent who is about to take his de¬
grees.
Probation, in a monaftic fenfe, fignifies the year
of a novitiate, which a religious mufl pais in a convent,
to prove his virtue and vocation, and whether he can
bear the feverities of the rule.
Probation, in Scots law. Sec Law, p. 714.
PROBATIONER, in the church of Scotland, a
Undent in divinity, who bringing a certificate from a
profeffor in an univerfity of his good morals, and his
having performed his exercifes to approbation, is ad¬
mitted to undergo feveral trials ; and, upon his ac¬
quitting himfelf properly in tliefe, receives a licence to
preach.
PROBATUM EST (7/ is proved), a term frequent¬
ly fubjo'ined to a receipt for the cure of fome difeafe.
PROBE, a furgeon’s inftrument for examining the
circumftances of wounds, ulcers, and other cavities,
fearching for Hones in the bladder, &c.
PROBITY means honefty, lincerity, or veracity;
and coniifts in the habit of adlions ufeful to fociety, and
in the conftant obfervance of the laws which juftiee
and confcience impofe on us. The man who obeys all
the laws of fociety with an exaft punftuality is not
therefore a man of probity ; laws can only relpedt the
external and definite parts of human condutl, but probi¬
ty refpe6ls our more private aftions, and fuch as it is
impofiible in all cafes to define ; and it appears to be in
morals what charity is in religion. Probity teaches us
to perform in fociety thofe actions which no external
power can oblige us to perform, and is that quality in
the human mind from which we claim the performance
of the rights commonly called hnperfecL See Moral
Philosophy.
3 X 2 PROBLEM,
PRO r 532 J PRO
Problem PROBLEM, in logic, is a propofition that neither
II . appears abfolutely true nor falfe ; and, confequently, may
Procellana. a{perte(j either in the affirmative or negative.
Problem, in geometry, is a propofition, wherein
fome operation or conftrudlion is required ; as to divide
a line or angle, ereft or let fall perpendiculars, &c. See
Geometry.
PROBOSCIS, in natural hiflory, is the trunk or
fnout of an elephant, and fome other animals and in¬
fers.
Flies, gnats, &c. are furnifhed with a probofcis or
trunk ; by means of which they fuck the blood of ani¬
mals, the juice of vegetables, &c. for their food.
PROBUS (Maicus Aurelius), from the fon of a
gardener, became, by his great valour as a foldier, and
his eminent virtues, emperor of Rome, to which dignity
he was railed by the army. After having fubdued the
barbarous nations that had made incurfions into diffe¬
rent parts of the empire, where they committed horrid
cruelties, and governed with great wifdom and cle¬
mency, he was maffacred in the 7th year of his reign, by
fome foldiers who were weary of the public works at
which he made them labour, in 282.
PROCATA RCTIC cause, in medicine, the pre-
exifting, or predifpofing caufe or occafion of a difeafe.
PROCELEUSMATICUS, in the ancient poetry,
a foot corffilling of four Ihort fyllables, or two pyrrhy-
chiufes; as hominibus.
PROCELL ARIA, in ornithology ; a genus of
birds, belonging to the order of anferes. The beak is
fomewhat compreffed, and without teeth ; the mandi¬
bles are equal, the fuperior one being crooked at the
point ; the feet are palmated, the hind claw being fef-
file, without any toe. Mr Latham (See his Index Orn'i-
tho/ogicusy p. 820.) enumerates 24 fpecies, which are
principally diilinguiffied by their colour. The moll
remarkable are,
1. The cinerea, or petrel. The fize of this bird is
rather fuperior to that of the common gull: the bill
very ftrong, much hooked at the end, and of a yellow
colour. The noftrils are compofed of two large tubes,
lodged in one ffieath : the head, neck, whole under fide
of the body, and tail, are white : the back and coverts
of the wings afh-coloured : the quill-feathers dulky : and
the legs yellowifh. In lieu of a back toe, it has only a
fort of fpur, or fharp ftraight nail. Thefe birds feed
on the blubber or fat of whales, &c. which being foon
convertible into oil, fupplies them conftantly with means
of defence, as well as provifion for their young, which
they caff up into their mouths. They are likewife
faid to feed on forrel, which they ufe to qualify the
unftuous diet they live on. This fpecies inhabits the ifie
of St Kilda ; makes its appearance there in November,
and continues the whole year, except September and
Oftober; it lays a large, white, and very brittle egg 5
and the young are hatched the middle of June. No
bird is of fuch ufe to the iflanders as this: the fulmar
fupplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their
beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds,
and a medicine for their diftempers. The fulmar is
alfo a certain prognofticator of the change of the wind :
if it comes to land, no weft wind is expended for fome
time ; ^ and the contrary when it returns and keeps the
lea. The whole genus of petrels have a peculiar facul¬
ty of fpouting bom their bills, to a conliderable diftance,
a large quantity of pure oil; which they do, by way of droeellar js.
defence, into the face of any one that attempts to take  
them: fo that they are, for the fake of this panacasa,
feized by furprife; as this oil is fubfervient to the above-
mentioned medical purpofes. Martin tells us, it has been
ufed in London and Edinburgh with fuccefs in rheumatic
cafes. Frederick Martens, who had opportunity of
feeing vaft numbers of thefe birds at Spitzbergen, ob-
ferves, that they are very bold, and refort after the
whale-fiffiers in great flocks; and that, when a whale
is taken, they will, in fpite of all endeavours, light
on it and pick out large lumps of fat, even when the
animal is alive : That the whales are often difcovered at
fea by the multitudes of them flying; and that when
one of the former are wounded, prodigious multitudes,
immediately follow its bloody track. He adds, that it
is a moft gluttonous- bird, eating till it is forced to dif-
gorge itfelf.
2. The puffinus, or fhear-water, is 15 inches in
length; the breadth 31; the weight 17 ounces : the
bill is an inch and three quarters long ; noftrils tubular,
but not very prominent: the head, and whole upper
fide of the body, wings, tail, and thighs, are of a footy
blacknefs; the under fide from chin to tail, and inner co¬
verts of the wings, white: the legs weak, and compreffed
fidewife ; duflcy behind, whitifh before. Thefe birds.
are found in the Calf of Man ; and, as Mr Ray fuppo-
fes, in the Scilly ifles. They refort to the former in
February; take a Ihort poffeffion of the rabbet-burrows,
and then difappear till April. They lay one egg, white
and blunt at each end; and the young are fit to be ta¬
ken the beginning of Auguft; when great numbers are
killed by the perfon who farms the ifle: they are faked
and barrelled; and when they are boiled, are eaten with
potatoes. During the day they keep at fea, fiflring ^
and towards evening return to their young; whom thev
feed, by difcharging the contents of their itomachs into
their mouths; which by that time is turned into oil: by
reafon of the backward fituation of their legs, they fit
quite ereft. They quit the ifle the latter end of Auguft,
or beginning of September; and, from accounts lately re¬
ceived from navigators, we have reafon to imagine that,
like the ftorm-finch, they are difperfed over the whole At¬
lantic ocean. This fpecies inhabits alfo the Orkney ifles,
where it makes its neft in holes on the earth near the
{helves of the rocks and headlands: it is called there the
lyre; and is much valued, both on account of its being a
food, and for its feathers. The inhabitants take and fait
them in Auguft for winter provifions, when they boil
them with cabbage.. They alfo take the old ones in
March; but they are then poor, and not fo well tailed as
the young: they appear firft in thofe iflands in February.
3. The pelagica, or ftormy petrel, is about the bulk
of the houfe-fwallow : the length fix inches ; the extent
of wings, 13. The whole bird is black, except the
coverts of the tail and vent-feathers, which are white ;
the bill is hooked at the end : the noftrils tubular: the
legs {lender, and long. It has the fame faculty of
fpouting oil from its bill as the other fpecies : and Mr
Brunnich tells us, that the inhabitants of the Ferroe ifles.
make this bird ferve the purpofes of a candle, by draw¬
ing a'wick through the mouth and rump, which being
lighted, the flame is fed by the fat and oil of the bodv%
Except in breeding-time, it is always at fea ; and is.
feen all over the vaft Atlantic ocean, at the greateft.
diftance
PRO t 533 ]
fr«cll,tU diltancc from land ; often following the velfels in great fendant,”
Pr< cefs. fiocks, to pick up any thing that fails from on board :
*    for trial fake, chopped ftraw has been flung over, which
they would iland on with expanded wings; but were
never obferved to fettle on or fwim in the water : it
prefages bad weather, and cautions the feamen of the
approach of a tempeft, by colkaing under the Hern of
the {hips : it braves the utmoft fury of the ftorm, iome-
times flamming with incredible velocity along the hol¬
lows of the waves, fometimes on the fummits ; Cluhus
makes it the Camilla of the fea.
Vel mare per medium jludu fufpenfa tumenti
Ferret iter, celeres nec tingeret square plant as. \ 1RG.
She fwept the feas ; and, as fhe flumm’d along,
Her flying feet unbath’d on billows hung. Dryden.
Thefe birds are the cypfelli of Pliny, which he places
among the apodes of Ariftotle; not becaufe they want¬
ed feet but were KaKo^oJa, or had bad or ufelefs ones ;
an attribute he gives to thefe fpecies, on a fuppoiition
that they were almoft always on the wmg. In Auguit
1772, Mr Pennant found them on the rocks called
Macdonald’s Table, off the north end of the ifle of Skie;
fo conieaures they breed there. They lurked under the
loofe ftones, but betrayed themfelves by their twittering
In' Mr White’s Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales we have a figure of the fuliginous petrel, with a
whitifh beak ; which he takes to be a variety of the
Procellaria JEquinoaialis of Linnaeus. It is nearly ot
the fize of a raven ; its colour is a deep footy brown or
blackilh ; on the chin there is a fmall patch of white run¬
ning down a little on each fide from the lower mandible j
the beak is of yellowifli white. See Plate CCCCXV1.
Captain Bligh, in his Voyage to the South Seas, m S.
Lat. 60. 1. and W. Long. 71.45* faw both Petrel.s and
pintadas ; fome of which he took with baited hooks.
PROCESS, in law, denotes the proceedings in any
eaufe, real or perfonal, civil or criminal, from the original
writ to the end thereof.
In a more limited fenfe, procefs denotes that by
which a man is called firft into any temporal court. .
It is the next ftep for carrying on the fuit, after fuing
out the original writ. See Suit and Writ.,
It is the method taken by the law to compel a com¬
pliance with the original writ, of which the primary
ftep is by giving the party notice to obey it. This no¬
tice is given upon all real firaapesp and alfo upon all
perfonal writs for injuries^ not againft the peace, by
fummons ; which is a warning to appear m court at the
PRO
Blaelfl. Jreturn oF the original writ, given to the defendant by
Comment. ^ of ^ meffengers called fummoners, either
in perfun, or left at his houfe or land: in like manner as
in the civil law the firft procefs is by perfonal citation,
in jus vocando. This warning on the land is given, m
real actions, by erecting a white Hick or wand on the
defendant’s grounds (which flick or wand among the
northern nations is called the baculus nunciatorius), and
by ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 3. the notice muft alfo be pro¬
claimed on fome Sunday before the door of the pariih-
church. _ , . . ,
If the defendant difobeys this verbal monition, the
next procefs is by writ of attachment, or pone ; fo called
from the words of the writ, pone per vadium et fakos
plegios, “ put by gage and fafe pledges A. B. the de-
&c. This is a writ not iffuing out of chan¬
cery, but out of the court of common-pleas, being
grounded on the non-appearance of the defendant at
the return of the original writ; and thereby the fheriff
is commanded to attach him, by taking that is,
certain of his goods, which he fliall forfeit if he doth
not appear ; or by making him find /a/e pledges or fure- •
ties, which {hall be amerced in cafe of his non-appear¬
ance. This is alfo the firft and immediate procefs,
without any previous fummons, upon actions of trefpafs
vi et armis, or for other injuries, which, though not for¬
cible, are yet trefpaffes againft the peace, as deceit and
confpiracy ; where the violence of the wrong requires a
more fpeedy remedy, and therefore the original vyrit
commands the defendant to be at once attached, with¬
out any precedent warning.
If, after attachment, the defendant neglefts to appear,
he not only forfeits this fecurity, but is moreover to be
farther compelled by writ of diftringas, or diftrefs infi¬
nite : which is a fubfequent procefs iffuing from the
court of common-pleas, commanding the iheriff to di-
ftrain the defendant from time to time, and continually
afterwards, by taking his goods and the profits of his-
lands, which are called iffues, and which he forfeits to
the king if he doth not appear. But the iffues may be
fold, if the court {hall fo direa, in order to defray the
reafwliable cofts of the plaintiff. In like manner, by the
civil law, if the defendant abfeonds, fo that the citation
is of no effed, miuitur adverfarius in pojfejjionem bonorum
ejus*
And here, by the common as well as the civil lawr,
the procefs ended in cafe of injuries without force the
defendant if he had any fubftance, being gradually {trip¬
ped of it all by repeated diftreffes, till he rendered obe¬
dience to the king’s writ; and, if he had no fubftance,
the law held him incapable of making fatisfadion, and.
therefore looked upon all farther procefs as nugatory.
And befides, upon feodal principles, the perfon of a
feudatory was not liable to be attached for injuries
merely civil, left thereby his lord {hould be deprived of
his perfonal fervices. But, in cafes of injury accompa¬
nied with force, the law, to punifti the breach of the
peace and prevent its difturbance for the future, provided
alfo a procefs againft the defendant’s perfon, in cafe he
negle&ed to appear upon the former procefs of attach¬
ment, or had no fubftance whereby to be attached; fub-
je&ing his body to imprifonment by the wait of capias
ad rejpondendum. But this immunity of the defendant’s
perfon, in cafe of peaceable though fraudulent injuries^
producing great contempt of the law in indigent wrong¬
doers, a capias was alfo allowed, to arreft the perfon in
adtions of account, though no breach of the peace be
fuggefted, by the ftatutes of Marlbridge, 52 Hen. HI.
c. 23. and Weftm. 2. 13 Edwx I. c. 11. in adtions of
debt and detinue, by ftatute 25 Edw. HI. c. 17. and
in all adtions on the cafe, by ftatute 19 Hen. VII c. 9.
Before which laft ftatute a pradtice had been introduced
of commencing the fuit by bringing an original writ of
trefpafs quart claufum fregit, by breaking the plaintiff’s
dole, vi et armis ; which by the old common law fub-
jedled the defendant’s perfon to be arrefted by writ of
capias: and then afterwards, by connivance of the court,
the plaintiff might proceed to jprofecute for any other
lefs forcible injury. This pradfice (through cuftom ra*
thcr than neceffity, and for faving fome.trouble and ex,
pencej.
Proceft.
PRO [ 534 1 PRO
^ pence, In fulng out a fpecial original adapted to the par-
ticular injury) ftill continues in almoft all cafes, except
in actions of debt; though now, by virtue oi the ita-
tutes above cited and others, a. capias might be had upon
almoft every fpecies of complaint.
If therefore the defendant, being fummoned ©r at¬
tached, makes default, and negle6ts to appear ; or if
:the fheriff returns a nihil, or that the defendant hath
nothing whereby he may be fummoned, attached, or
(liftrained, the capias now ufually iffues : being a writ
commanding the fheriff to take the body of the defen¬
dant, if he may be found in his bailiwick or county, and
him fafely to keep, fo that he may have him in court
on the day of the return, to anfwer to the plaintiff of
a plea of debt, or trefpafs, &c. as the cafe may be.
This writ, and all others fubfequent to the original
writ, not iffuing out of chancery, but from the court
into which the original was returnable, and being ground¬
ed on what has paffed in that court in confequerice of
the fheriff’s return, are called judicial, not original, writs;
they iffue under the private feal of that court, and not
under the great feal of England; and are tejled, not in
the king’s name, but in that of the chief juftice only.
And thefe feveral writs being grounded on the fheriff’s
return, rmift refpeftively bear date the fame day on
"which the writ immediately preceding was returnable.
This is th$ regular and orderly method of procefs.
But it is now ufual in practice to fue out the capias in
the firfl inftance, upon a fuppofed return of the fheriff;
efpecially if it be fufpedted that the defendant, upon
notice of the aftion, will abfeond; and afterwards a fic¬
titious original is drawn up, with a proper return there¬
upon, in order to give the proceedings a colour of re¬
gularity. When this capias is delivered to the fheriff,
he by his under-fheriff grants a warrant to his inferior
officers or bailiffs to execute it on the defendant. And,
if the fheriff of Oxfordfhire (in which county the injury
is fuppofed to be committed and the action is laid) can¬
not find the defendant in his jurifdiction, he returns
that he is not found, non cjl inventus, in his bailiwick:
whereupon another writ iffues, called a tejlatum capias,
directed to the fherift of the county where the defendant
is fuppofed to refide, as of Berkfhire, reciting the form¬
er writ, and that it is teftified, tejlatum eft, that the de-
Jendant lurks or wanders in his bailiwick, where he is
commanded to take him, as in the former capias. But
here alfo, when the aftion is brought in one comity
and the defendant lives in another, it is ufual, for faving
trouble, time, and expence, to make out a t‘/latum ca¬
pias at the firft; fuppofing not only an original, but alfo
a former capias, to have been granted ; which in faft
never was. And this fi&ion, being beneficial to all
parties, is readily acquiefced in, and is now become the
fettled practice; being one among many inftances to il-
luftrate that maxim of law, that in Jldione juris confid'd
aquitas.
But where a defendant abfeonds, and the plaintiff
would proceed to an outlawry againft him, an original
writ mull then be fued out regularly, and after that a
capias. And if the fheriff cannot find the defendant
upon the firft writ of capias, and returns a non eft inventus,
there iffues out an alias writ, and after that a pluries, to
the fame effcA as the former: only after thefe words
‘‘ we command you,” this claufe is inferted, “ as we have
formerly, or, “ as we have often commanded you;” 
3
“ ficui alias,” or, “ ftcut pluries,preecepimm.” And if a l>rfl
non ejl inventus is returned upon all of them, then a writ  
of exigent or exigi facias may be fued out, which requires
the fhenff to caufe the defendant to be proclaimed, re¬
quired, or exacted, in five county-courts fucceffively, to
render himfeif; and if he does, then to take him, as in
a capias : hut if he does not appear, and is returned
qumto exacius, he ffiall then be outlawed by the 'coro¬
ners of the county. Alfo by ftatute 6 Hen. VIII. c. 4.
and 31 Eliz. c. 3. whether the defendant dwells within
the fame or another county than that wherein the exigent
is fued out, a writ of proclamation fhall iffue out at the
fame time with the exigent, commanding the fheriff of
the county, wherein the defendant dwells, to make three
proclamations thereof in places the mo ft notorious, and
moft likely to come to his knowledge, a month be¬
fore the outlawry fhall take place. Such outlawry is
putting a man out of the proteftion of the law, fo
that he is incapable to bring an aclion for redrefs of in¬
juries ; and it is alfo attended with a forfeiture of all
one s goods and chattels to the king. And therefore,
till feme time after the conqueft, no man could be out¬
lawed but for felony; but in Bradlon’s time, and i'ome-
what earlier, prpeefs of outlawry was ordained to lie in
all actions for trefpaffes vi et armis. And fince, by a
variety of ftatutes (the fame which allow the writ of
capias before-mentioned) procefs of outlawry doth lie in
divers adlions that are merely civil; providing they be
commenced by original and not by bill. If after out¬
lawry the defendant appears publicly, he may be arreft-
cd by a writ of cap'as utlagaturn, and committed till the
outlawry be reverfed. W hich reverfal may be had by
the defendant’s appearing perfonajly in court (and in
the king’s bench without any perfonal appearance, fo
that he appears by attorney, according to ftatute 4 & 5
W. & M. c. 18.) and any plaufible caufe, however
flight, will in general be fufficient to reverfe it, it being
coniidered only as a procefs to compel an appearance.
But then the defendant mult pay full colts, and put the
plaintiff in the fame condition as if he had appeared be¬
fore the writ of exigi facias was awarded.
Such is the firft procefs in the court of common pleas.
In the king’s bench they may alio (and frequently do)
proceed in certain caufes, particularly in adtions of eject¬
ment and trefpafs, by original writ, with attachment and
capias thereon ; returnable, not at Weftminfter, where
the common pleas are now fixed in confequence of mag-
na charta, but ubicunque fuenmus in Anglic, wheiHoever
the'king lhall then be in England ; the king’s bench
being removeable into any part of England at the plea*
fure and diferetion of the crown. But tiie more ufual
method of proceeding therein is without any original,
but by a peculiar fpecies of procefs intitled a bdl of
Middlefcx ; and therefore fo intitled, becaufe the court
now fits in that county; for if it fat in Kent, it would
then be a bill of Kent. For though, as the jullices of
this court have, by its fundamental conftitution, power
to determine all offences and trefpaffes, by the common
law and curtom of the realm, it needed no original
writ from the crown to give it cognizance of any mif-
demefnor in the county wherein it refides; yet as, by
this court’s coming into any county, it immediately fu-
perfeded the ordinary adminiftration of juftice by the
general commiffions of eyre and of oyer and terminer, a
procefs of its own became neceffary, within the county
where
PRO
IW, It fat, to bring in fuel, ptrfons ^ werr accuM of oenn-
mitting any forcible injury. The bill ol
r 535 1
PRO
(which was formerly always founded on
trefpafs quart claufum fregit, entered on t
Middlefex
a plaint of
u'cfpafs quart claufum fregtt, entered on the records of
the court) is a kind of direded to the fhenfr of
that county, ai d commanding him to take the defendant,
and have him before our lord the king at Weftminfler on
a day prefixed, to anfwer to the plaintiff of a plea of
trefpafs. For this accufation of trefpafs it is that gives
the court of king,s bench jurifdidfion m other civu caufes,
fince, when once the defendant is taken into cuftody of
the marfhak or prifon-keeper of this court, for the fupp-o-
fed trefpafs, he, being then a prifoner of this court, may
liere be profecuted for any other fpecies of mjuix. ^
in order to found this jurifdiction, it is not ncctfiaiy that
the defendant be adually the marfnal’s piifoner; for,
as foon as he appears, or puts in bail, to the proeels,
he is deemed by fo doing to be in fuch cuftody of the
marfhal as will give the court a jurffdiaion to proceed.
And, upon tWfe accounts, in the bill or procefs, a
complaint of tiefpafs is always fuggefted, whatever e fe
may be the real caufe of adtion. This bill of Middle¬
fex muff be ferved on the defendant by the fhenft, if
he finds him in that county : but if he returns, non tfi
inventus* then there iffuee out a wa it of h tilat, to tne
fheriff of another county', as Forks ; which is limilar
to the thflntnm capias in the common pleas, and recites
the bill of Middlefex and the proceedings thereon, and
that it is teftified that the defendant latitat et djiurnt,
lurks and wanders about in Berks; and therefore com¬
mands the fheriff to take him, and have his body in
court on the day of the return. But as in the common
pleas the tejlitiurn capias may be fued out upon onl) a
fuppofed, and not an aftual preceding, capias ; fo in
the king’s bench a latitat is ufually fued out upon
only' a fuppofed, and not an attual, bill of Middlefex.
So that, in fad, a latitat may be called the firfl procefs
in the court of king’s bench, as the tefiatum capias is in
the common pleas.' Yet, as in the common pleas, if the
defendant lives in the county wherein the a&ion is laid,
a common capias fuffices; fo in the king s benen hke-
wife, if he lives in Middlefex, the procefs muff kill be
by bill of Middlefex only.
In the exchequer the firff procefs is by writ of quo
minus, in order to give the court a jurifdidtion over
pleas between party and party. In which writ the
plaintiff is alleged to be the king’s farmer or debtor,
and that the defendant hath done him tlie injury com¬
plained of, quo minus Jvjfictens txijlit, by which he i^the
lefs able to pay the king- his rent or debt. And upon
this the defendant may be arreffed as upon a capias from
the common pleas.
Thus differently do the three courts fet out at firit,
in the commencement of a fuit, in order to intitle the
two courts of king’s bench and exchequer to hold plea
in fobjects caufes, which by the original conflitution of
Weftrninfler-hall they were not empowered to do. Af¬
terwards, when the caufe is once drawn into the refpec-
tive courts, the method of purfuing it is pretty much
the fame' in all of them.
If the fheriff had found the defendant upon any of
the former wu'its, the cabins Jatilat, &c. he w’as an¬
ciently obliged to take him into cullody, in order to
produce him in court upon the return, however {mail
mid minute the caufe of action might be. For, not
having obeyed the original fummons, he had fiiown a
contempt of the court, and was no longer to be trufted
at large. But when the fummons fell into diiufe, and
the capias became in fadl die firic procefs, it was
thought hard to imprifon a man for a contempt which
was only fuppofed : and therefore, in common cafes, by
the gradual indulgence of the courts (at length antho-
rifed by ftatute 12 Geo. I. c. 29. which was amended
by ftatute 5 Geo. II. c. 27. and made perpetual by ffa-
tute 2i Geo. II. c. 3.) the fherifi or his officer can
now only perfonally ferve the defendant with the copy
of the writ or procefs, and with notice in writing to
appear by his attorney in court to defend this action ;
which in effect reduces it to a mere fummons. And
if the defendant thinks proper to appear upon this no¬
tice, his appearance is recorded, and he puts in fure-
tiesfor his future attendance and obedience; which fure¬
ties are called common bail, being the lame two imagi¬
nary perfons that were pledges for the plaintiff’s pto-
ftcution, John Doe and Richard Roe. Or, if the de¬
fendant does not appear upon the return of the writ,
or within four (or in fome cafes eight) day's after, the
plaintiff may enter an appearance for him, as if he had
really appeared ; and may file common bail in the de¬
fendant’s name, and proceed thereupon as if the defen¬
dant had done it himfelf.
But if the plaintiff will make affidavit, or affert up¬
on oath, that the caufe of action amounts to ten pounds
«r upwards, then in order to arreft the defendant, and
make him put in fubftantial fureties For his appearance,
called fpnial bail, it 13 required by ftatute 13 Car. II.
flat. 2. c. 2. that the trite caufe of nttion thould be ex-'
preffed in the body' of the writ or procefs: the no fe-
curity can be taken in a greater fu.n than L. 40. This
ftatute (w ithout any fuch intention in the makers) had
like to have oulted the king’s bench of all its jurifdic-
tion over civil injuries without force : for, as the bul
of Middlefex was framed only for actions of trefpafs,
a defendant could not he arreiled and held to bail there¬
upon for breaches of civil contracts. But to remedy
this inconvenience, the officers of the king s bench de-
vifed a method of adding what is called a claule of ac
etiam to the ufuaf complaint of trefpafs ; the bill of
Middlefex commanding the defendant to be brought
in to anfwer the plaintiff of a plea of trefpafs, and alfo
to a bill of debt : the complaint of trefpafs giving cog¬
nisance to the court, and that of debt authorifing the
arreft. In imitation of u Inch, lord chief juftice North,
a few- years afterwards, in order to fave the iuitors of
his court tire trouble and expence of fuing out fpeeial
originals, directed, that in the common pleas, belides
the ufual complaint of breaking the plaintiff’s dole, a
claufe of ac etiam might be alto added to the writ of
cabins, containing tire true caufe of action ; as, “ that
the laid Charles the defendant may anfwer to the plain¬
tiff of a plea of trefpafs tn breaking his clofe: and alfo,
ac etiam may anfwer him, according to the cuftom of
the court, in a certain plea of trefpafs upon the cafe,
upon promifes, to the value of L. 20, &c.” 1 he
fum fworn to by the plaintiff is marked upon the back
of the writ; and the fheriff, or his officer the bailiff,
is then obliged a&ually to arreft or take into cuftody
the body of the defendant, and, having fo done, to return
thewrit with a cepi corpus indorfed thereon. See Arrest.
When the defendant is regularly arrefted, he mult
Procefs-
PRO r 5^ ] PRO
tidier go to prifon, for fafe cuftody 5 or put \n fpecial
bail to the fheriff. For, the intent of the arreft being
only to compel an appearance in court at the return of
the writ, that purpofe is equally anfwered, whether the
fheriff detains his perfon, or takes fuffieient fecurity for
his appearance, called bail (from the French word bail¬
or, “ to deliver),” becaufe the defendant is bailed, or
delivered, to his fureties, upon their giving fecurity
for his appearance ; and is fuppofed to continue in
their friendly cultody inllead of going to gaol. See
Bail. The method of putting in bail to the fheriff
is by entering into a bond or obligation, with one or
more fureties, (not fi&itious perfons, as in the former
cafe of common bail, but real, fubftantial, refponfible
bondfmen), to infure the defendant’s appearance at the
return of the writ; which obligation is called the bail-
bonrl The fheriff, if he pleafes, may let the defendant
go without any fureties ; but that is at his own peril :
for, after once taking him, the fheriff is bound to keep
him fafely, fo as to be forthcoming in court} other-
wife an aft ion lies againfl him for an efcape. But, on
the other hand, he is obliged, by ftatute 23 Hen. VI.
c. 10. to take (if it be tendered) a fufficient bail-bond ;
and, by ftatute 12 Geo. I. c. 29. the flieriff fhall take
bail for no other fum than fuch as is*fworn to by the
plaintiff, and indorfed on the back of the writ.
Upon the return of the writ, or within four days af¬
ter, the defendant mull appear according to the exi¬
gency of the writ. This appearance is effedled by put¬
ting in and juftifying bail to the adion ; which is com¬
monly called putting in bail above. If this be not done,
and the bail that were taken by the fheriff below are
refponftble perfons, the plaintiff may take an affignment
from the fheriff of the bail-bond (under the ftatute
4 & 5 Ann. c. 16.) and bring an aftion thereupon
again ft the fheriff’s bail. But if the bail fo accepted
by the fheriff be infolvent perfons, the plaintiff may
proceed againfi the fheriff himfelf, by calling upon
him, firft to return the writ (if not already done),
and afterwards to bring in the body of the defendant.
And if the fheriff does not then caufe fufficient bail
to be put in above, he will himfelf be refponfible to the
plaintiff.
The bail above, or bail to the action, muff: be put in
either in open court, or before one of the judges there¬
of; or elfe, in the country, before a commiffioner ap¬
pointed for that purpofe by virtue of the ftatute 4 W.
& M. c. 4. which muft be tranfmitted to the court.
Thefe bail, v/ho muft at leaft be two in number, muft
enter into 4 recognizance in court, or before the judge
or commiffioner, whereby they do jointly and feverally
undertake, that if the defendant be condemned in the
adlion, he fhall pay the cofts and condemnation, or ren¬
der himfelf a prifoner, or that they will pay it for
dam: which recognizance is tranfmitted to the court
iu a flip of parchment, intitled a bail-piece. And, if
required, the bail muft jujlify themfelves in court, or
before the commiffioner in the country, by fwearing
themfelves houfekeepers, and each of them to be worth
double the fum for which they are bail, after payment
of aft their debts. This anfwers in fome meafure to the
JlipulatiO' or fatifdatio of the Roman laws, which is mu¬
tually given by each litigant party to the other: by the
plaintiff that he will profecute his fuit, and pay the
*ofts if he lofes his caufe ; in like manner as our law
flill requires nominal pledges of prpfecution from the
plaintiff: by the defendant, that he fhall continue in ^
court, and abide the fentence of the judge, much like
our fpecial bail; but with this difference, that the fide-
jnfibres were there abfolutely bonxAjudicatum folvere, to
fee the cofts and condemnation paid at all events i
whereas our fpecial bail may be discharged, by furren¬
dering the defendant into cuftody within the time al¬
lowed by law ; for which purpofe they are at all times
intitled to a warrant to apprehend him.
Special bail is required (as of courfe) only upon ac¬
tions of debt, or adlions on the cafe in trover, or for
money due, where the plaintiff can fwear that the
caufe of adlion amounts to ten pounds : but in adlions
where the damages are precarious, being to be affeffed
ad libitum by a jury, as in adlions for words, eject¬
ment, or trefpafs, it is very feldom poffible for a plain¬
tiff to fwear to the amount of his caufe of aftion ; and
therefore no fpecial bail is taken thereon, unlefs by a
judge’s order, or the particular direction* of the court,
in fome peculiar fpecies of injuries, as in cafes of may¬
hem or atrocious battery ; or upon fuch fpecial circum-
ftances as make it abfolutely neceffary that the defen¬
dant fhould be kept within the reach of juftice. Alfo
in aCtions againft heirs, executors, and adminiftrators,
for debts of the deceafed, fpecial bail is not demandable;
for the aCtion is not fo properly againft them in perfon,
as againft the effeCts of the deceafed in their poffeffion.
But fpecial bail is required even of them, in aCtions for
a devafiavit, or wafting the goods of the deceafed ; that
wrong being of their own committing.
Thus much for procefs; which is only meant to
bring the defendant into court, in order to conteft the
fuit, and abide the determination of the law. When
he appears either in perfon as a prifoner, or out upon
bail, then follow the pleadings between the parties. See
Pleadings.
Process upon an Indidment. See Prosecution.
The proper procefs on an indidment for any petty
mildemefnor, or on a penal ftatute, is a writ of venire
facias, which is in the nature of a fummons to caufe
the party to appear. And if by the return to fuch
venire it appears that the party hath lands in the coun¬
ty whereby he may be diftrained, then a dijlrefs infinite
fhall be iffued from time to time till he appears. But
if the fheriff returns, that he hath no lands in his baili¬
wick, then (upon his non-appearance) a writ of capias
ffiall iffue, which commands the ftieriff to take his body,
and have him at the next affifes; and if he cannot be
taken upon the firft capias, a fecond and a third fhall
iffue, called an alias, and a pluries capias. But, on in-
diClments fpr treafon or felony, a capias is the firft pro¬
cefs : and, for treafon or homicide, only one fhall be al¬
lowed to iffue, or two in the cafe of other felonies, by
ftatute 25 Edw. III. c. 14. though the ufage is to iff'ue
only one in any felony; the proviiions of this ftatute
being in moft cafes found impracticable. And fo, in
the cafe of mifdemefnors, it is now the ufual praClice
for any judge of the court of king’s bench, upon certi¬
ficate of an indidment found, to award a writ of capias
immediately, in order to bring in the defendant. But
if he abfconds, and it is thought proper to purfue him
to an outlawry, then a greater exadnefs is neceffary.
For, in fuch cafe, after the feveral writs have iffued in
a regular number, according to the nature of the re-
7 fpedive
PRO [ 537 ] p
fpe&ive crimes, without any efeA, the offender fliall be certiorari may be granted at
put in the exigent in order to his outlawry : that is, he
(hail be exafted, proclaimed, or required, to Surrender, at
five county-courts ; and if he be returned quinto exafius,
and does not appear at the fifth exa&ion or requifition,
then he is adjudged to be outlawed, or put out of the
prote&ion of the law ; fo that he is incapable of taking
the benefit of it in any refpeft, either by bringing ac¬
tions or otherwife. t ,
The punilhment, for outlawries upon indi&ments
for mifdemefnors, is the fame as for outlawries upon
civil a&ions ; viz. forfeiture of goods and chattels.
But an outlawry in treafon or felony amounts to a
convi&ion and attainder of the offence charged in the
indiftment, as much as if the offender had been found
guilty by his country. His life is, however, ffill un¬
der the proteftion of the law, as hath elfewhere been
obferved ; (fee Homicide) : that though anciently an
outlawed felon was faid to have caput lupinum, and
might be knocked on the head like a wolf, by any one
that fliould meet him ; becaufe, having renounced all
law, he was t@ be dealt with as in a ftate of nature,
when every one that fliould find him might flay him :
yet now, to avoid fuch inhumanity, it is holden that
no man is intitled to kill him wantonly or wilfully ;
but in fo doing is guilty of murder, unlefs it happens
in the endeavour to apprehend him. For any perfon
may arreft. an outlaw on a criminal profecution, either
of his own head, or by wilt or warrant of capias vt-
iagatum, in order to bring him to execution. But
.fuch outlawry may be frequently reverfed by writ of
error, the proceedings therein being (as it is fit they
fhould be) exceedingly nice and circumftantial; and if
any lingle minute point be omitted 01 mifconducted,
the whole outlawry is illegal, and may be reverfed;
upon which reverfal the party accufed is admitted to
plead to, and defend himfelf againtt, the indi&ment.
Thus much for procefs to bring in the offender af¬
ter indiclment found; during which ftage of the pro¬
fecution it is that writs of certiorat i facias are ufually
had, though they may be had at any time before trial,
to certify and remove the indiftment, with all the pro¬
ceedings thereon, from any inferior court of criminal
jurifdiftion into the court of king’s bench; which is
the fovereign ordinary court of juilice in caufes crimi¬
nal. And this is frequently done for one of thefe four
purpofes; either, I. To confider and determine the
validity of appeals or indi&ments and the proceedings
thereon ; and to quafli or confirm them as there is
caufe; or, 2. Where it is furmifed that a partial or
infufficient trial will probably be had in the court be¬
low, the indidfment is removed, in order to have the
prifoner or defendant tried at the bar of the court of
king’s bench, or before the juftices of nifi pnus : or,
3. It is fo removed, in order to plead tire king’s pardon
there : or, 4. To iffue procefs of outlawry againft the
offender, in thofe counties or places where the procefs
of the inferior judges will not reach him. Such writ
of certiorari, when iffued and delivered to the inferior
court for removing any record or other proceeding, as
well upon indidlment as otherwife, fuperfedes the jurif-
diftion of fuch inferior court, and makes all fubfequent
proceedings therein entirely erroneous and illegal ; un-
lefs the court of king’s bench remands the record to
the court below, to be there tried and determined. A
Vol. XV. Part II.
R O
the inftance of either Pf0<pf*
the profecutor or the defendant: the former as a mat- pr,)C'a~na.
ter of right, the latter as a matter of diferetion ; and ti u.
therefore it is feldom granted to remove indiflments —~v
from the juftices of gaol-delivery, or after iffue joined,
or confeffion of the fa£t in any of the courts below.
At this ftage of profecution alfo it is, that indief-
ments found by the grand jury againft a peer, mull, in
confequence of a writ of certiorari, be certified and
tranfmitted into the court of parliament, or into that
of the lord high fteward of Great Britain ; and that,
in places of exclufive jurifdiftion, as the two univerfi-
ties, indi&ments muft be delivered (upon challenge and
claim of cognizance) to the courts therein eltabliflied
by charter, and confirmed by a& of parliament, to be
there refpedfively tried and determined. See Plea.
Process, in chemiftry, the whole courfe of an ex¬
periment or feries of operations, tending to produce
fomething new.
Process, in anatomy, denotes any protuberance or
eminence in a bone.
PROCESSION, a ceremony in the Romifli church,
confifting of a formal march of the clergy and people,
putting "up prayers, See. and in this manner vifiting
fome church, &c. They have alfo proceflions of the
hoft or facrament, See. See Host.
PROCHEIN amy, in law, the perfon next akin
to a child in non-age, and who, in that refpe&, is al¬
lowed to a& for him, and be his guardian, &c. if he
hold land in foccage.
To fue, an infant is not allowed to make an attor¬
ney ; but the court will admit his next friend as plain¬
tiff, or his guardian as defendant
PROCKIA, in botany : A genus of themonogynia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful. The calyx is triphyllous, befides
two leafets at the bafe. There is no corolla; the berry
is quinqueangular, and polyffpermous.
PROCLAMATION, a public notice given of any
thing of which the king thinks proper to advertife hi*
fubje&s.
Proclamations are a branch of the king’s preroga¬
tive * ; and have then a binding force, when (as Sir '
Edward Coke obferves) they are grounded uponand^ '
enforce the laws of the realm. For, though the ma¬
king of laws is entirely the work of a diftin& part, the
legiflative branch of the fovereign power, yet the man¬
ner, time, and circumftances of putting thofe laws in
execution, muft frequently be left to the diferetion of
the executive magiftrate. And therefore his conftitu-
tions or edi&s, concerning thofe points which we call
proclamations, are binding upon the fubje&, where they
do not either contradi& the old laws, or tend to efta-
blifti new ones ; but only enforce the execution of fuch
laws as are already in being, in fuch manner as the
king ftiall judge neceffary. Thus the eftabliflied law
is, that the king jnay prohibit any of his fubje&s from
leaving the realm: a proclamation therefore forbidding
this in general for three weeks, by laying an embargo
upon all fhipping in time of war, will be equally bind¬
ing as an adt of parliament, becaufe founded upon a prior
law. But a proclamation to lay an embargo in time
of peace upon all veffels laden with wheat, (though in
the time of a public fcarcity), being contrary to law,
3 Y and
PRO
Trrclu* and particularly to ftatute 22 Car. II. c. 13
.11 vilVrs of fuch a prcclamation, and all perfons afting
Prodigality. uric]er it, found it neceffary to be indemnified by a fpe-
v cial aft of parliament, 7 Geo. III. c. 7. A proclama¬
tion for difarming Papiils is alfo binding, being only
in execution of what the legillature has firft ordained :
but a proclamation for allowing arms to Papifts, or for
difarming any Proteftant fubjcfts, will not bind ; be-
caufe the firlt would be to alfume a difpenfing power,
the latter a legiflative one ; to the veiling of either of
which in any iingle perfon the laws of England are ab-
folutely ftrangcrs. Indeed, by the ftatute 31 Hen. VIII.
c. 8. it was enafted, that the king’s proclamations
Ihould have the force of afts of parliament: a ftatute,
which was calculated to introduce the moil defpotic ty¬
ranny ; and which muft have proved fatal to the liber¬
ties of this kingdom, had it not been luckily repeal¬
ed in the minority of his fucceffor, about five years
after. By a late aft of parliament the king is empow¬
ered to raife regiments of Roman Catholics, to ferve in
the prefent v/ar.
PROCLUS, furnamed Diadocus, a Greek philo-
fopher and mathematician, was born in Lycra, and lived
about the year 500. He was the difciple of Syrianus,
and had a great ihare in the friendihip of the emperor
Anaftafius. It is faid, that when Vitalian laid fiege
to Conilantinople, Proclus burnt his {hips with large
brazen fpeculums. This philofopher was a Pagan, and
wrote againfl the Chriftian religion. There are Hill ex¬
tant his Commentaries on fome of Plato’s books, and
other of his works written in Greek.
PROCONSUL, a Roman magiftrate, fent to go¬
vern a province with confular authority.
The proconfuls v/ere appointed out of the body of
the fenate ; and ufually as the year of any one’s confu-
late expired, he was fent proconful into fome province.
rl he proconfuls decided cafes of equity and juftice,
either privately in their pretorium or palace, where they
received petitions, heard complaints, granted writs un¬
der their feal, and the like; or elfe publicly, in the com¬
mon hall, with the ufual formalities obferved in the
court of judicature at Rome. They had belides, by
virtue of their edifts, the power of ordering all things
relating to the tribunes, taxes, contributions, and pro-
vifions of corn and money, &c. Their office lafted
only a year. See Consul.
PROCOPIUS, a famous Greek hiftorian, born in
Gtefaria, acquired great reputation by his works in the
reign of Juilinian, and was fecretary to Belifarius da¬
ring all the wars carried on by that general in Perfia,
Africa, and Italy. He at length became fenator, ob-
tained the title of Ulujirious^ and was made pretor of
Conllantinople.
PROCREATION, the begetting and bringing
forth young. See Generation and Semen.
PROCIOR, a perfon commiffioned to manage an¬
other perfon’s caufe in any court of the civil or eccle-
fiaftical law.
Proctor, in the Englifh univerfities. See Univer¬
sity.
PROCURATION, an aft or inflrument by which
a perfon is empowered to treat, tranfaft, receive, &c.
in another perfon’s name.
PROCURA1 OR. See Proctor.
IRODIGALJ1Y, means extravagance, profufion,
Wciue, or exceffive liberality, and is the oppolite ex-
Frognoftie*
f 533 ] PRO
the ad- treme to the vice of parfimony. By the- Roman law, r*-o!uA
if a man by notorious prodigality was in danger of
walling his eflate, he was looked upon as non compos,'
and committed to the care of curators, or tutors, by
the praetor. And by the laws of Solon, fuch pro¬
digals were branded with perpetual infamy.
PRODUCT, in arithmetic and geometry, the fac¬
tum ol two or mere numbers, or lines, &c. into one
another : thus 5X4= 20 the produft required.
PROEDRI, among the Athenians, were magillrates,
who had the firft feats at the public aflemblies, and
whofe office it was to propofe at each aflembly the
things to be deliberated upon and determined. Their
office always ended with the meeting. Their number
was nine, fo long as the tribes were ten in number.
PROFANATION, the afting difrefpeftfully to fa-
cred things.
PROFANE, a term ufed in oppofition to holy; and
in general is applied to all perfons who have not the
facred eharafter, and to things which do not belong to
the fervice of religion.
PROFESSION means a calling, vocation, or known
employment. In Knox’s EJfays, vol. ift, page 234,
we find an excellent paper on the choice of a profeffion,
which that elegant writer concludes thus : “ All the
occupations of life (fays he) are found to have their ad¬
vantages and difadvantages admirably adapted to preferve
the juft equilibrium of happinefs. This we may confi¬
dently aflert, that, whatever are the inconveniences of
any of them, they are all preferable to a life of inaftion;
to that wretched liftlefl'nefs, which is conftrained to pur-
fue pleafure as a bufinefs, and by rendering it the objeft
of fevere and unvaried attention, deftroys its very effence.”
Among the Romanifts profeffion denotes the entering
into a religious order, whereby a perfon offers himfelf
to God by a vow of inviolably obferving obedience,
chaffity, and poventy.
PROFESSOR, in the univerfities, a perfon who
teaches or reads public leftures in fome art or fcience
from a chair for the purpofe.
PROFI LE, in architefture, the draught of a build-
ing, fortification, &c. wherein are expreffed the feveral
heights, widths, and thickneffes, fuch as they would ap¬
pear were the building cut down perpendicularly from
the roof to the foundation. Whence the profile, is alfo
called the fctiiony fometimes orthographicalfeft ion, and by
Vitruvius alfo feiagraphy.
Projile, in this fenfe, amounts to the fame with eleva¬
tion ; and Hands oppofed to a. plan or ichnography.
Profile is alfo ufed for the contour or out-line of a
figure, building, member of architefture, or the like ;
as a bafe, a cornice, &c. Hence profiling is fometimes
ufed for defigning, or deferibing the member with rule,,
compafs, &e.
Profile, in fculpture and painting.—A head, a
portrait, &c. are faid to be in profile, when they are re-
prefented lidevvife, or in a fide-view; as, when in a por¬
trait there is but one fide of the faxe, one eye, one
cheek, &c. ffiown, and nothing of the other.—On al~
moft all medals, the faces are reprefented in pr.file.
PROFEUVIUM, in medicine, denotes a flux, or
liquid evacuation of any thing.
PROGNOSTIC, among phyficians,fignifies a judge¬
ment concerning the event of a difeafe, as whether it
fhall end in life or death, be fhort or long, mild or ma-
Jignant, &c.
PROGRAMMA*
rroeram,
ma
PRO [ 539 1 p R 0 ^ ,
PROGRAMMA, anciently fignified a letter fealed PROGRESSION, in general, denotes a regtilar ad- ^ *
with the king’s Rah vancing.or going forward,in the fame courfe and manner  ^
Proeramma is alfo an imiverlity term for 'a billet or Progression, m mathematics, is either arithmetical
advertifement, polled up or given into the hand, byway or geometrical. Continued arithmetic proportion is,
of invitation to an oration, &c. containing the argu- where the terms do increafe and decreafe by equal chi-
ment, or fo much as is necelfary for undemanding thereof, ferences, and is called arithmetic progrefim :
Thusi*’*4^’ aJr2d: &C*’nCrea?ngj by the differenced.
1 a—d, a —id, a—$d, See. decreaffng \ ;
In numbers! 2> 4’ 6’ 8’ ,0’ .&C‘ j by the difference 2.
in numoersIQ^ ^ 2j gcc> gecreafingj ;
Geometric Progreffwn, or Continued Geometric Proportion, is when the terms do increafe cr decreafe by equal
ratios: thus, . r
a, ar, arr, arrr. See. increafmg ) . , \ multiplication /
JL, &c. decreafingt fr0m a conUnUal )divifion
r rr rrr J ^ '
, 8, 16, 32, 64, increafinglfromacontinual ^multiplication | by
, 16, 8, 4, 2, decreafingj C.divuion J
2, 4
.64,32, , . -
See the articles Fluxions, Geometry, and oeries.
2^
PROJECTILES.
1 r-r^ HIS is the name for that part of mechanical phi-
Olijedt of lofophy which treats of the motion of bodies any
the 1 e [jOW projedled from the furface of this earth, and influ-
2 enced by the adlion of terreftrial gravity.
Fife61 of It is demonftrated in the phylical part of aftronomy
gravity . n t]iat a f0 projedled muff deferibe a conic fe&ion,
projected jiavjng t^e centre Qf the earth in one focus; and that it
will deferibe round that focus areas proportional to the
times. And it follows from the principles of that fcience,
that if the velocity of proje&ion exceeds 36700 feet in
a fecond, the body (if not refilled by the air) would de¬
feribe a hyperbola ; if it be juff 36700, it would de¬
feribe a parabola ; and if it be lefs than this, it would
deferibe an ellipfis. If proje&ed diredtly upwards, in
the firft cafe, it would never return, but proceed for
ever; its velocity continually diminifhing, but never
becoming lefs than an aflignable portion of the excefs
of the initial velocity above 36700 feet in a fecond ; in
the fecond cafe, it would never return, its velocity would
diminifh without end, but never be extinguilhed. In
the third cafe, it would proceed till its velocity was re¬
duced to an affignable portion of the difference between
36700 and its initial velocity; and would then return,
regaining its velocity by the fame degrees, and in the
fame places, as it loft it. Thefe are neceffary confe-
quences of a gravity dire&ed to the centre of the earth,
and mverfely proportional to the fquare of the diltancc.
But in the greateft projedlions that we are able to
make, the gravitations are fo nearly equal, and in direc¬
tions fo nearly parallel, that it would be ridiculous af-
fe&ation to pay any regard to the deviations from equa¬
lity and parallelifm. A bullet riling a mile above the
furface of the earth lofes only is Vs ,ts weight, and a
horizontal range of 4 miles makes only 4' of deviation
from parallelifm.
Let us therefore affume gravitation as equal and pa¬
rallel. The errors arifing from this affumption are
quite infenhble in all the ufes which can be made of
this theory..
The theory itfelf will ever be regarded with fome
veneration and affeftion by the learned. It was the
firft fruits of mathematical philofophy. Galileo was
■the firft who applied mathematical knowledge to the
motions of free bodies, and this was the fubje^t on
which he exercifed his fine genius. 3
Gravity mull be conlidered by us as a conftant or or
uniform accelerating or retarding force, according as it u“ 01
produces the defeent, or retards the afeent, of a body.
A conftant or invariable accelerating force is one which
produces an uniform acceleration ; that is, which in
equal times produces equal increments of velocity, and
therefore produces increments of velocity proportional
to the times in which they are produced. Forces are
of themfelves imperceptible, and are feen only in their
effe£ls; and they have no meafure but the effeft, or
what meafures the effedl; and every thing which we
can difeover with regard to thofe meafures, we muft af¬
firm with regard to the things of which we affume them
as the meafuies. Therefore, 4
The motion of a falling body, or of a body projeft-
ed dire&iy downwards, is uniformly accelerated; and
that of a body proje&ed diredlly upwards is uniformly
retarded : that is, the acquired velocities are as the
times in which they are acquired by falling, and the ex-
tinguifiied velocities are as the times in which they are
extinguilhed. , n ,5 .
Cor. 1. If bodies Amply fall, not being projefted
downwards by any external force, the times of the falls -t
are proportional to the final velocities; and the times
of afeents, which terminate by the aclion of gravity
alone, are proportional to the initial velocities.
2. The fpaces deferibed by a heavy body falling from
reft are as the fquarcs of the acquired velocities ; and
the differences of thefe fpaces are as the differences of
the fquares of the acquired velocities: and, on the
other hand, the heights to which bodies proje&ed up¬
wards will rife, before their motions be extinguithed,
are as the fquares of the initial velocities.
3. The fpaces deferibed by falling bodies afe propor*
tional to the fquares of the times from the beginning
of the fall; and the fpaCes deferibed by bodies proje&ed
dire&ly upwards are as the fquares of the times of the
afeents.
4. The fpace deferibed by a body falling from reft
is one half of the fpace which the body would have uni¬
formly deferibed in the fame time, with the velocity ac-
3 Y 2 quired
from.
54°
6
The force
<oi gravity
in falling
bodies can
be afeer-
tained.
PROJECTILES.
qulred by the fall.—And the height to which a body
will rife, in oppofition to the action of gravity, is one
half of the fpace which it would uniformly deferibe in
the fame time with the initial velocity.
In like manner the difference of the fpaces which a
falling or rifing body deferibes in any equal fucceffive
parts of its fall or rife, is one half of the ipace which it
Would uniformly deferibe in the fame time with the dif¬
ference of the initial and final velocities.
This propoiition will be more conveniently expreffed
for our purpofe thus :
A body moving uniformly during the time of any
fall with the velocity acquired thereby, will in that time
deferibe a fpace double cf that fall; and a body pro-
jedted diredtly upwards will rife to a height which is
one half of the fpace which it would, uniformly continu¬
ed, deferibe in the time of its afeent with the initial velo¬
city of projedfion.
Thefe theorems have been already demonftrated in a
popular way, in the article Mechanics, fedl. vi. § 14, i 5,
1 6, &c. and in Gunnery. But we would recommend
to our readers the 39th prop, of the firil book of New¬
ton’s Principia, as giving the moil general inveftigation
of this fubjedt; equally eafy with thefe more loofe me¬
thods of demonlfration, and infinitely fuperior to them,
by being equally applicable to every variation of the
accelerating force. See an excellent application of this
propofition by Mr Robins, for defining the motion of a
ball difeharged from a cannon, in the article Gunnery,
n° 15. See another in Optics, n° 127. for defining the
motion of light in refradfion, &c.
5. It is a matter of obfervation and experience, that
a heavy body falls 16 feet and an inch Englifii meafure
in a fecond of time; and therefore acquires the velocity
of 32 feet 2 inches per fecond. T his cannot be afeer-
tained diredfly, with the precifion that is neceffary. A
fecond is too fmall a portion of time to be exadfly mea-
fured and compared with the fpace deferibed ; but it
is done with the greateft accuracy by comparing the
motion of a falling body with that of a pendulum. The
time of a vibration is to the time of falling through
half the length of the pendulum, as the circumference
of a circle is to its diameter. The length of a pendu¬
lum can be afeertained with great precifion ; and it can
be lengthened or fhortened till it makes jull 86,400 vi¬
brations in a day: and this is the way in which the
ipace fallen through in a fecond has been accurately af¬
eertained.
As all other forces are afeertained by the accelera¬
tions which they produce, they are conveniently meafa-
red by comparing their accelerations with the accelera¬
tion of gravity. This therefore has been affumed by
all the later and bdl writers on mechanical philofophy,
as the unit by which every other force is meafured. It
gives us a perfectly diltinCf notion of the force which
retains the moon in its orbit, v/hen we fay it is the
3600th part of the weight of the moon at the furface
of the earth. We mean by this, that if a bullet were
here weighed by a fpring ileel-yard, and pulled it out
to the mark 3600; if it were then taken to the di-
dance of the moon, it would pull it out only to the
mark 1. And we make this affertion on the authority
ct our having obferved that a body at the diflance of the
moon falls from that diftance y-j-Vu Part of 16 feet in a
fccond. We do not, therefore, compare theforcest which
are imperceptible things; we compare the accelerations,
which are their indications, effedfs, and meafures.
This has made philofophers fo anxious to determine Two model
with precifion the fall of heavy bodies, in order to haveof deter,
an exadf value of the accelerating power of terreftrialm>ning the
gravity. Now we mull here obferve, that this meafure ^ .^ea*
may be taken in two ways: we may take the fpaceVybodie8,
through which the heavy body falls in a fecond ; or we
may take the velocity which it acquires in confequence
of gravity having adled on it during a fecond. The
lail is the proper meafure ; for the laft is the immediate
effedt on the body. The adtion of gravity has changed
the Hate of the body—in what way ? by giving it a de¬
termination to motion downward : this both points out
the kind and the degree or intenlity of the force of
gravity. The fpace deferibed in a fecond by falling,
is not an invariable meafure; for, in the fuccelfive fe-
conds, the body falls through 16, 48, 80, 112, &c.
feet, but the changes of the bodies date in each fecond
is the fame. At the beginning it had no determination
to move with any appreciable velocity; at the end of
the fir ft fecond it had a determination by which it
would have gone on for ever (had no fubfequent force
adled on it) at the rate of 32 feet per fecond. At the
end of the fecond fecond, it had a determination by
which it would have moved for ever, at the rate of 64
feet per fecond. At the end of the third fecond, it
had a determination by which it would have moved
for ever, at the rate of 96 feet per fecond, &c. &c.
The difference of thefe determinations is a determination
to the rate of 32 feet per fecond. This is therefore
conftant, and the indication and proper meafure of the
conftant or invariable force of gravity. The fpace fal¬
len through in the firft fecond is of ufe only as it is
one half of the meafure of this determination ; and as
halves have the proportion of their wholes, different ac¬
celerating forces may be fafely affirmed to be in the pro¬
portion of the fpaces through which they uniformly im¬
pel bodies in the fame time. But we fhould always re- 8
colleft, that this is but one half of the true meafure of M,{!ake*
the accelerating force. Mathematicians of the firft rank [khn!'ou'
have committed great miftakes by not attending to this;this
and it is neceffary to notice it juft now, becaufe cafes will
occur in the profecution of this fubjedt, where we {hall be
"very apt to confound our reafonings by a confufion in the
ufe of thofe meafures. Thofe mathematicians who are
accuftomed to the geometrical confideration of cmwiline-
al motions, are generally difpofed to take the aPual de-
jlcttion from the tangent as the meafure of the deflecting
force; while thofe who treat the fame fubjedt algebraical¬
ly, by the affiftance of fluxions, take the change af velocityt
which is meafured by twice the defledtion. The reafon
is this: when a body paffes through the point B of a
curve ABC, fig. 1. if the defledting force were to ceafe
at that inftant, the body would deferibe the tangent ccccxm*
BD in the fame time in which it deferibes the arch
BC of the curve, and DC is the. defledtion, and is
therefore taken for the meafure of the defledting force.
But the algebraift is accuftomed to confider the curve
by means of an equation between the abfciffae Ha,
H b. Hr, and their refpedtive ordinates A a, B/', Qc ;
and he meafures the defledtions by the changes made on
the increments of the ordinates. Thus the increment of
the ordinate Aa, while the body deferibes the arch AB
of the curve, is BG. If the defiedting force were to
ceafe
P R O J E C
<cafc when the body Is at B, the next Increment would
have been equal to BG, that Is, it would have been Eh ;
but, in confequence of the defleftion, it is onlyCF: there¬
fore he takes EC for the meafure of the defledion, and of
the dedefting force. Now EC is ultimately twice DC ;
and thus the meafure of the algebraift (derived folely
from the nature of the differential method, and without
any regard to phyfical confiderations) happens to coin¬
cide with the true phyfical meafure. There is therefore
9 great danger of mixing thefe meafures. Of this vi e ean-
Particu.ar- a more remarkable inftance than Leibnitz’s at-
uiiz. e tempt to demonftrate the elliptical motion of the planets
in the Leipfic Adfts, 1689. He firll confiders the fub-
ied mechanically, and takes the deflea ion or DC for
the meafure of the deflefting force. He then intro¬
duces his differential calculus, where he takes the dif¬
ference of the increments for the meafure ; and thus
brings himfelf into a confufion, which luckily compen-
fates for the falfe reafoning in the preceding part of
his paper, and gives his refult the appeaiance. of a
demonftration of Newton’s great difeovery, while, in
fad, it is a confufed jumble of affumptions, felf-eon-
tradi&ory, and inconfiilent with the very laws of me¬
chanics which are ufed by him in the inveftigation.
Seventeen years after this, in 1706, having been cri-
ticifed for his bad reafoning, or rather accufed of an
envious and unfuccefsful attempt to appropriate New¬
ton’s inventions to himfelf, he gives a correction of his
paralogifm, which he calls a correction of language.
But he either had not obferved where the paralogifm
lay, or would not let himfelf down by acknowledging
a miftake in what he wifhed the world to think his owm
calculus (fluxions) ; he applied the corre&ion where no
fault had been committed, for he had meafured both
the centrifugal force and the folicitation of gravity in the
fame way, but had applied the fluxionary expreflion to
the laft and not to the firft, and, by fo doing, he com¬
pletely deflroyed all coincidence between his refult and
the planetary motions. We mention this inftance, not
only as a caution to our mathematical readers, but alfo
as a very curious literary anecdote. I his differtation of
Leibnitz is one of the moft obfeure of his obfeure writ¬
ings, but deferves the attention of an intelligent and
curious reader, and cannot fail of making an indelible
impreffion on his mind, with relation to the modefty,
candour, and probity of the author. It is preceded
by a differtation on the fubjeft which we are now
entering upon, the motion of projedtiles in a refuting
medium. Newton’s Principla had been publifned a few
years before, and had been reviewed, in a manner fhame-
fully flight, in the Leipfic ACts. Both thefe fubjects
make the capital articles of that immortal wrdrk. Mr
Leibnitz publifhed thefe differtations, without (fays he)
having feen Newton’s book, in order to fhow the world
that he had, fome years before, difeovered the fame
theorems. Mr Nicholas Fatio carried a copy of the
Principia from the author to Hanover in 1686, where
he expedted to find Mr Leibnitz ; he was then abfent,
but Fatio faw him often before his return to F ranee, in
1687, and does not fay that the book was not given him.
Read along with thefe diflertations Dr Keill’s letter to
JohnBernoulli and others, publifhed in the ''journalLite-
raire de la Hayee 1714) and to John Bernoulli in I 7'9*
Newton has been accufed of a fimilar overfight by
John Bernoulli, (who indeed calls it a miftake in prin-
TILES. 541
ciple) in his Propofition X. Book 2. on the very fub- 10
jedl we arc now confidering. But Dr Keill has fhown ’ ^c“
it to be only an overfight, in drawing, the tangent onfimijir
the wrong fide of the ordinate. For in this very pro-take hy J.
pofition Newton exhibits, in the ftneteft and moft beau- Bernoulli,
tiful manner, the difference between the geometrical
and algebraical manner of confidering the fubjedl; and
exprefsly warns the reader, that bis algebraical fymbol
expreffes the deflection only, and not the variation of n
the increment of the ordinate. It is therefore in the But falfely.
laft degree improbable that he would make this mif¬
take. He moft exprefsly does not; and as to the real
miftake, which he corredted in the fecond edition, the
writer of this article has in his poffeffion a manufeript
copy of notes and illuftrations on the whole Principia,
written in 1693 by Dr David Gregory, Savilian profeifor
of aftronomy at Oxford, at the defire of Mr Newton,
as preparatory for a new edition, where he has rectified
this and feveral other miftakes in that work, and fays-
that Mr Newton had feen and approved of the amend¬
ments. We mention thefe particulars, becaufe Mr is
Bernoulli publifhed an elegant differtation on this
fubjedt in the Leipfic Adts in 1713; in which he Tth nfpCft
charges Newton (though with many proteftations oft0 Newton,
admiration and refpedt) with this miftake in principle;
and fays, that he communicated his corredtion to Mr
Newton by his nephew Nicholas Bernoulli, that it
might be corrected in the new edition, which he heard
was in the prefs. And he afterwards adds, that it ap¬
pears by fome fheets being cancelled, and new onesfub-
ftituted in this part of the work, that the miftake would
have continued, had he not corredted it. We would
defire our readers to eonfult this differtation, wdiich is
extremely elegant, and will be of fervice to us in this
article ; and let them compare the civil things which is
here faid of the vir incomparabilis, the omni laude major,
the fummus Wewtonus, with what the fame author, in
the fame year, in the Leipfic Adts, but under a bor¬
rowed name, fays of him. Our readers will have
no hefitation in aferibing this letter to this author.
For, after praifing John Bernoulli as fummus geometra,
natus ad fummorum geometrarum paralogifmos corrigendas,
fummi candoris ut ct modejluz, he betrays himfelf by an
unguarded warmth, when defending J. B.’s demonftra¬
tion of the inverfe problem of centripetal forces, by
calling it MEAM demonjlrationem.
Let our readers now confider the fcope and inten¬
tion of this differtation on projedtiles, and judge whether
the author’s aim was to inftrudt the world, or to acquire
fame, by corredling Newton. The differtation doe»
not contain one theorem, one corollary, nor one ftep of
argument, which is not to be found in Newton’s firft
edition ; nor has he gone farther than Newton’s fingle
propofition the Xth. To us it appears an exadl com¬
panion to his propofition on centripetal forces, which he
boafts of having firft demonftrated, although it is in
every ftep a tranfeript of the 42d of the ift Book of
Newton’s Principia, the geometrical language of New¬
ton being changed into algebraic, as he has in the pre-
fent cafe changed Newton’s algebraic analylis into a
very elegant geometrical one.
We hope to be forgiven for this long digreffion. It
is a very curious piece of literary hiftory, and (hows
the combination which envy and want oi honour¬
able principle had formed againft the reputation of our
ftluftrious
542
i.3
Accurate
meafure of
the accele¬
rative pow.
«r of gravi¬
ty*
PROJECTILES.
14
Central
formula; de¬
duced.
ittufirious countryman; and we think it our duty to em¬
brace any opportunity of doing it juilice.—To return
to our fubj’edt :
The accurate meafure of the accelerative power of
gravity, is the fall 16^r feet, if we meafure it by the
fpace, or the velocity of 32^- feet per fecond, if we take
the velocity. It will greatly facilitate calculation, and
will be fufficiently exaft for all our purpofes, if we take
16 £?id 32, fuppofing that a body falls t6 feet in a fe-
cond, and acquires the velocity of 32 feet per fecond.
Then, becaufe the heights are as the fquares of the
times, and as the fquares of the acquired velocities, a
body will fall one foot in one fourth of a fecond, and will
acquire the velocity of eight feet per fecond. Now let
h exprefs the height in feet, and call it the producing
height ; v the velocity in feet per fecond, and call it
the produced velocity, the velocity due ; and t the
time in feconds.—We fhall have the following formulae,
which are of eafy recolledtion, and will ferve, without
tables, to anfwer all queftions relative to projedliles.
Lu¬
ll. t -
8 \/b, =
fj
X 4 — 321
III.
IV.
V
V h — g-!
h = 64’
= 4'
— I6/1
15 . . .
Examples To give fome examples of their ufe, let it be requi-
cf their ufe recl}
in falling
bodie
16
In bodies
projeifted
upwards,
To find the time of falling through 256 feet.
16
Here h = 256, \/25'5 — 10, and — = 4. An¬
fwer 4'l
2. To find the velocity acquired by falling four fe¬
conds. * = 4.32X4=: 128 feet per fecond.
3. To find the velocity acquired by falling 625 feet.
h — 625 . \/h — 25 . 'i'fh — 200 feet per fecond.
4. To find the height to which a body will rife
when projedted with the velocity of 56 fe£t per fecond,
or the height through which a body mult fall to acquire
this velocity.
56
u = 56 . -r = 7, ~\/h. 71 = Zq — 49 feet.
or 56 1 = 3136
3]36
64
= 49 feet.
And ('La. !>• Suppofe a body projected direftly downwards
ly down- with the velocity of 10 feet per fecond; what will
wards. be its velocity after four feconds ? In four feconds it
will have acquired, by the adtion of gravity, the velo¬
city of 4 X 32, or 128 feet, and therefore its whole ve¬
locity will be 138 feet per fecond.
6. To find how far it will have moved, compound its
motion of projection, which will be 40 feet in four fe¬
conds, with the motion which gravity alone would have
given it in that time, which is 256 feet; and the whole
motion will be 296 feet.
7. Suppofe the body projected as already mentioned,
and that it is required to determine the time it will take
logo 296 feet downwards, and the velocity it will have
acquired.
Find the height x, through which it muft fall to ac¬
quire the velocity of projection, 10 feet, and the time
J of falling from this height. Then find t he time z of
falling through the height 2964- x, and the velocity v
acquired by this fall. The time of deferibing the 296
feet will be z—j, and v is the velocity required.
From fuch examples, it is eafy to fee the way of an-
fwering every queftion of the kind. , g
\V riters on the higher parts ol mechanics always More gene-
compute the actions of other accelerating and retarding rai Lrum-
forces by comparing them with the acceleration of'35*
gravity, and in order to render their expreffions more
general, ule a fymbol, fuch as £ for gravity, leaving the
reader to convert it into numbers. Agreeably to this
view, the general formulas will (land thus :
I* V = Vlg hfue, </2 y'ljv/Z, = *
11. * = -,=^4^= al= /—
V a/- . V 2 g V or
& V 2 g
U 2 V / 4
IIII.Z=—
2^ 2
In all thefe equations, gravity, or its accelerating
power, is eltimated, as it ought to be, by the change
of velocity which it generates in a particle of matter in
an unit of time. But many mathematicians, in theit*
inveftigations of curvilineal and other varied motions,
meafure it by the defledlion which it produces in this
time from the tangent of the curve, or by the incre¬
ment by which the fpace deferibed in an unit of time
exceeds the fpace defenbed in the preceding unit. This
is but one half of the increment which gravity would
have produced, had the body moved through the whole
moment with the acquired addition of velocity. In this
fenfe of the fymbol g, the equations ftand thus :
I. V = Zr/fZ), = 2 gt
II. *=
V v I 2S
s
IV-4= ??:='f'‘’andv'i=^
It is alfo very ufual to confider the accelerating force
of gravity as the unit of comparifon. This renders the
expreifions much more fimple. In this way, v expreffes
not the velocity, but the height neceflary for acquiring
it, and the velocity itfelf is expreffed by v'"?7 To re¬
duce fuch an exprefiion of a velocity to numbers, we
mull multiply it by \/2g, or by g, according as
we make g to be the generated velocity, or the fpace
fallen through in the unit of time.
This will iuffice for the perpendicular afeents or de- Bodies^
feents of heavy bodies, and we proceed to confider their prqe&ed
motions when projected obliquely. The circumftance obhquelyi
which renders this an interefting fubjeft, is, that the
flight of cannon fhot and fiiells are inilances of fuch
motion, and the art of gunnery muft in a great mea¬
fure depend on this doctrine.
Let a body B (fig. 2.), be projeded in any direc¬
tion BC, not perpendicular to the horizon, and with
any velocity. Let AB be the height producing this
velocity; that is, let the velocity be that which a heavy
body would acquit e by falling freely through AB. It
is required to determine the path of the body, and all
the circumftances of its motion in this path ?
J* It is evident, that by the continual a&ion of gra-
2 ivity>
Plate
CCCCXVlf.
54 J
P R O J E C
Tity, the body will be continually defle&ed from the
line BC, and will defcribe a curve line BYG, concave
10 towai'ds the earth.
Pefci ibes 2> curve lJne Js a parabola, of which the verti-
apaia o.a. ^ ]jne ABE is a diameter, B the vertex of this dia¬
meter, and BC a tangent in B.
Through any two points V, G of the curve draw
VC, GH parallel to AB, meeting BC in C and H,
and draw VE, GK parallel to BC, meeting AB in E,
K. It follows, from the compofition of motions, that
the body would arrive at the points V, G of the curve
in the fame time that it would have uniformly defcnbed
BC, BH, with the velocity of projection; or that it
would have fallen through BE, BK, with a motion uni¬
formly accelerated by gravity ; therefore the times of
deferibing BC, BH, uniformly, arc the fame with the
times of falling through BE, BK. But, becaufe the
motion along BH is uniform, BC is to BH as the time
of deferibing BC to the time of deferibing BH, which
we may exprefs thus, BC : BH = T, BC : T, BH, ~
T, BE : T, BK. But, becaufe the motion along BK
is unifornily accelerated, we have BE : BK = T %
BE : T % BK, = BC 1 : BTP, = EV 1 : KG s ;
therefore the curve BVG is fuch, that the abfciifae BE,
BK are as the fquares of the correlponding ordinates
EV, KG ; that is, the curve BVG is a parabola, and
BC, parallel to the ordinates, is a tangent in the
point B.
3. If through the point A there be drawn the ho¬
rizontal line AD d, it is the diredtrix of the para¬
bola.
Let BE be taken equal to AB. The time of falling
through BE is equal to the time of falling through
AB ; but BC is deferibed with the velocity acquired by
falling through AB : and therefore by n° 4. of per¬
pendicular defeents, BC is double of AB, and EV is
double of BE ; therefore EV 2 — 4 BE % 4 BE X
AB, = BE X 4 AB, and 4 AB is the parameter or
\atus reBum of the parabola BVG, and AB being one-
fourth of the parameter, AD is the dire&rix.
4. 'I he times of deferibing the different arches BV,
VG of the parabola are as the portions BC, BH of
the tangent, or as the portions AD, A of the direc¬
trix, intercepted by the fame vertical lines AB, CV,
HG ; for the times of deferibing BV, BVG are the
fame with thofeof deferibing the correfponding parts BC,
BH of the tangent, and are proportional to thefe parts,
becaufe the motion along BH is uniform ; and BC,
BH are proportional to AD, A d.
Therefore the motion eftimated horizontally is uni¬
form.
5. The velocity in any point G of the curve is the
fame with that which a heavy body would acquire by
falling from the diredtrix along d G. Draw the tangent
G1, cutting the vertical AB in T ; take the points a,
f, equidiftant from A and </, and extremely near them,
and draw the verticals let the points «,/, con¬
tinually approach A and </, and ultimately coincide
with them. It is evident that B b will ultimately be to
g G, in the ratio of the velocity at B to the velocity at
G ; for the portions of the tangent ultimately coincide
with the portions of the curve, and are deferibed in
equal times; but B 3 is to ^ G as BH to TG : there¬
fore the velocity at B is to that at G as BH to TG.
But, by the properties of the parabola, BH * to
TILES*
TG 2 as AB to G ; and AB is to dG as the fquare
of the velocity acquired by falling through AB to the
fquare of the velocity acquired by falling through r/G;
and the velocity in BH, or in the point B of the para¬
bola, is the velocity acquired by falling along AB ;
therefore the velocity in TG, or in the point G of
the parabola, is the velocity acquired by failing along
d G. 2r
,Thefe few fimple propofitions contain all the theory^6 para-
of the motion of projedtilcs in vacuo, or independent thef'‘
on the refiftance of the air ; and being a very eafy and ^u/'but
neat piece of mathematical philofophy, and connedled iirtle ule in
with very interetting praftice, and a very refpedlable pra&ux.
profeflion, they have been much commented on, and
have furnifhed matter for many fplendid volumes. But
the air’s refiltance occafions fuch a prodigious diminu¬
tion of motion in the great velocities of military pro-
jeftiles, that this parabolic theory, as it is called, is
hardly of any ufe. A mufket-ball, difeharged with the
ordinary allotment of powder, iffues from the piece
with the velocity of 1670 feet per fecond : this velo¬
city would be acquired by falling from the height of
eight miles. If the piece be elevated to an angle of
45°, the parabola fhould be of fuch extent that it would
reach 16 miles on the horizontal plain; whereas it
does not reach much above half a mile. Similar de¬
ficiencies are obferved in the ranges of cannon foot.
We do not propofe, therefore, to dwell much on this A (horc
theory, and fiiall only give fuch a fynoptical view of it v*ew it*
as fhall make our readers underhand the more general
cireumftances of the theory, and be mafters of the lan¬
guage of the art.
Let OB (fig. 3.) be a vertical line. About the pj.ifc
centres A and B, with the diftance AB, defcribe the ccccxvii*,
femicircles ODB, AHK, and with the axis AB, and
femiaxis GE, equal to AB, defcribe the femi-ellipfe
AEB : with the focus B, vertex A, diameter AB,
and tangent AD, parallel to the horizon, defcribe the
parabola APS.
Let a body be projected from B, in any direction
BC, with the velocity acquired by falling through AB.
By what has already been demonttrated, it will defcribe
a parabola BVPM. Then,
J. ADL parallel to the horizon is the difeftrix of
every parabola which can be deferibed by a body pro¬
jected from B with this velocity. This is evident.
2. The femicircle AHK is the locus of all the foci
of thefe parabolas : For the diftance BH of a point B
of any parabola from the direftrix AD is equal to its
diftance BF from the focus F of that parabola ; there¬
fore the foci of all the parabolas which pa£s through
B, and haye AD for their direClrix, muft be in the cir¬
cumference of the circle which has AB for its radius,
and B for its centre.
3. If the line of direction BC cut the upper femi¬
circle in C, and the vertical line CF be drawn, cutting
the lower femicircle in F, F is the focus of the para¬
bola BVPM, deferibed by the body which is projected
in the direftion BC, with the velocity acquired by fall¬
ing through BA: for drawing AC, BF, it is evident
that ACFB is a rhombus, and that the angle ABF is
bifeCled by BC, and therefore the focus lies in the lifi*
BF; but it alfo lies in the circumference AFK, and'
therefore in F.
If C is in the upper quadrant of ODB, F is in the
uppeu
544-
P R O J E
upper quadrant of AF1C; and if C be in the lower
quadrant of ODB (as when BC ts the line of direa.on)
then the focus of the correfponding parabola 15 v M is
in the lower quadrant of AHK, as at/.
4. The ellipfis AEB is the locus of the vertex of
nil the parabolas, and the vertex V of- any one of them
BVPM is in the interfedtion of this ellipfis with the
vertical CF : for let this vertical cut the horizontal
lines AD, GE, BN, in 0, N. Then it is plain that
N x is half of N 0, and * V is half of C 8 ; therefore N V
is half of NC, and V is the vertex of the axis.
If the focus is in the upper or lower quadrant of the
circle AHK, the vertex is in the upper or the lower
quadrant of the ellipfe AEG.
5. If BFP be drawn through the focus of any one
of the parabolas, fuch as BVM, cutting the parabola
APS in P, the parabola BVM touches the parabola
APS in P : for drawing P ^" parallel to AB, cutting
the direftrix O * of the parabola APS in and the
direftnx AL of the parabola BVM in j1, then 1 B — 1 >',
but BF=BA, — AO, =* ^ : therefore P JrrPF, and
the point P is in the parabola BVM. Alio the tan¬
gents to both parabolas in P coincide, for they bifedt
the angle * PB ; therefore the two parabolas having a
common tangent, touch each other in P.
Cor. All the parabolas which can be defcribed by
a body projeaed from B, with the velocity acquired
by falling through AB, will touch the concavity of the
parabola APS, and lie wholly within it.
6. P is the molt diftant point of the line BP which
can be hit by a body projeaed from B with the velocity
acquired by falling through AB. For if the direaion
is more elevated than BC, the focus of the parabola de¬
fcribed by the body will lie between F and A, and the
parabola will touch APS in fome point between P and
A ; and being wholly within the parabola Alfa, it
mult cut the line BP in fome point within P. The
fame thing may be fhown when the direaion is lefs
elevated than BC.
7. The parabola APS is the locus of the greateft
ranges on any planes BP, BS, &c. and no point lying
without this parabola can be llruck.
8. The greateft range on any plane BP is produced
when the line of direaion BC bifeas the angle OBP
formed by that plane with the vertical: for the para¬
bola defcribed by the body in this cafe touches APS in
P, and its focus is in the line BP, and therefore the
tangent BC bifeas the angle OBP.
Cor. The gi-eateft range on a horizontal plane is
made with an elevation of 45 °.
9. A point M in any plane BS, lying between B and
S, may be ftruck with two direaions, BCandBc;
and thefe direaions are equidiftant from the direaion
B t, which gives the greateft range on that plane : for
if about the centre M, with the diftance ML from the
direarix AL, we defcribe a circle LF/, it will cut the
circle AHK in two points F and f, which are evident¬
ly the foci of two parabolas BVM, B v M, having the
direarix AL and diameter ABK. The interfe-aion
of the circle ODB, with the verticals FC, f c, deter¬
mine the direaions BC, B c of the tangents. Draw
A ^ parallel to BS, and join/B, C r, F/; then OB *
= \ OBS, and B t is the direaion which gives the
greateft range on the plane BS : but becaufe F/ is a
chord of the circles described round the centres B and
c t 1 L e s.
M, F/ is perpendicular to BM, and Cc to A^, and
the arches.C /, ct are equal; and therefore the angles
CB cV>t are equal.
Thus we have given a general view of the fubjea,
which {hows the conneaion and dependence of every
circumftance which can influence the refult; for it is evi¬
dent that to every velocity of projeaion there belongs
a fet of parabolas, with their direaions and ranges ;
and every change of velocity has a line AB correfpond-
ing to it, to which all the others are proportional. A*
the height neceffary for acquiring any velocity increa-
fes or diminifiies in the duplicate proportion of that
velocity, it is evident that all the ranges with given ele¬
vations will vary in the fame proportion, a double ve¬
locity giving a quadruple range, a triple velocity giving
a noncuple range, &c. And, on the other hand, when
the ranges are determined beforehand (which is the
ufual cafe), the velocities are in the fubduplicate pro¬
portion of the ranges. A quadruple range will require
a double velocity, &c.
On the principles now eftablifhed is founded the 0!“ |jXp£rjcnce
dinary theory of gunnery, furnifhing rules which are to principally
diredft the art of throwing (hot and {hells, fo as to hitdire&s the
the mark with a determined velocity. _
But we muft obferve, that this theory is of little fer-s ‘ '
vice for dire&ing us in the praftice of cannonading.
Here it is necefiary to come as near as we can to the
objedf aimed at, and the hurry of fervice allows no time
for geometrical methods of pointing the piece after
each difeharge. The gunner either points the cannon
directly to the object, when within 200 or 300 yards
of it, in which cafe he is faid to {hoot, point blank
(pointer au blanc, i. e. at the white mark in the middle
oi the gunners target) ; or, if at a greater diftance, he
eftimates to the beft of his judgment the defleCtion coi-
refponding to his diftance, and points the cannon ac¬
cordingly. In this he is aided by the greater thicknefs
at the breech of a piece of ordnance. Or, laftly, when
the intention is not to batter, but to rake along a line
occupied by the enemy, the cannon is elevated at a
confiderable angle, and the {hot difeharged with a fmall
force, fo that it drops into the enemy’s poft, and bounds
along the line. In all thefe fervices the gunner is di-
refted entirely by trial, and we cannot fay that this pa¬
rabolic theory can do him any fervice.
The principal ufe of it is to direCt the bombaidier m
throwing {hells. With thefe it is propofed to break
down or fet fire to buildings, to break through the
vaulted roofs of magazines, or to intimidate and kill
troops by burfting among them. Thefe objefts are al¬
ways under cover of the enemy’s works, and cannot be
touched by a direCl fiiot. The bombs and carcaffes are
therefore thrown upwards, fo as to get over the de¬
fences and produce their effeCt.
Thefe {hells are of very great weight, frequently ex¬
ceeding 200 lbs. The mortars from whicli they are
difeharged muft therefore be very ftrong, that they may
refill the explofion of gunpowder which is necelfary for
throwing fuch a mafs of matter to a diftance ; they are
confequently unwieldy, and it is found moil convenient
to make them almoft a folid and immoveable lump. Very
little change can be made in their elevation, and there¬
fore their ranges are regulated by the velocities given to
the fit ell. Thefe again are produced by the quantities
I of
545
24
The mov¬
ing force
in theoiy
different
from that
in practice,
Plate
ccccxvn.
16
To calcu¬
late the
time of
#>ght.
P R O J E C
C-t powder in the charge; and experience (confirming
the bell theoretical notions that we can form of the
fubjed) has taught us, that the ranges are nearly pro¬
portional to the quantities of powder employed, only
not increafing quite fo fall. This method is much ea-
fier than by differences of elevation ; for we can feledl
the elevation which gives the greatell range on the
given plane, and then we are certain that we f.re em¬
ploying the fmalleft quantity of powder with which the
fervice can be performed : and we have another advan¬
tage, that the deviations which unavoidable caufes pro¬
duce in the real diredtions of the bomb will then pro¬
duce the fmalleft pofiible deviation from the intended
range. This is the cafe in rnoll mathematical maxima.
In military projedtiles the velocity is produced by
the explolion of a quantity of gunpowder ; but in our
theory it is conceived as produced by a fidl from a cer¬
tain height, by the proportions of which we can accu¬
rately determine its quantity. Thus a velocity of 1600
feet per fecond is produced by a fall from the height of
40,000 feet or 1333 yards.
The height CA (fig. 4.) for producing the velocity
of projedtion is called, in the language of gunnery, the
impetus. We fhall exprefs it by the fymbol h.
The diftance AB to which the Iheli goes on any
plane AB is called the amplitude or the range r.
The angle DBA, made by the vertical line and the
plane AB, may be called the angle of position of that
plane, p.
The angle DAB, made by the axis or diredlion of
the piece, and the diredlion of the objedt, may be call¬
ed the angle of elevation of the piece above tlie
plane AB, e.
The angle ZAD,- made by the vertical line, and the
diredlion of the piece, may be called the zenith dif¬
tance, %.
The relations between all the circumftances of velo-
•TILE S.
city, diftance, pofition, elevation, and time, may be in¬
cluded in the following propofitions.
I. Let a ftiell be projected from A, with the velocity Re!af;on«
acquired by falling through CA, with the intention of between
hitting the mark B fituated in the given line AB. ,^c
Make ZA = 4AC, and draw BD perpendicular to
the horizon. Defcribe on ZA an arch of a circle
ZDA, containing an angle equal to DBA, and draw
AD to the interfedlion of this circle with DB ; then
will a body projedted from A, in the diredlion AD,
with the velocity acquired by falling through CA, hit
the mark B.
For, produce CA downwards, and draw BF parallel
to AD, and draw ZD. It is evident from the con-
ftrudlion that AB touches the circle in B, and that the
angles ADZ, DBA, are equal, as alfo the angles
AZD, DAB; therefore the1'triangles ZAD, AD&
are fimilar.
Therefore BD : DA=DA : AZ,
And DA* = BDXAZ;
Therefore BFl = AFxAZ, = AFX4AC.
Therefore a parabola, of which AF is a diameter, and
AZ its parameter, will pafs through B, and this pa¬
rabola will be the path of the ftiell projedled as already
mentioned.
Remark. When BD cuts this circle, it cuts it in
two points D, d; and there are two diredlions which
will folve the problem. If B D' only touches the cir¬
cle in D', there is but one diredlion, and AB' is the
greateft pofiible range with this velocity. If the verti¬
cal line through B docf not meet the circle, the problem
is impofiible, the velocity being too fmall. When B D'
touches the circle, the two dircdlions AD'and A </
coalefce into one diredlion, producing the greateft range,
andbifedling the angle ZAB ; and the other two direc¬
tions AD, Ad, producing the fame range AB, are equi-
diftant from AD', agreeably to the general propofitiom
It is evident that AZ : AD=:S,ADZ : S,AZD, = S,DBA : S,DAB,—S,/>: S,e
And AD : DB = S,DBA : S,DAB,=. S,p:S,e
And DB: ABr=S,DAB: S,ADB,=r ' S,e:S,z
Therefore AZ : AB=: S%/> XS, <?: S1, e XS, z ; z= S%p : S, e XS, s
Or 4 /j : r nS2, p : S, e X S, z, and 4 /j X S, e XS, zzzrXS1, p
Hence we obtairt the relations wanted.
Thus h:
XS\/>
XS,z
And S, 2 =
4S,(?XS,2
r X S2/>
4/&XS,,
, dAxS
and r —   -
S>
,Q r X S2,/-,
and b, e =
4dXb,z
The only other circumftance in which we are intereft-
ed is the time of the flight. A knowledge of this is
neceffary for the bombardier, that he may cut the fuzes
of his (hells to fuch lengths as that they may burft at
the very isftant of their hitting the mark.
Now AB : DB = Sin, ADB : Sin, DAB, = S, z :
S, e, and D B — -Ty But the time of the flight is
S, z
the fame with the time of falling through DB, and 16
feet: DB= 1" : t''1* Hence f'2—-r * ^ e, and we have
16S, 2
the following eafy rule.
From the fum of the logarithms of the range, and of
the fine of elevation, fubtradl the fum of the logarithms
of 16, and of the fine of the 7/eitith diilance, half the
remainder is the logarithm of the time in ieeonds.
Vol. XV. Part II.
This becomes ftill eafier in pradlice; for the mortar
(hould be fo elevated that the range is a maximum : in
which cafe AB = DB, ahd then half the difference of
the logarithms of AB and of 16 is the logarithm of the
time in feconds.
Such are the dedu&ions from the general propofitions theory
which conftitute the ordinary theory of gunnery. It of gunnery
remains to compare them with experiment. compared
In fuch experiments as can be performed with great
accuracy in a chamber, the coincidence is as great as
can be wiihed. A jet of water, or mercury, give* us
the fineft example, becaufe we have the whole parabola
exhibited to us in the fimultaneous places of the fuc-
ceeding particles. • Yet even in thefe experiments a de¬
viation can be obferved. When the jet is made on
horizontal plane,and the curve carefully traced on a per¬
pendicular plane held clofe by it, it is found that the
diftance between the higheft point of the curve and the
mark is lefs than the diftance between it and the fpout,
and that the defeending branch of the curve is more
perpendicular than the afeending branch. And this
difference is more remarkable as the jet is made with
3 Z greater
546
48
This com
P R O J E
greater velocity, and readies to a greater diftance. This
^evidently produced by the refiftance of the air, which
diminifhes the velocity, without affefting the gravity of
the proje&ile. It is Hill more fenfible in the motion of
bombs. Thefe can be traced through the air by the
light of their fuzes ; and we fee that their higheft point
is always much nearer to the mark than to the mortar
on a horizontal plane.
The greatell horizontal range on this plane Ihould
be when the elevation is 45 \ It is always found to be
much lower.
The ranges on this plane fhould be as the fines of
twice the elevation.
A ball difcharged at the elev. r^. 5' ranged 448 yards
at 9-45 330
It Ihould have ranged by theory 241
The range at an elevation of 450 fheuld be twice the
impetus. Mr Robins found that a mulket-ball, difchar¬
ged with the ufual allotment of powder, had the velo¬
city of 1700 feet in a fecond. This requires a fall of
45156 feet, and the range fliould be 90312, or 17-3-
miles; whereas it does not much exceed half a mile. A
24 pound ball difcharged with 16 pounds of powder
fhould range about 16 miles ; whereas it is generally
fhort of 3 miles.
Such fafrs (how incontrovertibly how deficient the
ihewTthe Parahoh‘c theory is, and how unfit for directing the
deficiency ofpra&ice of the artillerift. A very fimple confideration
the theory, is fufficient for rendering this obvious to the moft unin-
ftru&ed. The refiflance of the air to a very light body
may greatly exceed its weight. Any one will feel this
in trying to move a fan very rapidly through the air;
therefore this refiftance would occalion a greater devia¬
tion from uniform motion than gravity would in that
body. Its path, therefore, through the air may differ
more from a parabola than the parabola itfelf deviates
from the ftraight line.
It is for fuch cogent reafons that we prefume to fay, that
the voluminous treatifes which have been publifhed on this
fubjedft are nothing but ingenious amufements for young
mathematicians. Fewperfons who have been much engag¬
ed in the ftudy of mechanical philofephy have miffed this
opportunity in the beginning of their ftudies. Thefubjeft
is eafy. Some property of the parabola occurs, by which
they can give a neat and fyftematic folution of all the quo-
ftions; and at this time of ftudy it feems a confiderable
effay of flcill. They are tempted to write a book on
the fubjeft; and it finds readers among other young
mechanicians, and employs all the mathematical know¬
ledge that moft of the young gentlemen of the military
profeflion are poffeffed of. But thefe performances de-
i'erve little attention from the practical artiflerift. All
that feems poffible to do for his education is, to multi¬
ply judicious experiments on real pieces of ordnance,
with the charges that are ufed in a&ual fervice, and
to furnifh him with tables calculated from fuch. experir
ments.
Thefe obfervations will ferve to juftify us for having
given fo concife an account of this doftrine of the parar
bolic flight of bodies.
Caufes of But it is the bufinefs of a philofopher to inquire into
this defici- the caufes of fuch a prodigious deviation from a well
£IK^* founded theory, and having difcovered them, to afeer-
tain precifely the deviations they occafion. Thus we lhall
obtain another theory, either in the form of the parabolic
C T I L E S.
theory corredled, or as a fubjefl of independent difeuf-
fion. This we fliall now attempt.
The motion of projectiles is performed in the atmo- Effedt of
fphere. The air is difplaced, or put in motion. What- atmo*
ever motion it acquires muft be taken from the bullet. *ph6re»
The motion communicated to the air muft be in the pro¬
portion of the quantity of air put in motion, and of the
velocity communicated to it. If, therefore, the difplaced
air be always fimilarly difplaced, whatever be the velo¬
city of the bullet, the motion communicated to it, and
loft by the bullet, muft be proportional to the fquare of
the velocity of the bullet and to the denfity of the air
jointly. Therefore the diminution of its motion muft be
greater when the motion itfelf is greater, and in the
very great velocity of (hot and fhells it muft be prodi¬
gious. It appears from Mr Robins’s experiments that
a globe of 4^ inches in diameter, moving with the velo¬
city of 25 feet in a fecond, fuftained a refiftance of 315
grains, nearly | of an ounce. Suppofe this ball to move
800 feet in a fecond, that is 32 times fafter, its relift-
aiice would be 32X32 times | of an ounce, or 768 oun¬
ces or 48 pounds. This is four times the weight of a
ball of caft iron of this diameter ; and if the initial ve¬
locity had been 1600 feet per fecond, the refiftance
would be at leaft 16 times the weight of the ball. It
is indeed much greater than this.
This refiftance, operating conftantly and uniformly Compared
on the bah, muft take away four times as much from w4h that
its velocity as its gravity would do in the fame time. Eravity*
We know that in one fecond gravity would reduce the
velocity 800 to 768 if the ball were projected ftraight
upwards. This refiftance of the air would therefore re¬
duce it in one fecond to 672, if it operated uniformly ;
but as the velocity diminiihes continually by the refift¬
ance, and the refiftance diminifties along with the velo¬
city, the real diminution wih be fomewhat lei's than 128
feet. We ihall, however, fee afterwards that in one fe¬
cond its velocity will be reduced from 800 to 687.
From this fimple inftance,we fee that the refiftance of
the air muft occafion great deviation from parabolic mo-
tion. 3a
In order to judge accurately of its effeft, we muft And conS.
coniider it as a retarding force, in the fame way as we dered as a
confider gravity. The weight W of a body is the ag-^^in^
gregate of the aftion of the force of gravity g on each
particle of the body. Suppofe the number of equal par¬
ticles, or the quantity of matter, of a body to be M,
then W is equivalent to ^M. In like manner, the re¬
fiftance R, which we obferve in any experiment, is the
aggregate of the aftion of a retarding force R on each
particle, and is equivalent to R'M : and as g is equal to
W . R
j^-, fo R' is equal to-^j. We fliaU keep this diftin&ion
in view, by adding the differential mark ' to the letter
R or r, which expreffes the aggregate refiftance. ^
If we, in this manner, conlider refiftance as a retard- The refifir-
ing force, we can compare it with any other fuch force ance the;
by means of the retardation which it produces in iimilar
circumftances. We would compare it with gravity by
comparing the diminution of velocity which its uniform
action produces in a given time with the diminution
produced in the fame time by gravity. But we have no
opportunity of doing this dire&ly; for when the refiftance
of the air diminiihes the velocity of a body, it diminifhes
it gradually,_which occalious a gradual diminution of its
own
547
P R O J E C
own inter.fitv. This is not the cafe with gravity, which
has the fame aftipn on a body in motion or at reft. We
cannot, therefore, obferve the uniform aftion of the air’s
refiftance as a retarding Force. We mull fall on fome
other way of making the comparifon. We can ftate
them both as dead preflures. A liall may be fitted to the
rod of a fpring ftillyard, and expofed to the impulfe of the
wind. This will comprefs the ftillyard to,the mark 3,
for inftance. Perhaps the weight of the ball will com¬
prefs it to the mark 6. We know that half this weight
would comprefs it to 3. We account this equal to the
preffure of the air, becaufe they balance the fame elafti-
city of the fpring. And in this way we can eftimate the
refiftance by weights, whofe preffures are equal to its
preffiire, and we can thus compare it with other refin¬
ances, weights, or any other preflures. In fatt, we are
meafuring them all by the elailicity of the fpring. This
elafticity in its different pofitions is fuppofed to have
the proportions of the weights which keep it in thefe
pofitions. Thus we reafon from the nature of gravity,
no longer confidered as a dead preffure, but as a retard¬
ing force; and we apply our conclufions to refiftances
wdiich exhibit the fame preffures, but which we cannot
make to act uniformly. This fenfe of the words muff;
be carefully remembered whenever we fpeak of refift-
ances In pounds and ounces.
Gravity The molt diredt and convenient way of ftating the
and relift- comparifon between the refiffance of the air and the ac-
a’ice^^'^celerating force of gravity, is to take a cafe in which
they are ^ we know-that they are equal. Since the refiffance is
here affumed as proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city, it is evident that the velocity may be fo increafed
that the refiftance fhall equal or exceed the weight of
the body- If a body be already moving downwards with
this velocity, it cannot accelerate ; becaufe the accele¬
rating force of gravity is balanced by an equal retarding
force of refiftance. It fellows from this remark, that
this velocity is the greateft that a body can acquire by
the force of gravity only. Nay, we fhall afterwards fee
that it never can completely attain it ; becaufe as it ap¬
proaches to this velocity, the remaining accelerating force
decreafes fafter than the velocity increafes. It may
therefore be called the limiting or terminal velocity
by gravity.
Let a be the height through which a heavy body
muff fall, in vacuo, to acquire its terminal velocity in
air. If projedled diredtly upwards with this velocity, it
■will rife again to this height, and the height is half the
fpace which it would deferibe uniformly, with this ve¬
locity, in the time of its afeent. Therefore the refiftance
to this velocity being equal to the weight of the body,
it would extinguifh this velocity, by its uniform adlion, in
the fame time, and after the lame diltance, that gravity
would.
Now let g be the velocity which gravity generates
or extinguifhes during an unit of time, and let u be
the terminal velocity-of any particular body. The theo¬
rems for perpendicular afeents give us gzz —, u and a
being both numbers reprefenting units of fpace ; there-
u1
fore, in the prefent cafe, we have r = —. For the whole
20.
refiftance r, or r'M, is fuppofed equal to the weight, or to
u z
; and therefore r' is equal to £, = ™ and 2 a =
TILES.
—. There is a confideration which ought to have place
here. A body defeends in air, not by the whole of its
weight, but by the excefs of its weight above that of
the air which it difplaces. It defeends by its fpecific
gravity only as a Hone does in water. Suppofe a bo¬
dy 32 times heavier than air, it will be buoyed up by
a force equal to — of its weight; and inftead of ac-
quiring the velocity of 32 feet in a fecond, it will only
acquire a velocity Of 31, even though it fuftained no
refiftance from the inertia of the air. Let p be the
weight of the body and * that of an equal bulk of air:
the accelerative force of relative gravity on each particle
will be 1—— ; and this relative accelerating force
might be diftinguilhed by another fymbol y. Rut in
all cafes in which we have any intereft, and particular-
ly in military proje&iles, — is fo finall a quantity that it
would be pedantic affeftation to attend to it. It is
much more than compenfated when we make £—32 feet
inftead of 32TV which it ftiould be.
Let e be the time of this afeent in oppofition to gra¬
vity. The fame theorems give us e a zr 2 a ; and fince
the refiftance competent to this terminal velocity is e-
qual to gravity, e will alfo be the time in which it would
be extinguifhed by the uniform aftion of the refiftance ;
for which reafon we may call it the extinguiftiing time for
this velocity. Let R and E mark the refiftance and
extinguiftiing time for the fame body moving with the
velocity 1.
Since the refiftances are as the fquares of the veloci¬
ties, and the refiftance to the velocity u is R will
be = Moreover, the times in which the fame ve-
21
locity will be extinguifiied by different forces, afting
uniformly, are inverfely as the forces, and gravity would
extinguifh the velocity 1 in the time—,~(in thefe mea-
fures) to~pi =1—f • Therefore we have the following pro-
23
portion—(:=R) ( =,§■) = 23, and 2a is equal to
E, the time in which the velocity 1 will be extinguifhed
by the uniform action of the refiftance competent to
this veloctiy.
The velocity I would in this cafe be extinguifhed
after a motion uniformly retarded, in which the fpace
deferibed is one-half of what would be uniformly de-
feribed during the fame time with the conftant veloo*-
ty 1. Therefore the fpace thus deferibed by a motion
which begins with the velocity I, and is uniformly re¬
tarded by the refiftance competent to this velocity, is
equal to the height through which this body muft fall
in vacuo in order to acquire its terminal velocity in air.
All thefe circumftances may be conceived in a man¬
ner which, to fome readers, will be more familiar and
palpable. The terminal velocity is that where the re¬
finance of the air balances and is equal to the weight of
the body. The refiftance of the air to any particular body
is as the fquare of the velocity; therefore let R be the
whole refillance to the body moving with the velocity
3 Z 2 1, and
548
P R O J E C
i, and r ttie refinance to its motion with the terminal
velocity u\ we mull have rrrRXw1, and this muft be
r=W the weight. Therefore, to obtain the terminal
velocity, divide the weight by the refiftance to the velo¬
city l, and the quotient is the fquare of the terminal
W
velocity, ora’ : And this is a very expeditious me¬
thod of determining it, if R be previoufly known.
Then the common theorems give a, the fall neceflary
u%
for producing this velocity in vacuo an<^ t^e
a *
timeof the fall — — — e, and eu — za, cr the fpace uniform-
&
ly defcribed with the velocity a during the time of the
fall, or its equal, the time of the extinction by the uni¬
form action of the refinance r ; and, fince r extinguiflies
it in the time r, R, which is u1 times fmaller, will ex-
tinguiih it in the time a5e, and R will extinguifh the
velocity i, which is a times lefs than a, in the time a r,
that is, in the time za; and the body, moving uniformly
during the time 2 a, =E, with the velocity I, will de-
fcribe the fpace z a ; and, if the body begin to move
with the velocity I, and be uniformly oppofed by the
refinance R, it will be brought to reft when it has de¬
fcribed the fpace a ; and the fpace in which the refillance
to the velocity i will extinguifh that velocity by its
uniform action, is equal to the height through which
that body muft fall in vacuo in order to acquire its ter¬
minal velocity in air. And thus every thing is regulated
by the time E in which the velocity i is extinguifhed
by the uniform action of the correfponding refiftance,
or by 2 a, which is the fpace uniformly defcribed du¬
ring this time, with the velocity i. And E and 2 a muft
be expreffed by the fame number. It is a number of
units, of time, or of length.
Having afcertained thefe leading circumftaiices for
an unit of velocity, weight, and bulk, we proceed to
made gene- deduce the fimilar circumftances for any other magni¬
tude ; and, to avoid unneceflary complications, we fhall
always fuppofe the bodies to be fpheres, differing only
in diameter and denfity.
Firft, then, let the velocity be increafed in the ratio of
l to v.
be
z ad'
I L E S.
The time in which this diminished refifhsee
will extinguifh the velocity r muft increafe in the pro¬
portion of the diminution of force, and muft now be
E </, or 2 a r/, and the fpace uniformly deferibed during
this time with the initial velocity i muft be 2 a
and this muft {till be twice the height neceffary foe
Communicating the terminal velocity av to this body.
We muft ftill have g — /andtherefore ■zos--2tfi7^'r
and w =r Z g a dy = \/ z g a d. Butu — v^ 2 ga*
Therefore the terminal velocity w for this body is
u's/d ; and the height neceftary for communicating it
is a d. Therefore the terminal velocity varies in the
fubduplicate ratio of the diameter of the ball, and the
fall neceffary for producing it varies in the fimple ratio
of the diameter#' The extinguifhing time for the velo-
Y.d
city v muft now be •
If, in the 3d place, the denfity of the ball be increafed
in the proportion of 1 to w, the number of particles
among which the refiftance is to be diftributed is in¬
creafed in the fame proportion, and therefore the retard¬
ing force of the refiftance is equally diminifhed ; and if
the denfity of the air is. increafed in the proportion of I
to n, the retarding force of the reiiftance increafes in
the fame proportion : hence we eafily deduce thefe ge¬
nera/ expreflions.
The terminal velocity —u\dd?a — ~ \/zgad’~
The producing fall in vacuo - ad—-
n
The retarding power of refiftance to any velocity rr
iT-
35
The com
parifbn
2 a d.
'Ed,
3*
The refiftance will now be —, 22: r.
za 7
E
za
and ev
The extinguifhing time will be —, —e
T=.z a; fo that the rule is general, that the fpace along
which any velocity wall be extinguifhed by the uniform
action of the correfmmding refiftance, is equal to the ter of a ball or (hell, and a pound avoirdupoife the unit
The extinguifliing time for any velocity v=z
v ft
And thus we fee that the chief circumftances are re¬
gulated by the terminal velocity, or are conveniently re¬
ferred to it.
To render the deductions from thefe premifes perfpi- Unittnccef^
euous, and for communicating diftinCft notions or ideas, fary b?
it wifl be proper to afl’ume fome convenient units, by'^ kh tm?
which all thefe quantities may be measured; and, as
this fubjefft is chiefly interefting in the cafe of military mealured.
projectiles, we fhall adapt our units to this purpofe.
Therefore, let a fecond be the unit of time, a foot the
unit of fpace and velocity, an inch, the unit of diame-
height neceffary for communicating the terminal velo¬
city to that body by gravity. For f d is twice the fpace
through which the body moves while the velocity v is
extinguifhed by the uniform refiftance.
In the 2d place, let tlie diameter increafe in the propor¬
tion o f 1 to d. The aggregate of the refiftance changes in
the proportion of the furfaee fimilarly refilled, that is, in
the proportion of 1 to But the quantity of matter,
or number of particles among which this refiftance is to
be diftributed, changes in the proportion of 1 to J3.
Therefore the retarding power of the reftftance changes
in the proportion of 1 to-jr. W hen the diameter was
J, fhz fefiftance to a velocity * was-i- . It muft now
z.a
of preffure, whether of weight or of rdiflance ; therefore
^ is 32 feet.
The great difficulty is to procure an abfolute mea-
fure of r, or u, or a ; any one of thefe will determine
the others. ^
Sir Ifaac Newton has attempted to determine r by Sir lf>.ae
theory, and employs a great pan of the fecond book of Newton’*
the i'rmcpia in demonftrating, that the refiftance to a
fphere moving with any velocity is to the force which
would generate or dtftroy its whole motion in the time
that it would uniformly move over £ of its diameter
with this velocity as the denfity of the air is to the den¬
fity of the fphere. This is equivalent to demonftrating
that the refiftance of the air to a fphere moving throu gh
it with any velocity, is equal to half the weight of a
column
3* ,
His rtlult
jurt, but
his reafon-
i*g crroiiL*
sus»
P R o J E C
«c!umn o? air having a great circle of the fphere fcrr its
bafe, and for its altitude the height from which a body
irhuT fall in vacuo to acquire this velocity. This appears
from Newton’s demonftration ; for, let the fpecific gra¬
vity of the air be to that of the ball as I to w ; then,
becaufe the times in which the {ame velocity will be ex-
ting uilhed by the uniform adtion of different forces are
titverfely as the forces, the refiffance to this velocity
would extinguifh it in the time of defcribing \tnd, ii
being the diameter of the ball. Now i is to m as the
weight of the difplaced air to the weight of the ball, or
as y of the diameter of the ball to the length of a co¬
lumn of air of equal weight. Call this length a ; a is
therefore equal to y m d. Suppofe the ball to fall
from the height a in the time t, and acquire the velocity
u. If it moved uniformly with this velocity during this
time* it would defcribe a Ip ace ~ z ay or y m d.
Now its weight would extinguilh this velocity, or
deftroy this motion, in the fame time, that is, in the
time of defcribing \ m d \ but the refiftance of the
air w'ould do this in the time ©f defcribing -f- m d\
that is, in twi’ce the time. The refillance therefore is
equal to half the weight of the ball, or to half the
weight of the column'of air whofe height is the height
producing the velocity. But the refinances to different ve¬
locities are as the Iquares of the velocities; and therefore,
as their producing heights, and, in general, the refiftance
of the air to a fphere moving with any velocity, is equal
to the half weight of a column of air of equal fedtion,
and whofe altitude is the height producing the velocity.
The refult of this inveftigation has been acqfliefced in by
all Sir Ifaac Ncwton^s commentators. Many faultsliave in¬
deed been found with his reafoning, and even with his
principles ; and it mull be acknowledged that although
this inveftigation is by far the' moft ingenious of any in
the PrincibWy and fets his acutenefs and addrefs in the
moft confpicuous light, his reafoning is liable to ferious
objedtions, which his moft ingenious commentators have
not completely removed. However, the conclufion has
been acquiefced in, as we have already ftated, but as if
derived from other principles, or by more logical reafon¬
ing. We cannot, however, fay that the reafonings or
affumptions of thefe mathematicians are much better
than Newton’s : and we mult add, that all the caufes of
deviation from the duplicate ratio of the velocities, and
the caufes of increafed rtfiftance, which the later authors
have valued themfelves for difcovering and introducing
into their inveftigations, were pointed out by Sir Ifaac
Newton, but purpofely omitted by him, in order to fa¬
cilitate the difcufiion in re d-Jjicillma. (See Schol. prop.
37. b. ii.) . ;
It is known that the weight of a cubic foot of water
is 621 pounds, and that the medium denfity of the air
is of water ; therefore let a be the height producing
the velocity (in feet), and d the diameter of the ball (in
inches), and * the periphery of a circle whofe diame-
• . . *
ter is i ; the refiftance of the air will be~*^~ X —
1 a n a
* p°unds’ verynear1^’
pounds.
4928IX64 ’ 315417
We may take an example. A ball of call iron weigh¬
ing 12 pounds, is 4^ inches in diameter. Suppofe this
tiles. 54S
ball to move at the rate of 2£rV feet in a fecond (the
reafon of this choice will appear afterwards). The height
which will produce this velocity in a falling body is 9^
feet. The area of its great circle is 0,11044 feet, or
W.ToVei of one foot. Suppofe water to be 840 times
heavier than air, the weight of the air incumbent on
this great circle, and 9y feet high, is 0,081151 pounds :
half of this is 0,0405755 or or nearly T’T *
of a pound. This fhould be the refiftance of the air to
this motion of the ball. 39
In all matters of phyfical difeuflion, it is prudent to Ntceifity
confront every theoretical conclufion with experiment. cxJPen"
This is particularly neceffary in the prefent iniiance, be-me‘K’
caufe the theory on which this propofition is founded is
extremely uncertain.. Newton fpeaks of it with the
moft cautious diffidence, and fecures the juftnefs of the
conclufions by the conditions which he affumes in his
inveftigation. He deferibes with the greateft precifion
the flate of the fluid in which the body muft move, fo
as that the demonftrations may be ftrkft, and leaves it to
others to pronounce whether this is the real conftitu-
tion df our atmofphere. It muft be granted that it is
not; and that man*r other fuppofitions have been intro¬
duced by his commentators and followers, in order to
fuit his inveftigation (for we muft affert that little or
nothing has been added to it) to the circumitances of
the cafe. 43.
Newton himfelf, therefore, attempted to compare his Newton's
propofitions with experiment. Some were made byexPerlr
dropping balls from the dome of St Paul’s cathedral; and™0111*0
all thefe fiiowed as great a coincidence with his theory
as they did with each other : but the irregularities were
too great to allow him to fay with precifion what was
the refiftance. It appeared to follow the proportion of
the fquares of the velocities with fufficient exadtnefs;
and though he .could not fay that the refiftance was
equal to the weight of the column of air having the
height neceffary for communicating the velocity, it
was always equal to a determinate part of it; and
might be ftated — n a, n being a number to be fixed
by numerous experiments. y v
One great fourcc of uncertainty in his experiments
feems to have elcaped his obfervation : the air in that
dome is almnit always in a ftate of motion. In the
fummer feafon there is a very fenfible current of air
downwards, and frequently in winter it is upwards : and
this current bears a very great proportion to the velo¬
city of the defeents. Sir Ifaac takes no notice of this.
tie made another fet of experiments with pendulums;
and has pointed out fome very curious and unexpected
circumflances of their motions in a refilling medium.
There is hardly any part of his noble work in which his
addrefs, his patience, and his attonifhing penetration, ap¬
pear in greater luftre. It requires the utrnoft intenfenefs
of thought to follow him in thefe difquilitions; and we
cannot enter on the fubject at prefent: fome notice will
be taken of thefe experiments in the article Risistancf.
of Fluids. Their refults were much more uniform, and
confirmed his general theory; and, as we have faid above,
it has been acquielc«i in by the lirft mathematicians of
Europe. 1 4t
But the deduftions from this theory were fo incon-Inutility of
fiftent with the obferved motions of military proje£liles,l^e
when the velocities are prodigious, that no application111 ^ra
could be made which could be of any fervice for deter¬
mining
SSo P R O J E
41 mining the path and motion of cannon fliot and bombs;
The at' f and aTthough Mr John Bernoulli gave in 1718a moft
various6 elegant determination of the trajeftory and motion of
matheirati- a body projefted in a fluid which refifts in the duplicate
cians, &c. ratio of the velocities (a problem which even Newton
did not attempt), it has remained a dead letter. Mr
Benjamin Robins, equally eminent for phyfical fcience
and mathematical genius, was the firfl: who fufpedted
the true caufe of the imperfection of the ufually received
theories; and in 1737 he publiflied a fmall t raft, in
which he fliowed clearly, that even the Newtonian the¬
ory of refiftance mult caufe a cannon ball, difeharged
with a full allotment of powder, to deviate farther from
the parabola, in which it would move in vacuo, than
the parabola deviates from a ftraight line. But he farther
afl'erted, on the authority of good reafoning, that in fuch
great velocities the refiftance mull be much greater than
this theory afligns; becaufe, befidts the refiftance arifing
from the inertiq of the air which is put in motion by the
ball, there mull be a refiftance aiding from a condenfation
of the air on the anterior furface of the ball, and a rare-
faftion behind "" • and there mull be a third refiftance,
arifing fro* cal prdfure of the air on its ante¬
rior part, - .otion is fo fwift that there is a va¬
cuum behind. Even thefe caufes of difagreement with
the theory had been forefeen and mentioned by New¬
ton (fee the Scholium to prop. 37, Book II. Principe);
but the fubjeft feems to have been little attended to.
The eminent mathematicians had few opportunities of
making experiments ; and the profefiional men, who were
in the fervice of princes, and had their countenance
and aid in this matter, w^re generally too deficient in
mathematical knowlcdge*to make a proper trfe of their
opportunities. The numerous and fplendid volumes
which thefe gentlemen have been enabled to publifli by
the patronage of fovereigns are little more than prolix
extenfions of the Ample theory* of Galileo. Some of
them, however, fuch as St Remy, Antonini, and Le
Blond, have given moft valuable colleftions of experi-
ments, ready for the ufe of the profound mathematician.
Ohferva- Two or three years after this firft .publication, Mr
fcions of Mr R0^i[ns hit upon that ingenious method of meafuring
vdoci't8 °n £reat velocities of military projeftiles, which has
and refill- handed down his name to pofterity writh great honour.
Alice, And having afeertained thefe velocities, he difeovered
the prodigious refiftance of the air, by obferving the
diminution of velocity which it occafioned. This made
him anxious to examine what was the real refiftance to
any velocity whatever, in order to afeertain what was
the Jaw of its variation; and he was equally fortunate in
this attempt. His method of meafuring the refiftance
has been fully deferibed in the article Gunnery,n^j&c.
It appears (Robins’s Math. Works, vol. i. page 205.)
that a fphere of 4! inches in diameter, moving at the
*ate of 25-J feet in a fecond, fuftained a refiftance of
€>,049-14 pounds, or °f a pound. This is a
greater refiftance than that of the Newtonian theory,
which gave in the proportion of 1000 to
1211, or very nearly in the proportioh of five to fix in
fmall numbers. And we may adopt as a rule in all mo¬
derate velocities, that the refiftance to a fphere is equal
rok _°f the weight of a column of air having the
great circle of the Iphere for its bafe, and/or its altitude
the height through which a heavy body mufi; fall in va-
tm to acquire the velocity of projection.
C T I L E S.
This experiment is peculiarly valuable, becaufe the
ball is precifely the fize of a 12 pound (hot of call iron;
and its accuracy may be depended on. There is but
one fource of error. The whirling motion muft have
occafioned lome whirl in the air, which would continue
till the ball again pa [Ted through the fame point of its
revolution. The refiftance obferved is therefore pro¬
bably fomewhat lefs than the true refiftance to the velo¬
city of 25/ feet, becaufe it was exerted in a relative ve¬
locity which was lefs than this, and is, in faft, the re-
ftftance competent to this relative and fmaller velocity. ^
—Accordingly, Mr Smeaton, a moft fagacious natu-And of Me
ralift, places great confidence in the obfervations of and
Mr Roufe of Leiccfterfliire, who meafured the refiftance De ^or(is»
by the eftecl of the wind on a plane properly expofed
to it. He does not tell us in what way the velocity of
the wind was afeertained ; out our deference for his
great penetration and experience difpofes us to believe
that this point was well determined. The refiftance ob-
ferved by Mr Roufe exceeds that refulting from Mr
Robins’s experiments nearly in the proportion of 7 to 1 o. ^
Chevalier de Borda made experiments fimilar to thofe
of Mr Robins, and his refults exceed thofe of Ro-their coa-
bins in the proportion of 5 to 6. Thefe differences ciufions.
are fo conliderable, that we are at a lofs what meafure
to abide by. It is much to be regretted, that in a fub-
jcdl fo interfiling both to the philofopher and the
man of the world, experiments have not been multipli¬
ed. Nothing would tend fo much to perfetl the fcience
of gunnery ; and indeed till this be done, all the labours
of mathematicians are of no avail. Their inveftigations
mull remain an unintelligible cipher, till this key be
fupplied. It is to be hoped that Dr Charles Hutton
of Woolwich, who has fo ably extended Mr Robins’s
Examination of the Initial Velocities of Military Pro¬
jeftiles, will be encouraged to proceed to this part of
the fubjefl. We fhould wifh to fee, in the firft place,
a numerous fet of experiments for afeertaining the re¬
finances in moderate velocities; and, in order to avoid
all error from the refiltance and inertia of the machine,
which is nccefiarily blended with the refiftance of the
ball, in Mr Robins’s form of the experiment, and is fepa-
rated with great uncertainty and rifle of error, we would
recommend a form of experiment fornewhat different. 4<S
Let the axis and arm which carries the ball be COn-^,newfom
nefled with wheel work, by which it can be put in mo- ^enTrc-"
tion, and gradually accelerated. Let the ball be ft) commend-
connefled with a bent fpring, that this (hall gradually ed.
comprefs it as the refiftance increafes, and leave a mark of
the degree of compreflion ; and let all this part of the
apparatus be fereened from the air except the ball. The
velocity will be determined precii'ely by the revolutions
of the arm, and the refiftance by the compreflion of the
fpring. The bell method would be to let this part of
the apparatus be made to Aide along the revolving arm,
fo.that the ball can be made to deferibe larger and lar¬
ger circles. An intelligent mechanician will eafily con¬
trive an apparatus of this kind, held at any diftance
from the axis by a cord, which paffes over a pulley in
the axis itfelf, and is then brought along a perforation
in the axis, and comes out at its extremity, where it is
fitted with a fwivel, to prevent it from {flapping by be¬
ing twilled. Now let the machine be put in motion.
The centrifugal force of the ball and apparatus will
caufe it to fly out as far as it is allowed by the cord ;
3
V
P R O J E C
and if the whole is put in motion by connecting it with
fome mill, the velocity maybe moft accurately afcer-
tained. It may alfo be fitted with a bell and hammer
like Gravefande’s machine for meafuring centrifugal
forces- Now by gradually veering off more cord, the
diltance from the centre, and confequently the velocity
and refiftance increaie, till the hammer is difengaged
and ftrikes the bell.
Another great advantage of this form of the experi¬
ment is, that the refxllance to very great velocities may be
thus examined, which was impoffibledn Mr Robins’s way.
This is the great defideratum, that we may learn in what
proportion of the velocities the refiltances increafe.
In the fame manner, an apparatus, confifting of Dr
Lynd’s Anemometer, defcribed in the article Pneuma-
t i c s, n° 3 i i , &c. might be whirled round with .prodigious
rapidity, and the fluid on it might be made clammy,
which would leave a mark at its greateft. elevation, and
thus difcover the refiftance of the air to rapid motions-
Nay, we are of opinion that the refiftance to very
rapid motions may be meafured dire&ly in the conduit
pipe of fome of the great cylinder bellows employed in
4>laft furnaces : the velocity of the air in this pipe
is afcertained by the capacity of the cylinder and the
ftrokes of the pifton. We think k our duty to point
out to fuch as have the opportunities of trying them
methods which promife accurate refults for afcertaining
this moft defirable point.
The refult We are the more puzzled what meafure to abide by,
of Rnbins’s. hecaufe Mr Robins himfelf,. in his Practical Propofi-
experi- tiens, does not make ufe of the refult of his own expe-
yet moft riments, but takes a much lower meafure. We mull
to be de- " content ourfelves, however, with this experimental mea-
pended on. fUre, beeaufe it is as yet the only one of which any account
can be given, or well-founded opinion formed.
Therefore, in order to apply our formulae, we muft
47
48
W, or weight of a ball
diameter
Log. of W - - 9*13509-
E" - =. _ 1116',6
Log. of E - ^ 3.04790
«, or terminal velocity 189*03
Log. «... 2.27653’
a, or producing height 558*3
0,21533
9-33310
1761",6
3.24591
237*43
2.37553
880,8
TILES. 553
Thefe numbers are of frequent me in all queftions on
this fubjeCt.
Mr Robins gives an expeditious rule for readily find¬
ing which he calls F (fee the article Gunnery), by
which it is made 900 feet for a caft iron ball of an inch
diameter. But no theory of refiftance which he pro-
fefles to ufe will make this height neceflary for produ¬
cing the terminal velocity. His F therefore is an em-
pir'ical quantity, analogous indeed to the producing
height, but accommodated to his theory of the trajec¬
tory of cannon-fhot, which he promifed to publiih, but
did not live to execute. We need not be very anxious
about this; for all our quantities change in the fame
proportion with R, and need only a correftion by a
multiplier or divifor, when R {hail be accurately efta-
bliihed.
We may illuftrate the ufe of thefe formulae by an ex¬
ample or two. ^
1. Then, to find the refiftance to a 24 pound ball Examples
moving with the velocity of 1670 feet in a fecond»of thair
which is nearly the velocity communicated by 16 lbs. u^c*
of powder.. The diameter is 5,603 inches. _
Log. R - - -f-4.58204
Log. - - +1.49674
Log. 1670* - - 4-6.44548
Log. 334,4 lbs. = r _ - 2.52426
But it is found, by unequivocal experiments on the
retardation of fuch a motion, that it is 504 lbs. This
is owing to the caufes often mentioned, the additional
reliftance to great velocities, arifing from the condenfa-
tion of the air, and from its preflure into the vacuum
left by the ball.
2. Required the terminal velocity of this ball ?
the h!rmu- reduce this experiment, which was made on a ball of
Log. R
Log. d*
4-4.58204
4-1.49674
la. 4-L inches diameter, moving with the, velocity of 25f
feet per fecond, to what would be the refiftance to a
ball of one inch, having the velocity 1 foot. This v/ill
evidently give us R=being diminiftied in
; b 4,5?X25.2I
the duplicate ratio of the diameter and velocity. This
gives us R = o,00000381973 pounds, or—of
0 ^ S'1000000
a pound. The logarithm is 4,58204. The refiftance
here determined is the fame whatever fubftance the ball
be of; but the retardation occafioned by it will depend
on the proportion of the refiftance to the vis infita of
the ball; that is, to its quantity of motion. This In
fimilar velocities and diameters is as the denfity of the
ball. The balls ufed in military fervice are of caft iron
or of lead, whole fpecific gravities are 7*207 and 11,37
nearly, water being x. There is confiderable variety
in caft iron, and this denfity is about the medium.
Thefe data will give us
For Iron. For Lead.
inch in
lbs. 0,13648
50
Log. refift. to veloc. 1 - 6.07878 = «
Log. W - - 1.38021 = 5
Diff. of a and ly — log «* - 5.30143
Eog. 447,4 -u - 2.65071
As the terminal velocity «, and its prodocing heightTabie"of
a, enter into all computations of military projeftiles, terminal
we have inferted the following Table for the ufual fizesVe*oc*jy
of cannon-fhot, computed both by the Newtonian the-
ory of refiftance, and by the reliftancea obferved in Ro-and Robin*
bins’s experiments.
3
4
6
9
12
18
24
32
Newton.
Ferm. Vel.
289,9
324*9
348,2
365*3
390*8
418,1
438.6
469*3
492,4
512.6
540*5
2626.4
3298.5
3788,2
4I7°*3
4472.7
5463>5
6010.6
6883.3
7576.3
8024.8
9129.9
Robins.
I’erm. Veil 2 a.
263.4
295,2
3‘6,4
33‘ *9
355*1
379*9
398.5
426.5
447,4
465,8
491 *5
2168,6
2723.5
3127.9
3442.6
3940.7
4511,2
4962.9
5683,5
6255*7
6780,4
Diam.
Inch.
l>94
2*45
2,80
3*08
3*52
4*04
4*45
5*09
5*6i
6,21
7538*3! 6,75
Mr Muller, in his writings on this fubjeft, gives a
jnucu
55* P R G J E
5* much fmatler tueafure of rafifiance, and confequently a
Mr Mul. mucj1 greater terminal velocity: but hia theory is a
altogether7 miftak-c from beginning to end (See \\\$, Supplement to
erroneous, his Treaiife of Artillery, art. 15G, &c.) In art. 148. he
affumes an algebraic expreflion for a principle of mecha¬
nical argument ; and from its confequence draws erro¬
neous conclofions. He makes the refiftance of a cylin¬
der y lefs than Newton fuppofes it ; and his reafon :s
falfe. Newton’s meafure is demonftrated by his com*
mentators Le Seur and Jaquier to be even a little too
fmall, upon his own principles, (Not. 2 77* ProP* 3^*
B. II.) Mr Muller then, without any feemiug reafon,
introduces a new principle, which he makes the chief
iuppoit of his theory, in oppofition to the theories of
other mathematicians. The principle is falfe, and even
abfurd, as we fhall have occafion to Ihow by and by.
In eonfequence, however, of this principle, he is ena¬
bled to compare the refults with many experiments, and
the agreement is very flattering. But we fhall foon fee
that little dependence can be had on fuch comparifons.
We notice thefe things here, becaufe Mr Muller being
head of the artillery 1'chool in Britain, his publications
have become a fort of text-book?. We are miferably
„ deficient in works on this fubjeft, and mull have re-
courfe to the foreign writers.
We now proceed to confider thefe motions through
their whole courfe : and we fhall firfl confider them as
affecled by the refiflance only ; then we fhall confider
the^wh 1 PerPenc^cular afeents and defeents of heavy bodies
* ourfeT ' Cthrough the air ; and, laflly, their motion in a curvili-
neal trajeftory, when projected obliquely. This muft
be done by the help of the abllrufer parts of fluxionary
mathematics. To make it more perfpicuous, we fhall,
by way of introduftion, confider the limply refifled rec¬
tilineal motions geometrically, in the manner of Sir
Ifaac Newton. As we advance, we fhall quit this
track, and profecute it algebraically, having by this
time acquired diflindl ideas of the algebraic quanti-
5, ties.
Prelimi- We mull keep in mind the fundamental theorems of
nary obfer- varied motions
5»
The mo¬
tions con
fidered
vacions. Xhe momentary variation of the velocity is pro¬
portional to the force and the moment of time jointly,
and may therefore be reprefented by r±r<urr//, where *0
is the momentary increment or decrement of the velo¬
city t',/" the accelerating or retarding force, and t the
moment or increment of the time /.
• 2. The momentary variation of the fquare of the ve¬
locity is as the force, and as the increment or decrement
of the fpace jointly ; and may be reprefented by rtr v v
f s. T he firfl propefition is familiarly known. The
fecond is the 39th of Newton’s Pr'incip'ia, B. I. It is
demonflrated in the article Optics, p. 281. and is the
The mo- m°ft extenfively ufeful propofition in mechanics,
tions as af- Thefe things being premifed, let the ftraight line
fedted by AC (fig. 6.) reprefent the initial velocity V, and let
refiftance CO, perpendicidyr to AC, be the thne in which this
pfate velocity would be extinguifhed by the uniform aftion
ccccxvii. of the refiftance. Draw through the point A an equi¬
lateral hyperbola A r B, having OF, OCD for its af-
fymptotes; then let the time of the refifled motion be
reprefented by the line CB, C being the firfl inflant of
the motion. If there be drawn perpendicular ordinates
£)B, &c. to the hyperbola, they will be pro-
4
C T I L E S.
portional to the velocities of the body at the ‘nJlanfij
y.,g, D, &c. and the hyperbolic areas AC “e, AQ.gft
ACDB, &c. will be proportional to the fpaces deferibed
during the times C x, C^, CB, &c.
For, fuppofe the time divided into an indefinite num.
her of fmall and equal moments, C c, D c/, &c. draw
the ordinates a c, b d, and the perpendiculars b a*.
Then, by the nature of the hyperbola, AC : a c — O c :
OC ; and AC—a c : a czz. O c—OC : OC, that is, A *
: a c— C c : OC, and A x : C : OC, = AC*tf e :
AC-OC; in like manner, B £ ; D d— BD* 3D: BD*
OD. Now Dc/=:Cr, becaufe the moments of time
were taken equal, and the rectangles AC’CO, BD*DO,
are equal,’ by the nature of the hyperbola; therefore
A « : B /? = AC- a c : BD* b d : but as the points r, d
continually approach, and ultimately coincide with C,
D, the ultimate ratio of AC'tf <: to BD*^ is that of
AC" to BD2 ; therefore the momentary decrements of
A.C and BD are as AC2 and BD2. N®w, becaufe the
refiilance'is meafured by the momentary diminution of
velocity, thefe diminutions are as the fquares of the ve¬
locities ; therefore the ordinates of the hyperbola and
the velocities diminifh by the fame law ; and the initial
velocity was reprefented by AC : therefore the veloci¬
ties at all the other inflants *, g, D, are properly repre¬
fented by the correfponding ordinates. Hence,
1. Since the ablcifla* of the hyperbola are as the
times, and the ordinates are as the velocities, the area;;
will be as the fpaces deferihed, and AC * f is to A
as the fpace deferibed in the time C * to the fpace
deferibed in the time C^ (ill Theorem on varied mo¬
tions).
2. The reftangle ACOF is to the area ACDB as
the fpace ionnerly exprefied by z a, or E to the fpace
deferibed in the refilling medium during the time CD :
for AC being the velocity V, and OC the extinguilhing
time f, this redtangle i-s —eY, or E, or 2^, of our for¬
mer difquifitions ; and becaule all the redlangles, fuch
as ACOF, BDOG, &c. are equal, this correfponds
with our former obiervation, that the fpace uniformly
deferibed with any velocity during the time in which it
would be uniformly extinguiihed by the eorrefponding
refitlance is a conilant quantity, viz.' that in which we
always had e v — JL, or 2 a.
3. Draw the tangent A » ; then, by the hyperbola
C x—CO .* now C » is the time in which the refiltance to
the velocity AC would extinguifh it; for the tangent
coinciding with the elemental arc A a of the curve, the
firll impulfe of the uniform action of the relillance is
the fame with the firft impulle ot its varied adtion. By
this the velocity AC is reduced to a c. If this opera¬
ted uniformly like gravity, the velocities would diminifh
uniformly, and the fpace deferibed would be reprefent¬
ed by the triangle AC *.
This triangle, therefore, reprefents the height thro’
which a heavy body mull fall in vacuo, in order to ac¬
quire the terminal velocity.
4. The motion of a body refifled in the duplicate ra¬
tio of the velocity will continue without end, and a
fpace will be deferibed which is greater than any af-
fignable fpace, and the velocity will grow leis than any
that can be affigned ; for the hyperbola approaches
continually to the afiymptote, but never coincides with
it. There is no velocity BD fo fmall, but a Imaffer
ZP will be found beyond it j asd the hyperbolic fpace
tnay
V
ss
/ .o'her
aode of
determin¬
ing this
motion.
p & o J E
may be continued till it exceeds any furface that can be
afitgned.
5. The initial velocity AC is to the final velocity
BD as the fum of the cxtinguifiiing time and the
time of the retarded motion, is to the extlnguifhing time
alone : for AC -i BD =. OD (or OC + CD) : OC j or
v ~ e : e 1.
6. The extinguifiiing time is to the time of the re¬
tarded motion as the final velocity is to the velocity
loft during the retarded motion : for the re&angles
AFOC, BDOG are equal; and therefore AVGF and
BVCD are equal and VC : VA = VG : VB ; therc-
V V V
fore t —f ——, and e = t  .
•v V—v
y. Any velocity is reduced in the proportion of m
t tn ~n « /-» t«
to n in the time e . For, let AC : BD zz m : n ;
n
then DO : CO = m : and DC : CO =m — n : n, and
  m — n m — n
DC = CO, or t —e 1. herefore any velo-
n r n
city is reduced to one half in the time in which the ini¬
tial refiftance would have extinguilhed it by its uniform
a&ion.
Thus may the chief circumftances of this motion be
determined by means of the hyperbola, the ordinates
and abfcifiae exhibiting the relations of the times and
velocities, and the areas exhibiting the relations of both
to the fpaces deferibed. But we may render the con¬
ception of thefe circumftances infinitely more eafy and
fimple, by exprefling them all by lines, inftead of this
combination of lines and furfaces. We fhall accom-
plifh this purpofe by conftru&ing another curve L.KP,
having the line MD r, parallel to OD for its ablcifla,
and of fuch a nature, that if tine ordinates to the hyper¬
bola AC, e*yfgt BD, &c. be produced till they cut
this curve in L, p, «, K, &c. and the abfeifla in JL, t,
j, &c. the ordinates p, h ny T K, &c. may be pro¬
portional to the hyperbolic areas e A r y, / Ac y
<r A c K. Let us examine what kind of curve this will
be.
Make OC : O * = O ' : O^ ; then (Hamilton’s Co¬
nics, IV. 14. Cor.), the areas AC > e, exg/ are equal
C T I L E S. 553
mtude, or is a conftant quantity in every part of the
curve.
Laftly, the fubtangent IN, correfponding to the
point K of the curve, is to the ordinate K * as the
reftansde BDOG or ACOF to the parabolic area
BDCA.
For let fgh n l^e an ordinate very near to BD * K j
and let h n cut the curve in «, and the ordinate KI
in q ; then we have
KyjynrrKlrlN, or
D ? : q nzz DO: IN ;
but BD: AC-CO; DO;
therefore BD • D.j : AC . q n zz CO : IN:
Therefore the fum of all the re&anglcs BD.D^ is to
the fum of all the re&angles AC . qn, as CO to IN ;
but the fum of the rectangles BD. D^ is the fpace
ACDB ; and, becaufe A.Q is given, the fum of the rec¬
tangles AC. q n is the rettangle of AC and the fum
of all the lines q n ; that is, the re&angle of AC and
RL : therefore the fpace ACDB : AC . RL = CO :
IN, and ACDB X IN — AC . CO . RL ; and there¬
fore IN : RL = AC . CO : ACDB.
Hence it follows thatQL exprefles the areaBV A, and,
in general, that the part ot theline parallel to OM, which,
lies between the tangent KN and the curve L p K, ex¬
prefles the correfponding area of the hyperbola which
lies without the redbmgle BDOG.
And now, by the help of this curve, we have an eafy
way of conceiving and computing the motion of a body
through the air. For the fubtangent of our curve now
reprefents twice the height through which the ball
muft fall in vacuo, in order to acquire the terminal ve¬
locity ; and therefore ferves for a fcale on which to
meafure all the other reprefentatives of the motion. 55
But it remains to make another obfervation on the The who'c
eurve L/> K, which will fave us all the trouble of‘e^c™to
graphical operations, and reduce the whole to a very arithmeti-
fimple arithmetical computation. It is of fuch a na- cal compu.
ture, that when MI is conlidered as the abfeifla, and is tatum*
divided into a number of equal parts, and ordinates jire
drawn from the points of divifion, the ordinates are a
feries of lines in geometrical progreffion, or are conti
therefore drawing p s, nt perpendicular to OM> we nual pr0p0rtionals. Whatever is the ratio between the
ihall have (by the affumed nature of the curve L/> K),
M / = f /; and if tire abfeifla OD be divided into any
number of fmall parts in geometrical progreflion (rec¬
koning the commencement ot them ail from O), the
axis V i of this curve will be divided by its ordinates
into the fame number of equal parts; and this curve
will have its ordinates LM, ps, nt, See. in geometri¬
cal progreflion, and its abfeiflae in arithmetical progref¬
fion. # r’
Alfo, let KN, MV touch the curve in K and L,
and let OC be fuppofed to be to Or, as OD to O d,
and therefore C c to D r/ as OC to OD ; and let thefe
lines C c, O d be indefinitely fmall; then (by the na¬
ture of the curve) Lo is equal to K r : for the areas
a AC c, b BD d are in this cafe equal. Alfo 10 is to
ir, as LM to KI, becaufe cCedD — CO : DO:
Therefore IN : IK = rK:r*
IK : ML= r k : ol
ML: MVtzol :oh
and IN : MN = rK : 0 L.
That is, the fubtangent IN* or MV, is of the fame mag-
Vox. XW Pan II.
firft and fecond ordinate, there is the fame between the
fecond and third, between the third and fourth, and fo
on ; therefore the number of parts into which the ab-
feiffa is divided is tire number of thefe equal ratios
which is contained in the ratio of the firft ordinate to
the laft : For this reafon, this curve has got the name
of the logijlic or logarithmic curve ; ami it is of immenfe
ufe in the modern mathematics, giving us the folution
of many problems in tke moft fimple <ftrd expeditious
manner, on which the genius of the ancient mathema¬
ticians had been exerciled in vain. Few of our readers
are ignorant, that the numbers called logarithms are of
equal utility in arithmetical operations, enabling us
not only to folve common arithmetical problems with
aftdniftiing difpatch, but alfo to folve others which are
quite inacceflible in any other way. Logarithms are no¬
thing more than the numerical meafures of the abfeifla
of this curve, correfpoading to ordinates, which are
meafured on the fame or any other fcale by the natural
numbers ; that is, if ML be divided into equal parts,
and from the points of divifion lines be drawn parallel to
4 A Mfp
.‘Vv
J54
P R O J E C
MI, cutting the curve L/> K, and from the points of
interfe&ion ordinates be drawn to MI, thefe will divide
MI into portions, which are in the fame proportion to
the ordinates that the logarithms bear to their natural
numbers.
In conftru&ing this curve we were limited to no
particular length of the line L R» which reprefented the
fpace ACDB ; and all that we had-to take care of was,
that when OC, O O £ were taken in geometrical pro-
grelfion, M j, M ^ fhould be in arithmetical progreflion.
The abfciffse having ordinates equal tops, n t, &c. might
have been twice as long, as is fhown in the dotted curve
which is drawn through L. All the lines which ferve to
meafure the hyperbolic fpaces would then have been
doubled. But NI would alfo have been doubled, and
our proportions would have ftill held good; becaufe this
fubtangent is the fcale of meafurement of our figure, as
E or 2 fj is the fcale of meafurement for the motions.
Since then we have tables of logarithms calculated
for every number, we may make ufe of them inltead
of this geometrical figure, which ftill requires conft*
derable trouble to fuit it to every cafe. There are two fets
of logarithmic tables in common ufe. One is called
a table of hyperbolic or natural logarithms. It is
fuited to fuch a curve as is drawn in the figure, where
the fubtangent is equal to that ordinate T » which cor-
refponds to the fide ;0 of the fquare ^*0 inferted be¬
tween the hyperbola and its aflymptotes. This fquare
is the unit of furface, by which the hyperbolic areas
are exprefled; its fide is the unit of length, by which
the lines belonging to the hyperbola are exprefled ; r "
is = i, or the unit of numbers to which the logarithms
are luited, and then IN is alfo r. Now the fquare
6*0* being unity, the area BACD will befome number;
* O being alfo unity, OD is fome number : Call it x.
Then, by the nature of the hyperbola, OB : O* =
* : DB : That is, x : i = i ; —, fo that DB is — .
x x
Now calling ~D d x> the area BD d by which is the
fluxion (ultimately) of the hyperbolic area, is—. Now
in the curve L/>K, MI has the fame ratio to NI that
BACD has to -*0 ’ : Therefore, if there be a fcale of
which NI is the unit, the number on this fcale cor-
refponding to Ml has the fame ratio to I which the
number meafuring BACD has to I ; and I which
correfponds to BDr/£, is the fluxion (ultimately) of
Ml: Therefore, if MI be called the logarithm of xy
x ,
— is properly reprefented by the fluxion of MI. In
fhort, the line MI is divided precifely as the line of
numbers on a Gunter’s fcale, which is therefore
a line of logarithms ; and the numbers called loga¬
rithms are juft the lengths of the different parts of tin’s
line meafured on a fcale of equal parts. Therefore, when
• X
•we meet with fuch an expreffion as — viz. the flu¬
xion of a quantity divided by the quantity itfelf, we
confider it as the fluxion of tire logarithm of that quan¬
tity, becaufe it is really fo when the quantity is a num¬
ber j and it is therefore ftri&ly true that the fluent of
— is the hyperbolic logarithm of x.
57
ample**
TILES,
Certain reafons of convenience have given rife to
another fet of logarithms; thefe are fuited to a logi*
ftic curve whofe fubtangent is only tVsWo °f the or*
dinate ru, which is equal to the fide of the hyperbolic
fquare, and which is affumed for the unit of number.
We ftrall fuit our applications of the preceding invef-
tigation to both thefe, and fhall firft ufe the common
logarithms whofe fubtangent is 0,43429.
The whole fubjeft will be beft illuftrated by taking illuft acect
an example of the different queftxons which may be pro- 'A cx“
pofed.
Recolledt that the re&angle ACOF is = 2tf, or — or
E, for a ball of caft-iron one inch diameter, and if It
uxd
has the diameter d, it is , or 2 ad. or E d.
S
I. It may be required to determine what will be the
fpace deferibed in a given time / by a ball fetting out
with a given velocity V, and what will be its velocity
v at the end of that time.
Here we have NI : MI=ACOE : BDCA; now
NI is the fubtangent of the logiftic curve ; MI is the
difference between the logarithms of OD and OC; that
is, the difference between the logarithms of e-\-t and e ;
uxd
ACOF is lad, or , or E</.
g
Therefore by common logarithms 0,43429 ; log.
e1 —log. ez=.2ad ; S,e= fpace deferibed,
^ "f" ^
or 0,43429 : log. zziad: S,
2a d e-W
and S. = ———rr X log. ,
0,43429
by hypesbolic logarithms S=r zad X log.
Let the ball be a 12 pounder, and the initial velo¬
city be 1600 feet, and the time 20 feconds. We muff
z.ad
firft find Cy which is -y—.
Therefore, log. za - - 3.03236
log. d (4, 5) „ 0.65321
log. V. (1600) - — 3.20412
Log.of 3",03,=ff
And e-\-t is 2 3",03, of which the log. is
from which take the log. of e
e+t
e.48145
1.36229
0.48145
remains the log. of— - - 0.88084
This muft be confidered as a common number by
zad
which we are to multiply
0,43429
Therefore add the logarithms oi zad
log. ~
log. 0,43429
+ 3-6855*
+ 9-9449°
—* 9-6377^
3.99269
Log. S. 9833 feet
For the final velocity,
OD : OC = AC : BD, or e+t ‘. e=V : v.
23 >03 : 3 »o3 = 1600 • zio'iyxzv.
The ball has therefore gone 3278 yards, and its ve*
locity is reduced from 1600 to 210.
It
55$
PROJECTILES,
It my W agreeable to the reader to fee the gradual
pregreis of the ball during fome feconds of its motion.
T. S. Difi V.
3
4"
£
*383
2456
3336
4080
4*725
5294
1073
880
744
645
569
1203
964
804
690
604
537
w-
397
239
160
114
86
67
The firil column is the time of the motion, the fe-
eond is the fpace deferibed, the third is the differences
of the fpaces, fhowing the motion during each fuccef-
five fecond ; the fourth column is the velocity at the
end of the time t; and the kit column is the diffe¬
rences of velocity, fhowing its diminution in each fuccef-
five fecond. We fee that at the diftance of 1000 yards
the velocity is reduced to one half, and at the diftance
of lefs than a mile it is reduced to one third.
II. It may be required to determine the diftance at
which the initial velocity V is reduced to any other
quantity v. This queftion is folved in the very fame
manner, by fubftituting the logarithms of V and v for
thofe of e-\-t and e ; for AC : BD = OD : OC, and
, . , AC OD . V e+t.
therefore log. log.-Q^, or log. — _ log. —
Thus it is required to determine the diftance in which
the velocity 1780 of a 24 pound ball (which is the me¬
dium velocity of fuch a ball difeharged with 16 pounds
of powder) will be reduced to 1300.
Here d is 5,68, and therefore the loga¬
rithm of 2 <2 ^ is - *
V ...
ILog. " — 0,07433, of which the log. is
Log- 0,43429
+ 3.78671
+8.871 r6
—9.63778
it,37
7,21
itSU' Therefore
log. 2 a
d
m
3.03236
9.87506
0.19782
and 2a dm tz 1274,2.
Log. 2a</« 3.10524
e+i
Now 1274,2 : 100=0,43429 : 0,03408 = log-~\
But e = y—=0,763, and its logarithm=9.88252,
which, added to 0.03408, gives 9.91660, which is the
log. of e + *, =0,825, from which take e, and there
62
remains/=,o",062,or  of a fecond, for the time of
1000
paffage. Now, to find the remaining velocity, fay
825 :,763=-670: 1544, =
But in Mr Robins’s experiment the remaining velo¬
city was only 1425, the ball having loft 245 ; whereas
by this computation it fhould have loft only 126. It
appears, therefore, that the refxftance is double of what
it would have been if the refiftance increafed in the du¬
plicate proportion of the velocity. Mr Robins fays it
is nearly triple. But he fuppofes the refiftance to flow
motions much fmaller than his own experiment, fo often
mentioned, fully warrants.
The time r, in which the refiftance of the air would
extinguifli the velocity is Gravity, or the
. . 1670
weight of the bullet, would have done it —or5 2'
therefore the refiftance is
52
0,763
times,
32
or nearly
68
times its weight, by this theory, or 5,97 pounds. If we
calculate from Mr Robins’s experiment, we muft fay log.
V
—: 0,43429 = 100 : e V, which will be 630,23, and
Log. 1047,3 feet, or 349 yards 3.02009
This reduction will be produced in about ^ of a fe¬
cond.
III. Another queftion may be to determine the time
■which a ball, beginning to move with a certain veloci¬
ty, employs in paffmg over a given fpace, and the di¬
minution of velocity which it fuftains from the refiftance
of the air.
We may proceed thus :
2a d: 8 = 0,43429 : log. = /. Then to log.
g add log. e and we obtain log. and e -\-t; from
which if we take e we have t. 1 hen to find v, fay
rg e+ t: r=V 1 v.
Application We ftiall conclude thefe examples by applying this
«f an expe- kft rule to Mr Robins’s experiment on a mulket bul-
1 w ^ an *n <l’ameter* which had its velo-
r o iriS*cjjy re<iuced from 1670 to 1425 by paffmg through
See Robins's 100 feet of air. This we do in order to difeover the
vol ref1ftance which it fuftained, and compare it with the
jj. p, * refiftance to a velocity of 1 footer fecond.
We muft firft afeertain the firft term of our analogy.
The ball was of lead, and therefore 2 a muft be multi¬
plied by d and by w, which expreffes the ratio of the
denfity of lead U> that of call iron, d is 0,75, and m is
gives 138 for the
63°>23 ,/ „„„„ 52
e 1670 ’3774> 0,3774
proportion of the refiftance to the weight, and makes
the rdiftance 12,07 pounds, fully double of the other.
It is to be obferved, that with this velocity, which
greatly exceeds that with which the air can rufti into
a void, there muft be a ftatical preffure of the atmo-
fphere equal to 61 pounds. This will make up the dif¬
ference, Mid allows us to conclude that the refiftance
ariling folely from the motion communicated to the air
follows very nearly the duplicate proportion of the ve¬
locity.
The next experiment, with a velocity of 1690 feet,
gives a refiftance equal to 157 times the weight of the
bullet, and this bears a much greater proportion to the
former than 1690 does to 1670*; which Ihows, that al¬
though thefe experiments clearly demonftrate a prodi¬
gious augmentation of refiftance, yet they are by no
means fufceptible of the precifion which is neceffary for
dilcovering the law of this augmentation, or for a good
foundation of practical rules; and it is ftill greatly to
be wiflied that a more accurate mode of inveftigation
could be difeovered.
Thus we have explained, in great detail, the princi¬
ples and the proceis of calculation for the Ample cafe
4 A 2 of
59
Recapitu¬
lation.
5j6
P R O J -E C
of the motion of projeftiles through the air. The learn¬
ed reader will think that we have been unreafonably
prolix, and that the whole might have been com-
prifed in lei's room, by taking the algebraic method.
We acknowledge that it might have been done even in
a few lines. But we have obferved, and our obferva-
tion has been confirmed by perfons well verfed in fuch
fubjetts, that in all cafes where the fluxionary procefs in¬
troduces the fluxion of a logarithm, there is a great want
of diffinft ideas to accompany the hand and eye. The io-
lutioncomesoutbya fort of magic or legerdemain, we can¬
not tell either Aow or ivbyt Wh therefore thought it our
duty to furnilh the reader with diftindl conceptions of
the things and quantities treated of. For this reafon, af¬
ter Ihowing, in Sir Ifaac Newton’s manner, how the
fpaces defcribed in the retarded motion of a projedtile
followed the proportion of the hyperbolic areas, we
(hewed the nature of another curve, where lines could
be found which inereafe in the very fame manner as
the path of the projedtile increafes ; fo that a point de-
fcribing the abfcilfa MJ of this curve moves precifely
as the projedtile does. Then, difcovering that this line is
the fame with the line of logarithms on a Gunter’s fcale,
we Ihewed how the logarithm of a number really repre-
fents the path or fpace defcribed by the projedtile.
And we were the more difpofed to do this, becaufe in
the articles Logarithms and J^ogahithmic Curve,
there has not been that notice taken of it which, would
have been proper.
Having thus, we hope, enabled the reader to conceive
diftindtly the quantities employed, wre (hall leave the
geometrical method, and profecute the reft of the fub-
60 jedt in a more compendious maimer..
Of the per- arej Jn next place, to conflder the perpendi-
afcents of1" cu^ar afcents and defcents of heavy projedtiles, where the
heavy pro- reflftance of the air Is combined wuth the adtion of gra-
jetfiles. vity : and we (hall begin with the defcents.
Let u, as before, be the terminal velocity, and g the
accelerating power of gravity : When the body moves
with the velocity w, the refiflance is equal to g ; and in
every other velocity v,. wre muft have « 1: ■u 1 = £ :
£ V 1
--j-, = r, for the refiftanee to that velocity. In the
defcent the body is urged by gravity £, and oppofed
by the reflftance ^ T“ ~ therefore the remaining acce-
g v 2 <..
lerating force, which we fliall call /, is g —or
gu2—gv2 g (u7—v7)
•   , or  7 , — A
u2 a > J
Now the fundamental theorem for varied motions is
■ ' • • V V U V V
f s = u v, andj- — - =— x —t and s —
J su —^
U 2 S' V V V V
X /— x + C. Now the fluent cf —   is
g U  V U  v
= — hyperb. log of y'a 2 — -u L For the fluxion of
~~~ —=> and tins divided by the
U 2   >y 1
a/u
I1 IS
quantity u2—-v2y of which it is the fluxion, gives
precifely A which is therefore the fluxion- of
TILES.
u 2
its hyperbolic logarithm. Therefore S = — ^
\/u2—v2 4" C. Where L means the hyperbolic
logarithm of the quantity annexed to it, and X may be
ufed to exprefs its common logarithm.. (See article
FT uxions).
The conftant quantity C for completing the fluent
is determined from this confideration, that the fpace
defcribed is o, when the velocity is o : therefore C —
u 2 _ .— u 2  
— X L /v«1 and C = •— X .L */u auC2 ^he
£ £
L V** —v**
complete fluent S = — X Lv'" 1
_LsxL / —— =———xX /-j—-—~
g y/u2—v2 0,43429^ s/ u2 — v2>
or (putting M for 0,43429, the modulus or fubtangent
u 1 ^
oftliecommonlogifticcurve) =-j^ X
This equation eftabliflies the relation between the
fpace fallen through, and the velocity acquired by the
S i z
fall. We obtain by it ^ = L ^ r>
* u V u — v
and
'ig S
= L
ent for us.
—v :
M X 2£ S
or, which is ftifl more converd-
— X
, that is, equal t©
the logarithm of a certain number ; therefore having
found the natural number correfponding to the fraction
M X Confider it as a logarithm, and take out the
number correfponding to it: call this «. T hen, fxnee
, u2 . ,
n is equal to   r have nu1—nv*—« ,
*■ U  V ,  
and n u2 — uiz=nvI, or nv2~u1Xn — v, and v *
u 2 X n— 1
« * , ;
To expedite all the computations on this fubjecft, it
will be convenient to have multipliers ready computed
for M X and its half,
viz. 27,794, whofe log. is - 1 *44396
and 13,897 - ,*I4Z93
But 1; may be found much more expeditioufly by
obferving that —- is the fecant of an arcL
of a circle whofe radius is u, and whofe fine is or
v
whofe radius is unity and fine = ~ : therefore, conli-
dering the above fraftion as a logarithmic fecant, look
for it in the tables, and then take the fine of the arc of
which this is the fecant, and multiply it by u ; the pro-
du£l is the velocity required.
We fliall take an example of a ball whofe terminal
velocity is 689-f feet, and ascertain its velocity after a
fall of 1848 feet. Here,
m*=475200 and its log. - =5.67688
u =689! - - 2.83844
g =32 - - I*5°5 *5
6=1848 - - 3.26670
Then
557
PRO
The*
logy 2 7*794
log. S
log. a 1
J E
+ 1.44396
+ 3.26670
— 5.67608
Log. of 0,10809 =: kg'* n - 9-°3378
5,10809 is the logarithm of 1,2826 — n, and n—1 =
X n~—
0,2826, and
323,6 *, — v*, and v =
323*6.
In like manner, 0,054045 (which is half of 0,10809)
will be found to be the logarithmic fecant of 28°, whofe
fine 0,46947 multiplied by 689^ gives 324 for the velo¬
city.
The procefs of this folution fuggefls a very perfpi-
cuous manner of conceiving the law of defcent; and it
may be thus exprefied :
M is to the logarithm of the fecant of an arch whofe
fine is ~, and radius 1, as 2 a is to the height through
which the body mull fall in order to acquire the velo¬
city v. Thus, to take the fame example.
1. Let the height /; be fought which will produce the
velocity 323,62, the terminal velocity of the ball being
u 5 . 323,62
689,34. Here 2 a, or— 13 14850, and =
0,46947, which is the fine of 28°. The logarithmic
fecant of this arch is 0,05407. Now M or 0,43429 :
0,05407= 14850 : 1848, the height wanted.
2. Required the velocity acquired by the body by
falling 1848 feet. Say 14850 : 1848 = 0,43429:
0,05407. Look for this number among the logarith¬
mic fecants. It will be found at 28°, of which the lo¬
garithmic fine is - - - 9.67161
, Add to this the log. of « - - 2.83844
The fum - 2.51005
is the logarithm of 323,62, the velocity required.
We may obferve, from thefe folutions, that the ac¬
quired velocity continually approaches to, but never
equals, the terminal velocity. For it is always expref-
ftd by the fine of an arch of which the terminal veloci¬
ty is the radius. We cannot help taking notice here
Mr Muller a very ftrange aflertion of Mr Muller, late profeffpr
of mathematics and diredlor of the royal academy at
Woolwich. He maintains, in his Treatife on Gunnery,
his Treatife of Fluxions, and in many of his numerous
works, that a body cannot poflibly move through the
air with a greater velocity than this; and he makes this
a fundamental principle, on which he eltablilhes a theo¬
ry of motion in a refilling medium, which he afferts
with great confidence to be the only jull theory ; fay¬
ing, that all the invelligations-of Bernoulli,.Euler, Ro¬
bins, Simpfon, and others, are erroneous. We ufe this
ftrong exprelfion, becaufe, iu his criticifma on the
works of thofe celebrated mathematicians, he lays afide
good manners, and taxes them not only with igno¬
rance, but with dilhonefty ; faying, for inllance, that it
required no fmall dexterity in Robins to confrm by his
experiments a theory founded on falfe principles ; and
that Thomas Simpfon, in attempting to conceal his
obligations to him for fome valuable propolitions, by
changing their form, had ignorantly fallen into grofs
errors.
Nothing caa be more palpably abfurd than this affer-
61
Erroneous
affertion of
C T I I. E S.
tion of Mr Muller. A blown bladder will have but a
fmall terminal velocity ; and when moving with this ve¬
locity, or one very near it, there can be no doubt that
it will be made to move much fwifter by a fmart flroke.
Were the aflfertion true, it would be impoflible for a
portion of air to be put into motion through the reft,
for its terminal velocity is nothing. Yet this author
makes this alfertion a principle of argument, faying,
that it is impoffible that a ball can iftue from the mouth
of a cannon with a greater velocity than this ; and that
Robins and others are grofsly miftaken, when they give
them velocities three or four times greater, and refin¬
ances which are 10 or 20 times greater than is pofiible;
and by thus compenfating h;s fmall velocities by ftill
fmaller refiftances, he confirms his theory by many
experiments adduced in fupport of the others. No rea-
fon whatever can be given for the aflertion. Newton,
or perhaps Huygens, was the firft who obferved that
there was a limit to the velocity which gravity could
communicate to a body ; and this limit was found by
his commentators to be a term to which it was vaftly
convenient to refer all its other motions. It therefore
became an objeftof attention; and Mr Muller, through
inadvertency, or want of difeernment, has fallen into
this miftake, and with that arrogance and felf-conceit
which mark all his writings, has made this miftake a
fundamental principle, fiecaufe it led him to ellabliih a
novel fet of doctrines on this fubjeft. He was fretted
at the fuperior knowledge and talents of Mr Simpfon,
his inferior in the academy, and was guilty of feveral
mean attempts to hurt his reputation. But they were
unfuccrfsful. ^
We might proceed to confider the motion of a bodyMotfon of
projected downwards. While the velocity of proje&ion a body [ ro-
is lefs than the terminal velocity, the motion is deter-
mined by what we have already faid : for we muft com-
pute the height necefiary for acquiring this velocity in
the air, and fuppofe the motion to have begun there.
But if the velocity of projeflion be greater, this method
fails. We pafs it over (though not in the leaft more
difficult than what has gone before), becaufe it is of
mere curiofity, and never occurs in any interciling cafe.
We may juft obferve, that fince the motion is fwifter
than the terminal velocity, the refiftance muft be great-
er than the. weight, and the motion will be retarded.
The very fame procefs will give us for the fpace deferibed
S =
£
X
l /r_
V v 2
V being the velocity of
projedlion, greater than u. Now as this, fpace evident¬
ly increafes continually (becaufe the body always falls),
but does not become infinite in any finite time, the frac-
V2.—. . .
tion —  : does not become infinite ; that is, tr'*
v ~ —' u ~
does net become equal to m ’ : therefore although the
velocity V is continually dimimfhed, it never becomes
fo fmall as.?/. Therefore u is a limit of diminution as
well as of augmentation.
We muft now afeertain the relation between the time Relation
of the defeent and the fpace deferibed, or the velocity between
acquired. For this purpofe we may ufe the other fun-'
damental propofition of varied motions ft—Vy which, ittand fpace
~ 2 . . . deferibech,
the prefent cafe, becomes therefore / = &*•
55$
PRO
tt-X-
g u
Ut)
and / s= - X
J
E C
vv
Now (art. r«x,OKS)/-^.J=Lv/^. There
^xLyg.^x*y^. Th;sfl0.
ent needs no conftant quantity to complete it, or ratVer
C=zo ; for / muft be =o when v — o. This will^evi-
dently be the cafe : for then L,^/“.itl^is Li
L i, = o-  
But how does this quantity t^-X X /V-^ fignify a
v u—v
time ? Obferve, that in whatever numbers, or by what¬
ever units of fpace and' time, u and g are expreffed,
- expreffes the number of units of time in which the^ve-
£ .
locity u is communicated or extinguiihed by gravity;
and L or is always an abftraft
u—v M V u—v
number, multiplying this time.
We may illuilrate this rule by the fame example. In
ivhat time wall the body acquire the velocity 323,62 ?
Here u -if v — 1012,96, u — v z=i 365,72 ; therefore
. /^±F= 0,22122, and - (in feet and feconds) is
V u—v g
21'',5 42. Now, for greater perfpkuity, convert the
equation f-—-—XX / 1Qf° ^ proportion: thus
X V “—v
M : X Iu-^°=U-i U and we tiave o»43429 -0^21122
V «—•u S
— 21 '',542 : 1 o",973, the time required.
This is by far the moft diflindt way of conceiving
the fubjed; and we fhould always keep in mind that
the numbers or fymbols which we call logarithms ^ are
really parts of the line MI in the figure of the logiftic
curve, and that the motion .of a point in this line is pre-
cifely fimilar to that of the body. The Marquis Po-
leni, in a diflertation publifhed at Padua in 1725, has
with great ingenuity conftru&ed logarithmics fuited to
all the cafes which can occur. Herman, in his Phoro-
nomia, has borrow'ed much of Poleni’s methods, but has
obfeured them by an affedation of language geometri-
cally precife, but involving the very obfeure notion of
abitradf ratios.
Plate
GCCCX.VU.
It is eafy to fee that / u-  is the cotangent of
V u—v
the \ complement of an arch, whofe radius is 1, and
whofe fine is For let K.C (fig* 6.) be ~uf and
U I
BErrv ; then an^ DA-o—v. Join KB
and BA, and drawr CG parallel to KB. Now GA is
the tangent of 4- BA, =4 complement of HB. Then,
by fimilarity of triangles, GA: AC = AB :BK, =
j/Kb : -y/HKrzx/u—U : */u + v and ^^(2= cotan.
•4BA)= / ; therefore look for - among the na-
V u—v u
tdiral fines, or for log. ^ among the logarithmic fines,
TILES.
and take the logarithmic cotangent of the half cftwiplt-*
ment of the correfponding arch, d his, confidered as a
common number, will be the fecond term of our pro¬
portion. This is a {hotter procefs than the former.
By reverfing this proportion we get the velocity cor¬
refponding to a given time. . 64
To compare this defeent of 1848 feet in the air Fall bf a
with the fall of the body in vacuo during the fame,n
time, fay 21',542*: io,,,973 ~ 1840 : 1926,6, whichrej W!th
makes a difference of 79 £^at 0^on8
Cor. r. The time in which the body acquires the111 vacua-
velocity u by failing through the air, is to the time of
acquiring the fame velocity by falling in vacuo, as u*
L /it? to v : for it would acquire this velocity in
vacuo during the time and it acquires it m the air
. . . u 1 fu-\-v
in the time —L, /  
g U V
2. The velocity which the body acquires by falling
through the air in the time — L / —t0 tfie
o g v v—v
velocity which it w'ould acquire in vacuo during the
fame time, as ,u to m L / - « For the velocity
Sju-v u
wdiich it would acquire w vacuo during the time —
L /muft be n L /—^ (becaufein any time
sj u—v V «—v
^Lthe velocity <w is acquired).
S 1 ^5
In the next place, let a body, whofe terminal velo-TIme of
city is a, be projeded perpendicularly upwards, with ^e^afeent
any velocity V. It is required to determine the height proje<aecl
to which it afeends, fo as to have any remaining velo- perpendi-
city V, and the time of its afeent; as alfo the height cularly.
and time in which its whole motion will be extin-
guifhed.
We have now + for the exprefilon of /;
a1
for both gravity and refiftance ad now in the fame di-
redion, and retard the motion of the afeending body :
therefore 's= — v v, and S=—U-X
u , s u “v
, =—?!x +c, =——xL
g / “ 4-‘y £
C (fee art. Fluxions). This muft be =0 at the be¬
ginning of the motion, that is, when •u=V, that is,
-‘Lx L v,a1+Vi+C^,°rC = -x L\/«2 +v’»and
g J   
the complete fluent will be s (L
r x wa , /ip+v^u* . Am-v*
Ls»'+*)=j xLy ^--^x xy u,+v.
Let b be the greateft height to which the body will
rife. Then s — h when v = 0; and A = X
t A1 -pV2 _ u2 xx /U A. We have
y+n1 «2 +*yV «*
Therefore
P R O J E
Therefore let« be the number whofe common logarithm
is ; we (hall have n =r - ■■ ^--, and
a1 -4- n
5S9
“b
 u' ■ and thus we obtain the relation of s andi>, as in
the cafe of defcents : but we obtain it ftill eafter by ob~
ferving that */u'-\-Vx is the fecant of an arch whofe
radius is «, and whofe tangent is V, and that
is the fecant of another arch of the fame circle, whofe
tangent is v.
Let the fame ball be proje&ed upwards with the ve¬
locity 411,05 feet per fecond1. Required the whole
height to which it will rife ?
Here ^ will be found the tangent of 30.48!, the lo-
u
garithmic fecant of which is 0,06606. This, multi-
2
plied by-^-, gives 2259 feet for the height. It would
.
66 haverifen 2640 feet in a void.
Velocity of Suppofe this body to fall down again. We can
compared compare the velocity of projection with the velocity
with that with which it again reaches the ground. The afcent
with which . , - /t/i+V1
*t reaches and defcent are equal: thererore / —t.—,
—, which
the ground.
multiplies the conftant faftor in the afcent, is equal to
—-— the multiplier in the defcent. The firll is
the fecant of an arch whofe tangent is V ; the other is
the fecant of au arch whofe fine is v. Thefe fecants
are equal, or the arches are the fame; therefore the ve¬
locity of proje&ion is to the final returning velocity as
the tangent to the fine, or as the radius to the cofine of
the arch. Thus fuppofe the body proje&ed with the
a
terminal velocity, or V = «/ then =. If V =
689, ^ = 487.
We muft in the laft place afcertain the relation of
the fpace and the time.
Here
C T I L E S.
to which this body will rife, may be the time of its
afcent is limited. It never can exceed the time of fal¬
ling from the height a in vacuo in a greater proportion
than that of a quadrantal arch to the radius, nearly the
proportion of 8 to 5. A 24 pound iron ball cannot
continue rifing above 14 feconds, even if the refiftance
to quick motions did not increafe fafter than the fquare
of the velocity. It probably will attain its greateft
height in lefs than 12 feconds, let its velocity be ever
fo great.
In the preceding example of the whole afcent, v~v,
and the time tzz-x arc. tan. —, or — arc. 3O0.48/.
Now 300.48/ = 1 848, and the radius 1 contains 3438 ;
therefore the arch =0,5376 ; and-=21",54.
r™ <- 3438 ^
Therefore /=2i",54Xo,5376,= 1 i",58, or nearly 11!-
feconds. The body would have rifen to the fame height
in a void in t o| feconds. 68
Cor. 1. The time in which a body, projefted in the7*1,:> ‘i”16
air with any velocity V, will attain its greateft height, 5olr^.rc<i
is to that in which it would attain its greatelt height in Droje&ed
vocuor as the arch whofe tangent expreffes the velocity in air and
is to the tangent; for the time of the afcent in the airin vacuo*
j u w v
Vy and —— X
-”x/-
J u
g «a +
U V
-f C. Now
u*
-“x—- ; and / _ t 9
g W1 -f- V2 g J U ■\-V*‘
fart. Fluxions) — is an arch whofe tangent
=r —and radius • ; therefore/=:— — X arc. tan.—-}-C.
u g u
This muft be = 0 when *u=V, or C—^ X arc. tan.
g
V
is —X arch ; the time of the afcent in vacuo is—. Now
v8 8
-is = tan. and V=ziX tan. acd—=lx tan.
u g g
It is evident, by infpefting fig. 6. that the arch AI Plate
is to the tangent AG as the fedfor ICA to the tri- ccccxvii*
angle GCA ; therefore the time of attaining the great-
eft height in the air is to that of attaining the greateft
height in vacuo (the velocities of proje&ion being the
fame), as the circular fe&or to the correlponding tri¬
angle.
If therefore a body be projected upwards with the
terminal velocity, the time of its afcent will be to the
time of acquiring this velocity in vacuo as the area of a>
circle to the area of the circumfcribed fquare.
2. 1 he height H to which a body will rife in a void,
is to the height h to which it would rife through the
air when proje&ed with rfie fame velocity V as M’V2 to
X A—— S- ^ the height to which it will rife in
u1
• V1
vacuo is —, and the height to which it rifes in the air is
*g
u\ /S+V2
—= c, and C=—X arc. tac. -, and the complete flu*
u g u
ent is / = - x f arc. tan. — —- arc. tan. ?L\ The quan-
g \ u u/
tides within the brackets exprefs a portion of die arch
of a circle whofe radius is unity p and are therefore ab-
ftra& numbers, multiplying —, which we have fhown to
g
be the number of units of time in which a heavy body
falls in vacuo from the heights, or in. which it acquires
67 the velocity u.
stfeent if- ^earn ^rom t^,s exPrefii°n °f the time, that how-
tnited. l* ever Sreat tiie velocity of projedion, and the height
therefore H : /& = Y_:
Therefore if the body be projefted with its terminal
velocity, fo that V = w, the height to which it will rife
in the air is 3?-1..?.3 of the height to which it will rife
43429
in vacuo, or 3 in round numbers.
7
We have been thus particular in treating of the per¬
pendicular afeents and defcents of heavy bodies through*
the air, in order that the reader may conceive diflmdtly
6 the
j6o
60
IJeceility
cf further
experi¬
ments.
70
Of ob¬
lique pro-
je^lion.
7*
This pro¬
blem not
folved by
Newton.
p R O J E C
the quantities which he is thus combining in his algebraic
operations, and may fee their conneftion in nature with
each other. We hi all alfo find that, in the prefent ftate
of our mathematical knowledge, this Ample ftate of the
cafe contains almoft all that we can determine with any
confidence. On this account.it were to be wifhed that
the profeffional gentlemen would make many experi¬
ments on thefe motions. There is no way that pro-
mifes fo much for afiifting ns in forming accuiate no¬
tions of the air’s refiftance. Mr Robins’s method with
the pendulum is impracticable with great (hot; and the
experiments which have been generally reforted to for
this purpofe, viz. the ranges of fhot and (hells on a ho¬
rizontal plane, are fo complicated in themfelv es, that
the utmoft mathematical (kill is neceflary for making
any inferences from them ; and they are iubje£t to fuch
irregularities, that they may be brought to fupport al¬
moft any theory whatever on this fubjeCl. But the per¬
pendicular flights are affeCted by nothing but the initial
velocity and the reftftance of the air; and a conftderablt
deviation from their intended direction does not caufe any
fenfible errsr in the confequences which we may draw
from them for our purpofe.
But we muft now proceed to the general problem,
to determine the motion of a body projected in any di-
reCtion, and with any velocity. Our readers will be¬
lieve beforehand that this muft be a difficult fubjeCt,
when they fee the ftmplefl cafes of reailineal motion
abundantly abftrufe : it is indeed fo difficult, that Sh
Ifaac Newton has not given a folution of it, and has
thought himfelf well employed in making feveral appro¬
ximations, in which the fertility of his genius appears
in great luftre. In the tenth and fubiequent propofi-
tions of the fecondbook of the Principle, he (hows what
ftate of denfity in the air will comport with the motion
of a body in any curve whatever : and then, by apply¬
ing this difeovery to feveral curves which have fome fi-
milarity to the path of a projeCtile, he finds one which
is not very different from what we may fuppofe to ob¬
tain in our atmofphere. But even this approximation
v/as involved in fuch intricate calculations, that it feemed
knpofiible to make any ufe of it. In the fecond edition of
the Principle, publiftied in 1713, Newton correCts fome
miftakes which he had committed in the firft, and car¬
ries his approximations much farther, but ftill does not
attempt a direCt inveftigation of the path which a body
will deferibe in our atmofphere This is fomewhat fur-
prifing. In prop. 14. &c. he (hows how a body, actu¬
ated by a centripetal force, in a medium of a denfity
varying according to certain lawTs, will defenbe an ec¬
centric fpiral, of which he afilgns the properties, and
the law of defeription. Had he fuppofed the denfity
conftant, and the difference between the greateft and
lead diftances from the centre of centripetal force ex¬
ceedingly finall in comparifon with the diftances them-
felves, his fphal would have coincided with the path of
a projeCtile in the air of uniform denfity, and the fteps
of his inveftigation would have led him immediately to
the complete folution of the problem. For this is the
rea i te of the cafe. A heavy Body is not aCted on by
eq ?1 and parallel gravity, but by a gravity inverfely
proportional to the fquare of the diftance from the
centre of the earth, and in lines tending to that centre
nearly j and it was with the view of fimplifying the
TILES,
inveftigation, that mathematicians have adopted the other
hypothefis. ft
Soon after the publication of this fecond edition of
the Principle, the difpute about the invention of
fluxionary calculus became very violent, and the greatforejcn
promoters of that calculus upon the continent w^ere in athema-
the habit of propofmg difficult problems to exercife the tician*.
talents of the mathematician. Challenges of this kind
frequently paffed between the Britifh and foreigners.
Dr Keill of Oxford had keenly efpoufed the claim of
Sir Ifaac Newton to this invention, and had engaged in
a very acrimonious altercation with the celebrated John
Bernoulli of Bade. Bernoulli had publifhed in the ABa
Enitlitorum Lipfue an inveftigation of the law’ of forces,
by w’hich a body moving in a refilling medium might
deferibe any propofed curve, reducing the whole to the
iimpleft geometry. This is perhaps the moft elegant
fpecimen which he has given of hrs great talents. Dr
Keill propofed to him the particular problem of the
trajedlory and motion of a body moving through the
air, as one of the moft difficult. Bernoulli very foon
folved the problem in a way much more general than it
had been propofed, viz. without any limitation either of
the law of refiftance, the law of the centripetal force, or
the law of denfity, provided only that they were regular,
and capable of being expreffed algebraically. Dr Brooke
Taylor, the celebrated author of the Method of Incre¬
ments, folved it at the fame time, in the limited form
in which it was propofed. Other authors fince that
time have given other folutions. But they are all (as
indeed they muft be) the fame in fubftance with Ber¬
noulli’s. Indeed they are all (Bernoulli’s not excepted)
the fame with Newton’s firft approximations, modified
by the fteps introduced into the inveftigation of the
fpiral motions mentioned above ; and wre ftill think it
moft ftrange that Sir Ifaac did not perceive that the
•vorietion of curvature, which he introduced in that in¬
veftigation, made the wffiole difference between his ap¬
proximations and the complete folution. This wre fhall
point out as we go along. And w’e now proceed to the
problem itfelf, of which we (hall give Bernoulli’s folu- BernouHi*#
tion, reftri&ed to the cafe of uniform denfity and a re-foiuuon*
fiftance proportional to the fquare of the velocity.
This folution is more Ample and perfpicuous than any
that has fince appeared.
Problem. To determine the traje£lory, and ad the
circumftances of the motion, of a body projected thro
the air from A (fig* 7*) direction A B, and re- ccecxVi|j
filled in the duplicate ratio of the velocity.
Let the arch AM be put the time of deferibing
it t, the abfeiffa AP = x, the ordinate PM -y. .Let
the velocity in the point M—•u, and let MN, — a, be
deferibed in the moment't; let r be the refiftance of
the air, g the force of gravity, meafured by the ve¬
locity which it will generate in a fecond; and let a be
the height through which a heavy body mud fall in va¬
cuo to acquire the velocity which would render the
refiftance of the air equal to its gravity: fo that we have
r ; becaufe, for any velocity u, and producing
id 1
iA ✓
height h, w’e have£=^
Let M m touch the curve in M ; draw the ordinate
/>N
•74 ,
^.dbkm of
.rravity in
i given
imc.
P R 0 J E
and Arm Mu, Nn perpendicular to N/> and
M«n. Then we have MNcre, and Mo=w, alfo mo
ultimately zzy and M m is ultimately = MN or z.
iLaftly, let us fuppofe x to be a conftant quantity, the
elementary ordinates being fuppofed equidiftant.
The a&ion of gravity during the time t may be
meafured by m N, ■which is half the fpace which it
would caufe the body to deferibe uniformly in the-time
t with the velocity which it generates in that time*
Let this be refolved into nN, by which it defle&s the body
into a curvilineal path, and m n, by which it retards the
afeent and accelerates the defeent of the body along- the
tangent. The refiftance of the air a&s folely in rewird-
ing the motion, both in afeending and defeending, and
has no defleftive tendency. The whole adlion of gravi¬
ty then Is to its accelerating or retarding tendency as
rj N to m«, or (by fimilarity of triangles) as m M to
no. Or 'z:y-=. g and the whole retardation in
C T I L E S. $6*
# • ••
-, or ay zz «y , for the fluxionary equation of the
the afeent will be r+^-. The fame fluxionary fymbol
z
wall exprefs the retardation during the defeent, becaufe
in the defeent the ordinates decreafe, andy is a negative
quantity.
The diminution of velocity is —*n. This is propor¬
tional to the retarding force and to the time of its a£f ion
jointly, and therefore — v — r -kV'- X tf but the time
z
/ is as the fpace z divided by the velocity v ; therefore
* • • • •
i ‘W'v *
— u = r -4- X —
z v
•y 2
rz+gy
, and
v v ~
curve. > < JS
If we put this into the form of a proportion, we Relation
have a : z y : y. Now this evidently ellablifhes a re-the length
lation between the length of the curve and its variation of the
of curvature } and between the curve itfielf and its evo-curve
luta, which are the very ciretimflances introduced by‘j*^1^**
Newton into his inveftigation of the fpiral motions. AndcurVaturc.
the equation ~=:A- is evidently an equation conneft-
r . a . y.
ed with the logarithmic curve and the logarithmic fpiral.
But we muff endeavour to reduce it to a lowrer order ef
fluxions, before we can eftablifh a relation between z, xt
and y.
Let f> exprefs the ratio of y to x, that is, let /» be =
or /> x r= y. It is evident that this exprefles the
x
inclination of the tangent at M to the horizon, and that
p is the tangent of this inclination, radius being unity.
Or it may be cenfidered merely as a number, multiply¬
ing x, fo as to make it = y. We now have y1 z= p1 x1t
and fince z* = S'1 -Ly *> we have z1 zr xl ~t~pl *
= ,+/>IXx1 and z —xjy/i+p1.
Moreover, becaufe we have fuppofed the abfeifla x
to increafe unifonnly, and therefore x to be conftant»
we have^y r= x /, andy — x p. Now let y exprefs the
ratio of p tb x, that is, make — y, or y x —p.
x
This gives us x q—p, and x1 y s: x p^ xz y.
By thefe fubftitutions our former equation ay zz z y
changes to a xl q zz x \ x p, or a q •=.
p v' i +/>2, and, taking the flnent on both fides, we have
aq— j'p i + C, C being the conftant quantity
required for completing the fluent according to the limit*
ing conditions of the cafe. Now x zz —, and~
— gy% Becaufe w N is the defleftion by
gravity, it is as the force g and the fquare of the time
/jointly (the momentary aftion being held as uniform),
Webave therefore m N, or —y zz gt1. (Obfervethat
m N is in faft only the half of — y; but^ being twice
he fall of a heavy body in a fecond, we have —y ftrift-
!y equal to g t* ). But ^ ~ ; therefore-y =#^r, r “ i—..Therefore*'^
J> P -v/1 -h/2!^ J ’ p \/\
and v’ =^-rr , and — y — g*'. The fluxion of
—y
   ^ r ^
this equation is — u* y — zvyvzzzg^z ; but,
. . ^ .... app  
becaufe z: y = m M : m o, = N: m n, —y :z, we have r" \ n
  ... ... /, /> V I 1 + ^
z z — y y. Therefore 2gy y — 2 gz z, — — v y ~ ^    A f~. f~t?
2^yy» and -
p i -h /'I + C
. . p p
Alfo, fince y zz p X) zz - -1 we havey ~
2i>y
d, and — z v v y zz v* y.
Alfo .2 zz X \/ l -Yp* —
ap J -b px
^V.+Zl+c
wvzi — gy- ®ut we have already — v v = values of. x, y, z, give us
2 y S' aP f
. A* * • ••• w
*D Z
lia
tlrerefore
v y
and finally An
4 ® y
Vol. XV. Part II*
$62
F R
aPP  
1 + p'V
o
p'p
J E
_ n vv
J j', p V1 + ^
f oVJJtfX— = af ^'j-—  
=J,ffv7+F\+& yj/.v'i+^ + c
C T I L E S.
Vm BA : VCBA and PD : Pj = PNBA : VCBA,
Sec. Thefe ordinates will now reprefentj^ p \/ \ + />*
with reference to a linear unit, as the areas to the
hyperbola reprefented it in reference to a fuperheial
unit.
The procefs therefore of deferibing the trajeftory is, i/?.
To find q in terms of p by the area_of the curve whofe
abfeiffa is p and the ordinate is 1 4- />2‘
2</, We get * by the area of another curve whole
Again, in every ordinate make PD : =P ^ I PO,
and thus we obtain a reciprocal to PD or to
^ 'p A/I+Jb or equivalent to
'pV\+px
This
ubfeiffa is p, and the ordinate is -
3 J, We get y by the area of a third curve whofe ab-
wiU evidently be —r, and PO op will be and the area
nate a> d
abfciffa
feiffa is p, and the ordinate is —
The problem of the trajeftory is thereforecomplete-
ly folved. becaufe we'have determined the ordinate, ab-
feifla, and arch of the curve for any given po ition of
To com- ^ts tangent It now .only remains to compute t.ie mag-
thfC , nitudes of thefe ordinates and abfcifT^ or to drawthem
SX ont-ly a geometrical conftru&ion. But m this confifts the
— difficulty.' The areas of thefe curves, which exprefs the
lengths^of sc and y, can neither be computed nor exhi¬
bited geometrically, by any accurate method y./Aifco^cr-
ed, and we muft content ourfelves with approximations.
Thefe render the defcription of the trajedoi y excee -
Jngly difficult and tedious, fo that little advantage as
as^yet been derived from the knowledge we have got
of hs properties. It will however greatly affift our
conception of the fubjed to proceed fome leng^ m Bn,
conftruaion ; for it muft be acknowledged that ^ry
few diftinft notions accompany a mere algebraic opera¬
tion, efpecially if in any degree complicated, which we
confefs is the cafe in the prefent queftion.
Let B m N R (fig- 8.) be an equilateral hyperbola, of
• which B is the vertex, BA the femitranfver e a^is,
which we (hall affume for the unity ^ngth. Let AV
be the femiconjugate axis = BA, =
aiTymptote, bife6ting the right angle BAY. Let PN,
p i be two ordinates to the conjugate axis, exceedn y
near to each other. Join BP, AN, and draw B , N*
perpendicular to the affymptote, BC P3^0^
It is well known that BP is equal to NP. Therefore
PN2 = BA2 + AP2. Now fince BA — i, if we mak^.
AP of our formulas, PN is 1 +/>San^ ~
      s' * j i 7T| . 'T'Viat ic tr
ap
contained between the lines AF, AW, and the curve
GEOH, and cut off by the ordinate PO, will reprefent
Laftly, make PO : PQ = AV : AP, = i and
then PQj7P rePrtfent " » an^ t^ie area -^LEQ1_
y
will reprefent —.
Plate
Plate
scccxvm.
But we muft here obferve, that the fluents expreffed
by thefe different areas require what is called the ccr-
reftion to accommodate them to the circumftances ok
the chfe. It is not indifferent from what ordinate we
begin to reckon the areas. 'I his depends on the initial
direftion of the projectile, and that point of the amcli¬
fe AP muft be taken for the commencement of all the
areas which gives a value of p fuited to the initial di-
reCtion. Thus, if the. projeftion has been made from
A (fG. 7.) at an elevation of 45°, the ratio of the ^
fluxions x andy is that of equality; and therefore the
point E of fig. 8. where the two curves mterfea and ccccxvm
have a common ordinate, evidently correfponds to this
condition. The ordinate EV paffes through V, lo that
AV or p — AB, = i» = tangent 45°, as the cafe re¬
quires. ' The values of * and of y correfponding to any
other point of the traje&ory, fuch as that which ha,
AP for the tangent of the angle which it makes with
the horizon, are now to be had by computing the
areas VEOP, VEQP. f ,
Another curve might have been added, of which the
ordinates would exhibit the fluxions of the arch of the
trajeftory z —aP
and of which the area
fay, the number f p 'ST+f (for it is a number) has woula exhib;t the arch itfelf. And^ this^ would have
‘bIpnb been very eafy’for 11 is “=aPfJskm
h^b^aoT APBN.S’ APN = ■ AP X PN. = which is evidendythe fluxion
Xn r fe&or ABN APN = 4 AP X PN, = which is evidently the nuxion oi uic - p-—
hyperbohcJeCtor AtfiN. A^N —BNv/3 S' * But it is needlefs, fince z =
4 a-v/i + />% and the hyperbolic feCtor ABN^- nthm of p V i^rp I-
which is equivalent to the hyperbolic logant e . ^ ^ d wehave already got x. It is only increa-
a.whe„A« .sumty. Ihere- g the ratio of BA to BP. . „
?nd thus we have brought the inveftigation of this pio Confeq,
blem a confiderable length, having afeertamed the/orm ofees of
Emjeaory. This i^f-ely done when the ra^
i r p the Doution oi its tan- r ,
number reprefente.d by A v when Afi is unity._J_here-
fore it is equal to J- the logarithm of p + V I + /> •
Hence we fee by the bye that f^P * i+f —
ill«
the trajectory, i his is mreiy aonc rhe for-
- v i -t- />' f nyperuuue —r - v i -r/> • t arcj1} abfeifs, and ordinate, and the polition oi its _l'of the tra
Now let AMD be another curve, fuch that its ordi- - determined in every point._ But it is itill very tar •e(clory%
nates V m, PD, &c. may be proportional to the areas from a folution, and much remains to e one core
AB m V, ABNP, and may have the fame proportion we can make any praftical application ol it. he on y
to AB, the unity of length, which thefe areas have to erJd Confequence that we can deduce irom iv P10”}1
&'RP\7' nnitv of Til Gil VJVI L V C ■
ip _j_ + \ hyperbolic logarithm/) + */x +/;»
■KT A i 1  fnrh thnt its or
VW   J 7  
ABCV, the unity of iurface.
*
■F.ulA
frinrl ,
Cimpleft.
«.HC xncmux.a ux uxc zxcuucmy or JDenm piromnru m
1753, takes the vertex of the curve for the beginning
afcending branch can the inclination of the tangehU^J-
PROJECT ILE S.
To deter-
jiine the
fes is, tliSt in every cafe where the refiftance in any
point bears the fame proportion to the force oi gravity,
the trajectory will be fimilar. Therefore two balls, of the
fame denfity, projected in the fame direction, will de-
feribe iimilar trajectories if the velocities are in the fub-
duplicate ratio of the diameters. This we ihall find to
be of conliderable practical importance. But let us now
of his abfeiffa and ordinate. This is thefimpleft method
of any, for C mull then be fd chofen that the whole
fluent may vaihfh when p~ o, which is the cafe in the
vertex of the curve, where the tangent is para d to the
horizon. We fliall adopt this method.
Therefore, let AP (fig. 9.) = PM
563
Plate
VC OI LUIlll'dCl dlJlC. piclV^lICdl lllipiil LcUU.C# uc
mi 11 c iiic proceed to determine the velocity in the'different points
ilffcran.10 traje<^:or>r» au(l the itpC-vIKlmr its feveral
1 nercioic, icl vng* y j \ a . ccccxvm.
Put the quantity C which is introduced into the fluent
points.
time of deferibing its feveral
portions.  
Recoiled, therefore, that v1 — —r.
equal to It is plain that « mult be a number ; for
and that »*
= -{-/* and y — xp. This gives u* =
—g x 1 +/>2
_ , —TX 1 4-
But p — qx. Therefore u1 =  —— j
’—as 1 + P* 
y, p vr+p + c
a v/—g*y X 4-
and
V-J
it muft be homologous with p \ + /> % wluch 13 *
number. For brevity’s fake let us exprefs the fluent ot
> V/r+7r by the Angle letter P ; and thus we (hall
r p _ v ^
have xr=. a X/ n 4_^> ’ y — a « q- P
/-/> 1 d'/’2
s a X
—. And v
a —as i'+P1)
Now the
'Jj P ^v 'V P'\ + ^
Alfo
p «/
y «+p ‘ n+F , . .
height h neceffary for communicating any veloc.ty *u is
—^s C1 ~hA) __ —* n ^1
2^ ~ 2<? (n + ^
V a r p
a/ a ' V/ n
And laftly,
t was found =—
v
q v
juft found, we obtain t
If we new fubftitute for v its value
Thefe fluents,, being all taken fo as to varuflx at the
vertex, where the computation commences, and where
* is =10 (the tangent being parallel to the horizon), we
F _ dL ^
obtain in this cafe A = - — * ana
Vs?
r P
—, and t — f——
J V—gq
P Va
_ r V V
-J /-
'J-~g f p ^ ‘ +/>il + c
“ V-
s
'v', i -f /'M
a
n' 2»' . 2//
Hence we fee that the circumitance which modihes
all the curves, dillinguifhing them from each other, _ is
the velocity (or rather its fquare) m the higheit point
of the curve. For b being determined for any body
whole terminal velocity is «, » is alio determined; and
this is the modifying circumftance. Confidermg it geo.
metrically, it is the area which muft be cut off fiom
the area DMAP of fig. 8. in order to determine the
ordinates of the other curves.
We muft farther remark, that the values now gi _
r .1 .   f h^» hnnv IS
The greateft difficulty ftill remains, viz. the accommo We muix. larti^x x—  , t .
Difficulty dating thefe formulae, which appear abundantly fimple, to rclate onl to tliat part Gf the area_ where the body w
ofaccom- particular cafes. It would appear at firft fight, that defcendmg from the vertex. This is evident ; foi, m
irodating aU tfa- aories are ftmilar ; fince the ratio of the fluxions thaf r may lncreafe as we recede from the vertex,
of the ordinate and aKcifa correfponding to any parti¬
cular angle of inclination to the horizon ieems the fame
‘ them all * but a due attention to what has been hi-
the fo; mu
to par
iicular
cafes-
therto faid on the fubjeft will fhow us that we have as
vet only been Ale to afeertain the velocity m the point
of the trajectory, which has a certain inclination to the
horizon, indicated by the quantity^ and the time (reck¬
oned from fome affigned beginning) when the projectile
is in that point. . , r . • .1 ^
To obtain abfolute meafures of thefe quantities, the
term of commencement muft be fixed upon. _ 1 his will
be expreffed by the conftant quantity C, which is affumed
for completing the fluent of p ^ 1 + /A which is the
bafis of the whole conftru&ion. We there found q —
> /> V' 1 pL
orderTafymay increafe as we recede from the vertex
its fluxion muft be taken in the oppofite fenfe to what
it was in our inveftigation. we fupp°ledj to
increafe as the body afeended, and then to dimimih du¬
ring the defeent; and therefore the fluxion of j wasfiift
politive and then negative.
The fame equations, however, will ferve for the
afeending branch CNA of the curve, only changing
the fign of P; for if we confider y as decreafing during
& -P
the afeent, we muft confider q as exprefling -r
and
therefore P, or/> ^T+T. »>“>>!s " a' muft be
taken negatively. Therefore, in the afeending branch,
/>
This fluent is in general q —
rhaveT^; (increafing as we recede from A)-
a r PP
a QN ory = <> Xy n_p
AN
or %
±f-> P ^1 +il, and the conftant quantity C is to ^ ^ f P^±+JL
J fi—P
t =
be accommodated to fomecircumftancesof thecafe. Diffe-
j!o rent authors have fele&ed different circumftances. Ruler,
me. in his Commentary on Robins, and in a differtation m
4iml f^e tjie Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin pubhfhed in
bmpleft. takes the vertex of the curve for the beginning
Vs
height producing the velocity at N —
-P
4 a (f
and the
+rt
«—p
81
Remark¬
able pro¬
perty of
the curve
Hence we learn by the bye, that in no part of *££ trajec-
afeending branch can the inclination of the tangm' y 1
4 B 2
5^4
It
♦n what
its form
and mag-
nitude de-
feads.
P It 0 J E C T I
fucK that P ^all be greater than n \ and that if we rup* tides are alike,
pofe P equal to n in any point of the curve, the vtlo*
city in that point will be infinite. That is to fay, there
Is a certain afiignable elevation of the tangent which
cannot be exceeded iu a curve which has this velocity
in the vertex. The belt way for forming a conception
of this circumftance in the nature of the curve, is to
invert the motion, and fuppofe an accelerating force
equal and oppofite to the refinance, to a£t on the body
in conjunction with gravity. It muft deferibe the fame
curve, and this branch ANC mult have an aflymptote
TO, which has this limiting pofxtion of the tangent.
Tor, as the body defeeads in this curve, its velocity
increafes to iufinity by the joint adion of gravity and
tTs accelerating force, and yet the tangent never ap-
j oaches fo near the perpendicular pofition as to make
P=«. This remarkable property of the curve was
known to Newton, as appears by his approximations,
which all lead him to curves of a hyperbolic form, ha¬
ving one aflymptote inclined to the horizon. Indeed
it is pretty obvious: For the reflftance increafing fafter
than the velocity, there is no velocity of projection fo
great but that the curve will come to deviate fo from
(he tangent, that in a finite time it will become pa¬
rallel to the horizon. Were the reflftance proportional
to the velocity, then an infinite velocity would produce
a rectilineal motion, or rather a defleCtion from it lefs
than any that can be afiigned.
We now fee that the particular form and magnitude
of this trajeCtory depends on two circumfkances, a and
n. a affeCts chiefly the magnitude. Another circum-
ftance might indeed be taken in, viz. the diminution of
the accelerating force of gravity by the flatical effeCt of
the air’s gravity. But, as we have already obferved, this
is too trifling to be attended to in military projeCtiles.
y
was made equal to p.
x
dins of curvature, determined by
& Simpfon
J luxioru,
5 “8>
thods,
x (i -fp1) (i -f-p1) *
Therefore the ra¬
the ordinary me-
and, becaufe-^ is
L E s.
Here u becomes Infinite, M there is
terminal velocity; and n alfo becomes infinite, being
a
lh'
It is therefore in the quantity P, or^p •/1 A/**
that the difference between the trajectory in a void and!
in a refilling medium conlifts; it is this quantity which
exprefles the accumulated change of the ratio of the
increments of the ordinate and abfeifs. In vacuo the
fecond increment of the ordinate is conftant when the
firll increment of the abfeifia is fo, and the whole
increment of the ordinate is as i And this diffc*
rence is fo much the greater as P is greater in refpeCt
of «. P is nothing at the vertex, and increafes along
with the angle MTP ; and when this is a right angle*
P is infinite. The trajeClory in a refilling medium
will come therefore to deviate infinitely from a para¬
bola, and may even deviate farther from it than the
parabola deviates from a flraight line. That is, the di-»
fiance of the body in a given moment from that point
of its parabolic path where it would have been in »
void, is greater than the diflance between that point o€
the parabola from the point of the flraight line where
it would have been, independent of the aClion of gra¬
vity. This muft happen whenever the reflftance is great¬
er than the weight of the body, which is generally the
cafe in the beginning of the traje&ory in military pro-
je&iles ; and this (were it now neceflary) is enough to
Ihow the inutility of the parabolic theory.
Although we have no method of deferibing this Several
trajeftory, which would be received by the ancient f roper tie*
geometers, we may afeertain feveral properties of ^ uined.CC**
which will aflift us in the folution of the problem. In
particular, we can aflign the abfolute length of any part
of it by means of the logiftic curve. Fo^ bgcaufe 1*
—J'p Vl+p1, we have p V/i-f-p1 — P, and there-
/* p i-fp*
which was ~ a ~rr- -fC, or = a X
fp V i+p1
may be exprefled by logarithms; or » = <*
X hyp. log. of-—fince at the vertex A, where
z muft be — o, P is alfo rr o.
Being able, in this way, to afeertain the length AM
of the curve (counted from the vertex), com.'(ponding
to any inclination p of the tangent at its extremity M,
we can afeertain the length of any portion of it, fuck
as Mw, by firft finding the length of the part Am, and
then of the part AM. This we do more expeditioufly
thus: Let p exprefs the pofition of the tangent in M, and
y its pofition at m; then AM— aX log. —-and Aw
fori
e 2,
sr —for the defending branch of the curve, the if n_^ J>
tadius of curvature at M is Ax—_— and,
fl-bP
. , . a « a , « — a a AXIAP^a/ lAP**
in the amending branch at N, it is £   
tt*
On both fides therefore, when the velocity is infinitely
great, and P by this means fuppofed tv> equal or exceed
n, the radius of curvature is alio infinitely great. We al¬
fo fee that the two branches are unlike each other, ami
that when p is the fame in both, that is, whenjthe tangent
is equally inclined to the horizon, the radius of cur*
vature, the ordinate, the ablcifs, and the arch, are all
greater in the afeending branch. This is pretty ob¬
vious. For as the refiitance adds entirely in diminifiiing
the velocity, and does not affeft the deflection occafioned
by gravity, it muft allow gravity to incurvate the path
fo much the more (with the fame inclination of its line
of action) as the velocity rs more diminifhed. The
curvature, therefore, in thofe points which have the
fame inclination of the tangent, is greateft in the de-
feending branch, and the motion is fwifteft in'the
afeending branch. It is otherwise i» a void, where both
«+Q
= aXlog. -f*-.
and therefore Mm is = 0 X log.
Thu's we can find the values of a great num-
» + p* . . r .
her of fmall portions, and tire mchnation of the tan¬
gents at their extremities. Then to each of thefe por¬
tions we can afiign its proportion of the abcifla and
ordinate, without having recourfe to the values of x andy.
For the portion of abfeifs correfponding to the arch M«>
whole
P R O J E C
middle "point is inclined to the hori/.op in the
anirhi will be Mm X cofme b, and the conefpondmg
poitidJW the ordinate will be Mw X fin. b. I hen wc
obtain the velocity in each part of the curve by the
i +/>* » or, more directly the velocity
__
1 Lailly, divide the
equation
tiles.
The velocity in the defeending branch an-rmenta cor*,
tinually ; but it cannot exceed a certain limit, if the ve.
locity at the vertex has been kfs than the terminal velo¬
city ; for when the curve is infinite, p is alfo infinite, and
A~y becaufe « in this cafe is nothing in refpeft of
i6S
at M will Ue =
length of the little arch by this, and the quotient will be
the time of deferring Mm very nearly. M& all thefe
together, and wc obtain the whole time of defcnbmg
the arch AM, but' a little too great, becaufe *be na¬
tion in the fmall arch is not pcrfe&ly uniform^ I he
trror, however, may be as fmall as we pleaie, becauie
we may make tlie arch as fmall as we pleafe ; and for
greater accuracy, it will be proper to take the p y
which we compute the velocity, a medium between
the p for the beginning and that ior the end ot the
Eutc^s irse- This is the method followed by Euler, who was one
thtd j re* of the moll expert analylls, if not the very hrft, in
ferred. Europe. Jt i8 not the moll elegant, and ihe methods of
feme other authors, who approximate direttly to the areas
of the curves which determine the values of x and jy, have
a more fcientific appearance ; but they are not ultimate¬
ly very different: For, in fome methods, thefe areas are
taken piecemeal, as Euler takes the arch; and b\ the me¬
thods of others, who give the value of the areas by New¬
ton’s method of deferibing a curve of the paiabolick id
through any number of given points, the ordinates of
thefe curves, which exprefs x and y, mufl be. taken
fmgly, which amounts to the fame thing, with the
great difadvantage ot a much more complicated calcu¬
lus, as any one may fee by comparing the exprehioiig
of x and y wuth the exprefiion of As to thofe me¬
thods which approximate directly to the areas or va¬
lues of x and y by an infinite feries, they all, without
exception, involve us in moll complicated expreflions,
with coefficients of lines and tangents, and ambiguous
figns, and engage us in a calculation almoft. endlefs.
Aud we know of no feries wlncl^ conveiges fall enough
to give us tolerable accuracy, without fuch a number of
terms as is fufficient to deter any perfon from the at¬
tempt. The calculation of the arches is very mode¬
rate, fo that a perfon tolerably verlant in arithmetical
operations may compute an arch with its velocity and
time in about five minutes. We have therefore no he-
fitation in preferring this method ol Euler s to all that
we have f eu, and therefore proceed to determine fome
other circutnItance* which render its application moie
general. „
If there were no refinance, the fmallell velocity w'ould
be at the vertex of the curve, and it would immediately
increafe by the action of gravity confpiring (in however
fmall degree) with the motion of the body.. But in a
refilling medium, the velocity at the vertex is diminilh-
ed by a quantity to which the acceleration ot gravity
in that point bears no affignable proportion. It is there¬
fore diminiffied, upon the whole, and the point of fmal¬
lell velocity is a little way beyond the vertex. I or the
fame reafons, the greatell curvature is a little way beyond
the vertex. It is not very material for our pretent pur-
pofe to afeertaia the exadl pofitions of thofe points.
P, which is infinite ; and becaufe ^ is infinite, the nunt-
her hyp. log. p + \/i+p\ though infinite, vamlhes in
comparifon withpX.^/i-tp' i fo that in this cafe
t/> *, and bzzay and v zz the terminal velocity.
If, on the other hand, the velocity at the vertex has
been greater than the terminal velocity, it will diminiih
continually, and when the curve has become infinite, v
will be equal to the terminal velocity. . ,u
lu either cafe we fee that the curve on this fidc wiU
have a perpendicular aflymptote. It would require a
long aud pretty intricate analyfis to determine the place
of this all'ymptote, and it is not material for our prefent
puipofe. The place and pofition of the other affymp-
tote LO is of the greateft moment. It evidently di-
llinguifhes the kind of traje&ary from any other. Iti
pofition depends on this circiimilance, that if p maiks
the pofition of the tangent, n—P, which is the deno¬
minator of the fra£lion ^expreffing the fquare of the ve¬
locity, mud be equal to nothing, becauie the velocity
is infinite: therefore, in this place, l1 ~ » or n ~
HhTM* t lug. p-j- v'i+ 7*- fn order» therefore,
to find the point E, where the affymptote LO cuts the
horizontal line AL, put P=«, then will AL zzx
It is evident that the logarithms ufed in thefe expref-ticle i*
fions are the natural or hyperbolic. But the operations mea^ -
may be performed by the common tables by making enU *
a
the value of the arch Mm of the curve = ^ X *0S*
&c. where M means the fubtangent of the com¬
mon logarithms, or 0,43429 5 the time of deferi-
binz thus arch will be expeditioufly had by taking a me-
, f ^ 1+r1 __ j
dium a4 between the values of and ^
v/T
and making the time —,
*S,.
Its apphea
Sion made
»iore gent
?*1'
Through
the whole
of this ar»
_ n
x 'J°* « + p * g4
Such then is theprocefs by which the form and mag-Mode of
nitude of the trajectory, and the motion in it, may be applying
determined. But it does not yet appear how this is to
be applied to any queftion in praftical artillery. In thutjce
procefs we have only learned how to compute the mo¬
tion from the vertex in the defeending branch till the
ball has acquired a particular direClion, and the motion to
the vertex from a point of the afeending branch where the
ball has another direction, and all this depending on the
greatell velocity which the body can acquire by falling,
and the velocity which it has in the vertex of the curve.
But the ufual qudlion is,“ What will be the motion of
the ball proje&ed in a certain dire&ion with a certain
velocity r” . - .
The piode of application is this: Suppofc a trajecto¬
ry computed for a particular terminal velocity, produced
by the fall a, and for a particular velocity at the vertex,
, which
*
PROJE CTIL
which will he charafterized by n, and that the velocity &c. Make y zz v
at that point of the afcending branch where the incli¬
nation of the tangent is 30° is 900 feet per fecond.
^hen, we are certain that if a ball,
mg
whofe terminal ve¬
locity is that produced by the fall a, be projected with
the velocity of 900 feet per fecond, and an elevation of
qo°, it will defcribe this very trajectory, and the velocity
and time correfponding to every point will be fuch as
is here determined.
Now this trajeftory will, in refpeft to form, anfwer
an infinity of cafes : for its charadteriftic is the propor¬
tion of the velocity in the vertex to the terminal velo¬
city. When this proportion is the fame, the -number
11 will be the fame. If therefore we compute the tra¬
jectories for a fufficient vanety of thefe proportions, we
ihall find a traje&ory that will nearly eorreipond to any
cafe that can be propofed; and an approximation fuffi-
ciently exaft will- be had by taking a proportional me¬
dium between the two trajectories which come nearelt
to the cafe propofed.
Accordingly, a fet of tables or trajectories have been
computed by the Englhh tranfiator of Euler’s Com-
£raje<ftories. m^ntary. on Robins’s Gunnery. They are in number
18, diitinguifhed by the pofition of the aflymptote of
the afcending branch. This is given for 50, io°, 15°,
Ac. to 85°, and the whole trajetCtory is computed as far
as it can ever be fuppofed to extend in praCtice. The
following table gives the value of the number « cor-
aefponding to each pofition of the aflymptote.
~ l
we obtain Sin.2 e
2 b
E S.
and take the maximum by vary-
zs hyperbol.
log.
2 h
87
Computed
-table? or
OLE
o
5
10
J5
20
25
30
35
40
OLB
0,00000
0,08760
0,17724
0,27712
o>37i85
0,48269
0,60799
0,75382
0,92914
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
1»I4779
1,43236
1,82207
2,39033
3,39040
4,88425
8,22357
17,54793
67,12291
Since the path of a projeCtilc is muchlefs incurvated,
and more rapid in the afcending than in the defeend-
ing branch, and the difference is fo much the more re¬
markable in great velocities; it muft follow, that the
range on a horizontal or inclined plane depends moft
on the afcending branch : therefore the greateft range
will not be made with that elevation which bifeCts the
angle of pofition, but with a lower elevation ; and the
deviation from the bifeCting elevation will be greater as
the initial velocities are greater. It is very difficult to
frame an exaft rule for determining the elevation which
gives the greateft range. We have fubjoined a little
table which gives the ptoper elevations (nearly) corre¬
fponding to the different initial velocities.
It was computed by the following approximation,
■which will be found the fame with the feries ufed by
Newton in his Approximations.
Let e be the angle of elevation, a the height
producing the terminal velocity, h the height produ-
,eing the initial velocity, and c the number whofe hy¬
perbolic logarithm is l (i. e. the number 2,718).
Then,
y = X X ^tan*
a * a s   *— \
pine"'g\ which gives us the angle e.
The numbers in the firft column, multiplied bv the
terminal velocity of the projectile, give us the initial
velocity ; and the numbers in the laft column, being
multiplied by the height producing the terminal velo¬
city, and by 2,3026, give us the greateft ranges. The
middle column contains the elevation. The table is
mat computed with fcrupulous exaftnefs, the queftion
not requiring it. It may however be depended on with¬
in one part of 2000.
To make ufe of this table, divide the initial velocitf
byr the terminal velocity u, and look for the quotient
in the firft column. Oppoftte to this will be found the
elevation giving the grcatxft range ; and the number in
the laft column being multiplied by 2,3026 Y. a (the
height producing the -terminal velocity) will give the
range—
"Tabin cf Elevations giving the greatejl Range.
Initial vel.
u
Elevation
0,6909 I 43°.40’
0,7820 43 .20
Han^e.
2,7,0260*
0,8645
L38I7
1,5641
i,729I
2,0726
2,3461
2,5936
2,7635
3,1281
3 >4544
3>458i
3»9101
4>I452
4>3227
4,6921
4*8361
42.50
41 .40
40.20
40.10
39-5°
37.20
35-50
35-—
34-40
34.20
34.20
33 -50
33
33
31
31
•3o
•30
.50
.50
0,1751
0,2169
0,2548
0,4999
0,5789
0,6551
0,7877
0,8967
0,9752
1,0319
1,1411
1,2298
1,2277
I»337I
1,3901
1,4274
1,5050
r»534I
Such is the fblution which the prefent ftate of our Advantage
mathematical knowledge enables us to give of this cele- to be de-
brated problem. It is exadt in its principle, and the riv«i from
application of it is by no means difficult, or even °pe-^et^lutl0Ii
rofe. But let us fee what advantage we are likely tOprobiem,
derive from it.
In the lirft place, it is very limited in its application.
There are few circumftances of general coincidence,
and almoft every cafe requires an appropriated calcu¬
lus. Perhaps the only general rules are the two fol¬
lowing :
x. Balls of equal denfity, projected with the fame
elevation, and with velocities which are as the fquare-
roots of their diameters, will deferibe ftmilar curves.—-
This is evident, becaufe, in this cafe, the refxltance will
be in the ratio of their quantities of motion. Therefore
all
567
P R O J E C
all t!ie homologous lines of the motion will be in the
proportion of the diameters.
2. If the initial velocities of balls proje&ed with the
fame elevation are in the inverfe fubduplicate ratio of
the whole refiftances, the ranges, and all the homo¬
logous lines of their track, will be inverfely as thofe re-
filtances.
Thefe theorems are of confiderable ufe : for by means
of a proper feries of experiments on one ball proje&ed
with different elevations and velocities, tables may be
conftru&ed which will afcertain the motions of an infi-
89 nity of others.
Shown But when we take a retrofpe&ive view of what we
from va- ^ave done> and confider the conditions which were af-
ftd-n'i-v's fumed i'1 the folution of the problem, we (hall find that
to be very much yet remains before it can be rendered of great
little. practical ufe, or even fatisfy the curiofity of the man of
fcicnce. The refinance is all along fuppofed to be in
the duplicate ratio of the velocity ; but even theory
points out many caufes of deviation from this law, fuch
as the preffure and condenfation of the air, in the cafe
of very fwift motions ; and Mr Robins’s experiments are
fufficient to fhow us that the deviations mull be ex¬
ceedingly great in fucb cafes. Mr Ruler and all lub-
fequent writers have allowed that it may be three times
greater, even in cafes which frequently occur ; and Eu¬
ler gives a rule for afcertaining with tolerable accuracy
what this increafe and the whole refiltance may amount
to. Let H be the height of a column of air whofe
weight is equivalent to the refiftance taken in the du¬
plicate ratio of the velocity. The whole refillance will
H *
be expreffed by H + ThIs numberaSBqjis the
height in feet of a column of air whofe weight balances
its elafticity. We (hall not at prefent call in queftion
his reafons for affigning this precife addition. They
are rather reafons of arithmetical conveniency than of
phyfical import. It is enough to obferve, that if this
meafure of the refiftance is introduced into the procefs
of inveftigation, it is totally changed ; and it is not too
much to fay, that with this complication it requires the
knowledge and addrefs of a Euler to make even a par¬
tial and very limited approximation to a folution.—
Any law of the refiftance, therefore, which is more
complicated than what Bernoulli has aflumed, namely,
that of a fimple power of the velocity, is abandoned by
all the mathematicians, as exceeding their abilities ; and
they have attempted to avoid the error arifing from the
affumption of the duplicate ratio of the velocity, either
by fuppofing the refiftance throughout the whole tra-
je&ory to be greater than what it is in general, or
they have divided the trajedfory into different por¬
tions, and affigned different refiftances to each, which
vary, through the whole of that portion, in the dupli¬
cate ratio of the velocities. By this kind of patch-
work they make up a trajectory and motion which cor-
refponds, in fome tolerable degree, with what ? With an
accurate theory ? No ; but with a feries of experiments.
Tor, in the firft place, every theoretical computation
that we make, proceeds on a fuppofed initial velocity ;
and this cannot be afeertained with anything approach¬
ing to precifion, by any theory of the attion of gun¬
powder that we are yet pofleffed of. In the next place,
our theories of the refilling power of the air are en-
TILES.
tirely eftablifhed on the experiments on the flights of
ftiot and fhells, and are corredted and amended till they
tally with the moft approved experiments we can find.
We do not learn the ranges of a gun by theory, but the
theory by the range of the gun. Now the variety and
irregularity of all the experiments which are appealed
to are fo great, and the acknowledged difference between
the refiftance to flow and fwift motions is alfo fo greatr
that there is hardly any fuppofition which can be made
concerning the refiftance, that will not agree in its re-
fults with many of thofe experiments. It appears from
the experiments of I)r Hutton of Woolwich, in I7^4»
1785, and 1786, that the fliots frequently deviated to
the right or left of their intended track 200, 3 .0, and
fometimes 4.00 yards. This deviation was quite acci¬
dental and anomalous, and there can be no doubt but
that the Ihot deviated from its intended and
elevation as much as it deviated from the intended ver¬
tical plane, and this without any opportunity of mea-
furing or difeovering the deviation. Now, when we
have the whole range from one to three to choofe among
for our meafure of refiftance, it is evident that the con¬
firmations which have been drawn from the ranges of
{hot are but feeble arguments for the truth of any opi¬
nion. Mr Robins finds his meafures fully confirmed
by the experiments at Metz and at Minorca. Mr
Muller finds the fame. Yet Mr Robins’s meafure both
of the initial velocity and of the refiftance are at kaft
treble of Mr Muller’s ; but by compenfation they give
the fame refults. The Chevalier Borda, a very expert
mathematician, has adduced the very fame experiments
in fupport of his theory, in which he abides by the
Newtonian meafure of the refiftance, which is about -f
of Mr Robins’s, and about \ of Muller’s. vv.
What are we to conclude from all this ? Simply this, Caufes of
that we have hardly any knowledge of the air’s refill- its inuti-
ancej and that even the folution given of this problem has !lty*
not as yet greatly increafed it. Our knowledge confifts
only in thofe experiments, and mathematicians are at¬
tempting to patch up fome notion of the motion of a
body in a refilling medium, which fhall tally with
them.
There is another effential defedft in the conditions af-
fumed in the folution. The denfity of the air is fup¬
pofed uniform; whereas we are certain that it is lefs
by one fifth or one fixth towards the vertex of the
curve, in many cafes which frequently occur, than it is
at the beginning and end of the flight. This is ano¬
ther latitude given to authors in their affumptions of
the air’s refiftance. The Chevalier de Borda has, with
confiderable ingenuity, accommodated his inveftigation
to this circumftance, by dividing the trajedlory into
portions, and, without much trouble, has made one
equation anfwer them all. We are difpofed to think
that his folution of the problem (in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Paris for 1769) correfponds better with
the phyfical circumftances of the cafe than any other.
But his procefs is there delivered in too concife a man¬
ner to be intelligible to a perfon not perfectly familiar
with all the refources of modern analyfis.. We there¬
fore preferred John Bernoulli’s, becaufe it is elementary
and rigorous.
After all, the praftical artillerift muft rely chiefly on
the records of experiments contained in the books of
practice
S6S
P R 0 J E C
91 waftice at tilt acaatmles, or tl'.ofc wade m a more pub-
KeedTtty e’f)ic manner. Even a perfeft theory of the air s reliit-
attending ance can do h;m Httk fervice, xmlefs the force of gun-
ttiau«.eri* powder were uniform. This is far from being the cafe
even in the fame powder. A few hours of a damp day
will make a greater difference than occurs in any theo¬
ry • and, in 'fervice, it is only by trial that every thing
is performed. If the firfl {hell falls very much ihott of
the mark, a little more powder is added ; and, in can¬
nonading, the cotreAioa- is made by varying the eleva¬
tion.
We hope to he forgiven by the eminent mathemati¬
cians for thefe obfervations on their theories. _ They by
no means proceed from any difrefpeft for their labours.
We are not ignorant of the almofl infuperable difficul¬
ty of the taflc, and we admire the ingenuity with which
feme of them have contrived to introduce into their ana-
lyfis reafonable fubflitutions for thofe terms which wwuld
render the equations intractable. But we mufl. ftill
fay, upon their own authority, that thefe are but inge-
njpus gueffes, and that experiment is the touchftone by
which they mould thefe fuhllitutions; and when they
have found a coincidence, they have no motive to make
*nv alteration. Now, when we have fuch a latitude tor
•our meafure of the air’s refinance, that we may take it
of any vah*e, from one to three, it is no wonder that
c'ompenfations of errors fhould produce a coincidence ;
hut where is the coincidence ? The theorift/w/^o/j the
ball to fet cut with a certain velocity, and his theory
gives a certain range ; and this range agrees with obfer-
vation but how ? Who knows the velocity of the ball
in the experiment ? This is concluded from a theory' in¬
comparably more uncertain than that of the motion in
a refilling medium.
The experiments of Mr Robins and Dr Hutton fhow,
in the mod incontrovertible manner, that the rdiftance
to a motion exceeding 1100 feet in a fecond, is almoll
three times greater than in the duplicate ratio to the re-
fifiance to moderate velocities. Euler’s tranflator, in
his comparifon of the author’s trajeclories with experi¬
ment, fuppofes it to be no greater. Yet the coincidence
is very great. The fame may be faid of the Chevalier
de Borda’s. Nay, the fame may be faid of Mr Ro¬
bins’s own praflical rules: for he makes his F, which
correfponds to our a, almoll double of what thefe au¬
thors do, and yet his rules are confirmed by pra&ice.
Our obfervations are therelore well founded.
9^ But it mud not be inferred from all this, that the
b lUll of fy phyiical theory is ef no ufe to the practical artillerid.
fome Ufe in It plainly {hows him the impropriety of giving the pro-
pra&ice, jeftile an enormous velocity. This velocity is of no ef-
feft after 200 or 300 yards at farthed, becaufe it is fo
rapidly reduced by the prodigious refldance of the air.
Mr Robins has deduced feveral praflical maxims of the
greatefl importance from what we already know of this
fubjefl, and which could hardly have been even conjec¬
tured without this knowledge. See Gunnery.
And may Ami it mud dill be acknowledged, that this branch
he brought of phyfical fcience is highly intereding to the philofo-
to greater pher ; nor fhould we defpair of carrying it to greater
perfection, perfdftion. The defeats arife almod entirely from our
ignorance of the law of variation of the air’s reiiflance.
^Experiments may be contrived much more conducive
io our information here than thofe commonly reforted
TILES,
to. The oblique flights of projeftilei are, at weTave
feen, of very complicated inveiligation, and ill fitted for
inftrufting us ; but numerous and well contrived expe¬
riments on the perpendicular afeents are of great iim»
plicity, being affe&ed by nothing but the air’s refifb.
ance. To make them inftru&ivc, we think that tlio
following plan might be purfued. Let a fet of expe¬
riments be premifed' for afcertaining the initial veloci¬
ties. Then let fliells be difeharged perpendicularly
with great varieties of den.fity and velocity, and let no¬
thing be attended to but the height and the time ; even
a confiderable deviation from the perpendicular will not
afFe£t either of thefe civcumdances, and the effedl of
this circumdanee can eaiily be compvxted. The height
can be afeertained with fufficient precilion for very va¬
luable information by their light or fmoke. It is evi¬
dent that thefe experiments will give Jirefi informa¬
tion of the air’s retarding force ; and every experiment
gives us two meafures, viz. the afeent and defeent: and
the comparifon of the times of afeent and defeent, com-,
billed with the obferved height in one experiment made
with a great initial velocity, will give us more informa¬
tion concerning the air’s refidance than 50 ranges. If
we fhould fuppofe the refidance as the fquare of the ve¬
locity, this comparifon will give in each experiment aa
exa£l determination of the initial and final velocities,
which no other method can give us. Thefe, with ex¬
periments on the time ol horizontal flights, with known
initial velocities, will give us more inftru&ion this
head than any thing that has yet been done; and till
fomething of this kind is carefully done, we preiume
to fay that the motion of bodies in a refiiting medium
will remain in the hands of the mathematicians as a mat¬
ter of curious {peculation. In the mean time, the
rules which Mr Robins has delivered in his Gunnery
are very Itmple and eafy in their ufe, and feem to come
as near the truth as any we have met with. He lias
not informed us upon what principles they are founded,
and we are difpofed to think that they are rather em¬
pirical than fcientiftc. But we profefs great deference
for his abilities and penetration, and doubt not but that
he had framed them by. means of as fcientific a difeuf-
fion as his knowledge of this new and difficult fubjeft
enabled him to give it.
We {hall conclude this article, by giving two or three ^
tables, computed from the principles eftablifhed above, cu|atc<j ^
and which ferve to bring into one point of view the the prece-
chief circumflances of the motion in a refilling medium.
Although the refult of much calculation, as any perfon ch, es-
who confiders the fubje& will readily fee, they nydl not
be confidered,as offering anyveryaccurate refufts; orthat,
in eomparifon with one or two experiments, the differen¬
ces (hall not be confiderable. Let any perfon perufe the
pubiifhed regiflers of experiments which have been made
with every attention,and hcwill fee fuch enormous irregu¬
larities, that all expectations of perfeCt agreement with
them muR ceafe. InthcexperimentsatWoolwichin 1.735, .
which were continued for feveral days, not only do trie
experiment s of one day differ among themfelvear, but the
mean of all the experiments of one day differs from the
mean of all the experiments of another no lefs than one
fourth of the whole. The experiments in which the
greatell regularity may be expelled, are thofe made
with great elovatioas. When the elevation is fmall, the
wngs
. „ 95
'JCe of the
;ilf table.
P R Cf J E
range is more aflFe&ed by a change of velocity, and tfill
more by any deviation from the fuppofed or intended di¬
rection of the fhot.
The firft table Ihows the ditlan.ce in yards to which
a ball projected with the velocity 1600 will go, while
its velocity is reduced one tenth, and the diftance at
which it drops 16 feet from the line of its direction.
This table is calculated by the refiltance obferved in Mr
Robins’s experiments. The firft column is the weight
of the ball in pounds. The fecond column remains the
fame whatever be the initial velocity ; but the third co¬
lumn depends on the velocity. It is here given for the
velocity which is very ufual in military fervice, and its
ufe is to aflift us in directing the gun to the mark.—
If the mark at which a ball of 24 pounds is direCted is
474 yards diftant, the axis of the piece muft be pointed
16 feet higher than the mark. Thefe defleCtions from
the line of direction are nearly as the fquares of the
diftances.
I.
II.
2
4
9
18
32
92
J2I
200
272
III.
420
428
456
470
479
The next table contains the ranges in yards of a 24
pound ftiot, projected at an elevation of 45o, with the
different velocities in feet per fecond, expreffed in the
firft column. The fecond column contains the diftances
to which the ball would go in vacuo in a horizontal
plane; and the third contains the diftances to which it
will go through the air. The fourth column is added,
to (how the height to which it rifes in the air ; and the
fifth flrows the ranges correfted for the diminution of the
air’s denfity as the bullet afcends, and may therefore be
called the correSed range.
I.
2CO
400
6co
800
1000
I 2CO
1400
j6co
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
II.
416
1664
.3740
6649
10390
14961
20364
26597
33663
41559
50286
59846
III.
IV. V.
349
1121
1812
2373
2845
3259
3640
395°
4235
4494
4720
4917
Sic6
5293
5455
ic6
338
606
866
1138
1378
1606
1814
1992
2168
2348
2460
2630
2762
2862
360
1150
*859
2435
29f9
3343
3734
4050
4345
4610
4842
5044
5238
543°
5596
5732
The initial velocities can never be pufhed as far as
v. e have calculated for in this table ; but we mean it
for a table of more extenfive ufe than appears at firft
light. Recoiled:, that while the proportion of the ve-
Vol. XV. Part II.
C T I L E S. 563
locity at the vertex to the terminal velocity remains the
fame, the curves will be fimilar : therefore, if the initial
velocities are as the fquare-roots of the diameters of the
balls, they will defenbe fimilar curves, and the ranges
will be as the diameters of the balls.
Therefore, to have the range of a 1 2 pound fiiot, if
projeded at an elevation of 45, with the velocity 1500;
fuppofe the diameter of the 12 pounder to be d, and
that of the 24 pounder D ; and let the velocities be <v
and V : Then fay, y' zd \/ D = 1500, to a fourth
proportional V. If the 24 pounder be projeded .with
the velocity V, it will deferibe a curve fimilar to that
deferibed by the 12 pounder, having the initial velocity
1500. Therefore find (by interpolation) the range of
the 24 pounder, having the initial velocity V. CaH this
R. Then D : R : r, the range of the 12 pounder
W'hich was wanted, and which is nearly 3380 yards.
We fee by this table the immenfe difference between
the motions through the air and in a void. We fee
that the ranges through the air, inftead of iucreafing in
the duplicate ratio of the initial velocities, really in-
creafe flower than thofe velocities in all cafes of mili¬
tary fervice ; and in the molt ufual cafes, viz. from 800
to 1600, they increafe nearly as the fquare-roots of the
velocities.
A fet of fimilar tables, made for different elevations,
would almoft complete what can be done by theoiy,
and would be much more expeditious in their ufe than
Mr Euler’s Trajedories, computed with great labour
by his Englifh tranflator.
The fame table may alfo ferve for computing the
ranges of bomb-fhells. We have only to find wrhat muft
be the initial velocity of the 24 pound fliot which cor-
refponds to the propofed velocity of the ihell. This
muft be deduced from the diameter and weight of the
Ihell, by making the velocity of the 24 pounder fuch,
that the ratio of its weight to the refiftance may be the
fame as in the Ihell.
That the reader may fee with one glance the rela¬
tion of thofe different quantities, we have given this
table, expreffed in a figure (fig. 10). The abfcilfa, pTate
or axis DA, is the fcale of the initial velocities in feet C' c^)vm'
per fecond, meafured on a fcale of 400 equal parts in Relation of
an inch. The ordinates to the curve ACG exprefs theth? diffe-
yards of the range on a fcale containing 800 yards inre?t (luan'
an inch. The ordinates to the curve A * y exprefslC’
(by the fame fcale) the height to which the ball rifes
in the air.
The ordinate BC (drawm through the point of the
abfeiffa which correfponds to the initial velocity 2000)
is divided in the points 4, 9, 12, 18, 24, 32, 42, in
the ratio of the diameters of cannon-fliot of different
weights ; and the fame ordinate is produced on the
other fide of the axis, till BO be equal to BA; and
then BO is divided in the fubduplicate ratio of the
fame diameters. Lines are drawn from the point A,
and from any point D of the abfeiffa, to thefe divifions.
We fee diftin&ly by this figure how the effedl of the
initial velocity gradually diminifhes, and that in very
great velocities the range is very little increafed by its
augmentation. The dotted curve APQR, fhows what
the ranges in vacuo would be.
By this figure may the problems be folved. Thus,
to find the range of the 12 poander, with the initial
4 C velocity
1
57°
P R O J E
velocity ijotf. Set off 1500 from B to F; draw FH
Tjarallel to the axis, meeting the line 12A in 11; craw
the ordinate HK ; draw KL parallel to the ax»s, meet¬
ing 24 B in L ; draw the ordinate LM, cutting 12 B
in N. MN is the range required.
C T I L E s.
If curves, ftich as ACG, were laid down in the fame
manner for other elevations, all the problems might DC
folved with great difpatch, and with much more accu¬
racy than the theory by which the curves are drawn
can pretend to.
PROJECTION of the Sphere.
Stereogra¬
ph! c Pro-
jcClion of
she Sphere,
THE projection of the sphere is a perfpeaive
reprefentation of the circles on the furface ot the
fphere ; and is varioufly denominated according to the
' different pofitions of the eye and plane of projedtion.
There are three principal kinds of projection ; the
fiereographicy the orthographic, and gnomonic. In the
ftereographic projeftion the eye is fuppofed to be pla¬
ced on the furface of the fphere ; in the orthographic
it is fuppofed to be at an infinite diftance ; and in the
gnomonic projeftion the eye is placed at the centre of
the fphere. Other kinds of proje&ion are, the globular,
Mercator's, fcenographic, &c. for which fee the ai ticks
Geography, Navigation, Perspective, &c.
Definitions.
j. The plane upon which the circles of the fphere
are deferibed, is called the plane of projetllon, or the pn-
’ mi five circle. Ttie pole of this circle is the pole of pro-
jeSion, and the place of the eye is the projedhg point.
2. The fine of meafures of any circle of the fphere
that diameter of the primitive, produced indefinitely,
which pafles through the centre of the projected circle.
Axiom.
The projeftion, or reprefentation of any point, is
where the ftraight line drawn from it to the pro-
jedling point interfere the plane of proje&ion.
SECTION I.
Of the Stereographic ProjefHon of the Sphere.
In the ilereographic prqje£tion of the fphere, the
eye is placed on the furface of the fphere in the pole of
the great circle upon which the fphere is to be project¬
ed. The projection of the hemiipheve oppofite to the
eye falls within the primitive, to which this projection
is generally limited : it, however, may be extended to
the other hemifphere, or that wherein the eye is placed,
the projection of which falls without the primitive.
As all circles in this projection are projected either
into circles or ftraight lines, which are eafily detenbed,
it is therefore more generally underftood, and by many
preferred to the other projections.
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every great circle which palfes through the projecting
point is projected into a ftraight line puffing through
the centre of the primitive ; and every arch of it,
reckoned from the other pole qf the primitive, is pro¬
jected into its femitangeiiU
Let ABCD (fig. 1.) be a great circle pailing thro Stereopul
A, C, the poles of the primitive, and interfeCting it in
the line of common feCtion BED, E being the centre the sphere,
of the fphere. from A, the projecting point, let tneiC    w
be drawn ftraight lines AP, AM, AN, AQ, to any Plate j
number of points P, M, N, Q» in the circle ABCD : ccccjuXJ
thefe lines will inttrfeCt BED, which is in the fame
plane with them. Let them meet it in the points
p, m, n, q; then p, m, «, q, are the projections of P,
M, N, Qj hence the whole circle ABCD is projected
into the ftraight line BED, palling through the centre
of the primitive.
Again, becaufe the pole C is projected into E, and
the point M into m; therefore the arch CM is project¬
ed into the ftraight line E m, which is the femitangent
ot the arch CM to the radius AL. In like manner,
the arch CP is projected into its femitangent E/, &c*
^ Corollaries.
1. Each of the quadrants contiguous to the projeCt-*
Jng point is projected into an indefinite ftraight line,
and each of thofe that are remote into a radius of the
primitive.
2. Every fmall circle which pafles through the pro¬
jecting point is projected into that ftraight line which
is its common feCtion with the primitive.
3. Every ftraight line in the piano of the primitive,
and produced indefinitely, is the projection ot fome
circle on the fphere palung through the projecting
point.
4. The projection of any point in the furface of the
fphere, is diftant from the centre of the primitive, by
the femitangent of the diftance ot that p'Oint tiom the
pole oppofite to the projecting point.
Proposition II. Theorem II,
Every circle on the fphere which does not pafs through
the projeCtmg point 13 projected into a circk.
If the given circle be parallel to the primitive, then
a ftraight line drawn from the projecting point to any
point in the circumference, and made to revolve about
the circle, will deferibe the furface of a cone ; which
being cut by the plane of projection parallel to the bafer
the feCtion will be a circle. See CoNic-Sefiions.
But if the circle MN (fig. 2.) be not parallel to the
primitive circle BD, let the great circle ABCD, pi¬
ling through the projecting point, cut it at light angles
in the diameter MN, and the primitive in the diameter
BD. Through M, in the plane of the great circle, let
MF be drawn parallel to 13D; let AM, AN be joint ,
and
Rea. I. PROJECTION
Stareogr*- and meet BD m w. «• Then, bccaufc AB, AD are
Vh!c Pro- quadrants, and BD, MF pantUel, the arck A -
je<5Iio« of 1 AF and the angle AMF or Kmn is equal to ANM.
tiie Sphere. e ^ conIc furface defcribed by the revolution of
"’*~v a about the circle MN is cut by the primitive in a
fubcontrary petition ; therefore the fediou is m tins
cafe likewife a circle.
Corollaries.
1. The centres and poles of all circles parallel to the
primitive have their projeftions in its centre. _
2. The centre and poles of every circle inclined to
the primitive have their projedions in the line of mea-
fures* . , , •
2. All projeaed great circles cut the primitive m
two points diametrically oppofite ; and every circle m
the plane of projeaion, which paffes through the extre¬
mities of a diameter of the primitive, or through the
proieftions of two points that are diametrically oppo-
iite on the fphere, is the projeaion of fome great
4 A tangent to any circle of the fphere, winch does
notpafs through the projeaing point, is projeaed into
a tangent to that circle’s projeaion ; alfo, the circular
projeaions of tangent circles touch one another.
e. The extremities of the diameter, on the line ot
meafures of any projeaed circle, are diftant from the
centre of the primitive by the iemitangents of the lead
and greatell diftances of the circle on the fphere, Irom
the pole oppofite to the projedting point.
6. The extremities of the diameter, on the line ot
meafures of any projeaed great circle, are diitant trom
the centre of the primitive by the tangent and cotan¬
gent of half the great circle’s inclination to the pnmi-
7. The radius of any projeaed circle is equal to half
the fum, or half the difference of the femitangents ot
ihe leaft and greateft diftances of the circle from the
pole oppofite to the projeaing point, according as that
pole is within or without the given circle.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
An an^le formed by two tangents at the fame point
in the furface of the fphere, is equal to the angle
formed by their projeaions.
Plate Let FGI and GH (fig. 3;) ^ the two tangent*,
ccccxix and A the projeaing point; let the pkne AGt c t
the fphere in the circle ACL, and the pnmit.ve m the
line BML. Alfo, let MN be the line of common lec¬
tion of the plane AGH with the primitive : then the
angle FGH -LMN. If the plane FGH be parallel
to the primitive BLD, the proportion is mamfeIt. It
not, through any point K in AG produce , ^'t t ie
plane FKH, parallel to the primitive, be extended to
meet FGH in the line FH. Then, becaufe the plane
AGF meets the two parallel planes BLD, FKH, the
lines of common feaion LM, FK are parallel; t ui e-
fore the angle AML ~AKF. But fmee A is the
pole of BLD, the chords, and confequently the arcries
AB aL, are equal, and the arch ABG is the fum ot
the arches AL, BG ; hence the angle AML is equal
to an angle at the circumference {landing upon AG,
nnd therefore equal to A Gt or FGK ; confequently
the angle FGIvLFKG, aruT the fide FG=FK. In
O'? T HE S ? H F. H E# 5'7t
like manner HG—HK: henc. ‘ke Ojm
KHr are equal, and the angle rGii—1 Kxl—un. je(^jon t.f
the Sphere*
Corollaries.
1. An angle contained by any two circles ot the
fphere is equal to the angle formed by their projec¬
tions. For the tangents to thefe circles on the ipliere
are proje&ed into ftraight lines, which either coincide
with, or are tangents to, their projeftions on the primi¬
tive. c ,
2. An angle contained by any two circ.es ot tne
fphere is equal to the angle formed by the radii of their
projeftions at the point of interfeftion.
Proposition IV. 1 heorem IV.
The centre of a projected great circle is di.lant f. o;n
the centre of the primitive; the tangent of the incli¬
nation of the great circle to the primitive, and its ra¬
dius, is the fecant of its inclination.
Let MNG (fig. 4.) be the projeftion of a great
circle, meeting the primitive in the extremities of the
diameter MN, and let the diameter BD, perpendicular
to MN, meet the projeftion in F, G. Bileft FG in
H, and join NH. Then, becaufe any angle con¬
tained by two circles of the Iphere is equal to the angle
formed by the radii of their projeftions at the point or
interfeftion ; therefore the angle contained by the pro-
pofed great circle and the primitive is equal to the.
angle ENH, of which EH is the tangent, and NH
the fecant, to the radius of the primitive.
Corollaries.
1. All circles which pafs through the points M, N
are the proieftions of great circles, and have their cen¬
tres in the line BG ; and all circles which pafs through
the points F, G are the projeftions of great circles,
and have their centres in the hue HI, perpendicular to
BG
2! If NF, NH be continued to meet the primitive
in L, F ; then BE is the meafure of the great circle s
inclination to the primitive ; and M 1 =;2BL.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
The centre of projeftion of a lets circle perpendicular
to the primitive, is diftant from the centre of _ the
primitive, the fecant of the diftance of the Ids dick
from its neareft pole ; and the radius ot projection is
the tangent of that diftance.
Let MN (fig. 5.) be the given iefs circle perpendi¬
cular to the primitive, and A the projeftmg pomt.
Draw AM, AN to meet the diameter BD produce*
in G and H ; then GH is the projefted diameter of
the lefs circle: bifeft GH in C, and C will be its
centre ; join NE, NC. Then becaule AE, M are
parallel, the angle INE=NEA , but NE^nNMA
^iNHG—NCG: hence ENC—INE-f INC—NCG
-f-lNC= aright angle; and therefore NC is a tan¬
gent to the primitive at N ; but the arch ND is the
diftance of the lefs circle from its neareft pore D ;
lienee NC is the tangent, and EC the fecant of the
diftance of the lefs circle from its pole to the Tadius
the primitive.
Pr»-
572
Stereosfra-
phic Pro-
jeftior of
^he Sphere.
PROJECTION
Proposition VI. Theorem VI.
The projedlion of the poles of any circle, inclined to
the primitive, are, in the line of meafures, diftant
from the centre of the primitive, the tangent, and
cotangent, of half its inclination.
Let MN (fig. 6.) be a great circle perpendicular to
the primitive ABCD, and A the projecting point; then
P, p are the poles of MN, and of all its parallels w ny
&c. Let AP, A p meet the diameter BD in Yfy
which will therefore be the projected poles of MN and
its parallels. The angle BEM is the inclination of the
circle MEN, and its parallels, to the primitive: and
becaufe BC and MP are quadrants, and MC common
to both ; therefore PC BM : and hence PEC is alfo
the inclination of MN and its parallels. Now EF is
the tangent of E AF, or of half the angle PEC the in¬
clination ; and E/is the tangent of the angle EA /';
but E A z1 is the complement of EAF, hence E/is the
cotangent of half the inclination.
Corollaries.
1. The projection of that pole which is neareft to
the projecting point is without the primitive, and the
projection of the other within.
2. The projected centre of any circle is always be¬
tween the projection of its nearelt pole and the centre
of the primitive; and the projected centres of all circles
are contained between their projected poles.
Proposition VII. Theorem VII.
Equal arches of any two great circles of the fphere
will be intercepted between two other circles drawn
on the fphere through the remote poles of thofe great
circles.
of the Sphere. Se&. I.
are proje&ed into ^,/: hence the arches FD, //are fi.Stereogra.
milar ; but OB is equal to FL, therefore the inter-^ro-
cepted arch of the primitive GB is fimilar to the pro-itfcV*
jeCted arch fd. P ;he Silhe,e;
Corollary.
# Hence, if from the angular point of a projected fphe-
rical angle two ftraight lines be drawn through the
projected poles of the containing fides, the intercepted v
arch of the primitive will be the meafure of the fpheri-
cal angle.
Proposition IX. Problem I.
To deferibe the projection of a great circle through
two given points in the plane of the primitive.
Let P and B be given points, and C the centre of
the primitive.
1. When one point P (fig. 8.) is the centre of the
primitive, a diameter drawn through the given points
will be the great circle required.
2. When one point P (fig. 9-) is in the circumfe¬
rence of the primitive. Through P draw the diameter
PD ; and an oblique circle deferibed through the three
points P, B, D, will be the projection of the required
great circle.
3. When the given points are neither in the centre
nor circumference of the primitive. Through either of
the given points P (fig. 10) draw the diameter ED,
and at right angles thereto draw the diameter FG.
From F through P draw the ftraight line FPH, meet¬
ing the circumference in H : draw the diameter HI,
and draw the ftraight line FIK, meeting ED produced
in D ; then an arch, tenninated by the circumference,
being deferibed through the three points P, B, K, will
be the great circle.
Let AGB, CFD (fig. 7.) be two great circles of the
fphere, whofe remote poles are E, P; through which
draw the great circle PBEC, and lefs circle PGE, in¬
terfering the great circles AGB, CFD, in the points
B, G, and D, F; then the arch BG is equal to the
arch DF.
Becaufe E is the pole of the circle AGB, and P the
pole of CFD, therefore the arches EB, PD are equal;
and fince BD is common to both, hence the arch ED
is equal to the arch PB. For the fame reafon, the
arches EF, PG are equal; but the angle DEF is
equal to the angle BPG : hence thefe triangles are
equal, and therefore the arch DF is equal to the arch
BG.
Proposition VIII. Theorem VIII.
If from either pole of a projected great circle, two ftraight
lines be drawn to meet the primitive and the pro-
jeftion, they will intercept fimilar arches of thefe
circles.
On the plane of projection AGB (fig. 7.) let the
great circle CFD be projected into cfj, and its pole P
into p ; through P draw the ftraight lines p d, p/, then
are the arches G B, f d fimilar.
. .Si.nce P? lies both in the plane AGB and APBE,
it is in their common feCtion, and the point B is alfo
m their common feCtion ; therefore / d paftes through
the point B In like manner it may be fhown that
the line pj pull'es through G. Now the points D, F
Proposition X. Problem II.
To deferibe the reprefentation of a great circle about
any given point as a pole.
Let P be the given pole, and C the centre of the
primitive.
1. When P (fig. 8.) is in the centre of the primitive^
then the primitive will be the great circle required.
2. When the pole P (fig. 11 ) is in the circumfe¬
rence of the primitive. 1 hrough P draw the diameter
PE, and the diameter AB- drawn at right angles to PE
will be the projected great circle required.
3 When the given pole is neither in the centre nor
circumference of the primitive. Through the pole P
(fig. 12.) draw the diameter AB, and draw the diame- Plate
ter DE perpendicular to AB ; through E and P draw
the ftraight line EPF, meeting the circumference in F.
Make FG equal to FD ; through E and G draw the
flraight line EGH, meeting the diameter AB produ¬
ced if neceffary in H ; then from the centre H, with
the radius HE, deferibe the oblique circle DIE, and it
will be the projection of the great circle required
Or, make DK equal to FA; join EK, which inter-
fefts the diameter AB in I; then through the three
points D, I, E, deferibe the oblique circle DIE.
Proposition XI Problem III.
To find the poles of a great circle.
1. When the given great circle is the primitive, its
centre is the pole.
v 2. To
Sea. I. PROJECTION
Stereogra- 2. To find the pole of the right circle ACB (fig. 11.)
rhic Pro- ]3raw the diameter PE perpendicular to the given circle
jeftion f a jt • and its extremities P, E are the poles of the circle
the Sphere.
^ Plate 3. To find the pole of the oblique circle DEF (fig.
ccccxix. j J0;n DF, and perpendicular thereto draw the
cJccxx diameter / B, cutting the given oblique circle DEF
in E. Draw the ftraight line FEG, meeting the cir¬
cumference in G. Make GI, GH, each equal to f D;
then FI being joined, cuts the diameter AB in P, the
lower pole ; through F and H draw the ftraight line
FPI />, meeting the diameter B produced in />, which
will be the oppofite or exterior pole.
Proposition XII. Problem TV.
To deferibe a lefs circle about any given point as a pole,
and at any given diilance from that pole.
1. When the pole of the lefs circle is in the centre
of the primitive y then from the centre of the primitive,
with the femitangent of the diftance of the given circle
from its pole, deferibe a circle, and it will be the pro-
jeftion of the lefs circle required.
2. If the given pole is in the circumference of the
primitive, from C (fig. 14.), the centre of the primitive,
fet off CE the fecant of the diftance of the lefs circle
from its pole P ; then from the centre E, with the tan¬
gent of the given diftance, deferibe a circle, and it will
be the lefs circle required. -Or, make PG, 1 F each
equal to the chord of the diftance of the lefs circle from
its pole. Through B, G, draw the ftraight line BGD
meeting CP produced in D 1 bftedt GD in Iff, and
draw HE perpendicular to GD; and meeting PD in
E, then E is the centre of the lei's circle.
3. When the given pole is neither in the centre nor
circumference of the primitive. Through P ( :g. i5-)>
the given pole, and C the centre of the primitive, draw
the diameter AB, and draw the diameter DE perpen¬
dicular to AB ; join EP, and produce it to meet the
primitive in />; make />F, p G, each equal to the chord
of the diftance of the lefs circle from its pole; join EF
which interfefts the diameter AB in H; from E through
G draw the ftraight line EG I, meeting the diameter
AB produced in I; bifea HI in K: i hen a circle de-
feribed from the centre K, at the diftance KH or KI,
will be the projedtion of the lefs circle.
Proposition XIII. Problem V.
To find the poles of a given lefs circle.
The poles of a lefs circle are alfo thofe of its parallel
great circle. If therefore the parallel great circle be
given, then its poles being found by Prob. III. will be
thofe of the lefs circle. But if the parallel great circle
be not given, let HMIN (fig. 15*) be the &lven k\s
circle. Through Its centre, and C the centre ot the pri¬
mitive, draw the line of meafures IAHB ; and draw the
diameter DE perpendicular to it, alfo draw the ftraight
line EHF meeting the primitive in F ; make F equal
to the chord of the diftance of the lefs circle from its
pole ; join E P, and its interfeftion P with the diame¬
ter AB is the interior pole. Draw the diameter CL
through E and L,draw ELy meeting the diameter AB
produced in q ; then q is the external pole. Or thus :
Join El interfering the primitive in G ; join alfo
EH, and product* it to meet the primitive in F, bife&t
of the Sphere.
the arch GF in/; from E to / draw the ftraight
EP/, and P is the pole of the given lefs circle.
Proposition XIV. Problem VI.
573
line Stereogra¬
phic Pro-
jedtion of
the Sphere.
To meafure any arch of a great circle.
1. Arches of the primitive are meafured on the line
of chords.
2. Right circles are meufured on the line of femi-
tangents, beginning at the centre of the primitive. Thus,
the meafure of the portion AC (fig. 16.) of the right
circle DE, is found by applying it to the'line of femi-
tangents. The meafure of the arch DB is found by
fubtrafting that of BC from 90° : the meafure of the
arch AF, lying partly on each fide of the centre, is ob¬
tained by adding the meafures of AC and CF. Laftly,
To meafure the part AB, which is neither terminated at
the centre or circumference of the primitive, apply CA
to the line of femitangents; then CB, and the difference
between the meafures of thefe arches, will be that of
AB.
Or thus. Draw the diameter GH perpendicular to
DE ; then from either extremity, as D, of this diame¬
ter, draw lines through the extremities of the arch in¬
tended to be meafured ; and the intercepted portion of
the primitive applied to the line of chords will give the
meafure of the required arch. Thus IK applied to the
line of chords will give the meafure of AB.
3. To meafure an arch of an oblique circle : draw
lines from its pole through the extremities of the arch
to meet the primitive, then the intercepted portion of
the primitive applied to the line of chords will give the
meafure of the arch of the oblique circle. Thus, let
AB (fig. 17.), be an arch of an oblique circle to be
meafured, and P its pole; from P draw the lines PAD,
PBE meeting the primitive in B and E; then the arch
DE applied to the line of chords wiU give the meafure
of the arch of the oblique circle AB.
Proposition XV. Problem VIE
To meafure any arch of a lefs circle.
Let DEG (fig. 18.) be the given lefs circle, and
DE the arch to be meafured : •:nd its internal pole P '7
and deferibe the circle AIT parallel to the primitive,
and whole diftance from the projefting point may be
equal to the diftance of the given lefs circle from its
pole P : then join PD, PE, which produce to meet
the parallel circle in A and F. Now AF applied to a
line of chords will give the meafure of the arch DE of
the given leis circle.
Proposition XVI. Problem VIII.
To meafure any fpherical angle.
1. If the angle is at the centre of the primitive, it is
meafured as a plane angle.
2. When the angular point is in the circunfference of
the primitive; let \ (fig. 19.) be the angular point,
and ABE an oblique circle inclined to the primitive.
Through P, the pole of ABE, draw the line ' P/meet¬
ing the circumference in /: then the arch E^> is the
meafure of the angle B AD, and the arch AF p is the
meafure of its lupplement BAF 1 alfo /F is the men-
fure of the angle BAG, and/ED that of its fupple-
ment. T r
PROJECTION Of the S p it £ & B. 8e^.p
B (., If the angular point h neither at the centre nor
thic Pro. c5r^tinifert.n(.e 0f the primitive. Let A-(fig. 20.) be
the s'phcre. ^ angular point, and DAH, or GAF the angle to
— be meafured, P the pole of the oblique circle DAF,
Plate and /> the pole of GAH : then from A, through the
CCCCXX, jxmu-g P/, draw the ftraight lines APM, A /> N, and
the arch MN will be the meafure of the angle DAH ;
and the fupolement of MN will be the meafure of the
angle HAF or DAG.
Proposition XVII. Problem IX.
To draw a great circle perpendicular to a projected
great circle, and through a point given in it.
Find the pole of the given circle, then a great circle
deferibed through that pole and the given point will be
perpendicular to the given circle. Hence if the given
circle be the primitive, then a diameter drawn through
the given point will be the required perpendicular. If
the given circle is a right one, draw a diameter at right
angles to it; then through the extremities of this dia¬
meter and the given point deferibe an oblique circle,
and it will be perpendicular to that given. If the given
circle is inclined to the primitive, let it be reprefented
by BAD (fig. 2i.), whole pole is P, and let A be the
point through which the perpendicular is to be drawn :
then, by Prob. I. deferibe a great circle through the
points P and A, and it will be perpendicular to the ob¬
lique circle BAD.
Proposition XVIII. Problem X.
Through a point in a projected great circle, to deferibe
another great circle to make a given angle with the
former, provided the meafure of the given angle is
not lefs than the dillance between the given point and
circle.
Let the given circle be the primitive, and let A ( fig.
19.) be the angular point. Draw the diameters AE, DF
perpendicular to each other; and make the angle CAG
equal to that given, or make CG equal to the tangent
of the given angle ; then from the centre G, with the
dillance GC, deferibe the oblique circle ABE, and it
will make with the primitive an angle equal to that
given.
If the given circle be a right one, let it be APB (fig.
Z2.) and let P be the given point. Draw the diameter
GH perpendicular to AB ; join GP, and produce it to
a; make H t> equal to twice A n ; and G l> being join¬
ed interfecds AB in C. Draw CD perpendicular to AB,
and equal to the cotangent of the given angle to the
radius PC ; or make the angle CPD equal to the com¬
plement of that given : then from the centre D, with
the radius DP, deferibe the great circle FPE, and the
angle APE, or BPE, will be equal to that given.
If APB (fig. 23.) is an oblique circle. From the
angular point P, draw the lines PG, PC through the
centres of the primitiveand given oblique circle. Through
C, the centre of APB, draw GCD at right angles to
PG ; make the angle GPD equal to that given ; and
from the centre D, with the radius DP, deferibe the
oblique circle FPE, and the angle APE, or BPE, will
be equal to that propofed.
Proposition XIX. Problem XI.
Any great circle cutting the primitive being given, to
deferibe another great circle which fhul cut the gt,Stereoer*'.
ven one in a propofed angle, and have a given archi’T: p!0:
intercepted between the primitive and given circles. the .vhere.
If the given circle be a right one, let it be reprefent- w
ed by APC (fig. 24.) ; and at right angles thereto draw qcccxxi,
the diameter BPM ; make the angle BPF equal to the
complement of the given angle, and PF equal to the
tangent of the given arch ; and from the centre of the
primitive with the fecant of the fame arch deferibe the
arch Gg. Through F ‘draw FG parallel to AC, meet-
ing G^ in G ; then from the centre G, with the
tangent PF, deferibe an arch no, cutting APC in 1,
and join GI. Through G, and the centre P, draw the
diameter HK ; draw PL perpendicular to HK, and
IL perpendicular to GI, meeting PL in L ; then L
wall be the centre of the circle HIK, which is that re¬
quired.
But if the given great circle be inclined to the pri¬
mitive, let it be ADB (fig. 25.), and E its centre :
make the angle BDF equal to the complement of that
given, and DF equal to the tangent of the given arch,
as before. From P, the centre of the primitive, with
the fecant of the fame arch, deferibe the arch G g, and
from E, the centre of the oblique circle, with the ex¬
tent EF, deferibe an arch interfering Gg in G. Now
G being determined, the remaining part of the opera¬
tion is performed as before.
When the given arch exceeds 90^, the tangent and
fecant of its fupplement are to be applied on the line
DF the contrary way, or towards the right; the former
conftrudtion being reckoned to the left.
Proposition XX. Problem XII.
Any great circle in the plane of projection being given
to deferibe another great circle, which (hall make
given angles wuth the primitive and given circles.
Let ADC (fig. 26.) be the given circle, and Q^its
pole. About P, the pole of the primitive, deferibe an
arch m n, at the diflance of as many degrees as are in th$
angle which the required circle is to make with the pri¬
mitive. About Q^the pole of the circle ADC, and
at a diitance equal to the meafure of the angle which
the required circle is to make with the given circle
ADC, deferibe an arch on, cutting m n in «. Then
about n as a pole, deferibe the great circle EDF, cut¬
ting the primitive and given circle in E and D, and it
will be the great circle required.
Scholium.
*t will hence be an eafy matter to conftru& all the
various fpherical triangles. The reader is, however,
referred to the article Spherical Trigonometry, for
the method of conitrutting thern agreeable to this pro-
je&ion ; and alfo for the application to the refolution of
problems of the fphere. For the method of projecting
the fphere upon the plane of the meridian, and of the
horizon, according to the ftereographic projection, fee
the article Geography.
SECTION IL
Of the Orthographic Projection of the Sphere.
The orthographic projection of the fphere, is that in
which the eye is placed in the axis of the plane of pro¬
jection
PROJECTION <
je&ion, at an Infinite dlftance with refpea to the dia-
ineter of the Sphere ; fo that at the fphere all the vifaal
rays are afTumed parallel, and therefore perpendicular to
the plane of projeftion. .
Hence the orthographic proje&ipn of any point is
\rhere a perpendicular from that point meets the plane
of projection : and the orthographic reprefentat ion of
any objeft is the figure formed by perpendiculars drawn
from every point of the objeCt to the plane of pvojec-
This method of projeCllon is ufed In the geometrical
delineation of eclipfes, occultations, and tranfits. It is
alfo particularly ufeful in various other projedions, inch
as the analemma. See Geography, cxc.
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every ftraight line is projefted into a ftraight line. _ If
the given line be parallel to the plane of projection,
it is projected into »n equal ftraight line ; but if it is
inclined'to the primitive, then the given ftraight line
will to its projeCtiwn in the ratio of the radius to
the cofine of inclination.
Let AB (fig. 27.) be the plane of projection, and
‘ let CD be a flraight line parallel thereto : from the ex¬
tremities C, D of the ftraight line CD, draw the lines
CE, DF perpendicular to APi; then by 3. of XI. ot
Eucl. the interfeCtion Eh, of the plane CEFD, with
the plane of projection, is a ftraight line : and becaufe
the ftraight lines CD, EF are parallel, and alfo CE,
DF; therefore, by 34. of I. of Fuel, the oppofite fides
a-e equal; hence the ftraight line CD, and its projec¬
tion EF, are equal. Again, let GH be the propofed
ftraight line, inclined to the primitive; then the lines
GE^HF being drawn perpendicular to AB, the inter¬
cepted portion EF will be the projection of GH.
ThroughG draw7 GI parallel to AB, and the angle IGH
w ill be°equal to the inclination of the given line to the
plane of proieftio*. Now GH being the radius, GI,
or its equal EF, will be the cofine of IGH ; hence the
given line GH is to its projection EF as radius to the
eofme of inclination. »
Corollaries.
)? the Sphere. 575
line of common feCtion, will be the projection of the Orthog,^
circle A BCD. For if from any point, as G, m the jeCHon of
circle ABC, a perpendicular GH fall upon BD, it wilirhe Sphere*
alfo be perpendicular to the plane of the primitive :   
therefore H is the projection of G. Hence the whole
circle is projected into BD, and any arch AG into Eli
equal to GI its fine
Corollaries.
i . Every arch of a great circle, reckoned from its in¬
terfeCtion wdth the primitive, is projected into its verfed
fin*. . . . ^ .
2. Every lefs circle perpendicular to the primitive 18
projedted into its line of common feCtion with toe pri¬
mitive, which is alfo its own diameter ; and every arch
of the femicircle above the primitive, reckoned liom the
middle point, is projected into its fine.
3. Every diameter of the primitive is the projection
of a great circle ; and every chord the projection of a
lefs circle. ...
4. A fpherical angle at the pole of tlie primitive 10
projeCted into an equal angle.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
A circle parallel to the primitive is projected into a
circle equal to itlclf, and concentric with the prirui-7
live.
Let the lefs circle FIG (fig. 29.) he parallel to the
plane of the primitive BND. 1 he ftraight line HE»
which joins their centres, is perpendicular to the primi¬
tive ; therefore E is the projection of H. Let uiiy radii
HI and IN perpendicular to the primitive be drawn.
Then IN, HE being parallel, are in the fame plane;
therefore IH, NE, the lines of common feC.ion of the
plane IE, wdth tw7o parallel planes, are parallel ; and
the figure I HEN is a parallelogram. Hence NE ~
IH, and confequently FIG is projeaed into an equal
circle KNL, whofe centre is E.
Corollary.
The radius of the projettion is the ccfine of the
diftance of the parallel circle from the primitive, or the
fine of its diftance from the pole of the primitive.
1. A ftraight line perpendicular to the plane of pro¬
ject ion is projeaed into a point.
2. Every ftraight line in a plane parallel to the pn-
mitive is projeaed into an equal and parallel ftraight
11 3. A plane angle parallel to the primitive Is projeaed
into an equal angle. . .
4. Any plane reftilineal figure parallel to the primi¬
tive is projeaed into an equal and iimilar figu.^.
5. The area of any reailineal figure is to the area
of its projeaion as radius to the cofine oi ito me uia-
tion.
Proposition II. Theorem II.
Every great circle, perpendicular to the primitive, is
projeaed into a diameter of the primitive ; and every
arch of it, reckoned from the pole of the primitive, is
projeaed into its fine.
Let BED (fig. 28.) be the primitive, and ABCD
a great circle perpendicular to it, pafliug through its
poles A, C} then the diameter BED, which is their
Proposition IV. Theorem IV.
An inclined circle is projeaed into an ellipfe, whofe
tranfverfe axis is the diameter of the circle.
1. Let ELF (fig. 30.) be a great circle inclined to
the primitive EBF, and EF their line of common fec-
tion. From the centre Cl, and any other point K, 111
EF, let the perpendiculars GB, KI be drawn in the
plane of the primitive, and GL, KN, in the plane of
the great cirelc, meeting the circumference in L, N.
Let LG, ND be perpendicular to CB, Ivl; then G,
D are the projtaions of L, N. And becaufe the tri¬
angles LGG, NKD are equiangular, CL2;GGZ: : NIG:
DK2; or EC1 : CG2 : : EKF : DIG: therefore the
points G, D are in the curve of an ellipfe, of which
EF is the tranfverfe axis, and GG the femiconjagate
axis.
Corollaries.
1. la a projected great circle, the femiconjugate
axis is the coline of the inclination of tne great mrcle
to the primitive.
s. Per-7-
.576 PROJECTION o
Orthogra- 2. Perpendiculars to the tranfverfe axis intercept cor-
fedHon nf refponding arches of the projedtion and the primitive,
the Sphere. 3* The eccentricity of the projection is the fine of
*--■—v    the inclination of the great circle to the primitive.
cc^i Cafe 1. Let AQB (fig. 31.) be a lefs circle, in¬
clined to the primitive, andlet the great circle LBM,per¬
pendicular to both, interfed them in the lines AB, LM.
From the centre O, and any other point N in the dia¬
meter AB, let the perpendiculars TOP, NQ, be drawn
in the plane of the lefs circle, to meet its circumference
in T, P, Alfo, from the points A, N, O, B, let
AG, NI, OC, BH, be drawn perpendicular to LM ;
and from P, Q, T, draw PE, QL), TF perpendicu¬
lar to the primitive ; then G, I, C, H, E, D, F, are
the projections of thefe points. Becaufe OP is perpendi¬
cular to LBM, and OC, PE, being perpendicular to the
primitive, are in the fame plane, the plane COPE is per¬
pendicular to LBM. But the primitive is perpendicular
-,to LBM ; therefore the common fedtion EC is peipen-
dicular to LBM, and to LM. Hence CP is a parallelo¬
gram, and EC ~ OP. In like manner, FC, DI, are
proved perpendicular to LM, and equal to OT, NQ^
Thus, ECF is a ftraight line, and equal to the diameter
PT. Let QR, DK be parallel to AB, LM ; then
RO = DI = KC, and PR X RT = EK X
KF. But AO : CG : : NO : Cl ; therefore AO1 :
CG1 : : OR* : DK* and EC2 : CG2 : : EKF :
DK2.
f the Sphere. Sea. Tf.
centre of the primitive, is to the cofine of the dillance Orthogra-
of the circle from its own pole, as the fine of the circle’s !:h*c Pro*
inclination to the primitive is to the radius.
jedtii n of
the Sphere.
Proposition VI. Problem I.
To deferibe the projedlion of a circle perpendicular to
the primitive, and whofe diftance from its pole is
equal to a given quantity.
Let P A/> B (fig. 33.) be the primitive circle, and
P, p the poles of the right circle to be projected.
I hen if the circle to be projedled is a great circle,
draw the diameter AB at right angles to the axis P p,
and it will be that required. But if the required pro-
jedlion is that of a lefs circle, make PE, PF each equal
to the chord of the diltance of the lefs circle from its
pole ; join EF, and it will be the projedtion of the lefs
circle required.
Proposition VII. Problem II.
Through a given point in the plane of the primitive to
deferibe the projedlion of a great circle, having a
given inclination to the primitive.
1. When the given inclination is equal to a right angle,
a ftraight line drawn through the centre of the pri¬
mitive and the given point will be the projedtion re¬
quired.
Corollaries.
r. The tranfverfe axis is to the conjugate as radius
fco the cofine of the circle’s inclination to the primitive.
2. Half the tranfverfe axis is the cofine of half the
fum of the greateft and leaft diftances of the lefs circle
from the primitive.
3. The extremities of the conjugate axis are in the
line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the primitive
by the cofines of the greateft and leaft diftances of the
lefs circle from the primitive.
4. If from the extremities of the conjugate axis of
any elliptical projedlion perpendiculars be drawn (in the
fame diredlion if the circle do not interfedl the primi¬
tive, but if otherwife in oppofite diuedlions), they will
interfedl an arch of the primitive, whofe chord is equal
to the diameter of the circle.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
The projedled poles of an inclined circle are in its line
of meafures diftant from the centre of the primitive
the fine of the inclination of the circle to the pri¬
mitive.
Let ABCD (fig 32.) be a great circle, perpendicu¬
lar both to the primitive and the inclined circle, and
interfedling them in the diameters AC, MN. Then
ABCD pafies through the poles of the inclined circle ;
let thefe be P, Qj and let P^, Qj, be perpendicular
to AC ; />, q are the projedled poles ; and it is evident
that p O =: fine of BP, or MA, the inclination.
Corollaries.
V centr5 th6 primitive, the centre of the pro¬
jedlion, the projedled poles, and the extremities of the
conjugate axis, are all in one and the fame ftraight line.
2. The diftance of the centre of projedlion from the
2. When the given inclination is lefs than a right
angle> and the given point in the circumference of the
primitive. Let R (fig. 34*) be a point given in the
circumference of the primitive, through which it is re¬
quired to draw the projedlion of a great circle, inclined
to the primitive in an angle meafured by the arch QP
of the primitive.
Through the given point R draw the diameter RCS,
and draw GC,? at right angles to it. Make the arch
GV of the primitive equal to QP, and draw VA at
right angles to GC ; and in G^, towards the oppofite
parts of C, take CB equal to AC ; then, rvith the
greater axis RS, and lefs axis AB, deferibe an ellipfe,
and it will be the prqjedlion of the oblique circle re¬
quired.
3. When the diftance of the given point from the
primitive is equal to the cofine of the given inclination.
Every thing remaining as in the preceding cafe ; let
A be the given point, and AC the cofine of an arch
GV, equal to the given arch QP ; then drawing the
diameter RCS at right angles to ACB, the ellipfe de-
feribed with the given axis RS, AB will be the projec¬
tion of the inclined circle.
4. When the diftance of the given point from the
centre of the primitive is lefs than the femidiameter of
the primitive, but greater than the cofine of the given
inclination.
Let D be the given point, through which draw the
diameter IC i ; and at the point D draw DL perpen¬
dicular to DC meeting the primitive in L ; alfo draw
LK, making with LD the angle DLK equal to the
complement of the given inclination. Let LK meet Walter on
DC in K; then will DK be lefs than DC. On DC as the SpLeret
a diameter deferibe a circle, and make DH equal to P'159-
DK ; through H draw a diameter of the primitive
RCS, and deferibe an ellipfe through the points ,R, D,
S, and it will be the projedlion of the inclined circle.
I Pro- '
Sea. It.
Orthogra¬
phic i‘ro-
PROJECTION of
Proposition VIII. Problem III.
jeftion of trough two given points in the plane of the primi-
the sphere. ^ °q defcribe the projedion of a great circle.
1. If the two given points and the centre of the
primitive be in the fame ilraight line, then a diameter
of the primitive being drawn through thele points will
be the projection of the great circle required.
2. When the two given points are not in the fame
ftraight line with the centre of the primitive ; and one
of them is in the circumference of the primitive.
Plate Let R} (fig. 34.) be the two given points, of
oCcccxxi. wlljch R {s in the circumference of the primitive. Draw
the diameter RCS, and GC^, FDH perpendicular to
it, meeting the primitive in G^F. Divide GC, £ C,
in A, B, in the fame proportion as FH is divided in D;
and defenbe the elhpfe whofe axes are RS, AB, and
centre C ; and it will be the projection required.
3. When the given points are within the primitive,
and not in the fame ftraight line with its centre.
Let D, E (fig. 35.) be the two given points;
through C the centre of the primitive draw the ftraight
lines IDi, KE/; draw DL perpendicular to I i, and
EO perpendicular to K i, meeting the primitive in L,
O. Through E, and towards the fame parts of C,
draw EP parallel to DC, and in magnitude a fourth
proportional to LD, DC, OE. Draw the diameter
CP meeting the primitive in R, S, and deferibe an
ellipfe through the points D and R or S, and it will
alfo pafs through E. This ellipfe will be the projedion
#f the propofed inclined circle.
Proposition IX. Problem IV.
To deferibe the projeftion of a lefs circle parallel to the
primitive, its diftauce from the pole of the primitive
being given.
From the pole of the primitive, with the fine of the
given diftance of the circle from its pole, deferibe a
circle, and it will be the proje&ion of the given lefs
circle.
Proposition X. Problem V.
About a given point as a projeded pole to deferibe the
projedion of an inclined circle, whofe diftance from
its pole is given.
Let P (fig. 36.) be the given projeded pole, through
which draw the diameter G,f, and draw the diameter
H/j perpendicular thereto. From P draw PL per¬
pendicular to GP meeting the circumference in L ;
through which draw the diameter L /. Make L P,
LK each equal to the chord of th# diftance of the lefs
circle from its pole, and join TK, which interfeds L /,
in From the points T, draw the lines FA,
QS, KB, perpendicular to Gg; and make OR, OS,
each equal to .QT, or QK. Then an ellipfe deferibed
through the points A, S, B, R will be the projedion
©f the propofed lefs circle.
Proposition XI. Problem VI.
To find the poles of a given projeded circle.
1. If the projeded circle be parallel to the primitive,
the centre of the primitive will be its pole.
Vol. XV. Part II.
THfcSpHEfcf. ^ 577
2. If the circle be perpendicular to the primitive, Orthogra-
then the extremities of a diameter of the primitive
drawn at right angles to the ftraight line reprclentingtiic sphere,
the projeded circle, will be the poles of that circle.   ^
3. When the projeded circle is inclined to the pri¬
mitive.
Let ARBS (fig. 36, 37.) be the elliptical projedion
of any oblique circle ; through the centre of which,
and C the centre of the primitive, draw the line of mea-
fures CBA, meeting the ellipfe in B, - ; and the pri¬
mitive in G,g. Draw CH, BK, AT perpendicular
to G g, meeting the primitive in FI, K, d . Biled the
arch KT in L, and draw LP perpendicular to Gg ;
then P will be the projeded pole of the circle, of which
ARBS is the projedion. *
Proposition XII. Problem VII.
To meafure any portion of a projeded circle, and con-
verfely.
1. When the given projedion is that of a great cir¬
cle.
Let ADEB (fig. 38.) be the given great circle,
either perpendicular or inclined to the primitive, ot
which the portion DE is to be meafured, and let M m
be the line of meafures of the given circle. Through
the points D, E draw the lines EG, DF parallel to
M m ; and the arch EG of the primitive will be the
meafure of the arch DE of the great circle, and Con-
verfely.
2. When the projedion is that of a lefs cirde paral¬
lel to the primitive.
Let DE (fig. 39.) be the portion to be meafured, cc^at*
of the lefs circle DEH parallel to the primitive. From ^
the centre C draw the lines CD, CE, and produce them
to meet the primitive in the points B, F. Then the
intercepted portion BF of the primitive will be the
meafure of the given arch DE of the lefs circle DEH.
3. If the given lefs circle, of which an arch is to be
meafured, is perpendicular to the primitive.
Let ADEB (fig. 40.) be the lefs circle, of which,
the meafure of the arch DE is required. 1 hrough C,
the centre of the primitive, draw the line of meafures
M m, and from the interfedion O of the given right
circle and the line of meafures, wiih the radius OA, or
OB, deferibe the fcmicivcle AFGB ; through the points.
D, E draw the lines DF, EG parallel to the line ofc
meafures, and the arch EG will be the meafure of DE,
to the radius AO. In order to find a fimilar arch in the
circumference of the primitive, join OF, OG, and at
the centre C of the primitive, make the angle m CH
equal to FOG, and the arch m H to the radius C m
will be the meafure of the arch DE.
4. When the given projedion is of a lefs circle in¬
clined to the primitive.
Let RDS (fig. 41.) be the projedion of a lefs circle
inclined to the primitive, and DE a portion of that cir¬
cle to be meafured. Through O the centre of the pro¬
jeded circle, and C the centre of the primitive, draw
‘the line of meafures M m ; and from the centre O, with
the radius OR, or OS, deferibe the femicirclc RGFS ;
through the points D, E draw the lines DF, EG
parallel to the line of meafures, and EG will he the
meafure of the arch DE to the radius OR, or OS.
loin OF, OG, and make the angle mCH equal to
41 4 D VOG,
57s
Gn.omonic
Proje&ion
of the
Sphere.
P ROJECTION
FOG, and tlie arch m II of the primitive will be the
meafure of the arch 1)E of the inclined circle RDS.
The converfe of this propofition, namely, to cut off
an arch from a given projected circle equal to a given
arch of the primitive, is obvious.
The above operation would be greatly fhortened by
ufing the line of fines in the feftor.
It feems unneceffary to infill farther on this projection,
efpecially as the reader will fee the application of it to the
projection of the fphere on the planes of the Meridian,
Equator, and Horizon in the article Geography ;
and to the delineation of Eclipfes in the article A-
stronomy. The Hnalemma, Plate CCXII. in the ar¬
ticle Geography, is alfo according to this projection;
and the method of applying it to the folution of altro-
nomical problems is there exemplified.
SECTION III.
Of the Gnomonic ProjcElion of the Sphere.
In this projection the eye is in the centre of the
fphere, and the plane of projection touches the fphere
in a given point parallel to a given circle. It is
named gnomonic, on account of its being the founda¬
tion of dialling : the plane of projection may alfo re-
prefent the plane of a dial, whofe centre being the pro¬
jected pole, the femiaxis of the fphere will be the ftile
or gnomon of the dial.
As the projection of great circles are reprefented by
flraight lines, and lefs circles parallel to the plane of
projection are projected into concentric circles ; there¬
fore many problems of the fphere are very eafily refel-
vcd. Other problems, however, become more intricate
on account of fome of the circles being projected into
cllipfes, parabolas, and hyperbolas.
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every great circle is projected into a ftraight line per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures ; and whofe diftance
from the centre is equal to the cotangent of its in¬
clination, or to the tangent of its nearefl diltance
from the pole of the projection.
Let BAD (fig. 42.) be the given circle, and let
€ l'<'cxxn’ the circle CBED be perpendicular to BAD, and to
the plane of projection ; whofe interfeCtion CF with
this laft plane will be the line of meafures. Now fxnce
the circle CBED is perpendicular both to the given
circle BAD and to the plane of projection, the com¬
mon feCtion of the two laft planes produced will there¬
fore be perpendicular to the plane of the circle CBED
produced, and confequently to the line of meafures :
hence the given circle will be projected into that fec-
tion ; that is, into a ftraight line paffmg through d,
perpendicular to C d. Now C d is the cotangent of
the angle'C ri A, the inclination of the given circle, or
the tangent of the arch CD to the radius AC.
Corollaries.
1. A great circle perpendicular to the plane of pro¬
jection is projected into a ftraight line paffing through
the. centre of projection ; and any arch is projected in¬
to its correfpondent tangent.
?, Any point, as D, or the pole of any circle, is
or THE Sphere. Se£t III.
projected into a point d, whofe diftance from- the pole Gr-'omonic
of projection is equal to the tangent of that diftance. ^ojediun
3* If two great circles be perpendicular to each
other, and one of them paffes through the pole of pro-
jeCtion, they will be projected into two ftraight lines
perpendicular to each other.
4. Hence if a great circle be perpendicular to feveral
other great circles, and its reprefentation pafs through
the centre of projection ; then all thefe circles will be
reprefented by lines parallel to one another, and per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures, for reprefentation of
that firft circle.
Proposition II. Theorem II.
If two great circles interfeft in the pole of projection,
their reprefentations will make an angle at the centre
of the plane of projection, equal to the angle made
by thefe circles on the fphere.
For fince both thefe circles are perpendicular to
the plane of projection, the angle made by their inter-
feCtions with this plane is the fame as the angle made
by thefe circles.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
Any lefs circle parallel to the plane of projection is
projected into a circle whofe centre is the pole, of
projection, and its radius is equal to the tangent of
the diftance of the circle from the pole of projection.
Let the circle PI (fig. 42.) be parallel to the plane
GI, then the equal arches PC, Cl are projected into
the equal tangents GC, CH ; and therefore C, the
point of contact and pole of the circle PI and of the
projection, is the centre of the reprefentation G, H.
Corollary.
If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, and
45 degrees from the pole, it is projeCted into a circle
equal to a great circle of the fphere ; and therefore
may be confidered as the primitive circle, and its radius
the radius of projection.
Proposition IV. Theorem IV.
A lefs circle not parallel to the plane of projection is
projected into a conic feCtion, whofe ‘ tranfverfe axis
is in the line of meafures; and the diftance of its
neareft vertex from the centre of the plane of pro¬
jection is equal to the tangent of its neareft diftance
from the pole of projection ; and the diftance of the
other vertex is equal to the tangent of the greateft
diftance.
Any lefs circle is the bafe of a cone whofe vertex is
at A (fig. 43.) ; and this cone being produced, its inter¬
feCtion with the plane of projection will be a conic
feCtion. Thus the cone DAF, having the circle DF
for its bafe, being produced, will be cut by the plane
of projection in an ellipfe whofe tranfverfe diameter is
df; and C is the tangent of the angle CAD, and
C/ the tangent of CAF. In like manner, the cone
AFE, having the fide AE parallel to the line of mea¬
fures df, being cut by the plane of projection, the
feCtion will be a parabola, of which / is the neareft ver-
Seft. 'ill-
PROJECTION
Cnomonic
proje<ftion
of the
Sphere.
tex, and the point into which E is projeaed is at an
infinite dlftance. Alfo the cane AFG, whofe bafe is
the circle FG, being cut by the plane of projeaion,
the feaion will be a hyperbola ; of which/is the near-
eft vertex ; and GA being produced gives d the other
vertex.
Corollaries.
,. A lefs circle will be projeaed into an ellipfe, a
parabola, or hyperbola, according as the diftance of
its moft remote point is lefs, equal to, or greater than,
OF THE S P II E H E. 57^
BO, DO are equal; but fince the lefs circles ate Gnomonk
equally diftant each from its refpeaive pole, therefore 10n
tlie arches FO, OH are equal; and hence the arch BF Spherc.
is equal to the arch Did. For the fame reafon the  J
arches BN, DL are equal; and the angle FBN is equal
to the angle LDH ; therefore, on the fphere, the
arches FN, HI. are equal. And fince the great circle
BNLD is projefled into the ftraight line b Qjj /, &C.
therefore n is the projeftion of N, and / that of L. ;
hence /«, h/, the projeftions of FN, HL refpe&ively,
are equal. f
go degrees.
2. If H be the centre, and K, k, l the focus of tner
Ad— A/
•llipfe,hyperbola, or parabola; then HK ^
Ad+Af c , , . .
for the ellipfe ; H £ =    hr the hyperbola;
and fn being drawn perpendicular to AE //=
for the parabola.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
Plate Let the plane TW (fig. 44.) be perpendicular to the
ccccxxii. piane of projedon TV, and BCD a great circle of the
fphere in the plane TW. Let the great circle BED
be projefted into the ftraight line b e k. Draw CQS
perpendicular to b k, and C m parallel to it and equal
to CA, and make QS equal to Qm ; then any angle
QS t is the meafure of the arch Q/ of the pio-
je<fted circle.
Join AQ: then becaufc C m is equal to CA, the
' angle QC^ equal to QCA, each being a right angle,
and the jTde QC common to both triangles ; therefore
Qm, or its equal QS, is equal QA. Again, imee the
plane ACQis perpendicular to the plane TV, and /
to the interiection CQ^j therefore b Q^is perpendiculai
both to AQ and QS : hence, fince AQ and QS are
equal, all th(Tangles at S cut the line b Qjn the fame
points as the equal angles at A. But by the angles at
A the circle BED is projected into the line b
Therefore the angles at S are the meafures of the parts
ef the projefted circle £ Qj and S is the dividing centre
thereof.
Corollaries.
j. Any great circle ^Q/ is projedfted into a line of
tangents to the radius SQ»_
2. If the circle ^ C pais through the centre of pro-
iedtion, then the proje&ing point A is the dividing
centre thereof, and C b is the tangent of its correfpon-
«Jent arch C B to CA the radius of projeaion.
Proposition VII. Theorem VII.
ltYnk,hlg (fig 45.) be the proje&ions of two equal
circles, whereof one is as far from its pole i as the
other from its pole C, which is the centre of pro-
jedtion ; and if the diftance of the projected poles C, />
be divided in 0, fo that the degrees in Q, 0 p be
equal, and the perpendicular 0 S be erefted to the
line of meafures g b. Then xhe line p n, C l drawn
from the poles C,/’, through any point Qjn the line
0 S, will cut off the arches Y n, h l equal to each other,
and to the angle Q/l p.
The great circle AO perpendicular to the plane of
the primitive is projedted into the ftraight line 0 S per*
pendicular \.o g h, by Prop. i. Cor. 3. Let Q^_be the
projedtion of q ; and lince /’Qj^ C Q^jire ftraight lines,
they are therefore the reprefentations of the arches P
C ^ of great circles. Now fince P y C is an ifofceles
fpherical triangle, the angles PCQ^, CPQ__are thciefoie
equal; and hence the arches P q, Cq produced will
cut off equal arches from the given circles FI, GH,
whofe reprefentations Fn, hi are therefore equal t
and fince the angle QCp is the meafure of the arch b /a
it is alfo the meafure of its equal F «.
Corollary.
Hence, if from the projeaed pole of any circle a
perpendicular be ereaed to the line of meafures, it
will cut off a quadrant from the reprefentation of that
circle.
Proposition VIII. Theorem VIII.
Let Ynk (fig. 45.) be the projeaion of any circle FI,
and p the projeaion of its pole P. It be the
cotangent of CAP, and^ B perpendicular to the
line of meafures g C, let CAP be bifeaed by AO,
and the line 0 B drawn to any point B, and alfo p B
cutting Y nk in d; then the angle £ 0 B is the mea¬
fures of the arch F d.
Proposition VI. Theorem VI.
Let the parallel circle GLH (fig. 44•) be as far fiom
the pole of projeaion C as the circle INI is from
its pole ; and let the diftance of the poles C, P be
bifeaed by the radius AO; and draw ^AD per¬
pendicular to A O ; then any ftraight line l Qj
drawn through b will cut off the arches hi, F « equal
to eacli other in the reprefentations of thefe equal
circles in the plane of projeaion.
Let the projeaions of the lefs circles be deferibed.
Then., becaufe BD is perpendicular to AO, the arches
The arch PG is a quadrant, and the angle go A =
gYA + oAP = ^AC + oAP —gAC + CAo ==
gAo; therefore gA ~ g 0 ; confequently^o is the
dividing centre of ^ B, the reprefentation of G A ; and
hence, by Prop. v. the angle £ 0 B is the meafure of ^ B.
But fince pg reprefents a quadrant, therefore p is the
pole of^ B ; and hence the great circle p d P> palling
through the pole of the circles g B and F « \\ ill cut
off equal arches in both, that is, l* ^ B — angle
go B.
Corollary.
The angle rsB is the meafure of the angle gp B*
4 D 2 For
Plate
feccc*x;j.
58o PROJECTION
Gnomonic For the triangle ,5'/’ B reprefents a triangle on the
Projtrt.on fpherej wherein the arch which g B reprefents is equal
to the angle which the angle /> reprefents ; becaufe g/>
7l ‘. J'’-T is a quadrant; therefore £ o B is the meafure of both.
Proposition IX. Problem I.
To draw a great circle through a given point, and
whofe diftance from the pole of projection is equal to
a given quantity.
Let ADB (fig. 46.) be tl\e projection, C its pole
or centre, and P the point through which a great circle
is to be drawn : through the points P, C draw the
itraight line PCA, and draw CE perpendicular to it :
make the angle CAE equal to the given diftance of the
circle from the pole of projection C ; and from the
centre C, with the radius CE, deferibe the circle EFG:
through P draw the ftraight line PIK, touching the
circle EFG in I, and it will be the projection of the
gieat circle required.
Proposition X. Problem II.
To draw a great circle perpendicular to a great circle
which paffes through the pole of projection, and at a
given diftance from that pole.
Let ADB (fig. 46.) be the primitive, and Cl the
given circle : draw CL perpendicular to Cl, and make
the angle CLI equal to the given diftance : then the
ftraight line KP, drawn through I parallel to CL, will
be the required projection.
Proposition XI. Problem III.
At a given point in a projeded great circle, to draw
another great circle to make a given angle with the
former; and, converfely, to meafure the angle con¬
tained between two great circles.
Let P (fig. 47.) be the given point in the given
great circle PB, and C the centre of the primitive :
through the points P, C draw the ftraight line PCG ;
and draw the radius of the primitive C A perpendicular
thereto ; join PA ; to which draw AG perpendicular :
through G draw BGD at right angles to GP, meet¬
ing PB in B ; bifeeft the angle CAP by the ftraight
'line AO; join BO, and make the angle BOD equal to
that given ; then DP being joined, the angle BPD
will be that required.
If the meafure of the angle BPD be required, from
the points B, I) draw the lines BO, DO, and the aivde
BOD is the meafure of BPD.
Proposition XII. Problem IV.
To deferibe the projection of a lefs circle parallel to the
plane of projection, and at a given diftance from its
pole.
Let ADB (fig. 46.) be the primitive, and C It3
centre : fet the diftance of the Circle from its pole, from
B to H, and from H to D ; and draw the ftraight line
AED, interfeCting CE perpendicular to BC, in the
point E : with the radius CE deferibe the circle EFG,
and it is the projection required.
Proposition XIII. Problem V.
To draw a lefs circle perpendicular to the plane of pro¬
jection.
of the Sphere. Seel. Ill,
^ Let C (fig. 48.) be the centre of projection, andO'iomonic
TI a great circle parallel to the propofed lets circle; Projcihoa
at C make the angles ICN, TCO each equal to the sphere
diftance of the lefs circle from its parallel great circle —IX—J
11 : let CL be the radius of projection, and from the Plate
extiemity L draw LM perpendicular thereto; make ccccxxui»
CV equal to LM; or CF equal to CM : then with
the vertex V and aflymptotes CN, CO deferibe the
hyperbola WVK f ; or, with the focus F and CV de-t See Conic
feribe the hyperbola, and it will be the perpendicular
circle deferibed.
Proposition XIV. Problem VI.
Bo deferibe the projection of a lefs circle inclined to the
plane of projection.
Draw the line of meafures Jp (fig. 49.) and at C,_
the centre ot projection, draw C "1 perpendicular to
dpy and equal to the radius of projection : with the
centre A, and radius AC, deferibe the circle DCFG ;
and draw' R. E parallel to dp then take the greateft
and leaft diftar.ces of the circle From the pole of projec¬
tion, and fet them from C to D and F refpeCtively, for
txie circle DF ; and from A, the projecting point, draw
the ftraight lines AF/, and AD d; then df will be
the tranfverfe axis of the ellipfe : but if D fall beyond
the line RE, as at G, then from G draw the line
GAD cfy and r//is the tranfverfe axis of an hyperbola :
and if the point D fall in the line RE, as at E, then
the line AE wall not meet the line of meafures, and the
circle will be projected into a parabola whofe vertex is
f: bifeCt dj in H, the centre, and for the ellipfe take
half the difference of the lines A 3, A/, which laid
from FI will give K the focus : for the hyperbola, half
the fum of A d. A/being laid from H, will give k its
focus : then with the tranfverfe axis dfy and focus K,
or deferibe the ellipfe d M/, or hyperbola /m,
which will be the projection of the inclined circle : for
the parabola, make EQjrqual to F/, and draw fn per¬
pendicular to AQ^, and make fk equal to one half of
n Qj then with the vertex /, and focus k, deferibe
tlm parabola jmy for the projection of the given circle .
Proposition XV. Problem VII.
To find the pole of a given projected circle.
Let DMF (fig. 50.) be the given projected circle,
whofe line of meafures is DF, and C the centre of pro¬
jection ; from C draw the radius of projection CA, per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures, and A will be the
projecting point: join AD, AF, and bifeCt the angle
DAF by the ftraight line AP ; hence P is the pole.
If the given projection be an hyperbola, the angle
/AG (fig. 49.), bifeCted, will give its pole in the line
of meafures; and in a parabola, the angle/ AE bifeCU
ed will give its pole.
Proposition XVI. Problem VIIL
To meafure any portion of a projected great circle, ox
to lay off any number of degrees thereon.
Let EP (fig. 51.) be the great circle, and IP a
portion thereof to be meafured : draw ICD perpendi¬
cular to IP; let C be the centre, and CB the radius of
projection, with which deferibe the circle EBD ; make
XA
Projection
of the
Sphere.
sea.nr. projection
Gnomonic Cqlial to T3 ; tlien A is the dividing centre of EP;
henceiAp being joined, tlie angle IAP is the meafure
of the arch IP.
. v __ Or, if IAP he made equal to any given angle, then
IP is the eorrefpondent arch of the projection.
Proposition XVII. Problem IX.
To meafure any arch of a projected lefs circle, or to
lay off any number of degrees on a given projected
lei; circle.
PIate Let F« (fig. 52.) be the given lefs circle, and^ P
ceccxxi 11. its pole : from the centre of projection C draw C A
perpendicular to the line of meafures GH, and equal
to the radius of projection; join AP, and bifeCt the
angle CX.P by the ftraight line AO, to which draw
AD perpendicular: deicribe the circle G l H, as far di-
flaut from the pole of projection C as the given circle
is from its pole P ; and through any given point n, in
the projected circle F «, draw D « /, then H / is the
meafure of the arch F n.
Or let the meafure he laid from H to /, and the line
OP THE S P II E F E. 581
Let the fides AC, CB, and the angle ACB (fig. Gnomonic
53.), be given: make the angles CDA, CDG (fig.
56.) equal refpeClively to the fides AC, CB (fig.'sphere.
53.) ; alfo make the angle ACB (fig. 56.) equal to J
the fpherical angle ACB (fig. 53.), and CB equal to
CG, and ABC will be the projection of the fpherical
triangle.
To find the meafure of the fide AB: from C draw
CL perpendicular to AB, and CM parallel thereto,
meeting the circumference of the primitive in M;
make LN equal to LM ; join AN, BN, and the angle
ANB will be the meafure of the fide AB.
To find the meafure of either of the fpherical angles,,
as BAG : from D draw DK perpendicular to AD,
and make KH equal to KD : from K draw KI per¬
pendicular to CK, and let AB produced meet KI in
I, and join HI: then the reCtilineal angle KHI is the
meafure of the fpherical angle BAG. By proceeding
in a fimilar manner, the meafure of the other angle will
be found.
Prop'Ositton XXL Problem XIII.
D / joined will cut off F n equal thereto.
Proposition XVIII. Problem X.
To deferihe the gnomonic projedion of a fpherical
triangle, when three lides are given ; and to find the
meafures of either of its angles.
Let ABC (fig. 53.) be a fpherical triangle whofe
three fides are given : draw the radius CD (fig. 54.)
perpendicular to the diameter of the primitive FF ; and
at the point D make the angles CD A, CDG, ADI,
equal refpeCtively to the fides AC, BC, AB, of the
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.), the lines DA, DG
iiiterfeCting the diameter EF, produced if neceffary in
the points A and G : make DI equal to DG ; tnen
from the centre C, with the radius CG, deferibe an
arch ; and from A, with the diftance AI, deferibe ano¬
ther arch, interfering the former in B ; join AB, CB,
and ACB will be the'projection of the fpherical tri¬
angle (fig. 53O ; and the reniineal angle ACB is the
meafure of the fpherical angle ACB (fig. 53).
Proposition XIX. Problem XI.
The three angles of a fpherical tiiangle being given, to
project it, and to find the meafures of the fides.
Let ABC (fig. 55.) be the fpherical triangle of
which the angles are given : conftru& another fpherical
triangle EFG, whofe fides are the fupplements of the
given angles of the triangle ABC ; and with the fides
of this fupplemental triangle deferibe the gnomonic
projeftion, &c. as before.
It may he obferved, that the fupplemental triangle
EFG has alfo a fupplemental part EF^ ; and when the
Tides GE, GF, which are fubftituted in place of the
angles A, B, are obtufe, their fupplemeuts ^ E, £ F
are to be ufed in the gnomonic projection of the tri¬
angle.
Proposition XX. Problem XII.
Two angles and the intermediate fide given, to de¬
feribe the gnomonic pi'oje&iou of the triangle ; and
to find the meafures of the remaining parts.
Let the angles CAB, ACB, and the fide AC of
the fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.), he given : make
the angle CD A (fig. 56.) equal to the meafure of the
given fide AC (fig. 53.) ; and the angle ACB (fig.
56.) equal to the angle ACB (fig. 53.) ; produce AC
to H, draw DK perpendicular to AD, and make KH
equal to KD ; draw KI perpendicular to CK, and
make the angle KHI equal to the fpherical angle
CAB : from I, the interfe&ion of KI, HI, to A draw
I A, and let it interftft CB in B, and ACB will be the
gnomonic projeftion of the fpherical triangle ACB
(fig. 33). 'I he unknown paits of this triangle may
he meafured by laff problem.
Proposition XXII. Problem XIV.
Two fidcs of a fpherical triangle, and an angle oppo-
fite to one of them given, to deferibe the projection
of the triangle ; and to find the meafure of the re¬
maining parts.
Let the fidess AC, CB, and the angle BAC of the
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.) be given : make the
angles CD A, CDG (fig. 56 ) equal refpeCtively to
the meafures of the given fides #>C, BC : draw DK
perpendicular to AD, make KH equal to DK, and
the angle KHI equal to the given fpherical angle
BAC : draw the perpendicular KI, meeting HI in
I ; join AI ; and trom the centre C, with the diftance
CG, deferibe the arch GB, meeting il in B, join
CB, and ABC will be the reCtilineal projection of the
fphericul triangle A BC (fig. 53.) and the meafures
of the unknown parts of the triangle may be found as
betore.
Proposition XXIII. Problem XV.
Given two fides, and the included angle of a fpheri-
cal triangle, to deferibe the gnomonic projeCfion of
that triangle, and to find the meafures of the other
parts.
Given two angles, and a fide oppofite to one of them,
to deferibe the gnomonic projedion of the triangle, .
and to find the meafures of the other parts.
Let the angles A, B, and the fide BC of the tri-
8 angle-
5S2 PROJECTION
<}■ omrn'c angle ABC (fig. <r5-)» be given : let the fupplemental
l'roj«(Sho» tr;angle EFE be formed, in which the angles E, F, C,
S- h-re. arc tb6 fupplements of the Tides BC, CA, AB refpe£live-
C—v—— ly, and the Tides EF, FG, GE, the fupplements of the
Plare angles C, A, B. Now, at the centre C (fig. 56.)
ccccxxiu. make the angles CDA, CDK equal to the meafuves
of the Tides GE, GF refpeftively, being the fupple¬
ments of the angles B and A ; and let the lines D ,
E>K interfecl the diameter of the primitive EF, in the
points A and K: draw DG perpendicular to AD,
make GH equal to DG, and at the point H make the
angle GHI equal to the angle E, or to its fupplement;
and let El, perpendicular to CH, meet HI in I, and
join AI: then from the centre C, with the diftance
CG, deferibe an arch interfering AI in B ; join CB,
and ABC will be the gnomonic projedlion of the gi¬
ven triangle ABC (lig. 55.): the fupplement of the
angle ACB (fig. 56.) is the meafure of the Tide AB,
(fig. 55.) ; the meafures of the other parts are found
as before.
It has already been obferved, that this method of
projeftion has, for the moll part, been applied to dial¬
ling only. However, from the preceding propofitions,
it appears that all the common problems of the fphere
may be more eafily refolved by this than by either of
the preceding methods of projection ; and the facility
with which thefe problems are refolved by this method
has given it the preference in dialling. It may not
perhaps be amifs, in this place, to give a brief illuftra-
tion of it in this particular branch of fciencc.
In an horizontal dial, the centre of projection Z
(%• 57*) reprefents the zenith of the place for which
the dial is to be conllru&ed ; ZA the perpendicular
height of the llyle : the angle ZP A, equal to the given
latitude, determines the diltance ZP of the zenith from
the pole ; and AP the edge of the ftyle, which by its
lhadow gives the hour : the angle ZAP, equal alfo to
the latitude, gives the diftance of the equator EQJrom
the zenith : let E a be equal to E A, and a will be the
dividing point of the equator. Hence if the angles
E « I, E <7 II, See. E a XI, E a X, &c. be made equal
to 150, 30°, &c. the equator will be divided into hours;
and lines drawn from P to thefe points of divifion will
be hour lines.
If the dial is either vertical, or inclined to the hori¬
zon, then the point Z will be the zenith of that place
whofe horizon is parallel to the plane of the dial: ZE
of the Sphere. Seel. Ill
will be the latitude of that place ; and the hours on the Onomonk
former dial will now be changed into others, by a quan-
tity equal to the difference of longitude between the gi- g ^
ven place and that for which the dial is to be conftrutt-"P ^
ed Thus if it is noon when the fhadow of the ftyle
falls on the line P X, then the difference of meridians is
the angle E X, or 30°. Hence, when a dial is to
be conftrudled upon a given plane, either perpendiculal*
or inclined to the horizon, the declination and inclina¬
tion of that plane muft be previoufly found.
In an. eredl direct fouth dial, its zenith Z is the
fouth point of the horizon, ZP is the diftance of this
point from the pole, and ZE its diftance from the equa¬
tor. If the dial is directed to the north, Z reprelents
the north point of the horizon ; PZ the diftance of Z
from the pole under the horizon ; and ZE the elevation
of the equator above the horizon.
If the dial is an erect call or weft dial, the zenith Z
is the call or weft points of the horizon accordingly,
and the pole P is at an infinite diftance, for the angle
ZAP is a right angle ; and therefore the line AP will
not meet the meridian PZ. The line ZA produced
is the equator, and is divided into hours by lines per¬
pendicular to it.
If the plane of the dial is parallel to the equator, its
zenith Z coincides with one of the poles of the equa¬
tor P ; and hence the hour lines of this dial are formed
by drawing lines from the point Z, containing angles
equal to 15°.
In the preceding methods of proje&ion of the fphere,
equal portions of a great circle on the fphere are re-
prefented by unequal portions in the plane of projec¬
tion, and this inequality increafes with the diftance from
the centre of projection. Hence, in proje&ions of the
earth, thofe places towards the circumference of the
projection are very much diftorted. In order to avoid
this inconveniency, M. cle la Hire * propofed, that the * Je
eye fiiould be placed in the axis produced at the di-j^ 7efsc'en
ftance of the fine of 45° beyond the pole : In this cafe .701.
arches of the fphere and their projections are very near-See a'f0
ly proportional to each other. Hence in a map of theartlc,e Getm
earth agreeable to this conftruCtion, the axis, inllead
being divided into a line of femitangents, is divided^
equally, in like manner as the circumference. The
map of the world, Plate CCXIV. is eonftru&ed agree¬
able to this method of projection.
Proje&ion.
PRO
PROJECTION, in perfpeCtive, denotes the ap¬
pearance, or reprefentation of an objedl on the perfpec-
tive plane.
The projection, e-gr. of a point, as B (Fig. 1.
Plate CCCLXXXIII.) is a points, through which the
optic ray BE paffes from the objeClive point through the
plane to the eye ; or it is the point wherein the plane
cuts the optic ray.
And hence is eafily conceived what is meant by the
projection of a line, a plane, or a folid.
. Proj&ction in Alchemy, the calling of a Certain ima¬
ginary' powder, called powder of projection, into a cru¬
cible, or other vcffel, full of Tome prepared metal, or
PRO
other matter; which is to be hereby prefentlv tranf-
muted into gold. Projedturc-.
Powder of Projection, or of the philofophers ftone,
is a powder fuppofed to have the virtue of changino-
any quantity of an imperfeCt metal, as copper or lead,
into a more perfeCt one, as lilver or gold, by the ad¬
mixture of a little quantity thereof.
The mark to which alchemifts direCl all their en¬
deavours, is to find the powder of proje&ion ; which
every one of them has been within an ace of a hundred
times. See Philosopher’s Slone.
PROJECTURE, in archite&ure, the outjetting
and prominency, or emboffing, which the mouldings
an
7
PRO
r 533 i
PRO
ProUpfu#
. II
Prolific.
and other members have beyond the naked wall, co¬
lumn, &c.
PROLAPSUS, in furgery, a prolapfion or falling
out of any part of the body from its natural fituation
thus we fay, prolapfus inlejlini, “ a prolaplxon of the in-
teftine,” &c. See Surgery.
PROLATE, in geometry, an epithet applied to a
fpheroid produced by the revolution of a lemi-ellipfis
about its larger diameter. See Spheroid.
PROLEGOMENA, in philology, certain prepa¬
ratory obfervations or difcourfes prefixed to a book,
&c. containing fomething neceffary for the reader to be
apprifed of, to enable him the better to underhand the
book, or to enter deeper into the fcience, &c.
PROLEPSIS, a figure in rhetoric, by which we
anticipate or prevent what npght be obj£6ltd by the ad-
verfary. See Oratory, n 80.
PROLEPT1C, an epithet applied to a periodical
difeafe which anticipates, or whole paroxyfm returns
fooner and fooner every time ; as is frequently the cafe
in agues.
PROLIFER flos; (profes, u an offspring and
feroy “to bear) a prolific flower, or a flower which from
its own fubltance produces another ; a Angular degree
of luxuriance, to which full flowers are chiefly incident.
See Botany, p. 428.
PROLIFIC, fomething that has the qualities ne-
celfary for generating.
The prolific powers of fome individuals among man¬
kind are very extraordinary.—-Inftances have been found
where children, to the number of fix, feven, eight, nine,
and fometimes fixteen, have been brought forth after
one pregnancy. The wife of Emmanuel Gago, a la¬
bourer near Valladolid, was delivered, the 14th of June
1779, of five girls, the two firll of whom were bap¬
tized : the other three, were born in an boar after; two
of them were baptized; but the laft, when it came into
the world,had every appearance of death. The celebrated
Tarfin was brought to bed in the feventh month of her
pregnancy, at Argenteuil near Paris, 17th July 1779,
of three boys, each 14 inches and a half long, and ot
a girl 13 inches: they” >.~re all four baptized, but did
not live 24 hours.
The public papers for the month of June 1779
made mention of one Maria Ruiz, of the difiridt of
Lucena in Andalufia, who was fucceffively delivered of
16 boys, without any girls; and feven of them were
flill alive on the 17th of Augult thereafter. The fol¬
lowing, though a recent fa&, is almoll incredible : In
the year 175^* a Mufcovite peafant, named James
Kyrtoffy and his wife, were prefented to the Emprefs
of Raffia. This peafant had been twice married, and
was then 70 years of age. tLs firlt wife was brought
to bed 21 times ; namely, four times of four children
each time; feven times of three, and ten times of two ;
making in all 57 clfldren, who were then alive. His
fecond wife, who accompanied h m, had already been
delivered feven times, once of three chddren, and fix
times of twins, which made 15 children for her (hare.
Thus the Mufcovite patriarch had already had 72 chil¬
dren by two marriages. We are affured that the lul-
tan Muftapha III. had ifl’ue by his concubines 580
male children. What number of female children he
bad, and whether there were twins of botli fexes, we
are not informed. Thefe fads fuppofe great fecundity ;
Promife.
and whatever credit is given to them, we mufl: confider Pro’ixity
as entirely fabulous what is reported concerning a
countefs of Holland who was delivered of 365 chil¬
dren, of a very fmall fize.
PROLIXITY, in difeourfe, the fault of entering
into too minute a detail, or being too long, precift,
and circumitantial, even to a degree of tedioufnefs.
PROLOCUTOR of the convocation, the fpeakcr
or chairman of that affembly. See Convocation.
PROLOGUE, in dramatic poetry, a difeourfe ad-
dreffed to the audience before the drama or play begins.
The original intention was to advertife the audience o(
the fubjed of the piece, and to prepare them to enter
more eafily into the adion, and fometimes to make an
apology for the poet.
PROMETHEUS, the fon of Japetus, fuppofed to
have been the firlt difeoverer of the art of linking fire
by flint and Heel; which gave rife to the fable of his
Healing, fire from heaven : A renowned warrior; but
whofe hiftory is involved in fable. Pie flourilhed about
1687 B. C. The poetical account is, that he formed a
man of clay of fuch exquifite workmanfhip, that Pal¬
las, charmed with his ingenuity, offered him whatever
in heaven could contribute to finifh his defign ; and for
this purpofe took him up with her to the celefiial man-
fions, where he Hole fome fire from the chariot of the
fun, which he ufed to animate his image. At this
theft Jupiter was fo enraged, that he ordered Vulcan
to chain him down on Mount Caucafus, and fent an
eagle or vulture to prey on his liver; which every night
was renewed, in proportion to the quantity eaten up
in the day-time, until at lall he was delivered by Her¬
cules, who killed the vulture.
Prometheus, in ancient aftronomy, was the name
of a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, now called
herculeSy Engonajin. See Astronomy, nc 406. j
PROMISE, in ordinary cafes, is a declaration ofPi'orniisj
fome intention to be put in execution; but in morals isLhIieL
a folemn afleveration by which one pledges his veracity
that he fhall perform, or caufe to be performed, the
thing which he mentions.
As fuch a declaration excites expectations in the
minds of thofe to whom it is made ; and as to fruilrate
thefe expectations might roule indignation, and be fol¬
lowed by confequences injurious to the perfon,the cha- %
raCter, or intereft, of him who made it —it becomes a How it
matter of prudence in the promifer to keep his word.^^^®
And farther, as a certain degree of confidence is found1 “ 11 ‘c'
neceflary to the very exiftence of civil fociety, and as
others may have aCted on the faith oi his piomile, it is
now not a matter of prudence only to keep his word—
it is a duty which he owes to all who have fpent their
time, their money, or their labour, in confequence of
thofe expectations which he has warranted them to en¬
tertain.
It, then, being confonant to found reafon, necefiary ,
to the exiftence of civil fociety, and in general the inte¬
reft of both the promifer and promifee, that the words
of the promife fhould be fulfilled, it has become a ma¬
xim in morals that a man is obliged to perform his pro¬
mife. # 3
In many inftances, the great difficulty concerning a rnterjirefa-
promife is, how to explain it; for although the grounds
of its obligation be thofe expectations which it hasiometims#l
railed, a queftion will occur, Is the piomifer bound toeiffiaiirf.
anfwer
J’i'omifa.
4
Whether
t!:e mean¬
ing of the
PRO [
anfwer fully all the expe&ations to which the different
conftruaions of his words may have given birth? Should
I, for inflance,tdefire a man to run with a letter to fuch
a place, and engage to fatisfy him upon his returni; and
if on his return I gave him double of the ufual hire
indlke cafes; but if he be not fatiafied with lefs than
the triple of fuch a fum, am I obliged to grant his de¬
mands ? This will lead us to confider the rules by
which a promife fhould be interpreted.
If a promife were always to be deemed obligatory
in the fenfe in which the promifee receives it, a man
tiromifer would not know what he had promifed; the promifee,
or°promifee from a difference of views, affociations, and interefts,
ought tc be might conceive a fenfe of which the promifer had ne-
Uken. ver dreamed ; might fuppofe engagements which were
never intended, which could not be forefeen, and, al¬
though forefeen, could not be performed. For thefe
reafons it is natural to think that the fenfe of the pro¬
mifer fhould rather dired the interpretation. He
knows precifely what it is he has undertaken, and is
unqueftionably the befl judge of what meaning he af¬
fixed to his words. His explanation fhould therefore
be admitted, if information alone could give him a title
to decide in the affair.
But fomething more than mere information, or a
knowledge of the caufe, is expeded from a judge, as
integrity is equally effential to his charader. Doubts
may arife when the words will admit of various mean¬
ings, whether the promifer will be fo candid as impar-
tnilly to own the precife meaning which he had adually
annexed to his expreffions : At any rate, if he wifhed to
' deceive, he might purpofely ufe an ambiguous phrafeo-
logy, and perform the promife in a fenfe of his own,
without fatisfying the reafonable hopes of the promifee.
When the daughter of Tarpeius bargained with Ta¬
ti us to betray the citadel for what he and his Sabines
wore on their left hands, meaning their rings and their
golden bracelets, Tatius probably performed his pro¬
mife in the way which he intended, when he caufed
her to be buried under their fhields, which they carried
alfo on their left hands. But who will fay that here was
not treachery and a difhonourable abufe of that confi-
5 dence which had been repofed in him ?
Tn doubtful It muff therefore be obvious, that the import ef a
cafes the promife, where its meaning is difputed, is not to be de¬
termined by the fenfe of the promifer nor by the expec-
ations of the promifee ; and if it was faid that the obli¬
gation of a promife arofe from thofe expedtations which
had been raifed by it, the affertion now mult be limited
to thofe expectations which were intentionally raifed by
the promifer, or thofe which to his knowledge the pro-
rnifee was induced to entertain in confequence of that
declaration which had been made to him. Should there
ftill be a doubt about what expectations were intentional¬
ly raifed, and what fhould have been reafonably entertain¬
ed, recourfe muff be had to the judgment of thofe who
are allowed to be perlons of candour, and who are ac¬
quainted with the characters of the men, and with thofe
g circumftances in which the promife was made.
Cafeswhere T he following are fomc of the cafes in which a pro-
a promue mife is not binding. As the obligation to perform the
is not bind- promjfe arifes from thofe expectations which are in en-
^ tionally raifed by the promifer ; it is plain that no pro¬
mife can be binding before acceptance, before the pro-
jiiife has been communicated to the promifee, and be-
fhomife.
interpreta¬
tion of nei¬
ther is to
trailed.
5R4. 1 PRO
fore be has entertained hopes of its performance. The
cafe is fimilar where a promife is releafed, that is, where
the performance is difpenfed with by the promifee, and
where he entertains no expectations on account of any 7
thing that the promifer has faid to him. Should
third perfon entertain hopes on account of the promife, the promu
he is to cherifh thefe hopes at his own hazard, having fec.
no encouragement from the promifer to do fo : yet if
this perfon has been warranted to hope by the jy omifee,
the promifee has renounced his privilege of releafing the
promife, and along with the promifer becomes bound
for its performance. r.^.
A promife is not binding where the ■performance is ^ *‘e‘e Its
unlawful; and the performance is unlawful w'here it is ^,ice 18 un.
contrary to former promifes, or to any moral and reli-lawful,
gious precept, wdiich from the beginning to the end of
time is of perpetual and unalterable obligation. Thus
no man is bound by his promife to give to me what
he has already promifed to another ; and no man is
bound by his promife to blafpheme God, to commit
murder, or to criminate the innocent. Such promifes
are unlawfully made, and cannot be otherwife than un¬
lawfully performed. 9
Some have even carried their fcruples fo far as to
doubt, whether any promife, unlawfully made, can be^oubts have
lawfully performed. Should a man, during the lifetime arifen.
of his wife, happen to promife marriage to another, fuch
a man (they fay) by the Chriftian religion has already
committed adultery in Iris heart; and fhould he afterwards
become a widower, he is not bound, and he even ought
not, to fulfil his engagements, as this would be putting
his criminal intention into execution. This fpecies of
reafoning, wTe muff confefs, is to us unintelligible. — As
the w ife is dead, what now fhould prevent the man from
marrying the objedt of his affedtions? Why, fay the ca-
fuifts, he already is under a promife to marry her, and his
promife was made at a time when it fhould not have
been made. It is true, the performance, confidered by
itfelf, is oppofed by no law human or divine ; but then
it originated in what was wrong; and however much
the Supreme Being and tire bulk of the creation may
be out of the fecret, we have dilcovered by the inge¬
nious logic of cafuiilry, that evil can never fpring out
of good, nor good out of evil; but that the means and
the end, the motive and the action are always of the
fame complexion in morals. 10
When a promife is made, the particular circumftances Erroneoas
in which it is to be deemed obligatory are fometimes t'roilu‘C9*
mentioned. “ I promife (for inftance) to lend my
friend 200 pounds within three days, provided a cer¬
tain creditor which I name do not make a demand on
me before that time. In other cafes no circumftancc
is forefeen by the promifer to prevent the fulfilling of
his engagement ; and hence we have erroneous pro¬
mifes, which proceed on the fuppoiition that things arc
true, pcffible, and lawful, which are not fo. An er¬
roneous promife, which proceeds on the falfe reprefen-
tation of the promifee, is not binding.
A London gentleman lately purchafed an eftate in
the fouth of England at a public fale, believing tha
defeription which he faw in the newfpapers, and which
likewife was given by the auctioneer, to be true ; but
finding afterwards that the cllate nowife carrefponded
to the defeription, the law freed him hom his engage¬
ment, becaufe the feller had evidently been guilty of
Plate CCCCm.
||
1*110.1 Pr i'LON of th.^ Sr IlKUP .
Plate CCCCXX1.
1 ’ K O .1 K C T ION of the S t* 11 EKE.
( V,
//> ;
r.
y.
c
f y^/.
* s '/si* <3 '3
32
f
' s /f
v
Gv
' Juf. t ■>
\
r 3 /^/ 3 2
, yfirZ/rt/vyi',/. ,K-n//-r/rr/t.
PRO [ 585
promife. a bread' of promife in not fatrfying thole expcfla-
tions which he had intentionally and even itudiouily ex-
cited in the buyers. >r , r r . . r
A promife An erroneous promife, whofe performance is impol-
rot binding fible, is not binding. Before the conclufion of the
when the jate war a planter of Tobago promifed to fend to his
friend in England 12 hogfheads of fugar from the next
year’s produce of his effate ; but before that time lo
bago fell into the hands of the French, and the Weft
Indian found it impofiible to anfwer the expe&ations
of his friend in England.
An erroneous promife, whofe performance is unlaw
perform¬
ance is im
poilible,
ta
fit unlaw- fub *or," to fpeak more precifely/whofe performance is
ful.
13
] PRO
ways aware. There is fcldom, they perceive, a virtu¬
ous action that is not attended with fome happy effe&s;
and it will, peihaps, be gtrierally allowed, that the com¬
parative merit of iimilar virtues may fafely be eftimated
by their utility : But to make utility, as fome do, the
criterion of virtue, and pronounce an aftion vicious or
virtuous merely on account of thofe confequences which
they fee may flow from it, is a dangerous maxim. Evil
has often fprung out of good, and good out of evil; and
good and evil have frequently fprung from the fame ac¬
tion. In Mandeville’s Hiw,
Promife.
, ■! 11— mJ
contrary to a prior promife, or to any moral or reli¬
gious obligation, is not binding. A rather believing
the accounts from abroad of his fan’s death, foon af-
terj bequeathes his fortune to his nephew : but the
fon, the report of whofe death had been falfe, returns
home, and the father is releafed from the promife to
his nephew, becaufe it was contrary to a prior promife,
which he had tacitly come under to his fon. This prior
promife was implied in the whole of the father s con-
durit, and was exprefled in figns as emphatic and as
unequivocal as thofe of language. It had ad the ef¬
fect too of the moft folemn promife on the fon, who,
to his father’s knowledge, was induced in confequence
of this promife to entertain the moft fanguine hopes
of fucceeding to his father, if he furvived. The world
likewife could bear teftimony that thefe expectations
were not raihly cherifhed. He was brought into exii-
tence by means of his father, who was thereby uader-
ftood to love him affeCIionately ; he was ufikred in¬
to fociety as the reprefentative of his family, and was
therefore fuppofed to be the heir of its wealth. Religion
itfelf fupported his pretenfions, pronouncing the father
worfe than an infidel who neglefts to fhow that atten¬
tion to his children which the world naturally expefts
from a parent.—That the father’s promife was not re¬
leafed from the mere circumftance that the miftake was
known to his nephew the promifec, will appear plain
from the following circumftance. Suppofe the father
a landed proprietor, that the leafe of one of his farms
has expired, and that he has long been expe&ing
to let it at L. 200 ; fuppofe that this fum is refufed,
and that he agrees with the prefent tenant to giant a
new leafe at lb. 150—the obligation here to perform
bis promife is not diflolved by an after offer of L. 200,
though the tenant knew that L. 200 had been expect¬
ed, and that only from defpairing of that fum his
landlord had granted the new leafe at L. 150: the pro¬
mife is binding, becaufe the performance is every way
lawful, contrary to no prior engagement, and oppofed
to no principle in morals. The law of the land, were
the proprietor reludant, would enforce the obligation,
and exact obedience in the tone of authority ; becaufe
breaches of faith, were they permitted in fuch cafes,
would deftroy all confidence, and annihilate the bonds
of focial union :
Men live and profper but in mutual truft ;
A confidence of one another’s truth. Oroonckv.
Utility no The great difficulty which many have to encounter
criterion j'n determining when erroneous promifes ought or ought
^ud^e ^ t0 not to kept, arifes from their proceeding on a prin-
tht validity ciple of whofe confequences they do not feem to be ?I»
oiproualts, Vol. XV. Part II.
.*4 .
This prin¬
ciple would
give a fanc-
tion to vice
and falfe.
hood.
That root of evil Avarice,
That damn’d ill-natur’d baneful vice,
Was Have to Prodigality,
That noble fin ; whilft Luxury
Employ’d a million of the poor,
And odious Pride a million more.
Envy itfelf and Vanity
Were minifters of Induftry :
That darling folly, Ficklenefs,
In diet, furniture, and drefs.
That ftrange ridiculous vice, was made
The very wheel that turn’d the trade.
The defeription here is not altogether falfe; andtheCe
indeed may be fome of the cenfequences that flow
from avarice, luxury, pride, vanity, and envy: but thefe
are not all.—To fee at once all the confequences that
fpring from an aftion, the good and the bad, the par¬
ticular and general, the immediate and remote, would
require fometimes the lorefight of Omnifcience, and at
all times a knowledge fuperior to what is human. Ih
the Fable of the Bees, the author’s object was to fliow
that private vices are public bemefits ; and he therefore
was naturally led by his argument to confider only fuch
confequences of vice as favoured his hypothefis. He
wanted candour. And that artifice which-runs through,
his Fable happens to remind us, that while the remote
and the general effedts of an adtion may not be feen,
the particular and immediate, which fall within our no¬
tice, are apt to be viewed through the medium of pal-
fion, intereft, or opinion. For theie reafons, it ap¬
pears furprifing how any perfon fhould ever imagine
that the obligation to perform a promife fhould depend
entirely upon the ideas which the promifer apprehended
of its utility.
The beft refutation of fuch an opinion arc the Angu¬
lar conclufions to which it leads. x j
A late writer on political juftice, who appears toThcconfe*
have embraced it, gets into reafoning not very common, quences
In a part of his fyftem he looks on morals as an articleit'ri-
of trade : virtue and vice, in his Chapter of Provtifes, are^(.^5
but antiquated terms for profit and lofs ; and right and and abfurd.
wrong are ufed to exprels what is beneficial and what
is hurtful, in his apprehenfion, to himfelf and the com¬
munity.—With refpedt to veracity, thofe “ rational
and intelligent beings,” by whom he wiflies the affairs
of the world to be carried on, may, while they adt as
rational and intelligent, break or perform their promifes
at pleafure. He thinks it “ effential to various Hrcum-
ftances of human intercouife, that we fhould be known
to beftow a fteady attention upon the quantities of con¬
venience or inconvenience, of good or evil, that might
arife to ethers from our condudf.” After this atten¬
tion, the difappointment of the promifee is not.to be
E minded,
*5
PRO C 586
Promife. mintled, though the expectations excited by thefe “ ra-
^ " v "■ tional and intelligent beings” may have “ altered the na¬
ture of his fituation, and engaged him in undertakings
from which he would otherwife have ah Rained. ” What
the promifer takes to be the general utility and the fit-
nefs of things is to be his guide. And a breach of
promife will be attended with the following advantages :
“ The promifee, and all other men, will be taught to
depend more upon their own exertions, and lefs upon
the affiftance of others, which caprice may refufe or
juiticc with-hold. He and all others will be taught to
acquire fuch merit, and to engage in fuch purfuits, as
(hall oblig’e any honeft man to come to their fuccour if
they (hould Rand in need of afiiRance.” T. his breach
of prcmife, with a view to the general utility, will, fo
far from being criminal, form a part of that refolute
execution of juRice which would in a thoufand ways
increafe the independence, the energies, and the virtue
• GsAo/V* of mankind*.”
Jnqmry con- Such are the views which determined this author to
cerning PoH-COV[hfeY “ the validity of promifes” as “ inconfiRent
book'a'fch.’ juftice,” and as “ foreign to general good.” From
3, one, however, who relies with fo much confidence on
the promifer, it would be certainly defirable to know,
whether the perfon, who violates his faith for the pub¬
lic utility, is always to be candid. Where breach of
faith promotes his own intereR, ought he alone to de¬
cide on the validity of his promife ? or where promifes
are broken for the general good, is he to be guided by
his own vifionary fchemes of utility ? Is he to aft as
truRee for the public without any delegated power ?
and (hall the community fubmit to his decifions without
fo much as putting the queRion, Who hath made thee
a ruler overs us ? Wlien a writer thus deviates fo far
from the path of reafon, it is natural to alk, what was
the ignis fatuus that mifled him ? In the prefent cafe it
is pretty obvious. Being fomething of opinion with
* SeeNcte,the celebrated Turgot*, that romances are the only
b. hi. ch. 6. books in which moral principles are treated in an im¬
partial manner, this gentleman, in Iris Chapter of
Promifes, feems to have borrowed a part of his morality
from the doggerels of Butler; and having adopted,
though from different motives, the political principles
of Sir Hudibras’s fquire, that obedience to civil go¬
vernment is not due becaufe ii is promifed, he has come
to exaftly the fame conclufion with refpeft to the ob¬
ligation of keeping one’s word. But Ralph has rea-
foned with more ingenuity; and has (hown not only
that the public good, but the glory of the Lord, may
fee fometimes promoted by a breach of faith.
t6
A private
individual
hai no
right to in¬
trude his
ichemes of
utility on
the public
* The faints
are God¬
win’s ra¬
tional and
intelligent
beings.
The faints, * whom oaths and vows oblige,
Know little of their privilege ;
Farther, I mean, than carrying on
Some felf-advantage of their own :
For if the dev’l, to ferve his turn,
Can tell truth, why the faints (hould fcorn,
When it ferves theirs, to fwear and lie,
I think there’s little reafon why :
Fife h’ has a greater pow’r than they,
Which ’twere impiety to fay :
W’ are not commanded to forbear,
Indefinitely, at all to fwear ;
17
] PRO
But to fwear idly, and in vain.
Without felf-interefi and gain ;
For breaking of an oath and lying
Is but a kind of felf-denying,
A faint-like virtue ; and from hence
Some have broke oaths by Providence ;
Some, to the glory of the Lord,
Perjur’d themfelves and broke their word —
For faints may do the fame thing by
The fpirit, in fincerity, \
Which other men are tempted to,
And at the devil’s inRance do.
Hudibras, Cant. II.
Here are new views of utility ; which, were they to
be confidered as of any weight, would increafe the dif¬
ficulty of determining when an erroneous promife ought
to be kept.
But (hould views of utility be laid afide, and (hould
it be made an invariable rule that truth is on no account
to be violated, that deceit is never to be praftiied, and
that moral obligations are not to be diffolved for the views
profpeft of any phyfical advantage ; thofe doubts
which arife concerning the validity of erroneous pro-if,
mifes will foon difappear. Difagreeabie perhaps and
ridiculous confequences may fometimes arife to a few-
individuals from an honeR and confcientious adherence
to their promife ; but will any affert that the general
good, that burden of the fong, will ever be endangered by
too much veracity ?
So numerous inconveniences arife daily from the re¬
gular operation of thofe great phyfical law’s, which arc
under the immediate direftion of Providence, that thofe
philofophers who have adopted the principle of utility,
and are much furprifed to lee the univerfe fo aukvvardly
planned for the cafe and comfort of them and their fpe-
cies, have been under the neceffty of imputing many
events in nature to the malignity of fome evil indepen¬
dent being ; or of allowing that things have degenera¬
ted fince they firfi came from the hands of the Crea¬
tor, and that they muR now be exceedingly altered
from what they had been when He chofe to pronounce
them all very good. Thus, abfurdity or impiety muR
always be the confequence of judging of the vice and
virtue of an aftion by its utility, and of eRimating its
utility by our limited views and erroneous conceptions.
As for extorted promifes, it is curious to obferve
how this queRion (hould always be darted, whether or
not they ought to be kept ? and another queRion
(hould feldom be thought of, whether or not they ought
to be made ? Fortitude was one of the cardinal virtues
among the ancients ; and is deemed of fuch importance promifee;
in the ChriRian fyRem, that the fearful are claffed with
the unbelievers, and are thought unworthy of the fa¬
vour of Deity, as being incapable of fupporting thofe
trials to which heaven expofes the faithful as the trued ^
ted of ChriRian virtue.—If a perfon {hould want the whether ^
neceffary fortitude to be virtuous, it will be a poor ex-binding o?
cufe for his bafenefs, that he has added deceit to hisnot*
cowardice : and furcly it is not the bufinefs of morality,
when it has found him guilty of one crime, to grant
him a difpenfation for committing two. The laws of
jurifprudence, it will readily be allowed, cannot favour
the claims of the promifee ; becaufe they ought never
to
PRO [ 587 3 PRO
fromr'c. to lend their fupport to oppreffion and violence. But to be checks and correftors of thofe abufes to which r‘dm^
.—v  their acquittal/ fhould he violate his faith, will by no the phyfical are apt to be carried, are certainly the moft
means vindicate the charafter of the promifer. Their ac- facred and obligatory, i o procreate his fpecies, a man a r
quitting a woman from the charge of adultery, goes a is not then to be guilty of adultery, nor of fornication, aw.
fhort way in reltoring the fair reputation of her innocence, nor to liften to the lewd calls of incontmency. St 1 aul 3 phyfical in
Let jurifprudence decide as it will, the man of honour obfervation, that it is better to marry than burn, can-p^nt of
and the geserous patriot can never be brought to re- not be allowed in this inllance to have much weight, obligation
fpeftthe perfon who, (truck with a panic, could betray He has not defined what degree of amorous inflamma-
either himfelf or his friends. The magnanimous fpirits tion conllitutes burning, nor in what cafes this burning
who could die for the truth will view with contempt would be a fuffieient warrant for marrying. In the
'I * * i* 1 J ^ T *- rPU.r^/A 1 •» *-1 V /-N j t TY1Q\r
his pitifnl deceit. Thofe unfortunate men who may
fuffer from that very diftruft which the breach of his
faith has begotten, will always deteft him as a traitor
and enemy ; and heaven itfelf cannot be fuppofed to
reward that foldier who defects her caufe, and relin-
quifhes the pod which (Ire has affigned him, at the light
of danger.
If we once begin to accommodate morality to the
difpofitions and humours of mankind, it is hard to fay
where tins fpecies of complaifance will end. The de¬
grees of timidity are fo various, and fome tempers by
nature fo yielding, that repeated importunity or an ear-
ao ned requed will extort a promife.
The iaws A young lady was frequently preffed by her dying
of morah'-y ^foand to grant him a promife that (he would not
b/accomo- marry after his death. _ For fome time (he was able to
dated to the refib with becoming fpirit his abfurd requed ; but upon
hu-nouTs hJs declaring oftener than once that he could not other-
andintereft-jk ^ jn peace> ftie complied and promifed. Too
’■er mankm however, for this effort of continence, (he after¬
wards liftened to the addreffes of a fecond lover, and
found her heart infenfibly engaged before (he adverted
to the impropriety of a new attachment. But propo-
fals of marriage could fcarcely fail to remind her of her
promife and awaken her fcruples. I hefe (he foon com¬
municated to her lover, with her firm refolution to re¬
main a widow, if the contrary meafure, which (he great¬
ly preferred, and on which her earthly happinefs de¬
pended, were not approved by fome fpiritual counfellor.
Upon this declaration it was agreed to take the advice
of their own minifter, who was an eminent diffenting
clergyman in the diocefe of Oxford : but this gentle¬
man, unwilling to decide in a matter of fuch import¬
ance, propofed to refer it to Dr Seeker, who was then
biftiop of that fee. This prelate too declined to give
any judgment in the cafe ; but, as was his way, muf-
tered up a number of arguments on each fide of the
quell ion, and committed them to a letter, which a
learned gentleman of our acquaintance had iome time
ago an opportunity of feeing in manufcr’pt.
If the fentiments to which the bifhep was inclined
could have been inferred from his (latement of arguments,
he feemed to think that the promife was binding. In
our opinion, he ought to have given a pofitive decifion.
Itwasno matter whether thepromife was extortedor not:
the promife was made ; and the queftion was now, whe¬
ther or not was the performance lawful ? 1 hat it was
lawful appears evident. The lady was under a moral
obligation to remain a widow ; and no moral obliga¬
tion, fo far as we know, required her to marry.
To be fruitful and multiply, indeed, is declared in
Scripture, and is found, to the woful experience of many,
to be one of the general laws of yur nature. But of
all thofe laws intended by nature to regulate the con-
^dudl of inferior intelligences, the moral, which were meant
prefent indance he does not even confider marriage as
a duty ; he compares it with burning, and thinks
it only the lead of the two evils. Not that mar¬
riage is evil of itfelf; for he that marrieth doth well:
but there are circumdances in which it would be incon¬
venient to marry, and in which he that marrieth not is
faid to do better. But if thofe inconveniences be rea-
fons fufficient to deter from marrying, is that perfon to
be held excufable who, in order to gratify an animal
paflion, fomewhat refined, (hould violate an oath, and
trample on a facred moral obligation ?
'i he young lady might indeed declare that her earth¬
ly happinefs was at an end if (he were not permitted to
marry again : but what circumdance prevented her
from marrying ? It was not the opinion of her own
pador, nor the bifhop of Oxford: the truth is, it was
certain fcruples of her own, which being unable of her-
felf to overcome, (he had pioufly fohcited the affiitance
of others. It is certainly a misfortune that a devotion¬
al and amorous turn (hould always be io clofely con-
ne&ed in the females. Both, however, cannot always
be indulged. Who will fay, that the motive is rational
which inclines one to chenfii a paflion which conlcience
difapproves? The virtue of continency might indeed
have borne hard on this lady’s conditution, and in her
way to immortal happinefs might have formed a gate fo
drait and narrow as it might be difficult for her to pafs
through : but after all, her cafe was not harder than that
of nuns, who take the vows of perpetual challity, and
endure fufferings of a iimilar nature, and in fome in¬
dances even perhaps greater than hers ; yet doing it
cheerfully, from the fuppofition that the Omnifcient is
well acquainted with the nature of the great facrifice
which they mak'e, and that after death he will dudy to
requite them, and bedow on them fomething like an *
equivalent, which in their opinion can fcarcely be lefs
than a happineis in heaven as ample as their wifhes and
as lading as their fouls.
Every promite, therefore, which is not releafed, nor
fraudently obtained by the promifee, is to be held bind¬
ing it the performance be lawful and pofiible.
The Chvidian cannot, and a man of honour will \ promife
fcarcely venture to reject this maxim, that a good man of a iimilar
ought not to change though he fwear to his hurt. Yet with
a fimple promife and apromiffory oath are not very dif-an oak
ferent in point of obligation. Mod people know, and,
where any moral duty is concerned, they ought parti¬
cularly to reflea, that this world is governed by an Al¬
mighty Being, who knows all things, who lives always,
and who is jud to reward and to punifh. 1 he perion
who makes a promiffory oath does it avowedly under
an immediate fenfe of thefe truths ; the perfon who
makes a fimple promife, though he certainly ought, yet
may not reflea on thefe at the time. The former,
when he violates his oath, exhibits, only to outward
4 E 2 appearance,
PRO [ 588 ] PRO
Promon- appearance, a greater contempt of the Divine power,
tor>r knowledge, and juftice, than he who violates a fimple
Pronuncia promiCe under an impreffion of the fame truths. I o
r°tion.Cia Him who knows the fecrets of the heart, the breach of
u~—y  the promife muft appear as criminal as the breach of
the oath. See Assumpsit and Oath.
PROMONTORY, in geography, a high point of
land or rock projefting out into the fea; the extremity
of which towards the fea is called a caps or headland.
See Plate CCXII. _
PROMPTER, in the drama, an officer polled be¬
hind the fcenes, whofc bufinefs it is to watch attentive¬
ly the adtors fpeaking on the flage, in order to fuggeft
and put them forward when at a Hand, to corredl them
when amifs, &c. in their parts.
PROMULGATED, or Promulged, fomething
publifhed or proclaimed, and generally applied to a
law, to denote the publifhing or proclaiming it to the
people.
PRONAOS, in the ancient architedlure, a porch to
a church, palace, or other fpacious building. See the
article Pouch.
PRONATION, among anatomifts. The radius of
the arm has two kinds of motions, the one called pro-
nation, the other fupination. Pronation is that where¬
by the palm of the hand is turned downwards ; and fu¬
pination, the oppofite motion thereto, is that whereby
the back of the hand is turned downwards. The pe¬
culiar mufcles whereby pronation is performed, are call¬
ed pronatoresy as thofe by which fupination is performed
are termed fuplnatores. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufclesy and Plates.
PRONG-hoe, in hufbandry, a term ufed to exprefs
an initrument ufed to hoe or break the ground near
and among the roots of plants.
The ordinary contrivance of the hoe is very defec¬
tive, it being only made for fcraping on the furface ;
but the great ufe of hoeing being to bieak and open
the ground, befide the killing of the weeds, which the
ancients, and many among us, have thought the only
ufe of the hoe, this dull and blunt inftrument is by no
means calculated for the purpofes it is to ferve. The
prong-hoe confifts of two hooked points of fix or feven
inches long, and when flruck into the ground will flir
and remove it the fame depth as the plough does, and
thus anfwer both the ends of cutting up the weeds and
opening the land. It is ufeful even in the horfe-hoeing
hufbandry, becaufe the hoe-plough can only come with¬
in three or four inches of the rows of the corn, turnips,
and the like ; whereas this inftrument may be ufed after¬
wards, and with it the land may be raifcd and flirred
even to the very llalk of the plant. See Agriculture
and Hoe.
PRONOUN, Pronomen, in grammar, a declinable
part of fpeech, which being put inflead of a noun,
points out fome perfon or thing. See Grammar.
PRONUNCIATION, in grammar, the manner of
articulating or founding the words of a language.
Pronunciation makes the moft difficult part of writ¬
ten grammar; in regard that a book expreffing itfelf
to the eyes, in a matter that wholly concerns the ears,
feems next akin to that of teaching the blind to diflin-
guifh colours : hence it is that there is. no part fo de¬
fective in grammar as that of pronunciation, as the
writer has frequently no term whereby to give the read¬
er an idea of the found he would exprefs ; for want ofPronunoia*.
a proper term, therefore, he fubflitutes a vicious and
precarious one. To give a juft idea of the pronuncia^ —
tion of a language, it feems neceffary to fix as nearly as
poffible all the feveral founds employed in the pronun¬
ciation of that language. Cicero tells us, that the
pronunciation underwent feveral changes among the
Romans: and indeed it is more precarious in the li¬
ving languages, being, as Du Bos tells us, fubfervient
to fafhion in thefe. The French language is clogged
with a difficulty in pronunciation from which moft
others are free ; and it confifts in this, that moft of
their words have two different pronunciations, the one
in common profe, the other in verfe.
As to the pronunciation of the Englifh language,
the ingenious Mr Martin, in his Spelling-Book of Arts
and Sciences, lays down the following rules: 1. The
final (e) lengthens the found of the foregoing vowel;
as in can. cane ; rob, robe ; tun, tune. &c. 2. I he final
(ejy in words ending in rf, is founded before the r like
u; as maffacre, maffa-cur; lucre, lu-cur &c. g. The
Latin diphthongs <e, a, are founded like e; as JEtna,
Etna; (economy, economy, See.but at the end of the
words oe founds like 0 ; as in toe, foe, &c. 4. Alfo the
Englifh improper diphthongs, ea, eo, eu, ue, found only
the e and u ; as tea or te ; feoffee or ftffee ; due or du ;
true or tru. See. though fometimes eo and ea aie pro¬
nounced like ee, as in peopl-, fear, near. See. 5. Some¬
times the diphthong (ie) is pronounced like e in deling,
like ee in field, and, at the end of words, always like y,
as in lie. See.; and. fi is pronounced either like t ora/, as
in deceit, reign. Sec. 6. The triphthong eau is pronoun¬
ced like 0, in beau and jet d'tau ; and ieu founds like a
in lieu, adieu, Sec. 7. The found of c is hard before the
vowels a, 0, v, as in call, cold, cup, Sec.; alfo fometimes
before h, as in chart, cold, Sec. ; and before / and r, as
in clear, creep, &c. It is otherwife generally foft, as in
city, cell, cyder, child, Sec. 8. In French words th is
founded like Jh, as in chagreen, machine ; and fometimes
like qu, as in choir. 9. The found of g is hard before
a, o, u, l, r, as in gall, go, gum, glean, grope; alfo before
ui, as. in guilt, guild, Sec. ; and before h,. as in ghoft ;
fometimes before/, as in gibbous, gibberijh. It is alfo
generally hard before e, as in get, geld, &c.; but foft in
many words derived from the Greek and Latin, as in
geometry, genealogy, genus, Sec. Two gg are always hard,
as in dagger, Sec. The found of g, when foft, is like
that of j. 10. In any part of a word, ph founds like^,
as in philofophy, Sec. 11. The found of qu, at the end-
of French words, is like k, as in rifque, Sec. 12. The
fyllables ti and ci, if followed by a vowel, found like fi
or fid ; as in fiidhon, logician, &c. J 3. When cc occurs
before the firfl is hard and the latter is foft; as in
flaccid, Sec. 14. The letter p is not pronounced at the
beginning of fyllables before f and t ; as in pfalm, ptar-
mics. Sec. As to other peculiarities regarding the pro¬
nunciation of fingle, letters, many of them have been ta¬
ken notice of at the beginning of each, in the courfe of
this work.
But it is not enough to know the juft, pronunciation
of fingle letters, but alio ot words : in order to which,
the accenting of words ought to be well underftood ;
fince nothing is more'hailh and difagreeable to the ear,
than to hear a perfon fpeak or read with wrong ac¬
cents. And indeed in Englilh the fame word is often
both
Pronuncia¬
tion,
Proof-
PRO [ -589 1
both a noun and a verb, diftingulfhed only by the ac- wood m tne middl
cent, which is on the firft fyllable of the^ noun, and on
the laft of the verb ; as ferment and ferment; record and
record, &c. We are to obferve alfo, that in order to a
mft expreffion of words, fome require only a fmgle ac¬
cent on the fyllable, as in torment, &c. ; but in others
it fhould be marked double, as in an) mu, became it is
pronounced as if the letter was wrote double, viz. an-
Mr Sheridan’s Di&ionary will be found extremely
ufeful as a dire£lory in acquiring the pronunciation of
the Enodifh language ; but care mull be taken to avoid
his provincial brogue, which has certainly nufled him in
feveral inftances. Mr Walker’s Pronouncing Diftionary,
lately publifhed, will like wife deferve the Undent’s at¬
tention. It is a work of great labour and merit, and
is highly ufeful. It has indeed fome faults and inaccu¬
racies, but it is riotwithftanding, in all probability, the
bell of the kind. „
Pronunciation is alfo ufed for the fifth and Ml
part of rhetoric, which confills in varying and icgula-
tin^ the voice agreeably to the matter and words, lo
as moll effe&ually to perfuade and touch the hearers.
See Oratory, Part IV.
PROOF, in law and logic, is that degree of evidence
which carries conviftion to the mind. It differs from
demonilration, which is applicable only to thole truths
of which the contrary is inconceivable. It ditters like-
wife from probability, which produces for the moft part
nothing more than opinion, while proof produces belief.
See Probability. , . ,
The proof of crimes was anciently effected among
our ancellors divers ways; viz. by duel or combat, lire,
water, &c. See Duel and Ordeal.^ ,
Proov of Artillery and Small Arms, is a trial whether
they Hand the quantity of powder allotted for that
purpofe. The rule of the board of ordnance is, that
all guns, under 24-pounders, be loaded with powder as
much as their Ihot weighs ; that is, a brafs 24-pounder
with 21 lb. a brafs 32-pounder with 26 lb. 12 oz. and
a 42-pounder with 31 lb. 8 oz. ; the iron 24-pounder
with 18 lb. the 32-pounder with 21 lb. 8 oz. and the
42-pounder with 25 lb. ,
The brafs light field-pieces are proved with powder
that weighs half as much as their Ihot, except the 24-
pounder, which is loaded with 1 o lb only-
1 Government allows 11 bullets of lead m the pound
for the proof of mufkets, and 14.5, or 29 m two
pounds, for fervice ; 17 ^ the pound for the proof of
carabines, and 20 for fervice ; 28 m the pound for the
proof of pillols, and 34 ^or fervice*
When guns of a new metal, or of lighter conftruc-
tion, are proved; then, beiidesthe common proof, they
aie fired 200 or 300 times, as quick .as they can be,
loaded with the common charge given in adua. iervice.
Our light b.pounders were fired 300 times m 3 houis
27 minutes, loaded with 1 lb. 4 oz. without receiving
any damage. . , r a
Proof of Ponuder, is in order to try its goodneis and
flrength. See Gunpowder. ^ _ .
Proof of Cannon, is made to afeertain their being
well call, their having no cavities in their metal, and,
in a word, their being fit to refill the effort of their
charge of powder. In making this proof, the p^ece is
laid upon the ground, fupported duly by a piece ci
PRO
  7 of about 5 or 6 inches thick, to
raife the muzzle a little ; and then the piece is fired '
againft a folid butt of earth.
Pools ufed in the Proof of Cannon are as follow :
Searcher, an iron focket with branches, from 4 to 8
in number, bending outwards a little, with fmall points
at their ends : to this fockct is fixed a wooden handle,
from 8 to 12 feet long, and inch in diameter. This
fearcher is introduced into the gun after each firing,
and turned gently round to difeover the cavities with¬
in : if any are found, they are marked on the outfide
with chalk ; and then the
Searcher with one point is introduced : about which
point a mixture of wax and tallow is put, to take the
imprefiion of the holes ; and if any are found of one-
fourth of an inch deep, or of any confiderable length,
the gun is rejetted as unferviceable to the government.
Reliever, is an iron ring fixed to a handle, by means
of a focket, fo as to be at right angles; it ferves to dif-
engage the firft fearcher, when any of its points are re¬
tained in a hole, and cannot otherwife be got out.
When guns are rejetted by the proof-mafters, they or¬
der them to be marked X thus, which the contrattors
generally alter IVP thus ; and after fuch alteration,
difpofe of them to foreign powers for Woolwich proof.
The moft curious inflrument for finding the princi¬
pal defetts in pieces of artillery, was lately invented by
lieutenant-general Defaguliers, of the royal regiment
of artillery. This inftrument, grounded on the trueft:
mechanical principles, is no fijoner introduced into the
hollow cylinder of the gun, than it difeovers its defettsy
and more particularly that of the piece not being truly
bored; which is a veiy important one, and to which-
moft of the difafters happening to pieces of artillery
are in a great meafure to be imputed ; for, when a gun
is not truly bored, the moft expert artillerift will not be
able to make a good fhot.
Proof of Mortars and Howitzers, is made to afeer¬
tain their being well call, and of ftrength to refill the
effort of their charge. For this purpofe the mortar or
howitzer is placed upon the ground, with fome part of
their trunnions or breech funk below the furface, and
refting on wooden billets, at an elevation of about 7^
degrees.
The mirror is generally the only inftrument to dil-
cover the defetts in mortars and howitzers. In order
to ufe it, the fun mull Ihine; the breech mull be placed
towards the fun, and the glafs over-againft the mouth
of the piece : it illuminates the bore and chamber lulfi-
ciently to difeover the flaws in it.
Proof of Foreign Brafs-Artillery, ill, llie Pruffians.
Their battering-train and garrifon artillery are proved
with a quantity of powder equal to 4 the weight of
Proof.
the fliot, and fired 7.5 rounds as fail as in real fervice ;
that is, 2 or 3 rounds in a minute. I heir light field-
train, from a 12-pounder upwards, are proved with a
quantity of powder = i-3d of the weight of the.Ihot,
and fired 150 rounds, at 3 or 4 rounds in a minute.
From a 12-pounder downwards, are-proved with a quan¬
tity of powder = i-5th of the Ihot’s weight,- and fired
300 rounds, at 5 or 6 rounds each minute, properly
fpunged and loaded. Their mortars are proved with-
the chambers full of powder, and the fhells loaded. Phreo
rounds are fired as quick as poffible.
2d, The Dutch prove all their artillery by nnng
TVoof,
Propaga¬
tion.
T R O [ 590' ] P R
cadi piece 5" times; the two firft roumls with a quan- even of the common mallow has
tity of powder = 2-3ds of the weight of the fliot; and
the three laid rounds with a quantity of powder = 4- the
weight of the {hot.
3d, 1 he French the fame as the Dutch.
Proof, in brandy and other fpirituous liquors, is a
little white lather which appears on the top of the li¬
quor when poured into a glal's. This lather, as it dimi-
nifoes, forms itfelf into a circle called by the French the
cbapelet, and by the Englifh the bead or bubble.
Proofs of Priitfs, were anciently a few imprefiions
o
Life cf Ho- taken off in the courfe of an engraver’s procefs. He
r-artb. proved a plate in different Hates, that he might afcer-
tain how far his labours bad been fuccefsful, and when
thev were complete. The excellence of fuch early im-
preflions, worked with care, and under the artift’s eye,
occafioning them to be greedily fought after, and libe¬
rally paid for, it has been cuftornary among our modern
printfellers to take off a number of them, amounting,
perhaps to hundreds, from every plate of coofiderable
value ; and yet their want of rarenefs has by no means
abated their price. On retouching^a plate, it has been
alfo ufual, among the fame confcientious fraternity, t©
cover the infcription, which was immediately added af¬
ter the firft proofs were obtained, with flips of paper,
that a number of fecondary proofs might alfo be crea¬
ted.
Proof, in the fugar trade. See Sugar.
Proofs, in printing. See Printing, p. 524, col. 2.
PROPAGATION, the aft of multiplying the kind.
See Generation.
Propagation of Plants. The moft natural and the
moil univerfal way of propagating plants is by feeds.
See Plants, and Natural History, p. 654. But
they may alfo be propagated by fets, pieces, or cuttings,
taken from the parent plant. Willows are very eafrly
propagated by fets : fuch as rife to be confiderable tim¬
ber trees being raffed from fets 7 or 8 feet long, fharp-
ened at their larger ends, which are thruft intfo the ground
by the lides of ditches, on the banks of rivers, or in
any moiff foil. The fallow trees are raifed from fets only
3 feet long. The plane tree, mint, &c. may be propa¬
gated in the fame way. In providing the flips, (prigs,
or cuttings, however, care mull be taken to cut off fuch
branches as have knots or joints 2 or 3 inches beneath
them ; fmall top fprigs of 2 or 3 years growth are the
hell for this operation. Plants are alfo propagated by
parting their roots, each part of which, properly mana¬
ged, fends out frefh roots. Another mode of propaga-
ting plants is by layering or laying the tops of the
branches in the ground.
The method of layering is this : Dig a ring-trench
•round the ftool, of a depth fuitable to the nature of the
plant ; and having pitched upon the fhoots to be layer¬
ed, bend them to the bottom of the trench (either with
or without plafhing, as maybe found molt convenient),
and there peg them faff ; or, putting fome mould upon
them, tread them hard enough to prevent their fpring-
ing np again—fill in the mould—place the top of the
layer in an upffght pofture, treading the mould hard
behind it ; and cut it careiully off above the firft, fe-
cond, or third eye. Plants are alio propagated by their
bulbs.
1 he number of vegetables that may be propagated
fiom an individual is very remarkable, efpecially n the
molt minute plants The annual produft of one feed
been found to be no
lefs than 200,000; but it has been fince proved, by a
drift exam’nation into the more minute parts of the ve¬
getable world, that fo defpifed a plant as the common
wall mofs produces a much more numerous offspring.
In one of the little heads of this plant there have been
counted 13824 feeds. Now allotting to a root of this
plant e:ght branches, and to each branch fix heads, which,
appears to be a very moderate computation, the pro¬
duce of one feed is 6 X 13824^= 82944; and 8 X 82944,
gives 663,552 feeds as the annual produce of one feed,
and that fo fmall that 13824 of them are contained in
a capfule, whofe length is but one ninth of an inch, its
diameter but one 23d of an inch, and its weight but
the 13th part of a grain.
For the propagation or culture of particular plants,
fee Agriculture, Part II. feft. 3. p. 288. and Hus¬
bandry.
PROPER, fomething natural and effentially belong¬
ing to any thing.
PROPERTIUS (Sextus Aurelius), a celebrated
Latin poet, born at Mevania, a city of Umbria, now
called Bevagna, in the duchy of Spoletto. He went to
Rome after the death of his father, a Roman knight,
who had been put to death by order of Auguflus, for
having followed Antony’s party during the triumvirate.
Propertius in a fhort time acquired great reputation by
his wit and abilities, and had a confiderable (hare in the
efteem of Maecenas and Cornelius Galius. He had alfo
Ovid, Tibullus, Baffus, and the other ingenious men of
his time, for his friends. He died at Rome 19 B. C.
He is printed with almofl all the editions of Tibullus
and Catullus: but the belt edition of him is that
which was given ieparately by Janus Brouckhufius at
Amflerdam, 1702, in qto, and again in 1714, 4to. cum
curis fetunclis ejufdem. We have four books of his Ele¬
gies or Amours with a lady called Hojhay or Hojlilia,
to whom he gave the name of Cynthia.
PROPERTY, in a general fenfe, is a particular vir¬
tue or quality which nature hasbeftowed on fome things
exclufxve of all others : thus, colour is a property of
light; extenfion, figure, divifibility, and impenetrabili¬
ty, are properties of body. ^
Property, in law, is deferibed to be the highefl right Definidoa.
which a perfon has or can have to any thing.
There is nothing which fo generally ftrikes the ima¬
gination, and engages the affeftions of mankind, as the
right of property; or that foie and defpotic dominion
which one man claims and exercifes over certain external
things of the world, in total exclufion of the right of any 2
other individual in the univerfe. And yet there are ve-The origi- J
ry few that will give themfelves the trouble to confider na'^'un^a-
the original and foundation of this right. Pleafed as |
we are with the poffeffion, we feem afraid to look backp^.j.^rty
to the means by which it was acquired, as if fearful > gene-
fome defeft in our title ; or at heft we rell fatisfied w.th Cl,n”
the decilion of the laws in our favour, without examin-liacre<i*
ing the reafon or authority upon which thofe laws have
been built. We think it enough that our title is deri¬
ved by the grant of the former proprietor, by defeent
from our anceflors, or by the laft will and teffament of
the dying owner: not caring to refleft, that (accurate¬
ly and llriftly fpeaking) there is no foundation in na¬
ture or in natural law, why a fet of words upon parch¬
ment fhould convey the dominion of land ; why the Ion
fliould have a right to exclude his fellow-creatures from
a de-
PRO
C 591 3
PRO
This rit;ht
arifcs from
a divine
grant.
4
The ftate
Property, a determinate fpot of' ground, becaufe his father had
—"v—- done fo before him ; or why the occupier of a particu¬
lar field or of a jewel, when lying on his death-bed and
no longer able to maintain poffefiion, fhould be entitled
to tell the reft of the world which of them fhould enjoy
it after him. Thefe inquiries, it muft be owned, would
be ufelefs and even troublefome in common life. It is
well if the mafs of mankind will obey the laws when
made, without ferutinizing too nicely into the reafons
of making them. But when law is to be confidered
not only as a matter of practice, but alfo as a rational
fcience, it cannot be improper or ufelefs to examine
more deeply the rudiments and grounds of thefe pofitive
1 conftitutions of fociety.
In the beginning of the world, we are informed by
holy writ, that the all-bountiful Creator gave to man
“ dominion over all the earth ; and over the fifh of the
“ fea, and over the fowl of the air, and over eveiy li-
** ving thing that moveth upon the earth.” This is the
only true and folid foundation of man’s dominion over
external things, whatever airy metaphylical notions may
have been flatted by fanciful writers upon this fubjeft.
The earth, therefore, and all things therein, are the ge¬
neral property of all mankind, exclufive of other beings,
from the immediate gift of the Creator. And, while
the earth continued thinly inhabited, it is reafonable to
fuppofe, that all was in common among them, and that
every one took from the public flock to his own ufe fuch
things as his immediate neceffities. required.
Thefe general notions of property were then fufficient
©f propert} to anfwcr all the purpofes of human life; and might per-
in the cady hapsftill have anfwered them,had it been pofliblefor man-
wodd/thC kind to have remained in a ilate of primaeval fimplicity:
as may be colledted from the manners of many Ameri¬
can nations, when firft difeovered by the Europeans ;
and from the ancient method of living among the firfl
Europeans themfelves, if we may credit either the me¬
morials of them preferved in the golden age of the poets,
or the uniform accounts given by hiftorians of thofe
times wherein erant omnia communia et indivifa omriibusr
’veluti unum cunElis pafrlmomum cjjtt. Not that this com¬
munion of goods feems ever to have been applicable,
even in the earlieft ages, to aught but the jubjlance of
the thing ; nor could it be extended to the ufe of it.
For, by the law of nature and reafon, he who firft began
to ufe it, acquired therein a kind of tranfient property,
that lafled fo long as he was ufing it, and no longer :
or, to fpeak with greater precifion, the right of poffef-
fion continued for the fame tune only that the aft of pof¬
fefiion lafled. Thus the ground was in common, and
no part of it was the permanent property of any man in
particular; yet whoever was in the occupation of any
determinate fpot of it, for reft, for fhade, or the like,
acquired for tire time a fort of ownerfhip, from which
it would have been unjuft, and contrary to the law of
nature, to have driven him by force ; but the inflant
that he quitted the ufe or occupation of it, another might
feize it without injuftice. Thus alfo a v- ne or other
tree might be faid to be in common, as all were equal¬
ly entitled to its produce; and yet any private indivi¬
dual might gain the foie property of the fruit, which he
had gathered for his own repaft. A doilrine well illu-
Itrated by Cicero, who compares the world to a great
theatre, which is common to the public, and yet the
place which any man has taken is for the time his own.
6
Comment
But when mankind increafed in number, craft, an5 Property.
ambition, it became necefiary to entertain conceptions
of more permanent dominion ; and to appropriate to in- R;fe ^ peri<i
dividuals, not the immediate ufe only, but the very -nai.entpro-
fuhfiance of the thing to be ufed : otherwife innume-Perty ^ Vil-
rable tumults mult have arifen, and the good order of ‘:milt in® ’
the world been continually broken and diflurbed, while
a variety of perfons were ftriving who fhould get the
firfl occupation of the fame thing, or difputing which
of them had adlually gained it. As human life alfo
grew more and more refined, abundance of convenien-
cies were devifed to render it more cafy, commodious,
and agreeable ; as habitations for fhelter and fafety, and
raiment for warmth and decency. But no man would
be at the trouble to provide either, fo long as he had
only an ufufru&uary property in them, which was to
ceafe the inftant that he quitted pofieffion ;—if, as foon
as he walked out of his tent, or pulled off his gar¬
ment, the next itranger who came by would have a
right to inhabit the one and to wear the other. In
cafe of habitations in particular, it was natural to
obferve, that even the brute creation, to whom eve¬
ry thing elfe was in common, maintained a permanent
property in their dwellings, efpecially for the protec¬
tion of their young ; that the birds of the air had nells,
and the beafts of the field had caverns, the invalion of
which theyefteemed a very flagrant injuftice, and would
facrifice their lives to preferve them. Hence a property
was foon eftablifhed in every man’s houfe and home-ftali;
which feem to have been originally mere temporary huts
or moveable cabins, fuited to tl*e defign of Providence
for more fpeedily peopling the earth, and'fuited to the
wandering life of their owners, before any extenfive
property in the foil or ground was eftablilhed. And
there can be no doubt, but that moveables of every kind
became fooner appropriated than the permanent fubflan-
tial foil: partly becaufe they were more fufceptible of
a long occupancy, which might be continued for months
together without any fenfible interruption, and at length
by ufage ripen into an eftablifhed right ; but principu’-
ly becaufe few of them could be fit for ufe, till impro¬
ved and Ameliorated by the bodily labour of the ^occu¬
pant ; which bodily labour, beftowed upon any fub~
jedl which before lay in common to all men, is univerr
fally allowed to give the faireft and moft reafonable title
to an exclufive property therein. g.
The article of food was a more immediate call, and i„ f00c{ 1
therefore a more early confideration. Such as were not and other*
contented with the fpontaneous produdl of the earth
fought for a more folid refreflnnent in the fldh of beafts, ^
which they obtained by hunting. But the frequent dif-
appointments incident to that inetlxod of provifion indu¬
ced them to gather together fuch animals as were of a
more tame and fequacious nature ; and to eftablrfh a per¬
manent property in their flocks and herds, in order to
fuflain themfelves in a lefs precarious manner, partly by
the milk of their dams, and partly by the flefh of the
young. The fupport of thefe their cattle made the ar¬
ticle of ‘water alfo a very important point. And there¬
fore the book of Genefis (the moft venerable monument ^at:u'.e
of antiquity, confidered merely with a view to hiftory) patriarchal
will furniftt us with frequent inftancesof violent conten-property,
tions concerning wells ; the exclufive property cf which
appears tohave been cftablilhed in thefirll digger or occu¬
pant, even in fuch places where the ground and herbage
remained
pro r 592
Property. •Remained yet in common. Thus we find Abraham,
who was but a fojourner, aflerting his right to a well in
the country of Abimelech, and cxadting an oath tor his
fecurity, “ becaufe he had digged that well” And
Ifaac, about 90 years afterwards, reclaimed this his fa¬
ther’s property ; and, after much contention with the
.Philiftines, was fullered to enjoy it in peace.
All this while the foil and pafture of the earth re¬
mained Hill in common as before, and open to every oc¬
cupant: except perhaps in the-neighbourhood of towns,
where the necefiity of a foie and exclufive property in
lands (for the fake of agriculture) was earlier felt, and
therefore more readily complied with. Otherwiie, when the
multitude of men and cattle had confumed every conve¬
nience on one fpot of ground, it was deemed a natural
right to feize upon and occupy fuch other lands as would
more eafily fupply their necefiitics. This praftice is
iliil retained among the wild and uncultivated nations
that have never been fonned into civil Hates, like the
Tartars and others in the eaH ; where the climate itfelf,
and the boundlefs extent of their territory, confpire t©
retain them Hill in the fame favage Hate of vagrant
liberty, which was univerfal in the earlieH ages, and
which Tacitus informs us continued among the Ger¬
mans till the decline of the Roman empire. We have
alfo a Hriking example of the fame kind in the hiHo-
ry of Abraham and his nephew Lot. When th?ir
joint fubHance became fo great, that paHure and other
convemencies grew fcarce, the natural confeqnence was,
that a Hrife arofe between their fervants ; fo that it was
no longer practicable to dwell together. This conten¬
tion Abraham endeavoured to compofe : “ Let there
be no Hn'fe, I pray thee, between thee and me. Is not
the whole land before thee ? Separate thyfelf, I pray
thee, from me : If thou wilt take the left hand, then I
will go to the right; or if thou depart to the right
hand, then I will go to the left.” This plainly implies
an acknowledged right, in either, to occupy whatever
ground he pleafed, that was not pre-occupied by other
tribes. “ And Lot lilted up his eyes, and beheld all
the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered eveiywhere,
even as the garden of the Lord. Then Lot chofe him
all the plain of Jordan, and journeyed eaH ; and Abra¬
ham dwelt in the land of Canaan.”
Upon the fame principle was founded the right of
migration, or fending colonies to find out new' habita¬
tions, when the mother-country was overcharged with
inhabitants ; which was pradfifed as well by the Phoe¬
nicians and Greeks, as the Germans, Scythians, and
other northern people. And, fo long as it was con¬
fined to the Hocking and cultivation of defert uninha¬
bited countries, it kept Hridtly within the limits of the
g law of nature.
Neculiry of as t^ie worltl by degrees grew more populous, it
preyerty daily became more difficult to find out new fpots to
a-k! >f laws inhabit, without encroaching upon former occupants;
refpe&ing ancj j^y COnHantly occupying the fame individual fpot,
the fruits of the earth were confumed, and its fponta-
neous produce deHroyed, without any provilion for a
future iupply or fucceffion. It therefore became ne-
ceflary to purfue fome regular method of providing a
conftant fuhhfience ; and this neceffity produced, or at
leaH promoted and encouraged, the art of agriculture.
And the art of agriculture, by a regular connection
and confequence, introduced and eHabliihed the idea
1 PRO
of a more permanent property in the foil than had hi¬
therto been received and adopted. It was clear that
the earth would not produce her fruits in fufficient
quantities without the affiHance of tillage ; but who
would be at the pains of tilling it, if another might
watch an opportunity to feize upon and enjoy the pro¬
duct of his indullry, art, and labour ? Had not there¬
fore a feparate property in lands, as well as move¬
ables, been vefied in fome individuals, the world mail
have continued a forefi, and men have been mere ani¬
mals of prey ; which, according to fome philofophers,
is tlie genuine Hate of nature. Whereas now (fo gra-
cioufly has Providence interwoven our duty and our
happinefs together) the refult of tins very neceffityffia*
been the ennobling of the human fpecies, by giving it
opportunities of improving in rational faculties, as well
as of exerting its natural. Neceffity begat property :
and in order to infure that property', recourfe was had
to civil fociety, which brought along with it a long
train of infeparable concomitants ; Hates, government,
laws, punifhments, and the public exercife of religi¬
ous duties. Thus connected together, it was found
that a part only of fociety was fufficient to provide, by
their manual labour, for the neceflary fubfiHence of
all; and leifure was given to others to cultivate the
human mind, to invent ufeful arts, and to lay the foun¬
dations of fcience.
The only queHion remaining is, How this property Property
became actually veHeJ; or what it is that gave a man acquired
an exclufive right to retain in a permanent manneroc“
that fpecific land which before belonged generally tocu^ ancA
every body', but particularly to nobody ? And as we
before obferved, that occupancy gave the right to the
temporary ufc of the foil; fo it is agreed upon all
hands, that occupancy gave alfo the original right to
the permanent property in the fubjlance of the earth
itfelf, which excludes every one elfe but the owner from
the ufe of it. There is indeed fome difference among
the writers on natural law, concerning the reafon why
occupancy ffiould convey this right, and inveft one
with this abfolute property : Grotius and Puffendorf
infilling, that this right of occupancy is founded upon
a tacit and implied affent of all mankind, that the
firfi occupant fiiould become the owner ; and Barbey-
rac, Titius, Mr Locke, and others, holding, that
there is no fuch implied affent, neither is it neceffary
that there ffiould be ; for that the very aft of occu¬
pancy, alone, being a degree of bodily labour, is from
a principle of natural jultice, without any confent or
compadl, fufficient of itfelf to gain a title. A difpute
that favours too much of nice and fcholaffic refinement.
However, both fides agree in this, that occupancy is
the thing by which the title was in faft originally
gained ; every man feizing to his own continued ufe
fuch fpots of ground as he found moff agreeable to his
own convenience, provided he found them unoccupied
by any one elfe. 10
’ Property, both in lands and moveables, being thus By what _
originally acquired by the firff taker, which taking
amounts to a declaration, that he intends to appropriate^6^
the thing to his own ufe, it remains in him, by the
principle of univerfal law, till fuch time as he does
fome other aft which fhows an intention to abandon
it; for then it becomes, naturally fpeaking, publici
juris once more, and is liable to be again appropria-
PRO. [ 593 3 v R 0
^•foi tfrty, jrjv tlitf next occupant. So if one is pollefied of a
u*~^—~ jewel,' and calls it into the fea or a public highway,
this is fuch an exprefs dereliaion, that a property will
be wiled in the firft fortunate finder that lhall feize it
to his own nfe. But if he hides it privately in the
earth, or other fecret place, and it is difeovered, the
finder acquires no property therein ; for the owner
hath not by this aft declared any intention to abandon
it, but rather the contrary : and if he lofes or drops
it by accident, it cannot be collected from thence that
he defigned to quit the pofleffion ; and therefore in
fuch cafe the property Hill remains in the Infer, who
may claim it again of the finder. And this, we may
remember, is the dotirine of the Englilh law with rela¬
tion to TuEASURF.-Trovr.
But this method, of one man’s abandoning his pro¬
perty, and another feizing the vacant pofieflion, how¬
ever well founded in theory, could not long fubfill in
foft. It was calculated merely for the rudiments of
civil fociety, and necefiarily ceafed among the compli¬
cated interells and artificial refinements of polite and
ellablilhed governments. In thefe it was found, that
what became inconvenient or ufelefs to one man, was
highly convenient and ufeful to another; who was
ready to give in exchange for it fome equivalent that
was equally defirable to the former proprietor. This
mutual convenience introduced commercial traffic, and
the reciprocal transfer ot property by fale, grant, or
conveyance: which may be confidered either as a con¬
tinuance of the original pollefiion which the firit occu¬
pant had ; or as an abandoning of the thing by the
prefent owner, and an immedkite fuccefiive occupancy
of the fame by the new proprietor. The voluntary de-
reliftion of the owner, and delivering the pofleflion to.
another individual, amount to a transfer of the proper¬
ty ; the proprietor declaring his intention no longer to
occupy the thing himfelf, but that his own right of
occupancy lhall be veiled in the new acquirer. Or,
taken in the other light, if I agree to part with an acre
of my land to Titius, the deed of conveyance is an evi¬
dence of my intending to abandon the property ; and
Titius, being the only or firft man acquainted with
fuch my intention, immediatly fteps in and feizea the
vacant polfelfion : thus the confent expreffed by the
conveyance gives Titius a good right againft me ; and
poflelfion or occupancy confirms that right againft all
the world befides.
H The moll univerfal and effeftual way of abandoning
goes f.n the property is by the death of the occupant : when,
death of both the adlual pofTelfion and intention of keeping pof-^
ahe occu- felp10n ceafing, the property, which is founded upon
*iant” fuch polfclTion and intention, ought alfo to ceafe of
courfe. For, naturally fpeaking, the inftant a n130
ceafes to be, he ceafes to have any dominion : elfe, if he
had a right to difpofe of his acquilitions one moment
beyond his life, he would alfo have a right to direft
their difpofal for a million of ages alter him ; which
would be highly abfurd and inconvenient (a). AH
property muft therefore ceafe upon death, confidering
men as abfolute individuals, and unconnefted with ci-
Vol. XV. Part IT.
vil fociety ^ for then, by the principles before efta- Property,
blilhed, the next immediate occupant would acquire a ——v—*1
right in all that the deceafed pofielfed. But as, un¬
der civilized governments, v/hich are calculated for the
peace of mankind, fuch a conftitution would be pro-
duftive of endlefs difturbances, the univerfal law of
almoft every nation (which is a kind of fecondary law
of nature) has either given the dying perfon a power
of continuing his property, by difpofing of his poflef-
fions by will; or, in cafe he negledls to difpofe of it,
or is not permitted to make any difpofition at all, the
municipal law of the country then fteps in, and de¬
clares who lhall be the fuccelfor, reprefentative, or heir
of the deceafed ; that is, who alone lhall have a right
to enter upon this vacant poirelfion, in order to avoid
that confufion which its becoming again common
would occalion. And farther, in cafe no teftament be
permitted bykthe law, or none be made, and no heir
can be found fo qualified as the law requires, Hill, to
prevent the rohuft title of occupancy from again taking
place, the doftrine of efeheats is adopted in almolt
every country ; whereby the fovereign of the Hate, and
thofe who claim under his authority, are the ultimate
heirs, and fuccced to thofe inheritances to which no
other title can be formed. i®
The right of inheritance, or defeent to the children Of the
and relations of the deceafed, feems to have been al-J’iS1?toflrt'
lowed much earlier than the right of devifing by tefta- cntance’
ment. We are apt to conceive at the firft view that it
has nature on its fide; yet we often mitlake for na¬
ture what we find eftabliihed by long and inveterate
cullom. It is certainly a wife and effeftual, but clear¬
ly a political, eftablilhment ; fince the permanent right
of property, veiled in the anceftor himfelf, was no
natural, but .merely a civil, right. It is true, that the
tranfmifiion of one’s poffefiions to pofterity has an evi¬
dent tendency to make a man a good citizen and a ufe¬
ful member of fociety : it fets the pafiions on the fide
of duty, and prompts a man to deferve well of the
public, when he is fare that the reward of his fen-ices
will not die with himfelf, but be tranfmitted to thofe
w-ith whom he is connefted by the deareft and moll
tender affeftions. Yet, reafonable as this foundation
of the right of inheritance may feem, it is probable
that its immediate original arofe not from fpeculations
altogether fo delicate and refined, and, if not from
fortuitous circumftances, at leaft from a plainer and
more fimple principle. A man’s children or neareii
relations are ufually about him on his death-bed, and
are the earlieft witneffes of his deceafe. They became
therefore generally the next immediate occupants, till
at length in procefs of time this frequent ufage ripened
.into general law. And therefore alfo in the earlieft
ages, on failure of children, a man’s fervants born un¬
der his roof were allowed to be his heirs ; being im¬
mediately on the fpot when he died. For we find the
old patriarch Abraham exprefsly declaring, that “ fince
God had given him no feed, his llevvaid Ehezer, one
born in his houfe, was his heir.”
While property continued only for life, teftaments
4 F were
(a) This right, inconvenient as it certainly is, the law of Scotland gives to every man over his real efta^e, by
Authorifing him to entail it on his heirs for ever. See Law, clx*x. 9, 10, 11. and I ailzie.
*
T
Property.
PRO t 59+ 1 p R °
vf..e efclefs and unknown ; and when It became inhe- peace, by the pofitive law of fociety. The pofittve Property,
rltable the inheritance was long indefeafible, and the law of Ibctety, which is with us the municipal laws of
children or heirs at law were incapable ot exclufion by "England and Scotland, diretls.it to veil m pen on
will. Till at length it was found, that fo llria a rule as the lad nroorietor fliall bv will, attended with certain
of inheritance made heirs difobedient and headftrong,
defrauded creditors of their juft debts, and prevented
many provident fathers from dividing or charging their
eftates as the exigence of their families required. This
introduced pretty generally the right of difpoiing of
one's property, or "a part of it, by tejament; that is,
by written or oral inftru&ions properly witnefed and
authenticated, according to the pleafure of the decea-
fed ; which we therefore emphatically, llyle his ivilf.
This was eftablifhed in feme countries much later
than in ethers. In England, till modern times,
T4
Are crea¬
tures of the
civil or
municipal
laws.
Kl.'ljl.
Cum n: cut.
r?
Scruples
refpe&irig
heritable
property
removed.
man could only difpofe of one-third of his moveables
from his wire and children ; and, in general, no will
was permitted of lands till the reign of Henry VIII.
and then only of a certain portion ; for it was not till
after the Reftoration that the power of devifing real
property became fo univerfal as at prefent.
Wills, therefore, and teftaments, rights of inheri¬
tance, and fucceffions, are all of them creatures of the
civil or municipal laws, and accordingly are in all re-
fpefts regulated by them ; every diilindt country ha¬
ving different ceremonies and requifites to make a tef-
tament completely valia ; neither does any thing vary
more than the right of inheritance under different na¬
tional eftablifhments. In England particularly, this
diverfity is carried to fuch a length, as ir it had been
meant to point out the power of the laws in regula¬
ting the fucceffion to property, and how futile every
claim muft be that has not its foundation in the pofi¬
tive rules of the ftate. In perfonal eftates, the fattier
may fucceed to his children ; in landed property, ne
never can be their immediate heir by any the remoteil
poffibility : in general, only the eldeft fon, in fome
places only the youngeft, in others ail the fons toge¬
ther, have a right to fucceed to the inheritance : In
real eftates, males are preferred to females, and the
tldeft male will ufually exclude the reft ; in the divi-
iion of perfonal eftates, the females of equal degree are
admitted together with the males, and no right of pri¬
mogeniture is allowed.
This one confideration may help to remove the
fcruples of many well-meaning perfons, who fet up a
miftaken confcience in oppofition to the rules of law.
If a man diftnherits his fon, by a will duly executed,
and leaves his eftate to a ftranger, there are many who
confider this proceeding as contrary to natural juftice ;
while others fo fcrupuloufly adhere to the fuppofed in¬
tention of the dead, that if a will of lands be attefted
by only two witneiTes inftead of three, which the law
requires, they. are apt to imagine that the heir is
bound in confcience to relinquifh his title to the devi-
fee. But both of them certainly proceed upon very er¬
roneous principles : as if, on the one hand, the fon had
by nature a right to focceed to his lather’s lands ; or
us if, on the other- hand, the owner was by nature
entitled to diredl the fucceffion of his property after
his own deceafe. Whereas the law of nature fuggefts,
that on the death of the poffeffor, the eftate ffiould
again become common, and be open to the next occu¬
pant, unlefs otherwife ordered, for the fake of civil
as the laft proprietor fliall by will, attended with certain
requifites, appoint ; and, in defeat of fuch appointment,
to go to fome particular perfon, who, from the refult ot
certain local conftitutions, appears to be the heir at
law. Hence it follows, that, where the appointment is
regularly made, there cannot be a Aiadow of right in
any one but the perfon appointed: and, where the nc-
ceffary requifites are omitted, the right of the heir is
equally ftrong and built upon as folid a foundation, as
the right of the devifee would have been, fuppoling
fuch requifites were obferved. jg
But, after all, there are fome few things, which, not-Of things
withftanding the general introduction and continuance that are
of property, muft (till unavoidably remain in common ; ^‘J11 C0IR*
being fuch wherein nothing but an ufufru'tuary pro¬
perty is capable of being had : and therefore they ftill
belong to the firft occupant, duringjhe time he holds
poffeffion of them, and no longer. Such (among others)
are the elements of light, air, and water ; which a man
may occupy by means of his windows, his gardens,
his mills, and other conveniences : fuch alio are the
generality of thofe animals which are faid to be fer<e
naturo’, or of a wild and untameable difpoiition ; which
any man may feize upon and keep for his own uie or
pleafure. All thefe things, fo long as they remain in
poffeffion, every man has a right to enjoy without dif-
turbance ; but if once they efcape. from his cuftody,
or he voluntarily abandons the ufe of them, they re¬
turn to the common ftork, and any other man has an
equal right to feize and enjoy them afterwards. , 7
Again, there are other things in which a permanent Of fimilar
property may i'ubfift, not only as to the temporary ufe, th'I??s
but alfo the folid fubftance ; and which yet would be ^en appV*.
frequently found without a proprietor, had not the wif- priated,
dom of the law provided a remedy to obviate this in¬
convenience. Such are forefts and other wafte grounds,
which were omitted to be appropriated in the general
diftribution of lands : fuch alfo are wrecks, eftrays, and
that fpectes of wild animals, which the arbitrary cen-
ftitutions of pofitive law have diftinguiihed from the
reft by the well-known appellation of game-. With re¬
gard to thefe and fome others, as difturbances and quar¬
rels would frequently arife among individuals contend¬
ing about the acquilition of this fpecies of property by
firft occupancy, the law has therefore wifely cut up
the root of diflfenfion, by vetting the things themfelvea
in the fevereign of the rtate ; or elfe in his.reprefenta-
tives appointed and autherifed by him, being ufually-
the lords of manors. And thus our legiflature has uni-
verfally promoted the grand ends of civil fociety, the
peace and fecuiity of individuals, by fteadily purfuing
that wife and orderly maxim, of affigning to every
thing capable of ownerfhip a legal and determinate
owner. _ 1 *
In this age of paradox and innovation, much has The rea-
been faid ol liberty and equality ; and fom* few have
contended for an equalization of property.. One ofcontend fof
the wildeft declaimers on this fubjett, who is for abo-an cquali-
hthing property altogether, has (inadvertently we fup-zati -» of.
pofe) given a complete confutation, not only of his l roPt;rty5
own arguments, but aUb of the arguments of all who
kav$
PRO
r 59 j 1
PRO
Property, Jiave written, or, wc think, can tmte, on the fame fide
Prophecy. o£ tjie qUeft;on< After labouring to prove that it is
grofs injultke in any man to retain more than is
abfolutely necdTary to fupply him with food, clothes,
and Ihelter, this zealous reformer Hates an objection to
his theory, ariiing from the well-known allurements of
floth, which, if the accumulation of property were not
permitted, would banilh indultry from the whole world.
The objeftion he urges fairly, andanfwers it thus : “ It
may be obferved, that the equality for which we are
pleading is an equality that would fucceed to a Hate
of great intelledlual improvement. So bold a revolu¬
tion cannot take place in human affairs, till the general
mind has been highly cultivated. The prefent age of
mankind is greatly enlightened ; but it is to be feared
is net yet enlightened enough. Hafty and undigeffed
tumults may take place, under the idea of an equaliza¬
tion of property ; but it is only a calm and clear con-
vidlion of juHice, of juHice mutually to be rendered and
received, of happinefs to be produced by the defertion of
ovr moji rooted habits introduce an invariable fyf--
tern of this fort. Attempts without this preparation will
be produ&ive only of confufion. Their effeft will be mo¬
mentary, and a new and more barbarous inequality will
fucceed. Each man with unaltered appetite will watch
his opportunity to gratify his love of power, or his
love of diffin&ion, by ufurping on his inattentive neigh¬
bours.”
Thefe are juH obfervations, and fuch as we have of-
A (t ten made to ourfelves on the various propofed reforma-
human na- tions of government. The illumination which the au¬
thor requires before he would introduce his abolition of
property, would conffitute men more than angels; for
to be under the influence of no pafiion or appetite, and
to be guided in every action by unmixed benevolence
and pure intelle6t, is a degree of perfeftion which we
can attribute to no being inferior to God. But it is
the object of the greater part of tills writer’s book to
prove that all men muH arrive at fuch perfection be¬
fore his ideal republic can contribute to their happi¬
nefs ; and therefore every one who is confcious of be¬
ing at any time fwayed by pafiion, and who feels that
he is more attached to his wife or children than to
ft rangers, will look without envy to the prefent inequa¬
lities of property and power, if he be an intelligent dif-
ciple of Mr Godwin. *
Literary Property. See Copy-Right.
PROPHECY is a word derived from and
in its original import fignifies the prediction of future
events.
As God alone can perceive with certainty the future
aCtions of free agents, and the remote confequences of
thofe laws of nature which he himfelf eftabliihed, pro¬
phecy, when clearly fulfilled, affords the moft convincing
evidence of an intimate and fupematural communion
between God and the perfbn who uttered the predic¬
tion. Together with the power of working miracles,
it is indeed the only evidence which can be given of fuch
a communion. Hence among the profeffors of every re¬
ligious lyltem, except that which is called the religion
of nature, there have been numberlefs pretenders to
the gift of prophecy. The Pagan nations of antiquity
had their oracles, augurs, and foothfayers. Modern
idolaters have their necromancers and diviners; and the
i 9
The tffeA
of igno¬
rance of
iui e.
Definition.
a
Prophecy
proves a
fuperna-
tural com
munion
with the
Deity.
3
The pro-
feffors of
alt religi :
have pie-
tended to
'it.
ch. xiv.
i? v. 3.
Jews, Chriilians, and Mahometans, have their feers and ■Irorir'r
prophets.
The ill-founded pretenfions of pagan!hr., ancient and
modern, have been expofed under various articles of
this work. (See Divination, Magic, Necroman¬
cy, and Mythology). And the claims of the Ara¬
bian impoftor are examined under the articles Alco¬
ran and Mahometanism ; fo that at prefent we have
only to confider the ufe, intent, and truth, of the Jewifh
and Chriftian prophecies. 4
Previous to our entering on this inveftigation, it 1T!ay
be proper to obferve, that in the Scriptures ot the 01d ture }lasV3.
and New Teilaments, the fignification of the word pro-rious
phecy is not always confined to the foretelling of fu-ings.
tare events. In feveral inftances it is of the fame im¬
port with preaching, and denotes the faculty of illu-
ftrating and applying to prefent practical purpofes the
do&rines of prior revelation. Thus in Nehemiah it is
faid, “ Thou hall appointed prophets to preach * and ^ ch' VI*
whoever fpeaketh unto men to edification, and exhorta- ^
tion, and comfort, is by St Paul called aprophet\. Plence ,1
it was that there were fchools of prophets in" Ifrael.
where young men were inftrutled in the truths of re¬
ligion, and fitted to exhort and comfort the people.
In this article, however, it is chiefly of importance to
confine ourfelves to that kind of prophecy which, in
declaring truths either part, prefent, or future, required
the immediate infpiration of God. 5
Every one who looks into the hiftory of the world ^icnce and
mull obferve, that the minds of men have from the be-^^"’^
ginning been gradually opened by a train of events Hill acquired,
improving upon, and adding light to each other; as
that of each individual is, by proceeding from the firff
elements and feeds of fcience, to more enlarged views,
and a Hill higher growth. Mankind neither are nor
ever have been capable of entering into the depths of
knowledge at once ; of receiving a whole fyftem of na¬
tural or moral truths together ; but mull be let into
them by degrees, and have them communicated by little
and little, as they are able to bear it. T hat this is the
cafe with refpe£t to human icience, is a fail which can¬
not be queftioned ; and there is as little room to que-
11 ion it with refpe& to the progrefs of religious know¬
ledge among men, either taken colledlively or in each
individual. ° Why the cafe is thus in both, why all are
not adult at once in body and mind, is a queilion which
the religion of nature is equally called upon with reve¬
lation to' anfwer. The fadt may not be eaiily account¬
ed for, but the reality of it is incontrovertible. 6
Accordingly, the great objedl of the feveral revela-The reve.
tions recorded in the Old Tellament was evidently to[^0^d°f
keep alive a fenfe of religion in the minds of men, and Xeftament
to train them by degrees for the reception of thole gradual.
Ample but fublime truths by which they were to be fa-
ved. The notions which the early defeendants of A-
dam entertained of the Supreme Being, and of the re¬
lation in which they Hood to him, were probably very
grofs ; and we fee them gradually refined by a feries of
revelations or prophecies, each in fuccefiion more ex¬
plicit than that by which it was preceded, till the ad¬
vent of Him who was the way, the truth, and the life,
and who brought to light life and immortality.
When a revelation was made of any important truth,
the ^rounds of which the mind of man has not facul-
4 F 2 ti<fc
PRO [
Prophecy, tics to comprehend, that revelation, though undoubt-
'    cdly a prophecy, muft have been fo far from confirm-
J ing the truth of revealed religion in general, that it
always ac- could not gain credit itfelf, but by fume extrinfic evi-
companied dence that it came indeed from Ood. Hence we find
by mira- Mofes, after it was revealed to him from the burning
*]es> bufii that he fhould deliver his countrymen from Egyp¬
tian bondage, replying, “ Behold, they will not believe
me, nor hearken to my voice; for they will fay, the
Lord hath not appeared unto thee.” This revelation
■certainly conftituted him a prophet to Ifrael; and there
cannot be a doubt but that he perfectly knew the divine
fource from which he received it: butheverynaturallyand
rcafonably concluded, that the children of Ifrael would
not believe that the Lord had appeared to him, unlefs
he could give them fome other proof of this preterna¬
tural appearance than his own fimple affirmation of its
reality. This proof he was immediately enabled to
give, by having conferred upon him the power of work¬
ing miracles in confirmation of his prophecy. Again,
when Gideon was called to the deliverance of Ifrael,
the angel of the Lord came and faid unto him, “ The
Lord is with thee, thou mighty man of valour: go in this
thy might, and thou fhalt fave Ifrael from the hand of the
Midianites. Have not I fent thee ?” Here was a pro¬
phecy delivered by the angel of the Lord to encourage
Gideon’s undertaking: but he, being probably afraid
of fome illufion of fenfe or imagination, demanded a
fign that he was really an angel who talked with him.
A iign is accordingly given him, a miraculous fign,
with which he is fatisfied, and undertakes the work ap-
S pointed him.
From thefe and many fimilar tranfaftions recorded
in the Old Teftament, it appears that prophecy was never
intended as evidence of an original revelation. It is
indeed, by its very nature, totally unfit for fuch a pur-
pofe ; becaufe it is impoffible, without fome extrinfic
proof of its divine origin, to know whether any pro¬
phecy be true or falfe, till the era arrive at which it ought
to be fulfilled. When it is fulfilled, it affords complete
evidence that he who uttered it fpake by the fpirit of
God, and that the do&rines which he taught of a reli¬
gious nature, were all either ditlated by the fame fpirit,
or at leaft are true, and calculated to dired mankind in
the way of their duty.
The prophecies vouchfafed to the patriarchs in the
molt early periods of the world, were all intended to
keep alive in their minds a feufe of religion, and to di-
red their views to the future completion of that firit
and greatell prophecy which was made to Adam im¬
mediately on his fall; but in order to fecure credit to
thofe prophecies themfelves, they were always accom¬
panied by fome miraculous fign that they were indeed
given by the God of truth, and not the delufions of
fanaticifm or hypocrify. Prophecy, in the proper fenfe
of the word, commenced with the fall; and the firll
inftance of it is implied in the fentence denounced upon
the original deceiver of mankind; “ I will put enmity
between thee and the woman, and between thy feed
and her feed : It lhall bruife thy head, and thou lhalt
bruife his heel.”
This prophecy, though one of the moft important
that ever was delivered, when confidered by itfelf, is ex-
oiTourfirft ceedingly obfeure. That Adam Ihould have under-
jgarents. ftood it, as fome of his degenerate fons have pretended
And of it¬
felf can be
no proof
of a reve¬
lation.
9
It was in¬
tended to
preferve a
fenfe of re¬
ligion a*
mong
Siren.
to
Probable
effects of
the firft
j96 ] p R °
to do, in a literal fenfe, is abfolutely impoffible. He Prophecy*
knew well that it was the great God or heaven and v
earth who was fpeaking, and that fuch a Being was
incapable of trifling with the wretchednefs of his fallen,
creature. I he fentence denounced upon himfelf and
his wife was awful and fevere. The woman was doom¬
ed to forrow in conception ; the man to forrow and
travel all the days of his life. The ground was cur-
fed for his fake ; and the end of the judgment was,
“ Dull thou art, and to duff thou fhalt return.” Had
our firft parents been thus left, they muft have looked
upon themfelves as rejecled by their Maker, delivered
up to trouble and forrow in the world, and as having no
hope in any other. With fuch impreffions on their minds
they could have retained no fenfe of religion; for religion,
when unaccompanied by hope, is a ftate of frenzy and
diftra&ion: yet it is certain that they could have no
hope from any thing exprefsly recorded by Mofes, ex¬
cept what they might draw from this fentence paffed
on their deceiver. Let us then endeavour to afeertain
what confolation it could afford them.
At that awful jumfture, they muft have been fenfible
that their fall was the vidlory of the ferpent, whom by
experience they had found to be an enemy to God and
to man. It could not therefore but be fome comfort
to them to hear this enemy firft condemned, and to fee
that, however he had prevailed againft them, he had
gained no vi&ory over their Maker. By his condem¬
nation they were fecured from thinking that there was
any malignant being equal to the Creator in power and
dominion ; an opinion which, through th^ prevelancy of
evil, gained ground in after times, and was deitrudlive
of all true religion. The belief of God’s fupreme do¬
minion being thus preferved, it was ftill neceffary to
give them fuch hopes as might induce them to love as,
well as to fear him ; and thefe they could not but con¬
ceive when they heard from the mouth of their Creator
and Judge, that the ferpent’s vidlory was not complete
even over themfelves ; that they and their pofterity
fhould be enabled to conteft his empire; and that
though they were to fuller much in the ftruggle, they
ftiould yet finally prevail, bruile the ferpent’s head, ami
deliver themfelves irom his power and dominion.
This prophecy therefore was to our firft parents a
light fhining in a dark place. All that they could
certainly conclude from it was, that their cafe was not
defperate ; that fome remedy, fome deliverance from the
evil they were under, would in time appear ; but when or
•ivherer or by what means they were to be delivered, they
could not pofllbly underftand, unlefs the matter was
further revealed to them, as probably it was at the infti-
tution of facrifice (See Sacrifice). Obfeure, how¬
ever, as this promife or prophecy was, it ferved after
the fall as a foundation for religion, and truft and con¬
fidence towards God in hopes of deliverance in time
from the evils of difobedience : and this appears to have
been the foie purpofe for which it was given, and not,
as fome well-meaning though weak advocates for Chrif-
tianity' have imagined, as a prediction pointing direttly
to the crofs of Chrift.
As this prophecy was the firft, fo is it the only con-
fiderable one in which we have any concern from the
creation to the days of Noah. It was proportioned ta
the then wants and neceifities of the world, and was the
grand charter of God’s mercy after the fall. Nature
had
Prophecy
ii
The curfe
removed
from the
ground.
» Ufa and
Intent cf.
Prophecy.
11
A future
life not
then expli
citly re¬
vealed.
PRO
had no certain help for finners
with her innocence. It was therefore neceflary either
to dehroy the offenders, or to raife them to a capacity
of falvation, by giving them fuch hopes as might ena¬
ble them to exercife a reafonable religion. So far the
light of this prophecy extended. By what means God
intended to work their falvation, he did not exprefsly
declare : and who has a right to complain that he did
not, or to preferibe to him rules in difpenhng his mercy
to the children of men ?
Upon the hopes of mercy which this prophecy gives
in very general terms, mankind refted till the birth of
Noah. At that period a new prophecy was delivered
by Lamech, who foretels that his fon fhould comfort
them concerning the work and toil of their hands,
“ becaufe of the earth auh'ich the L,ord had curfed.>' \V e
are to remember that the curie pronounced upon the
earth was part of the fentence paffed upon our firft pa¬
rents ; and when that part was remitted, if it ever was
remitted, mankind would acquire new and more lively
hopes that in God’s good time they fhould be freed from
the whole. But it has been drown by bifhop Sherlock*,
that this declaration of Lamech’s was a predi&ion, that
during the life of his fon the curfe {horrid be taken off
from the earth : and the fame prelate has proved with
great perfpicuity, and in the moft fatisfattory manner,
that this happy revolution addually took place after
the flood. The limits preferibed to an article of this
kind will not permit us even to abridge his arguments.
We {hall only obferve, that the truth of his conclufion
is manifeil from the very words of feripture ; for when
God informs Noah of his delign to dellroy the world,
he adds, “ But with thee will I eftablifh my covenant:”
and as foon as the deluge was over, he declared that he
“ would not again curfe the ground any more for man s
fake ; but that while the earth fhould remain, feed-time
and harveft, and cold and heat, and fummer and winter,
and day and night, fhould not ceafe.” From this laft
declaration it is apparent that a curfe had been on the
earth, and that feed-time and harveft had often failed ;
that the curfe was now taken off; and that in confe-
quence of this covenant, as it is called, with Noah and
his feed and with every living creature, mankind fliould
not henceforth be fubjefted to toil fo fevere and fo gene¬
rally fruitlefs.
It may feem furprifing perhaps to fome, that after fo
great a revolution in the world as the deluge made,
God fhould fay nothing to the remnant of mankind of
the pumfhments and rewards of another life, but fhoind
make a new covenant with them relating merely to li int-
ful feafons and the bleffings of the earth.. But m the
feriptures we fee plainly a gradual working of provi¬
dence towards the redemption of the world from the
curfe of the fall ; that the temporal blefiings were hi it
reflored as an earnefl and pledge of better things to
follow; and that the covenant given to Noah had,
ftri£tly fpeaking, nothing to do with the hopes of futuri¬
ty, which were referved to be the matter of another
covenant, in another age, and to be revealed by him,
whofe province it was to “ bring life and immortality
to light through the gofpel.” But if Noah and his
forefathers expedled deliverance from the whole curfe of
the fall, the adfual deliverance from ona part of it was
a very good pledge of a further deliverance to be ex-
pedled in time. Man himfelf was curfed as well as the
ground; he was doomed to daft: and fruitful feafons
1 .597 1 PRO
her rights were loft are but a fmall relief, compared to the greatnefs of his Prophecy,
lofs. But when fruitful feafons came, and one part of v—
the curfe was evidently abated, it gave great aflurance
that the other fliould not laft for ever, but that by
fome means, ftill unknown to them, they fliould be
freed from the whole, and finally bruife the ferpent’s
head, who, at the deluge, had fo feverely bruifed man’s
heel.
Upon this aflurance mankind refted for fome genera¬
tions, and pra&ifed, as we have every reafon to believe,
a rational worfhip to the one God of the umverfe. At
laft, however, idolatry was by fome means or other in¬
troduced (fee Polytheism), and fpread fo univerfally
through the world, that true religion would in all pro¬
bability have entirely failed, had not God viflbly inter-
pofed to preferve fuch a fenfe of it as wras neceflary for
the accomplifliment of his great defign to reftore man- , 3
kind. This he did by calling Abraham from amidft Promife te>
his idolatrous kindred, and renewing to him the w-ord of Abraham,
prophecy : “ Get thee out of thy country (faid he),
and from thy kindred, and from thy father’s houfe,
unto a land that I will lhew thee. And I will make of
thee a great nation, and I wall blefs thee and make thy
name great; and thou {halt be a blefiing. And I w ill
blefs them that blefs thee, and curfe him that curfcth
thee ; and in thee {hall all the families of the earth be
blefl'ed.” Thefe magnificent promifes are feveral times
repeated to the father of the faithful with additional cir-
cumltances of great importance, fuch as, “ that he fliould
be multiplied exceedingly ; that he fhould be a father ,
of many nations ; that kings fliould come out of him
and above all, that God would eftablifli an everlajling co¬
venant with him and his feed, to give him and them all
the land of Cannan for an everlajiing pojj'ffton, and to be
their God”
Upon fuch of thefe promifes as relate to tempo¬
ral blefiings we need not dwell. They are much
of the fame nature with thofe which had been given
before to Lamech, Noah, Shem, and Japheth ; and all
the world knows how amply and literally they have
been fulfilled. There was however fo little probability
in nature of their accomplifliment at the time when they
were made, that we find the patriarch alking “ Where¬
by he fliould knout that he fliauld inherit fuch an ex-1 ^onc^9
tent of country And as. the promifes that he fhouldxv* 8<
inherit it w ere meant to be a foundation for religion
and confidence in God, a miraculous fign was given him
that they came indeed from the fpirit of truth. This
removed from his mind every doubt, and made him give
the fulleft credit, not only to them, but alfo to that
oilier promife, “ that in his feed ftiould all the nations
of the earth be blefled.”
What diftimft notion he had of this hlefiing, or in
what manner he hoped it ftiould be effefted, we cannot'
pretend to fay. “ But that he underftood it to be a
promife of reftoring mankind, and delivering them from-
the remaining curfe of the fall, there can be no doubt.
He knew that death had entered by fin ; he knew that
God had promifed viftory and redemption to the feed
of the woman. Upon the hopes of this reftoration the.
religion of his anceftors was founded; and when God,
from whom this blefling on all men was expe&ed, did
exprefsly promife a blefling on all men, and in this pro¬
mife founded his everlafting covenant—what could Abra^
ham elfe expett but the completion in his feed of that
ancient promife and prophecy concerning the vnftory
x« -
* Sher¬
lock's Ufe
and Intent
PRO [ 598 1 11
ProPhtCy. to be obtained by the woman's feed ! The om fe of the .0 docks and done, and th
p-round w?j expiated in the flood, and the earth rdlored
with a bleffing, which was the foundation of the tempo- _
ral covenant with Noah; a large fhate of which God -
cxprefsly grants to Abraham and his poftenty particu-
laily, together with a promife to bring, by their means,
a new and further blefiing upon the whole race of men.
If we lay thefe'things to heart, we cannot fuppofe that
lefs could be expe&ed from the new promjfe or prophe¬
cy given to Abraham than a deliverance from that part
of the curfe Aill remaining on men : Dufl thou artt and
to clujl thou Jloa/t return. In virtue of this covenant A-
braham and his poftcrity had reafon to expedl that the
time would come wdien man fliould be called from his
duA again. For this expectation they had his aflurance
who gave the covenant, that he would be their God
for ever. Well might our Saviour then tell the fons of
Abraham, that even Mofes at the bufh (bowed the re-
furre&ion of the dead, when he called the Lord the
God of Abraham, and the God of Ifaac, and the God
of Jacob *”
Thefe promifes made to Abraham were renewed to
If r"ripL. Ifaac. and Jacob ; to the lad of whom it was revealed,
not only that all the nations of the earth (hoidd be
To iffac blefled in his feed, but that the bleffing (hould fpnng
and Jacob, from his fon Judah. It is, however, by no means evi¬
dent that any one of thofe patriarchs knew preciiely by
what means (a) the curfe of the fall was to be entirely
removed, and all men called from their drift again. It
was enough that they wrere convinced of the in ge¬
neral terms, fince fuch convnftion was a fufficient foun¬
dation of a rational religion ; and the defeendants of A-
braham had no other foundation upon wrhich to reft
! 5 their hopes, and pay a cheerful worfhip to the God of
The law r f their fathers, till the giving of the law to Mofes.. Then
Mofes and jndee(l they were incorporated into a fociety with mu-
teedine" nicipal laws of their own and placed under a theocratic
government \ the tempoicil promifes made to their fa-
tbers were amply fulfilled; religion w’as maintained a-
mong them by rewards and punifhments equally diftri-
buted in this wrorld (fee Theology) : and a feries of
prophets fucceeding one another pointed out wuth great¬
er and greater cleamefs, as the fulnefs of time approach¬
ed, the perfon who was to redeem mankind from the
power of death ^ by what means he w as to 01 k that
great redemption, and at what precife period he was to
make his appearance in the world. By thefe fuperna-
tural interpofitions of divine providence, the principles
of pure thetfm and the pra&ice of true religion were
preferved among the children of Ifrael, when all other
nations were funk in the groffeft idolatry, and wallowed
in the moft abominable vices; when the far-famed E-
gyptians, Greeks, and Romans, fell down with adoration
R O
vileft reptiles; and when Prophecy-
16
prophets
they had no well grounded hope of another life,
were in faft without God in the world.
From this fhort deduaton, we think ourfelves intitled ^
to conclude, that the primary ufe and intent of prophe- keep ai;ve
cv, under the various difpenfations ot the Old i'dia-a fenfe of
ment, was not, as is too often fuppofed, to eftablifh the religion,
divine miffion of Jefus Chrift, but to keep alive in the
minds of thofe to whom it was given, a ienfe of reli¬
gion, and a hope of future deliverance trom the curfe ot
the fall. It was, in the expreffive language of St Peter,
« a light that (hone in a dark place, unto which men
did well to take heed until the day dawned and the day-
ftar arofe in their hearts.” But though this was cer¬
tainly the original intent of prophecy (for Chrift, had
he never been foretold, would have proved himfelf to
be the Son of God with power by his aftonifliing mi¬
racles, and his refurre&ion from the dead), yet it can¬
not be denied, that a long feries of prophecies, given
in different and far diftant ages, and having all their
completion in the life, death, and refurre&ion, of Jefus,
concur very forcibly with the evidence ot miracles to
prove that he was the feed of the woman ordained to
bruife the head of the ferpent, and reftore man to his
forfeited inheritance. To the Jews the force of this
evidence muft have been equal, if not fuperior, to that
of miracles themfelves ; and therefore we find the A-
poftles and firft preachers of the gofpel, in their ad-
dreffes to them, conftantiy appealing to the law and the
prophets, whilft they urged upon the Gentiles the evi¬
dence of miracles. 17
In order to form aright judgment of the argumentT'he pro-
for the truth of Chriftianity drawn from the fure word
of prophecy, we muft not confider the prophecies given ,n
in the Old Teftament as fo many preditions only inde- connection,
pendent of each other ; for if we do, we {hall totally lofe
fio-ht of the purpofe for which they were originally gi¬
ven, and (hall never be able to fatisfy ourfe’^es when
confronted by the obje&ions of unbelievers, it is eafy
for men of leifure and tolerable parts to find difficulties
in particular predictions, and in the application of them
made by writers, who lived many hundred years ago,
and who had many ancient books and records of the
Jewilh church, from which they drew many paffages,
and perhaps fome prophecies ; which books and records
we have not to enable us to underftand, and to juftify
their applications. But it is not fo eafy a mattei t9
(how, or to perfuade the world to believe, that a chain
of prophecies reaching through leveral thoufand years,
delivered at different times, yet manifeftly fubfervient
to one and the fame adminiftration of providence from
beginning to end, is the effeft of art and contrivance
and religious fraud. In examining the feveral prophe-
g cies
(a) This they certainly could not know from the promifes expreffed in the very general terms in which they
are recorded in the book of Genefis. It is, however, not improbable that thofe prom.fes as they immediately
received them, were conceived in terms more precife and particular ; and, at all events, DrWarburton has proved
to the full conviction of every man who is not a determined unbeliever, that Abraham was commandec to a-
crifice his fon Ifaac, not only as a trial of his obedience, but alfo that God might gne him what e earne y e-
iired, a fcenical reprefentation of the means by which mankind were to he redeemed from death.. e earnec wa¬
ter thinks, and his reafoning compels us to think with him, that to this tranfaction our Saviour alludes un
he fays, “ Your father Abraham rejoiced to fee my day% and he law it and was glad.”
PRO [ 599 ]
Pr«i>heey. cits recorded in tlie Old Tell ament, we are not to fup- poral peace
u.—^ p0j-e t^at eac|1 Qf t}iem ex‘jr!Js/y pointed out and clear¬
ly characterized Jefus Chriit. Had they done fo, in¬
stead of being a fupport to religion in general, the pur-
pofe for which they were originally intended, they
would have had a very different elfedt, by making thofe
to whom they were given repine at being placed under
cifpenfations fo very inferior to that of the gofpel. We
nre therefore to inquire only whether all the notices,
which, in general and often metaphorical terms, God
gave to the fathers of his intended falvation, are perfect¬
ly anfwered by the coming of Chrift ; and we (hall find
that nothing has been prornifed with refpett to that lub-
jt£t which has not been performed in the ampleft man-
If we examine the prophecies in this manner, we
i S
©bje&ioa
from the
obfeurity
of prophe-
^i
*9
Anf wered,
fliall find that there is not one of them, which the A-
poflles have applied to the Mtfiiah, that is not appli¬
cable in a rational and important fenfe to fomething in
the birth, life, preaching, death, refurreCtion, and afeen-
iion of Jefus of Nazareth ; that as applied to him they
are all confident with each other; and that though
fome few of them may be applied without abfurdity to
perfons and events under the Jewifh difpenfation, Chrift
is the only perfon that ever exided in whom they all
meet as in a centre. In the limits preferibed us, it is im-
poflible that we fhould enter upon a particular proof of
this pofition. It has been proved by numberlefs wri¬
ters, and, with refpeft to the mod important prophecies,
by none with greater fuccefs than bidiop Sherlock in his
Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in the fever al a‘yes of the 'toorld;
a work which we recommend to our readers as one of
the mod valuable on the fubjedl in our own or arty other
language.
But admitting that it would have been improper, for
the reafons already hinted at, to have given a clear and
precife deferiptien of Chrid, and the Chridian difpen¬
fation, to men who were ordained to live under difpen-
• fations lefs perfect, how, it may be afked, comes it to
pafs that many of the prophecies applied by the writers
of the gofpel to our Saviour and his actions are dill dark
and obfeure, and fo far from belonging evidently to him
and to him only, that it requires much learning and fa-
gacity to fhow even now the connedfion between fome
prophecies and the events ?
In anfwer to thtfe queftions, the learned prelate juft
referred to obferves, “ That the obfeurity of prophecy
does not arife from hence, that it is a relation or deferip-
tion of fomething future ; for it is as eafy to fpeak of
things future plainly, and intelligibly, as it is of things
pad or prefent. It is not, therefore, of the nature of
prophecy to be obfeure ; for it may eaiily be made,
when he who gives it thinks fit, as plain as hiftory. On
the other fide, a figurative and dark defeription of a
future event will be firurative and dark dill when the
PRO
O! that internal and fpiritual peace—-that Pwphequ
tranquillity of mind, which fets a man at peace with ^ ' ''V
God, hhnfelf, and the world. But whatever the true
meaning is, this prophecy does no more obtrude one
determinate fenfe upon the mind fmee the coming of
Chrift than it did before. But then vve fay, the date
of the gofptl was very properly prefigured in this de¬
feription, and is as properly prefigured in a hundred
more of the like kind ; and fince they all agree in a fair
application to the date of the gofpel, we ftrongly con¬
clude, that this date was the thing foretold under fuch
exprefiions. So that the argument from prophecy for
the truth of Chriftianity does not reft on this, that the
event has necefTarily limited and afeertained the parti¬
cular fenfe and meaning of every prophecy ; but in this,
that every prophecy has in a proper fenfe been completed
by the coming of Chrift. It is abfurd, therefore, to
expert clear and evident conviction from every fmgle
prophecy applied to Chrift ; the evidence mud arife
from a view and comparifon of all together.” It is
doubtlefs a great mid like to fuppofe that prophecy was
intended folely or chiefly for their fakes in wlrofe time
the events predicted are to happen. What great occa-
fion is there to lay in fo long beforehand the evidence
of prophecy to convince men of things that are to hap¬
pen in their own times; the truth of which they may,
it they pleafe, learn from their own fenfes ? Yet fome
people are apt to talk as if they thought the truth of
the events predicted depended very much on the evi¬
dence of prophecy : they fpeak, for inftance, as if they
imagined the certainty and reality of our Saviour’s re~
furreCtion were much concerned in the clearnefs of the
prophecies relating to that great and wonderful event,
and feem to think that they are confuting the truth of
his refurreCtion when they are pointing out the abfur-
dity of the prophecies relating to it. But can any thing
be more abfurd ? For what ground or pretence Is there
to inquire whether the prophecies foretelling that the
Meffiah fhould die and rife again do truly belong to
Chrift, unlefs we are firft fatisfied that Chrift died and
rofe again ?
The part which unbelievers ought to take in this
quedion, if they would make any ufe of prophecy,
fhould be, to fhow from the prophets that Chrift was
neceflarily to rife from the dead ; and then to prove
that in faCl Jefus never did rife. Here would be a plain
confequeuce. But if they like not this method, they
ought to let the prophecies alone ; for if Chrift did not
rife, there is no harm done though the prophets have
not foretold it. And if they allow the refurreCtion c^f-
Chrift, what do they gain by diferediting the prophets?
The event will be what it is, let the prophecies be what
they will.
Thefe confiderations- fhbw howr far the gofpel is necef-
event happens; and confequently will have all the ob- forty concerned in prophetical evidence, and how clear
r r _ /* .• ■. i t « r • r.  i : r\ u i ' ' a.^ i   
feurity of a figurative and dark defeription as well after
as before the event. The prophet Ifaiah deferibes the
peace of Chrift’s kingdom in the following manner :
* The wolf fhall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard
fhall lie dowm with the kid, and the calf and the young
lion, and the falling, together, and a little child fhall
lead them.’ Nobody, fome modern Jews excepted,
ever underftood this literally ; nor can it now be lite-
ratly applied to the ftate of the gofpel. It was and is
capable of different interpretations; it may mean tem-
the prophecies fhould be. Chrift claims to be the per¬
fon foretold in the law and the prophets ; and as truth,
mufl ever be confiftcnt with itfelf, this claim muft be
true as well as all others. This is the part then to be
tried on the evidence of prophecy : Is Chrift: that per¬
fon deferibed and foretold under the Old Teftament or
not ? Whether all the prophecies relating to him be plain
or not plain, it matters little ; the fingle queflion is,
Are there enough plain to fhow us that Chrifl is the
perfon foretold under the Old Teftament ? If there be,,
we
c
■JPrAj)?iecy
23
Ol.'jedions
from the
clearnefs of
fume pro¬
phet ies,
11
Anfwcred,
12
From what
has happen
ed Cnte
the objec¬
tion wa*
-iirft ftarted
*3
And from
fadfs of the
prefent
age.
PRO
we are at an end of our inquiry,
help from prophecy ; efpecially fince we have leen the
day dawn and enjoyed the marvellous light of the gofpei
of God. , „ -
But-fo unreafonable are unbelievers, that whilit lome
of them objeft to the obfcurity of the prophecies, o-
thers have rejefted them altogether on account of their
clearnefs, pretending that they are hiftories and not
predictions. The prophecies againft tvhich this objec¬
tion has been chiefly urged are thofe of Daniel, which
were fit it called in queftion by the famous Porphyry,
pie affirmed that they were not compofed by Daniel,
whofe name they hear, but by fome author who lived
in Judea about the time of Antiochus Epiphanes;
becaufe all to that time contained true hiilory, but that
all the fa£ts beyond that were manifeftly falfe.
This method of oppofing the prophecies, as a father
of the church rightly obferves, is the itrongeit teftimo-
ny of their truth : for they are fo exa&ly fulfilled, that
to infidels the prophet feemed not to have foretold
things future, but to have related things pail. To an
infidel of tills age, if he has the fame ability and know-
le<Jge of hiftory that Porphyry had, all the fubfequent
prophecies of Daniel, except thofe which are ftill ful¬
filling, would appear to be hiilory and not prophecy :
for it entirely overthrows the notion of their being
written in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes, or of the
Maccabees, and eftabliffies the credit of Daniel as a pro¬
phet beyond contradiction, that there are feveral of
thofe prophecies which have been fulfilled fince that pe¬
riod as well as before ; nay, that there are prophecies of
Daniel which are fulfilling at this very time in the
world.
Our limits will not permit us to enter into the ob¬
jections which have been made to this prophet by the
author of The Literal Scheme of Prophecy confidered;
nor is there occafion that we ftiould enter into them.
They have been all examined and completely anfwered
by Bifhop Chandler in his Vindication of his Defence op
Chriftiamty, by Mr Samuel Chandler in his Vindica¬
tion of the Antiquity and Authority of Daniel's Prophecies,
and by Bifliop Newton in his excellent Differtations on
the Prophecies. To thefe authors w'e refer the reader *,
and ffiall conclude the prefent article with a view of
fome prophecies given in very remote ages, which aie in
.this age receiving their accotnplifhment.
Of thefe the firft is that of Noah concerning the fer-
vitude of the pollerity of Canaan. In the greater part
of original mahufcripts, and in our verfion of the holy
fcriptuies, this prophecy is thus exprefled: “ Curfed
be Canaan; a fervant of fervants (hall he be .unto his
brethren but in the Arabic verfion, and in fome co¬
pies of the Septuagint, it is, “ Curfed be Ham the fa¬
ther of Canaan ; a fervant of fervants (hail he be to
his brethren.” Whether the curfe was really pronoun¬
ced upon Ham, which w^e think molt probable, or on-
ly upon his fon Canaan, we fliall find the prediction re¬
markably fulfilled, not barely ages after the book of
Genefis was very generally known, but alfo at this ve¬
ry day. It is needlefs to inform any man who has but
looked into the Old Tellament, that when the ancient
patriarchs pronounced either a curfe or a bleffing upon
any of their fons, they meant to declare the future for¬
tunes, not of that fon individually, but of his defcen-
-Aants as a tribe or a nation. Let us keep this in mind.
f 6 do ] PRO
and want no farther and proceed to compare with Noah’s prophecy frft Prophecy,
the fortunes of the defeendants oi Canaan, the fourth -'"~v
fon of Ham, andfc then the fortunes of the pofterity of
Ham by his other fons.
With the fate of the Canaanites every reader is ac¬
quainted. They were conquered by Jofhua feveral cen¬
turies after tlje delivery of this prophecy ; and fuch of
them as were not exterminated were by him and Solo¬
mon reduced to a Hate of the loweit fervitude to the f )-
raelites, the pofterity 'of Shem the brother of Ham. The
Greeks and Romans, too, who were the defeendants of
Japheth, not only fubdued Syria and Paleftine, but alfo
porfued and conquered fuch of the Canaauites as were
anywhere remaining, as for inftance the Tyrians and
■Carthaginians, of whom the former were ruined by A-
lexander and the Grecians, and the latter by Scipio and
the Romans. Nor did the effects of the curfe flop
there. The miferable remainder of that devoted people
have been ever fince (laves to a foreign yoke ; firft to the
Saracens who are defeended from Shem, and afterwards
to the Turks who are defeended from Japheth ; and
under the Turkifh dominion they groan at this day.
If we take the prophecy as it Hands in the Arabic
verfion, its accomplifhment is Hill more remarkable.
The whole continent of Africa was peopled principally
by the poHerity of Ham. And for how many ages have
the better parts of that country lain under the domi¬
nion firft of the Romans, then of the Saracens, and now
of the Turks ? In what wickednefs, ignorance, barba¬
rity, flavery, and mifery, live molt of its inhabitants ?
and of the poor negroes how many thoufands are every
year fold and bought like beafls in the market, and con¬
veyed from one quarter of the world to do the work of
beafls in another ; to the full accomplifhment indeed of
the prophecy, but to the lafling difgrace of thofe who
are from the love of gain the inflruments of fulfilling
it. Nothing can be more complete than the execution
of the fentence as well upon Ham as upon Canaan }
and the hardiefl infidel will not dare to fay that it was
pronounced after the event.
The next prophecy which we fhall notice is that of
Abraham concerning the multitude of his defeendants ;
which every one knows is Hill fulfilled in the Jews even
in their difperfed Hate, and therefore cannot have been
given after the event of which it fpeaks.
Of the fame kind are the feveral prophecies concern¬
ing Ifhmael ; of which fome have been fulfilled, and
others are at prefent fulfilling in the molt aftonifhing
manner. Of this fon of Abraham it was foretold, that
“ he fliould be a wild man ; that his hand fhould be
againfl every man, and everyr man’s hand agamft him £
that he (hould dwell in the prefence of all his brethren ;
that he fhould be multiplied exceedingly, beget twelve
princes, and become a great nation. I he lacred hif-
torian who records thefe prophecies adds, that “ God
was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wilder-
nefs, and became an archer.”
To fhovv how fully and literally' all thefe prophecies
have been accomplifhed, would require more room than
we have to beftow; and to the reader of hiflory the la¬
bour would be fuperfluous. We fhall therefore only
requefl the unbeliever to attend to the hiflory of the
Arabs, the undoubted defeendants of Ifhmael; and to
fay how it comes to pafs, that though they have been
robbers by land and pirates by fea for time immemo-
Prophecy.
*4
The dif-
jjerfion of
the Jews
plainly
foretold.
PRO [6°
rial, though their hands have been againft every man,
and every man*S hand againft them, they always have
dwelt, and at this day dwell, in the prefence of their
brethren, a free and independent people. It cannot be
pretended that no attempt has ever been made to con¬
quer them ; for the greateft conquerors in the world
have all in their turns attempted it: but though fome
of them made great progrefs, not one was ever crown¬
ed with fuccefs. It cannot be pretended that the in-
accefiiblenefs of their country has been their prote&ion;
for their country has been often penetrated, though it
never was entirely fubdued. When in all human pio-
bability they have been on the brink of ruin, they were
lignally and providentially delivered. Alexander was
preparing an expedition againft them, when he was cut
off in the flower of his age. Pompey was in the career
of his conqUefts, when urgent affairs called him elie-
where. iElius Gallius had penetrated far into their
country, when a fatal difeafe deftroyed great numbers
of his men, and obliged him to return. Trajan befie-
ged their capital city, but was defeated by thunder and
lightning and whirlwinds. Severus befteged the fame
city twice, and was twice repelled from before it. 1 he
Turks, though they were able to wreft from them their
foreign conquefts, have been fo little able to fubdue the
Arabs themfelves, or even to reftrain their depredations,
that they are obliged to pay them a fort of annual tri¬
bute for the fafe paffage of the pilgrims who go to
Mecca to pay their devotions. On thefe fa£ls we fhall
not exclaim. He who is not ftruck upon comparing
the Ample hiftory of this Angular people with the pro¬
phecies fo long ago delivered of them and their great
anceftor, whofe love of liberty is compared to that of
the wild afs, would rife wholly unmoved from our ex¬
clamations.
A fourth prophecy of this kind, which cannot be al¬
leged to have been uttered after the event, is the de¬
nunciation of Mofes againft the children of Ifrael in cafe
of their difobedience ; which is fo literally fulAlled, that
even at this moment it appears rather a hiftory of the
prefent ftate of the Jew's, than a remote prediction of their
apoftacy and punifhment. “And the Lord {hall fcatter
thee among all people from the one end of the earth even
unto the other. And among thefe nations (halt thou
And no cafe, neither (hall the foie of thy foot have reft;
but the Lord {hall give thee there a trembling heart, and
failing of eyes, and forrow of mind. And thy life {hall
hang in doubt before theeand thou {halt fear day and
night, and {halt have none affurance of thy life. (Lent,
xxviii. 64, 65, 66.) And thou {halt become an afto-
niftiment, a proverb, and a bye-word, among all nations,
whither the Lord (hall lead you.” (Deut xxviii. 37.)
Similar to this denunciation, but attended with fome
circumftances ftill more wonderful, is the following pre-
didfion of the prophet Hofea : “ The children of lirael
{hall abide many days without a king, and without a
prince, and without a facriAce, and without an image,
and without an ephod, and without teraphim. After¬
wards fhall the children of Ifrael return, and feek the
Vol. XV. Part II.
i ] PRO
Lord their God, and David their king; and fhall fear Prophecy^
the Lord and his goodnefs in the latter days (a)” In -v—
this paffage we And the ftate of the Jews for the laft
j 700 years clearly and diftin&ly deferibed with all its
circumftances. From the time that they reje&td their
Mefiiah all things began to work towards the deft ruc¬
tion of their polities both civil and religious ; and with¬
in a few years from his death, their city, temple, and
government, were utterly ruined ; and they themfelves,
not carried into a gentle captivity, to enjoy their laws,
and live under governors of their own as they did in
Babylon, but they were fold like beafts in a market,
and became flaves in the ftri&eft fenfe ; and from that
day to this have had neither prince nor chief among
them. Nor will any one of them ever be able, after all
their pretences, to prove his defeent from Aaron, or t»
fay with certainty whether lie is of the tribe of Judah
or of the tribe of Levi, till he {hall difeover that un¬
known country where never mankind dwelt, and where
the apocryphal Efdras has placed their brethren of the
ten tribes. This being the cafe, it is impoffible they
can have either an altar, or a facrifice, or a priefthood,
according to the inftitution of Mofes, but are evidently
an outcaft people living under laws which cannot be ful¬
filled.   a5
The caufe of this deplorable condition is hkewife af- And the
Agned with the fame perfpicuity : They are fcattered ciule o£
over the face of the earth, becaufe they do not acknow-lt-
ledge Chrift for the Mefliah ; becaiife they do not fub-
mit to their own king, the true David. In the pro¬
phetic writings the name of David is frequently given
to the Mefliah, who was to defeend from that prince.
Thus Ezekiel, fpeaking of the kingdom of Chrift, fays,
“ I will fet up one Shepherd over them, and he {hall
feed them, even my fervant David ; he (hall feed them,
and he {hall be their flrepherd.” And Jeremiah fays,
“ 'They {hall ferve the Lord their God, and David their
king, whom I will raife up unto them.
That in thefe places, as well as in the paffage under
conftderation, the Mefliah is meant, is undeniable ; for
David the fon of Jeffe was dead long before any of
the three prophets was born ; and byr none of them it
is faid, “ afterwards David their king {hall come again;”
but “ afterwards the children of Ifrael fliall return to
David their king,” they ftiall recover from their blind
infatuation, and feek him whom they have not yet
known. By their not receiving Jefus for the Chrift,
they have forfeited all claim to the divine favour, and
are, of confequence, “ without a king, and without a
chief, and without a facriflce, and without an altar, and
without a priefthood.” a6
The time, however, will come, when they {hall re- phe;,. re¬
turn and feek “ the Lord their God and David their turn alfo
king V’ wHm they {hall tremble before him whom their foretold,
fathers crucifted, and honour the fon even as they ho¬
nour the father. That this part of the prophecy will
in time be as completely fulAlled as the other has been,
may be confldently expe&ed from the wonderful pre-
fervation of the Jews for fo many ages. Scattered as
4 G they
(b) Such is our tranflation of this remarkable prophecy ; but the Greek verflon of the ^e'cn|y ^
more properly, thus : “ The children of Ifrael {hall abide many days without a king, and without a chief,
without facriflce, and without an altar, and without a priefthood, and without prophecies. erv,ar 35
PRO [
Pro] heey. tliey are over the whole earth, and hated as they are by
“v  all nations, it might naturally be thought, that in pro-
cefs of time they would have coalefced with their con¬
querors, and hare been ultimately abforbed and anni¬
hilated by the union, fo that not a trace of them fhould
now have remained; yet the fact is, that, difperTed as
they have ever fxnce been over the whole face of the
globe, they have never, in a fingle inftance in any coun¬
try, loll their religious or national dillinCtions; and
they are now generally fuppofed to be as numerous as
they were~~under the reigns of David and Solomon.
This is contrary to all hiftory, and all experience of
the courfe of human affairs in fimilar cafes ; it has
been boldly and jullly ftyled a Handing miracle. With¬
in 1000 or 1200 years back, a great variety of extra¬
ordinary and important revolutions have taken place
among the nations of Europe. In the fouthern part of
this ifland the Britons were conquered by the Saxons,
the Saxons by the Danes, and the Danes and Saxons
by the Normans ; but in a few centuries thefe oppofite
and hoflile nations were confolidated into one indiltin-
guiihable mafs. Italy, about the fame time that Bri¬
tain was fubdued by the Saxons, was conquered by the
Goths and Vandals : and it is not eafy to conceive a
more ftriking contrail than that which fubfifled between
the polifhed inhabitants of that delightful country and
their favage invaders ; and yet how foon did all diftinc-
tion ceafe between them ! In France, the Roman colo¬
nies gradually aflimilated with the ancient Gauls ; and
in Spain, though the Moors continued for feveral ages,
and till their final expulfion, a diilincl people, yet after
they-were once reduced to a Hate of fubjedlion, their
numbers very fenfibly diminifhed ; and fuch of them as
were fuffered to remain after their lafl overthrow have
been long fince fo blended with the Spaniards that they
cannot now be diilinguifhed. But with regard to the
- Jews, the wonder is, that though they do not in any
country where* they are fettled bear any proportion to
the natural inhabitants, tlymgh they are univerfally re¬
duced to a flate of the lowe.fl fubjedlion, and even ex-
pofed to hatred, contempt, and perfecution ; yet in no
iuflance does there feem to be the leafl appearance or
probability of their numbers being diminifhed, in no in-
fiance do they dtfeover any decay of attachment to their
religious principles. Whence then comes it that this
people alone, who, having no form of government or a
republic anywhere fubfifting, are without the means by
which other people are kept united and diflinCl, fhould
Hill be prefervtd amongfl fir many different nations ?
How comes it, when they have been thus fcattered in¬
to fo many diflant corners, like dull which cannot be
perceived, that they fhould Hill fo long furvive the
diffolution of their own Hate, as well as that of fo many
others? To thefe queflions'the anfwer is obvious: They
are preferved, that, as a nation, “ they may return and
feek the Lord their God and David their king, and
fear the Lord and his goodnefs in the latter days.”
vonhe- here fubjoin many prophecies both from
ciewe-* Qld and the New TeHament, and efpecially from
fpe&ing the vmtings of St Paul and St John, which fo clearly
deferibe the various fortunes of the Chriflian church,
her progrefs to tliat Hate of general corruption under
which fire rvas funk three centuries ago, and her gra¬
dual reHoration to her primitive purity, that tlfey can¬
not be feppoied to proceed, from the cunning craftinefs
,  »
the chri-
ftian
church.
602 ] PRO
of men, or to have been written after the events of
which they fpeak. To do juflice to thefe, how-
ever, would require a volume, and many excellent vo- "
lumes have been written upon them. The reader who
wifhes for fatisfection on fo intereHing a fubje6t will do
well to coniitlt the writirfgs of Mr Mede and Sir Itaac
Newton, together with Bifhop Newton’s Difl'ertations,
and the Sermons of Hurd, Halifax, and Bagot, preach¬
ed at Warburton’s lefiture. We fhall only obferve, that
one of the ableH reafoners that Great Britain ever pro¬
duced, after having paid the clofell attention to the pre¬
dictions of the New TeHament, hath been bold enough
to put the truth of revealed religion itfelf upon the rea¬
lity of that prophetic fpirit which foretold the defola-
tion of Chriit’s church and kingdom by antichriH. “ If
(fays he), in the days of St Paul and St John,
there was any footHep of fuch a fort of power as this
in the world ; or if there had been any fuch power
in the world; or if there was then any appear¬
ance or probability that could make it enter into the
heart of man to imagine that there ever could be any
fuch kind of power in the world, much lefs in the
temple or church of God; and if there be not now fuck
a power aClually and confpicuoufly exercifed in the
world ; and if any picture of this power, drawn af¬
ter the event, can now deferibe it more plainly and
exaClly than it was originally deferibed in the words of
the prophecy—then may it, with fome degree of plauii-
bility, be fuggelted, that the prophecies are nothing
more than enthufiaHic imaginations.”
Upon the whole, we conclude with Bilhop Sherlock,
that the various prophecies recorded in the Holy Scrip¬
tures were given, not to enable man to forefee with
clearnefs future events, but to fupport the feveral dif-
penfations of religion under which they were refpedivc-
ly promulgated. The principal prophecies recorded in
the Old TeHament led mankind to hope for a complete
deliverance from the curfe of the fall; and therefore
tended to fill their minds with gratitude, and to enforce
a cheerful obedience to that God who in the midil of
judgment remembereth mercy. *1 he prophecies, whe¬
ther in the Old or New TeHament, that pourtray the
prefent Hate of the Jews, and the various fortunes of
the Chriilian church, as they are daily fulfilling in the
prefence of all men, are the Hrongefi poflible proof of
the divinity of our holy religion, and fupply to us in
the latter days the place of miracles, by which it was
at firH ellablilhed.
PROPHET, in general, a perfon who foretels fu¬
ture events ; but is particularly applied to fuch infpired
perfons among the Jews as were commiflioned by God
to declare his will and purpofes to that people. Among
the canonical books of the Old TeHament we have the
writings of 16 prophets, four of whom are denominated
\\\c greater prophets, viz. Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
Daniel; fo called from the length or extent of their
writings, which exceed thole of the others, viz. Hofea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Hubak-
kuk, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malac^i, who are called
the lejfer prophets, from the fhortneis of their writings.
The Jews do not place Daniel among the prophets, be-
caufe, they fay, he lived the life of a courtier rather
than that of a prophet. An account of the feveral
writings of the prophets may be feen each under its
particular head. See the article. Isaiah, &c.
Sant
P .R O t ' 603 ] 1’ R
ftw of the Prophets, in fcripture Wfloty, an appel- ther ; as ratio w of two quantities,
lation given to young men who were educated in the
J’roportlor.^^QQ^ or colleges under a proper mailer, who was
* 1 commonly, if not always, an infpired prophet, in the
o
Prophet
knowledge of religion and in facred mulic, and thus
were qualified to be public preachers ; which feuus to
have been part of the bnfmefs of the prophets on the
Sabbath-days and feftivals. It is probable that God
generally chofe the prophets, whom he infpired, out of
thefe fchools. See Prophecy.
PROPITIATION, in theology, a facrifice offered
to God to affuage his wrath and render him propitious.
Among the Jews there were both ordinary and public
facrilices, as holocauffs, &c. offered by way of thanki-
giving ; and extraordinary ones, offered by particular
perfons guilty of any crime, by way of propitiation.
The Romifh church believe the mafs to be a facrifice
of propitiation for the living and the dead, 1 he le-
formed churches allow of no propitiation but that one
offered by Jefus Chrift on the crofs. See Sacrifice.
PROPITIATORY, any thing rendering God pro¬
pitious ; as we fay propitiatory facrifices, in contradi-
ilinftion to facrifices which were euchariftica!. Among
the Jews the propitiatory was the cover or lid of the
ark of the covenant ; which was lined both within and
withoutiide with plates of gold, infomuch that there .was
no wood to be feen. This propitiatory was a type or
figure of Chrift, whom St Paul calls the propitiatory
ordained from all ages. See Ark of the Covenant.
PROPOLIS, tiie name of a certain fubftance more
tenacious than wax, with which the bees Hop up all the
holes or cracks in the fides of their hives. See Lee,
- U° 1 3. f ,
PROPONTIS, or Sea of Marmora, a part of the
Mediterranean, dividing Europe from Alia ; it has the
Hellefpont or canal of the Dardanelles to the fouth-
weft, whereby it communicates with the Archipelago,
and the ancient Lofphorus of 1 brace, or Strait of
Conftantinople, to-the north-eaft, communicating with
the Black or Euxine Sea. It has two caftles : that on
the Afia fide is on a cape, where formerly flood a tem¬
ple of Jupiter. The caftle of Europe is on an oppo-
iite cape, and had anciently a temple of Serapis. It is
120 miles long, and in fome places upwards of 40 miles
broad. „
PROPORTION, the identity or fimilitude of two
ratios. Hence quantities that have the fame ratio be¬
tween them are faid to be proportional; e. gr. it Abe to
B as C to D, or 8 be to 4 as 30 to 15; A, B, C, D,
and S, 4, 30, and 15, are faid to be in proportion, or
are fimply called proportionals. Proportion is frequent¬
ly confounded with ratio ; yet have the two in reality
very different ideas, which ought by all means to be
diftinguifhed. Ratio is properly that relation or habi¬
tude of two things, which determines the quantity of
one from the quantity of another, without the interven¬
tion of any third : thus we fay the ratio of 5 and 1 o is
2, the ratio of 12 and 24 is 2. Proportion is the fame-
nefs or likenefs of two fuch relations : thus the relations
between 5 and 10 and 12 and 24 being the fame,, or
equal, the four terms are faid to be in proportion.
Hence ratio exifts between two numbers, but propor¬
tion requires at leaft three. Proportion, in fine, is the
habitude or relation of two ratios when compared toge-
See Algebra, A-Prtfpnrtir^.
rithmetic, and Geometry.
Arithmetical and Geometrical Proportion, bee Pro¬
gression.
Harmohical or Mujkal Proportion, is a k^ntl of nu¬
meral proportion formed thus : of three mnnbers, if the
firft be to the third as the difference of the firft and fe-
cond to the difference of the fecond and third; the
three numbers are in harmonical proportion.
Thus 2, 3, 6, are harmonical, becaufe 2:6:: 1:3-
So alfo four numbers are harmonica!, when tne firft is
to the fourth as the difference of the firft and fecund to
the difference of the third and fourth.
Thus 24, 16, 12, 9, are harmonical, becaufe 24: 9
: : 8 : 3. By continuing the proportional terms in the
firft cafe, there arifes an harmonical progreffion or ie-
ries.
1. If three or four numbers in harmomcal propor¬
tion be multiplied or divided by the lame number ; the
products or quotients will alfo be in harmonical pro¬
portion: thus, if 6, 8, 12, which are harmonical, be
divided by 2, the quotients 3, 4, 6, are alfo harmoni¬
ca! ; and reciprocally their products by 2, viz. 6, 8,
12.
2. To find an harmonical mean between two num¬
bers given 5 divide double the product of the two num¬
bers by their fum, the quotient is the mean required ;
thus fuppofe 3 and 6 the extremes, the prodtift of thefe
is 18, which doubled gives 36 ; this divided by 9 (the
fum of 3 and 6) gives the quotient 4. Whence 3, 4,
6, are harmonical.
3. To find a third harmonical proportional to two
numbers given.
' Call one of them the firft term, and the other the
fecund : multiply them together, and divide the pro*
duft by the number remaining after the fecond is iub-
tracled from double tbe firft ; the quotient is a third
harmonical proportional: thus, fuppoie the given tem^
3, 4, their produd 12 divided by 2 (the remainder af¬
ter 4 is taken from 6, the double of the iirft), the qu«-
tient is 6, the harmonical third fought.
4. To find a fourth harmonical proportion to three
terms given : multiply the firft. into the liiird, and di¬
vide the produd by the number remaining after the
middle or fecond is fubtraded from double the firft ;
the quotient is a third harmonical proportion ; thus
fuppofing the numbers 9, 12, 16, a fourth will be found
by the rule to be 24.
5. If there be four numbers d.’fpofedm order, where- .
of one extreme and the two middle terms are in arith¬
metical proportion ; and the fame .middle terms with
the other extreme are in harmonical proportion, the
four are in geometrical proportion ; as here 2 13 :: 4 :6,
which are geometrical; whereof 2, 3> 4> ure arit!micti-
cal, and 3, 4, 6, harmonical..
6. If betwixt any two numbers you put an anthmtN
tical mean, and alfo an harmonical one, the lour will be
in geometrical proportion : thus betwixt 2 and 6 an
arithmetical mean is 4* nnd an harmonical one 3 5 nnd
the four 2:3114*^’ are geome^riC
We have this notable difference between the three
kinds of proportion, arithmetical, harmonical, 5nd geo-*
metrical; that from any given number we can raife a
continued arithmetical feries increafing in infinitum, bn*'
4 G 2
PRO [604] PRO
P •portion n0t decreafing : the harmonical is decreafable in infin -
ref-dt ium' ^Ut not ]ncrea^^c » ^ geometrical is both,
n’j rt c . pR0p0RT10N> or Rule of Three, See Arithmetic,
n° 13, i4» i5-
Reciprocal Proportion, See Reciprocal.
Proportion is alfo ufed for the relation between
unequal things of the fame kind, whereby their fcveral
parts correfpond to each other with an equal augmen¬
tation or diminution.
Thus, in reducing a figure into little, or in enlarging
it, care is taken to obferve an equal diminution or en¬
largement, through all its parts ; fo that if one line,
e. gr. be contradfed by one-third of its length, all the
reft fhall be contradfed in the fame proportion.
Proportion, in architecture, denotes the juft mag¬
nitude of the members of each part of a building, and
the relation of the feveral parts to the whole ; e. gr. of
the dimenfions of a column, &c. with regard to the or-
donnance of a whole building.
One of the greateft differences among architects, M.
Perrault obferves, is in the proportions of the heights
©f entablatures with refpeCt to the thicknefs of the
columns, to which they are always to be accommoda¬
ted.
In effeCt, there is fcarce any work, either of the an¬
cients or moderns, wherein this proportion is not dif¬
ferent ; fome entablatures are even near twice as high
as others :—yet it is certain this proportion ought of
all others to be moft regulated; none being of greater
importance, as there is none wherein a defeCt is fooner
fpied, nor any wherein it is more fhocking.
Compafs of Proportion, a name by which the French,
and after them fome Englifh, authors call the Sec¬
tor.
PROPORTIONAL, relating to proportion. Thus
we fay, proportional compaffes, parts, icales, fpirals,
&c.
Proportionals, in geometry, are quantities, either
linear or numeral, which bear the fame ratio or rela¬
tion to each other.
PROPOSITION, in logic, part of an argument
wherein fome quality, either negative or pofitive, is at¬
tributed to a fubjeCt.
Proposition, in mathematics, is either fome truth
advanced and fhown to be fuch by dcmonftration, or
fome operation propofed and its folution fhown. If
the propoiition be deduced from feveral theoretical de¬
finitions compared together, it is called a theorem ; if
from a praxis, or feries of operations, it is called z. pro¬
blem. See the articles Theorem and Problem.
Proposition, in oratoiy. See Oratory, n° 28.
124.
Proposition, in poetry, the firft part of a poem,
-wherein the author propofes briefly, and in general, what
he is to fay in the body of his work. It fhould com--
prebend only the matter of the poem, that is, the ac¬
tion and perfons-that aCt. Horace prefcribes modefty
and fimplicity in the propofition, and would not have
the poet promtfe too much, nor raife in the reader too
great ideas of what he is going to relate.
PROPREFECT, among the Romans, the prefedt’s
lieutenant, or an officer whom the prefedl of the pre-
tonum commilftoned to do part of his duty in his
place.
PROPRETOR, a Roman magiftrate, who, having Propr«or
difcharged the office of pretor at home, was fent into II
a province to command there with his former pcetorial Prt^cw*
authority. It was alfo an appellation given to thofe j
who, without having been pretors at Rome, were fent
extraordinarily into the provinces to adminifter juftice
with the authority of pretors.
PROPRIETOR, or Proprietary, is he who pof-
feffes any thing as his own in the utmoft degree. Such
monks were called proprietary as had referved goods and
effeds to themfelves, notwithftanding their formal re¬
nunciation of all at the time of their profeflion. They
are frequently mentioned in the Monajl. Anglic. &c.
and were to be very feverely dealt with ; to be excom¬
municated, deprived of burial, &c. Monachi proprieta-
rii excommunicentur ab abbatibus : et, Ji in morte proprie-
tarim inventus fuerit, tcdefwjlica careat fepultura. Sic.
Addit. ad Matt. Par.
PRO RATA, in commerce, a term fometimes ufed
by merchants for in proportion; as each perfon muft reap
the profit or fuftain the lofs, pro rata to his intereft,
that is, in proportion to his flock.
PROROGATION, the ad of prolonging, adjourn¬
ing, or putting off, to another time. The difference
between a prorogation and an adjournment of parlia¬
ment is, that by prorogation the fefiion is ended, and
fuch bills as paffed in either houfe, or both houfes, and
had not the royal affent, muft at the next affembly be¬
gin again.
PROSCRIPTION, a publication made in the name
of the chief or leader of a party, wdiereby he promifes
a reward to any one who fhall bring him the head of
one of his enemies.
Sylla and Marius by turns profcribed each other’s ad¬
herents.— Under the triumvirate a great part of the belt
and braveft of the Romans fell by profcription.
The term took its rife from the pradice of writing
down a lift of the perfons names, and polling it in pub¬
lic ; from pro axi&fcribo “ I write.”
PROSE, the natural language of mankind, loofe and
unconfined by poetical meafures, rhymes, &c. In which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to verfe.
There is, however, a fpecies of profe which is mea-
fured, fuch as that in which epitaphs and other infcrip-
tions are generally written ; and indeed every man who
has formed for himfelf a ftyle writes in uniform periods
regularly recurring. It has been much difputed whe¬
ther a poem can be written in profe. We enter not in¬
to that difpute, as we have faid enough on the fubject
elfewhere. See Novel.
The word profe comes from the Latin />ro/ar, which
fome will have derived from the Hebrew poras, which
fignifies expendit: others deduce it from the Latin pror-
fa, ofprorfus, “ going foiwards;” by way of oppofi-
tion to verfa, or “ turning backwards,” as is neceffary
in writing.
PROSECUTION, in the criminal law. The next
ftep towards the punifhment of offenders after Commit¬
ment, is their profecution, or die manner of their for¬
mal accufation. And this, in the Englifh law, is either
upon a previous finding of the fadfby an in quell or
grand jury ; or without fuch previous finding.
The former way is either by Presentment or In¬
dictment. See thefe articles.
The
Profecutor
l!
Proflam-
banomene.
PRO [605
The remaining methods of profecution are without
any previous finding hy a jury, to fix the authoritative
{lamp of verifimilitude upon the accufation. One ot
thefe by the common law, was when a thief was taken
with the mainovr, that is, with the thing Helen u^n
him, in manu. For he might, when fo deteaed, fla-
srante Midn, be brought into court, arraigned, and
tried, without indiament : as by the Damfh law he
might be taken and hanged upon the fpot without ac¬
cufation or trial. But this proceeding was taken away
by feveral ftatutes in the reign of Edward III. though in
Prcfody
? ] PRO
live, or, in other words, as the higheft note of the firil
ferved likewife for the lowed: note of the fecond, it is protag0rat>
plain that a complete oaave could not be formed. 1 o ^—1<
remedy this deficiency, therefore, one note beneath the
lowed tetrachord was added, as an oaave to the high¬
eft of the laft tetrachord. Thus, if we fuppofe the
firft to have begun on B, the laft muft have ended upon
A, to which one note fubjoined immediately beneath
the loweft B in the diatonic order muft have formed an
oaave. This note was called projlambanomene. But it AWyh
appears from authors who have fcrutinized antiquity
Scotland a fimi ar f • Jr th yne as the data upon which they proceeded could produce, § 1.
the only fpecies of proceeding at the fmt of the king
without a previous indiament or prefentment by a
grand jury, now feems to be that of Information ;
Thefe are all the methods of profecution at the fuit
of the king. There yet remains another which is
merely at the fuit of the fubjea, and is called an Ap¬
peal. See that article. ' . . , .
But of all the methods of profecution, that oy indict¬
ment is the moft general. See Indictment. .
PROSECUTOR, in law, he that purfues a caule in
another’s name.
PROSELYTE, a new convert to fome religion or
religious fea. r .
PROSERPINACA, in botany: A genus of the m-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 15th or¬
der, Inundata. The calyx is tripartite fupenor; there
is no corolla; there is one trilocular feed.
PROSERPINE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter
of Jupiter and Ceres, was carried off by Pluto as fiie
was gathering flowers with her companions. Ceres,
difconfolate for the lofs of her daughter, after Having
long fought her, heard where fire was, and intreated
Jupiter to let her return from hell. This requeft Ju¬
piter granted, on condition (he had tafted nothing in
Pluto’s dominionSi Ceres therefore went to fetch her;
but when her daughter was preparing to return, Afca-
laphus gave information that he hadfeen Proferpine eat
fome grains of a pomegranate fhe had gathered in Plu-
^ i ___ fpntpnred to continue 11
as the data upon which they proceeded could produce, §
that the names of the notes in the Greek fyftem, which
originally fignified their natural ftation in the fcale or
afcending or defcending founds, were afterwards ap¬
plied to \heir politions in the lyre. Higher or lower,
then, according to this application, did notfigmfy their
degrees of acutenefs or gravity, but their higher or
lower fituation upon this inftrument. _
PROSODY, that part of grammar which treats ot
the quantities and accents of fyllables, and the manner
of making verfes.
The Englifh profody turns chiefly on two things*
numbers and rhyme. See Poetry, nO 66—76. and
Part III.
PROSOPIS, in botany : A genus of the mcyrogy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is hemifpherical and quadridentate; the
ftigma is Ample p. the kgumen inflated and monofper-
mous. . . .
PROSOPOPOEIA, a figure in oratory, whereby
we raife qualities of things inanimate into perfons. See
Oratory, p. 439 and 452* -
PROS'i’ATiE, in anatomy, a gland, generally iup-
pofed to be two feparate bodies, though in reality but
one, fituated juft before the neck of the bladder, and fur¬
rounding the beginning of the urethra. Sec Anatomy,
p. 738. col. 2^
PROSTYLE, in archite&ure, a range of columns
in the front of a temple
me iroue ui <1 -
PROTAGORAS, a famous Greekphilofopher, was
Jome grains »■ » P^'^; born at Abdera. In his youth, his poverty obliged
Abdera. It happened, that as he was one day going
on brilkly towards the city under one of theie loads,
he was met by Democritus, who was particularly ft ruck
with the neatnefs and regularity of the bundle. De¬
firing him to ftop and reft himfelf, Democritus ex¬
amined more clofely the ftrutfure of the load, and
found that it was put together with mathematical ex-
aCfnefs ; upon which he allied the youth whether he
himfelf had made it up. Protagoras, allured him that
he had ; and immediately taking it to pieces, w ith great
eafe replaced every log in the fame exaft order as be¬
fore. Democritus expreffed much admiration of bis
ingenuity ; and faid to him, “ Young man, follow me,
and your talents lhall be employed upon greater and
better things.” The yotrth confented, and Democri¬
tus took him home, maintained him at his own ex-
pence, and taught him philofophy, which.qualified him
for the office of legifiator of the Thurians. He was
more fubtle than folid in his reafonings; however, he-
taught at Athens with great reputation, but was at
thofe gloomy regions : but to mitigate the grief of Ce
res for her difappointment, Jupiter granted that her
daughter ftiould only fpend fix months together in hell
with her hufband, and the other fix on earth with her
m°Some mythologifts imagine that the latter part of the
fable alludes to the corn, which muft remain all the win¬
ter hid in the earth, in order to fprout forth in the
fpring, and produce the harveft.
PROSEUCHE, in antiquity, properly figmhes
prayer ; but it is taken for the places of prayer of the
Jews, and was pretty near the fame as. their fynagogues.
But the fynagogues were originally in the cities, and
were covered places : whereas, for the moft part, the
profeuches were out of the cities, and on the banks of
rvers; having no covering, except perhaps the lhade
of fome trees or covered galleries. The word is Greek,
*p°(*vx* prayer.
PROSLAMBANOMENE, the name of a muftcal
note in the Greek fyftem.
As the two tetrachovds of the Greeks were conjuno
no -r fio6 1 PRO
Troths length banilhed from thence for the Impiety of his doc-
II trines. He then travelled, and vifited the Hands in the
MedjteiTanean) where it is faid that he was the firft
phdofopher who taught for money. He died in a
voyage to Sicily, in a wery advanced age. He com¬
monly reafohed by dilemmas, and left the mind in fuf-
penfe with refpedt to all the queftions he propofed.
His moral principles were adopted by Hobbes. (See
Moral Philosophy). Plato wrote a dialogue again ft
him. He flouriflied 400 years B. C.
PROTASIS, in the; ancient drama, the firft part of
a comic or tragic piece, wherein the fevernl peribns are
fhown, their chara&ers intimated, and the fubject of
the piece propofed and entered upon..
It might reach as far as our two firft afts ; and where
it ended the epitalis commenced. See the article B p l-
TASIS.
PROTEA, the Silver-tree : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
47th order. Stellate. There is one quadrifid petal fur¬
rounding the germ ; there is no proper calyx ; the re¬
ceptacle is paleaceous. There are 36 fpecies, all na¬
tives of the Cape of Good Plope ; of which the moft
remarkable are, 1. Tlie conifera, with linear, fpear-
fhaped, entire leaves, grows to the height of 10 or 12
feet, with a ftraight regular Item. The branches na¬
turally form a large regular head. The leaves are
long and narrow, of a fhining filver colour ; and as
they remain the whole year, make a fine appearance
in the greenhoufe. 2. The argentea, commonly call¬
ed filver-trecy has a ftrflng upright item covered with
purplith bark, dividing into feveral branches which grow
eredt, garniihed with broad, ftuning, filvery leaves,
which make a fine appearance when intermixed with
other exotics. Through the whole year it exhibits its
glofly white or filvery leaves. It has at firft a very
uncommon and beautiful appearance, and fometimes in
the courfe of 12 or 15 years reaches the height of 20
feet, which it never exceeds. In a rich foil it grows
twice as quick, and is by far the largeft of the protea
kind. They are generally planted near fome firms,
•fc- Vnyavt and very feldom grow wild ; Mr Sparman * thinks'it
ir> tie Cafe was probably brought to the Cape of Good Hope from
‘j Gaod dnama-pa; for he had travelled over the whole north-eaft
fide of Hottentot’s Holland, without finding it either in
jp. * its wild ftate or planted. 3. The nitida, or wageboom,
greatly refembles the fecond fort: the leaves are very
filky and white, with eredt purple branches.
All thefe plants, being tender exotics, require to be
continually kept in the greenhoufe during winter,
t The firft may be propagated by cuttings, which fhould
be cut off in April, juft before the plants begin to
Ihoot; the fecond and third forts may be propagated
by feeds.
PROTECTOR, a perfon who undertakes to {hel¬
ler and defend the weak, helplcfs, and diftreffed.
Every Catholic nation, and every religious order, 1ms
a protector refiding at the court of Rome, who is a
cardinal, and is called the cardinal proteftor.
Proteftor is alfo fometimes ufed for a regent of a
kingdom, made choice of tojjbvern it during the mino-
1 ity of a prince.
Cromwell affumed the title and quality of lord protec-
ivr of the corhinonwealth of England, &c.
FRQTESTLAT turris, the fepulehre of Protefi- ProtcfSiai
laus, with a temple, at which Alexander facrificed, II
(Arlan) ; fituated at the fouth extremity of the Helle- *rpt0* ,
fpojit, next the Cherionefus Thracia. Protefilaus was
the firft Greek who landed on the coaft of Troy, and
the firft Greek (lain by the Trojans, (Homer, Ovid.)
His w ife Laodamia, to affuage her grief, begged the
gods for a fight of his ftiade ; and obtaining her re-
queft, fiie expired in his embraces, (Hyginus.) Pro¬
tefilaus was alfo called Phylactcles, from Phylace, a town
' of Theffaly.
PROTEST, in krw, is a call of witnefs, or an open
affirmation that a perfon does, either not at all, or but
conditionally, yield his confent to any a£t, or to the
proceeding of any judge m a court in which his jurif-
dictiem is doubtful, or to anivver upon his oath farther
than he is bound by lawn
Any of the lords in parliament have a right to pro-
teft their diffent to any bill paffed by a majority: which
proteft is entered in form. This is faid to be a very
ancient privilege. The commons have no right to pro¬
teft. See Parliament.
Protest, in commerce, a fummons written by a
notary-public to a merchant, banker, or the like, to ac¬
cept or difeharge a bill of exchange drawrn on him,
after his having refufed either to accept or pay it. See
Bill of Exchange.
PROTESTANT, a name firft given in Germany
to thofe who adhered to the dodlrine of Luther ; be-
caufe in 1529 they protefted again ft a decree of the
Emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires ; declaring
that they appealed to a general council. 7 he fame
name has alfo been given to thofe of the fentiments of
Calvin ; and is now become a common denomination
for alb thofe of the reformed churches.
PROl'EUS, in heathen mythology. See Egypt,
n° 6.
PROTPIONOTARY, a term which properly fig-
nifies frf notary, and which wras anciently the title
of the principal notaries of the emperors of Conftanti-
nople.
Prothonotary, with us, is ufed for an officer in the
court of king’s-bench and common-pleas; the former x
of which courts has one, and the latter three. The
protllonotary of the king’s-bcnch records all civil ac¬
tions fued in that court, as the clerk of the crown-office
does all criminal caufes. The prothototaries of the
common pleas enter and enrol all declarations, plead¬
ings, affixes, judgments, and a&ions: they alio make
out all judicial writs, except writs of habeas corpus, and
dtjlringas jurator, for which there is a particular office,
called the habeas corpora ojfice: they likewife enter re¬
cognizances acknowledged, and all common recoveries;
make exemplifications of records, &c.
In the court of Rome there is a college of T2 pre¬
lates, called apofiolicalprothonotaries, empowered to re¬
ceive the laft wills of cardinals, to make all informa¬
tions and proceedings neceffary for the canonization of
faints, and all fuch a<fts as are of great confequence to
the Papacy : for which purpofe they have the right of
admiffion into all coni](lories, whether public or half
public. They alio attend on the pope, whenever he
performs any extraordinary ceremony out of Rome.
PRGT’O, a Greek term, frequentlyr ufed in com-
pofition of priority : thus, proto-collum, in the ancient
2 jurriprudence',
PRO
r
’rotogene* jurlfprudence, fignifies the firft leaf of a book ; proio-
tl martyr, the firft martyr j protO'plail, the hiri man
jprotrador.
PROTOGENES, a celebrated ancient painter, was
born at Caunas, a city of Cana, fubjeA to the Rho¬
dians, and flourifhed 300 years before the birth of our
Saviour. He was at firft obliged to paint (hips for his
livelihood ; but afterwards acquired the higheft repu¬
tation for hiftory-painting ; though Apelles blamed him
for finifhing his pieces too highly, and not know¬
ing when to have do»e. The fineft of his pi&ures was
that of Jalifus, which is mentioned by feveral ancient
authors, though none of them give any defeription of
it. He worked feven years on this pi&ure ; during
which time he lived entirely upon lupines and water,
being of opinion that this light and fimple nourifh-
ment left him greater freedom of fancy. Apelles, on
feeing this pi&ure, was (truck with fuch admiration,
that he was unable to fpeak, or to find words fuffieient
to exprefs his idea of its beauty. It was this picture
that faved the city of Rhodes when befieged by De¬
metrius king of Macedon ; for being able to attack it
only on that fide where Protogenes worked, which he
intended to burn, he chofe rather to abandon his de-
fign than to deftroy fo fine a piece. Pliny fays, that
Apelles afkiug him what price he had for his pi&ures,
and Protogenes naming an inconfiderable fum, Apelles,
concerned at the inj.uftice done to the beauty of his
produftions, gave him 50 talents, about 10,000 1. for
one picture only, declaring publicly that he would
fell it for his own. This generofity made the Rho¬
dians fenfible of the merit of Protogenes; and they were
fo eager to purchafe the pi£ture Apelles had bought,
that they paid him a much greater price for it than he
had given.
PROTOTYPE, is the original or model after which
a thing was formed ; but chiefly ufed for the patterns
of things to be engraved, caft, &c.
PROTRACTOR, an inftrument for laying down
and meafuring angles upon paper with accuracy and
tiifpatch; and by which the ufe of the line of chords
is fuperfeded.. This inftrument is varioufly formed, as
femicircular, rectangular, or circular ; and conftrufted
of different materials, as brafs, ivory, &c. It is necef-
fary in laying down thofe furveys or other plans where
angles are concerned. For the femicircular protra&or,
and its ufe in laying down and meafuring angles, fee
Geometry, p. 676. prop. xx. &c.
The rectangular protraCtor is conftrufted in form
of a right-angled parallelogram, which, when applied
to a cafe of mathematical inftrurnents, is fubftituted in
place of the femicircular protraftor and fcale of equal
parts. Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of it: the manner of
ufing it is exactly fimilaV to that of the femicircular
one.
The circular protraCtor, as its name implies, is a
complete circle, and is fuperior by far to either et the
former, both in point of accuracy and difpatch, efpe-
cially when feveral angles are to be formed at the fame
point. The limb of this inftrument is divided into
360 degrees, and each degree in fome protradtors is
halved: it lias a fubdividing fcale or vernier, by which
an angle may be laid down or meafured to a fingle mi¬
nute. In the centre of the protractor is a fine mark,
which, when an angle is to be protracted or meafured,
607 1 PRO
is to be laid upon the angular point, and o, or zero onProtrafter.
the limb, upon the given line forming one fide of the ~
angle.
Fig. z. reprefents a circular protraCtor whofe limb
is divided as above deferibed, and the dividing fcale on
the index, which moves round the limb of the protrac¬
tor on a conical centre, gives every minute of a de¬
gree. That part of the index beyond the limb has a
fteel point fixed at the end, in a diredt line with the
centre of the protractor, and whofe ufe is to prick oft
the propofed angles.
FH. 3. is another circular protradtor, a little differ-
entiy°conftruAed from the former. The central point
is formed by the interfeCtion of two lines crofting each,
other at right angles, which are cut on a piece of glais.
The limb is divided into degrees and half degrees, ha¬
ving an index with a vernier graduated to count to a
finale minute, and is furmfhed with a tooth and pinion,
by means of which the index is moved round by turn¬
ing a fmall nut. It has two pointers, one at each end
of the index, furntflied with iprings for keeping them
fufpended while they are bringing to any angle ; and
being brought, applying a finger to the top of the
pointer, and prefling it down, pricks off the angle.
There is this advantage in having two pointers, that
all the bearings round a circuit may be laid or pricked
off, although the index traverfes but one half ot the
protraCbor.
Another circular protra&or, different from either of
the former, is reprefented at fig. 4. I he centre is alio
formed by the interfedtion of two lines at right angles
to each other, which are cut on glafs, that ail parallax
may thereby be avoided. The index is moved round
by a tooth and pinion. The limb -is divided into de¬
grees and half degrees, and fubdivided to every minute
by the vernier. The pointer may be fet at any conve¬
nient diftance from the centre, as the focket which
carries it moves upon the bar 13C, and is fixed
thereto by the nut D, at right angles to the bar BC,
and moveable with it. There is another bar EF : On
this bar different feales of equal parts are placed ; to that
by moving a fquare againft the inner edge therei fi
Plate
SCCCXVIII.
 0 a iquare agamit me inner _
angles may be transferred to anyr diftance within the
limits, from the centre containing the fame number of
degrees marked out by the index.
it would indeed be fuperfluous to defenbe any more
of thefe circular pvotra&ors, efpecially as the little al¬
terations in them depend very much upon the fancy of
the artift. Suffice it however to fay, that we have
feen others ftill differently conftrucbed, one of which
we {hall briefly deferibe. T he divifions upon the
limb of this inftrument are fimilar to thole already de¬
feribed ; but the index is a ftraight bar continued to
fome confiderable diftance each way beyond the limb
of the inftrument, and has a vernier to (how minutes
as ufual; a mark upon one of the edges of the index al¬
ways coincides with the centre of the inftrument. In."
ftead, therefore, of pricking down the angle as in the
former, part of the line containing the angle may be
drawn, which, although perhaps not fo accurate as a
point, is more confpicuous, and the line is eulny com*
pleted upon removal of the protractor. The common
dimenfions of the circular pari, of thefe inftiuments is
from fix to ten inches diameter; and theyr are made o-'
^raf3, PROTUBERANCE,
PRO
r
Definition.
2
Belief of a
provdenee
unive.fal.
. 3
Exiftence
cf provi¬
dence may
l>e ] roved
on fcienti-
fic piinci-
ples.
PROTUBERANCE, in anatomy, is any eminence,
whether natural or preternatural, that projects or ad*
vances out beyond the reft.
PROVEDITOR, an officer in feveral parts of Italy,
particularly at Venice, who has the dtre&ion of mat¬
ters relating to policy.
PROVENCE, a province or government of France,
bounded by Dauphine on the north, by Piedmont on
the eaft, by the Mediterranean on the fouth, and, by
the river Rhone, which feparates it from Languedoc,
on the weft : it is about i oo miles long, and near as
many broad.
PROVEND, or Provender, originally fignified a
kind of veflel containing the meafure of corn daily gi¬
ven to a horfe, or other beaft of labour, for his fubfilt-
ence; but is now generally ufed to ftgnify the food for
cattle, whatever it is.
' PROVERB, according to Camden, is a concife,
witty, and wife fpeech, grounded upon experience, and
for the moft part containing fome ufeful inftrudtion.
Booh, of Proverbs, a canonical book of the Old Te-
ftament, containing a part of the proverbs of Solomon
the fon of David king of Ifrael. The firft 24 chapters
are acknowledged to be the genuine work of that
prince ; the next five chapters are a colledtion of feve¬
ral of his proverbs made by order of king Hezekiah,;
and the two laft feem to have been added, though be-
longing to different and unknown authors, Agur the
fon of Jakeh, and king Lemuel.
In this excellent book are contained rules for the
conduct of all conditions of life ; for kings, courtiers,
mafters, fervants, fathers, mothers, children, &c.
PROVIDENCE, the fuperintendence and care
which God exercifes over creation.
That there exifts a divine providence which attends
to the affairs of this world, and diredts their courfe, has
been a received opinion among the human race in every
country and in every period of hiftory. Every altar
that is erefted, every prayer and every facrifice that is
offered up, affords a proof of this belief. So fully have
men been convinced of the fincerity of each other’s faith
upon this fubjedt, that in one form, that of an appeal
to the Divine Ruler of the world, by the folemnity of
an oath, they have introduced it both into the moft or¬
dinary and the moft important bufmefs of life.
This univerfal convidlion of men of -all degrees of
knowledge, from the moft profound philofopher to the
rudeft barbarian, is probably to be traced to fome pri¬
maeval tradition, never totally effaced from any nation
under heaven. The truth itfelf, however, is fufceptible
of the moft complete proof from principles of fcience.
If the world had a beginning, it may obvioufly have an
end, and can be continued in exiftence only by the con-
ftant energy of that power by which it was at firft crea¬
ted. He therefore who acknowledges a creation and
denies a providence, involves himfelf in this palpable
contradidtion—“ that a fyftem, which of itfelf had not
an original and momentary cxiftence, may yet of itfelf
have a perpetual exiftence ; or that a being which can¬
not of itfelf exift for a fecond of time, may yet, of it¬
felf, exift for thoufands of years !” Or fhould we be fo
complaifant, as for a moment to fuppofe, with certain
theifts, ancient and modern, that the matter of the uni-
verfe is felf-exiftent and eternal, and that the power of
60S ] PRO
God was exerted, not in creating fubftances, but in re-Providence,
ducing the original matter from a ftate of chaos into - *1 ■*
that beautiful order in which we fee it arranged ; the
conftant energy of providence muft ftill be admitted as
neceffary to preferve the forms and to continue the mo¬
tions which v/ere originally impreffed upon the chaotic
mafs. From Tate experiments it appears extremely
doubtful whether any two atoms of the moft folid body
be in adtual contadt; and that they are not all in contadl
is certain. (See Metaphysics, nJ 176. and Optics,
nJ46, 64, 66.) Yet it requires a very confiderable de¬
gree of force to carry to a greater diftance from one
another the parts of a ftone or of a bar of iron. By
what powder then are thefe parts kept contiguous ? It
cannot be by their own; becaufe nothing can adt where
it is not prefent, and becaufe our beft philofophy has
long taught us that the atoms of matter are effentially
inadtive. Again, it requires a very great degree of
force to bring two bodies, however fmall, into apparent
contadt (fee Optics, ubi fupra); and therefore it follows
that they muft be kept afunder by fome foreign power.
Every attempt to folve thefe phenomena by the inter¬
vention of a fubtle fluid is vain ; for the queftion recurs,
what keeps the parts of the fluid itfelf contiguous, and
yet feparated from each other ?
The cohefion therefore of the parts of matter, and
that which is called their repulftve power, demonftratc,
through the whole fyftem, the immediate energy of
fomething which is not matter, and by which every bo¬
dy fmall and great is preferved in its proper form. It
has been elfewhere fhown (fee Metaphysics, Part II.
chap. 5. and Motion, n° 19, 20.), that the various
motions which are regularly carried on through the uni-
verfe, by which animals and vegetables grow and decay,
and by wdiich we have day and night, fummer and win¬
ter, cannot be accounted for by any laws of mere me-
chanifm, but neceffarily imply the conftant agency of
fomething which is itfelf diftindt from matter. But
the forms of bodies are preferved, and their natural mo¬
tions carried on, forpurpofes obvioufly planned by Wif-
dom. The power therefore which effedls thefe things
muft be combined with intelligence : but powrer and in¬
telligence preferving the order of the univerfe conftitute
all that is meant by a general providence ; which is there¬
fore >s certainly adminiftered as the fun daily rifes and
lets, or as bodies are kept folid by what is termed co-
hehon and repulfion. ^
Abftradted and metaphyfical as this reafoning may Reafonlng
appear, it is by no means peculiar to the philofophers of of the Bra-
Europe. Its force has been felt from time immemo-nuns
rial by the Bramins of Hindoftan, wdio, as Sir William riindoftar*
Jones informs us#,“ being unable to form a diftindl idea ^
of brute matter independent of mind, or to conceive Refearcbet^
that the work of fupreme goodnefs was left a moment Vol. 1.
to itfelf, imagine that the Deity is ever prefent to his
work, not in fubftance but in fpirit and in energy.”
On this rational and fublime conception they have -in¬
deed built numberlefs abfurd fuperftitions; but their
holding the opinion itfelf, fhows that they believe in the
reality of providence upon philofophical principles : and
what truth is there on which the mind of man has not
ingrafted marks of its own weaknefs ?
Few nations, however, except the ancient Greeks,
have had philofophers equally fubtile with the Bramins
1 ©f
PRO
[ 6o9 ]
PRO
^evidence
dca of pro
>idence in
u<k: ages.
6
The doc¬
trine has
had oppo¬
nents in
almoft eve
ry age. -
* Max.
<Tyr. Dif-
feft. V)
f C/cerc de
ftnihus, lib
i and De
JVatura
Deorum,
Ufa. a.
of India; and therefore though all mankind have in ge¬
neral agreed in the belief of a luperintendmg Providence,
they have in different ages and countries admitted that
truth upon different kinds of evidence, and formed very
different notions concerning the mode in which the Di¬
vine fuperintendence is exerted.
While focieties are ilill in a rude and unpoliffted ilate,
while individuals poffefs little fecurity and little leifure for
the exertion of their rational powers, every important or
fingular appearance in nature becomes an objedtof wonder
or of terror. In this date of ignorance, men fee not the
univerfe as it is, a great collection of connected parts,
all contributing to form one grand and beautiful fyftem.
Every appearance feems to ttand alone ; they know that
it muff have a caufe, but what that caufe is they are ig¬
norant. The phenomena exhibited by nature are fo
complicated and fo various, that it never occurs to them
that it is pofiible for one Being to govern the whole.
Hence arofe the different fy items of polytheifm that
have appeared in, the world. Nature was divided into
different regions, and a particular invifibie power was .
afligned to each department: one conducted the flam¬
ing chariot of the fun, another wielded the terrible
thunderbolt, and others were employed in diffufing
plenty, and introducing the ufefui arts among men.
Thus, although the various fyltems of polytheifm in
general acknowledged one Supreme Ruler, the father of
gods and men, yet they at the fame time peopled not
only the regions above, the air and the heavens, but
they alfo filled the ocean and the land, every grove, and
every mountain, with aCtive but invifibie natures. Ha¬
ving arifen from the fame caufes, thefe fyllems of poly¬
theifm, which are fo many hypothefes concerning Divine
providence, are all extremely fimilar; and we have a very
favourable fpecimen of them in the elegant mythology
of Greece and Rome, which gave to every region of
nature a guardian genius, and taught men in the deep
receffes of the foreit, or in the windings of the majeftic
flood, to expeCfc the prefence of protecting and friendly
powers. See Polytheism.
Notwithftanding this univerfal reception, in fome
form or other, of the doCtrine of a divine providence,
it has in every age met with fome opponents. The
- moft ancient of thefe were Democritus and Leucippus.
They denied the exiflence of a Deity—afferted that all
things were mechanically neceffary, and that thought
and fenfe were only modifications of matter. This is
atheifin in the flriCteft fenfe, and the only form of it
that has ever been confiftently fupported. Epicurus
followed upon the fame principles; but he rendered the
fyftem altogether abfurd, by confeffing the freedom of
the human will. To avoid the imputation of atheifm,
he afferted the exiftence of God; but declared that he
refided above the heavens, and interfered not in human
affairs. One of his maxims was, that “ the blefied and
immortal Being neither hath any employment himfelf,
nor troubles himfelf with others.” Maximus Tynus *
juftly obferves, that this is rather a defeription of a
Sardanapalus than of a Deity. And fome of the mo-
ralifts f of antiquity remarked, that they knew many
men among themfelves poffeffed of aCfive and generous
minds, whofe characters they valued more highly than
that of Epicurus’s god. Some of the ancients alfo ap¬
pear to have entertained the following ftrange notion :
They acknowledged the exiftence of a Supreme and of
Von. XV- Part II.
many inferior deities; but at the fame time, they fup- Pravidence
pofed that there 19 a certain fate which rules over all, ——v—
and is fuperior to the gods themfelves. See Nacsssirr
in Mythology.
The providence exerted by the Author of nature
over his works is ufually divided into two branches : a
general, referring to the management of the univerfe at
large; and a particular providence, chiefly regarding par¬
ticular men. j
Upon the firft ofthefe, in The Religion of Nature ^-Genera!
lineated, the queftion is ftated fomewhat in the follow- Pr0VldeL1«c>.
ing manner : The world may be faid to be governed,
or at leaft cannot be faid to fluCluate fortuitoufly, if
there are laws or rules by which natural caufes aft; if
the feverai phenomena in it fucceed regularly, and in
general the conftitntion of things is preferved ; if there
are rules obferved in the produftion of herbs, trees,.and
the like ; if the feverai kinds of animals are furnilhed
with faculties proper to determine their aftions in the
different ftations which they hold in the general econo¬
my of the world ; and, laftly, if rational beings are ta¬
ken care of in fuch a manner as will at laft agree belt
with reafon. By the providence of God we ought to
underftand his governing the world by fuch laws as thefe
now mentioned : fo that if there are fuch, there muft be
a Divine providence. g
With regard to inanimate objeBs, the cafe agrees pre- As it re¬
el fely with the above fuppofition. The whole of that fpei^s '^a-
univerfe which we fee around us is one magnificent and .n g ate
well regulated machine. The world that we inhabit ’
is a large globe, which, condufted by an invifibie power,
flies with a rapidity of which we have no conception,
through an extent of fpace which fets at defiance every
power ot fancy to embody it into any diftinft image.
A large flaming orb ftands immoveable in the heavens;
around which this, and other-worlds of different magni¬
tudes, perform their perpetual revolutions. Hence arife
the expefted returns of day and night, and the regular
diverfity of feafons. Upon thele great operations a
thoufand other circumftances depend. Hence, for ex¬
ample, the vapours afeend from the ocean, meet above
in clouds, and after being condenfed, defeend in ftia^'-*r
to cover the earth with fertility and beauty.
thefe appearances are permanent and regular. D g
every age fince men have been placed upon the. jrth,
this aftonifhing machine continued fteadily to perform
its complicated operations. Nothing is left to chance.
The fmalleft bodies are not lefs regular than the largeft,
and obfierve continually the fame rules of attraftion, re-
pulfion, &c. The apparent variations of nature pro¬
ceed only from different circumftances and combination*
of things, afting ,all the while under their ancient laws.
We ourfelves can calculate the effefts of the laws of
gravitation and of motion. We can render them fub-
fervient to our own purpofes, with entire certainty of
fuccefs if we only adhere to the rules eftablilhed by na¬
ture, that is to fay, by providence. ^
Vegetables alfo live and flourish according to prefer!-Vegeubls.',
bed methods. Each fort is produced from its proper
feed; has the fame texture of fibres, is at all times
neuriflied by the fame kind of juices, digefted and pre¬
pared by the fame veflHs. Trees and ftmibs receive
annually their peculiar liveries, and bear their proper
fruits : fo regular are they in this laft refpeft, that every
fpecies may be faid to have its profdlion or trade ap-
4 H pointed
PRO
r 610 ]
PRO
to
Animals,
tl
And man.
f rovidenee pointed to it, by which it furnilhes a certain portion of
*- ' jnanufafture, or of food, to fupply the wants of animals:
being created for the purpofe of confumption, all ve¬
getables produce great quantities of feed to fupply the
neceffary wafte. Here too, then, there is evidently a
regulation by which the feveral orders are preferved, and
the ends of them anfwered according to their frit eita-
blifhment.
With regard to animals, they too, in ftrufture of their,
form, are fubje£t to laws fimilar to thofe which govern
the vegetable world. In the fentient part of their con-
iUtution they are no lefs fubjeft to rule. The lion is al¬
ways fierce, the fox is crafty, and the hare is timid.
Every fpecies retains from age to age its appointed place
and character in the great family of nature. The
various tribes are made and placed in fuch a man*,
ner^s to find proper means of fupport and defence.
Bealls, birds, filhes, and infe&s, are all polfelfed of
organs and faculties adapted to their refpe&ive cir-
cumllances, and opportunities of finding their proper
food and prey.
Man is fubjeft to the ordinary laws which other ma¬
terial and animal fubllances obey ; but he is left more
at large in the determination of his a&ions. Yet even
here things do not fluftuate at random. Individuals do
indeed rife and perilh according to fixed rules, and na¬
tions themfelves have only a temporary endurance.
But the fpecies advances with a Heady progrefs to in-
telledlual improvement. This progrefs is often inter¬
rupted ; but it appears not to be lefs fure at the long*,
run than even the mechanical laws which govern the
material part of our conftitution. Amidll the convul-
£on of Hates and the ruin of empires, the ufeful arts,
■when once invented, are never loH. Thefe, in better
times, render fubfifience eafy, and give leifure for reflec¬
tion and Hudy to a greater number of individuals.
Tyre and Sidon have paffed away, Athens itfelf has be¬
come the prey of barbarians, and''the profperity of
ancient Egypt is departed, perhaps for ever; but the
fhip, the plow, and the loom, remain, and have been
perpetually improving. Thus every new convulfion of
fociety does lefs mifehief than the laH; and it is hoped
that, by the afiiflance of printing the mofl poliihed arts
ano the moH refined fpeculations have now become im¬
mortal.
The world is not then left in a Hate of confufion :
it is reduced into order, and methodifed for ages to
come; the feveral fpecies of beings having their offices
and provinces alfigned them. Plants, animals, men,
and nations, are in a Hate of continual change; but fuc-
ccffors are appointed to relieve them, and to carry on
the fcheme of Providence.
But the great difficulty is, how to account for that
of account- providence which is called particular : For rational be-
t'lcular pro. ing3> an(l frec agents, are capable of doing and deferving
vidence. well or ill; and the fafety or danger, that happinefs or
unhappinefs, of a man here, mull depend upon many
things that feem fcarcely capable of being determined
by Providence. Befides himfelf and his own condudl,
he depends upon the conduct of other men; whofe
aftions, as we naturally fuppofe, cannot, confifiently
•with their free will, be controuled for the advantage of
another individual. The actions of numbers of men
proceeding upon their private freedom, with different
degrees of ability, as they crofs and impede, or dire&Jy
i»
Difficulty
oppofe each other, mufi produce very different effects Providence
upon men of different chara&ers, and thus in a Hrange ■“—
manner embarrafs and entangle the general plan. And
as to the courfe of nature, it may juHly be afked, is the
force of gravitation to be fufpended till a good man
pafs by an infirm building? (See Prayer) Add to
this, that fome circumHances appear abfolutely irrecon-
cileable. The wind which carries one into port drives
another back to fea; and the rains that are juH fuffi-
cient upon the hills may drown the inhabitants of the
valleys. In fhort, may we expert miracles ? or can
there be a particular Providence that forefees and pre¬
pares for the feveral cafes of individuals, without force
frequently committed upon the laws of nature and the
freedom of intelligent agents ? 13
In whatever way it is brought about, there is little No good
doubt that fomething of this kind mujl take place. For
as the Deity does direft, as already mentioned, the great -xiftence.
and general progrefs of things in this world, he muH
alfo manage thofe of lefs importance. Nations are
compofed of individuals. The progrefs of individuals
is the progrefs of the nation, and the greateft events
ufually depend upon the hifiory and the mofi trifling
adlions of private perfons. The difficulty-is to con¬
ceive how the fuperintendence and management of all
this can be brought about. But as the ways and the
thoughts of the Omnipotent Spirit, whofe influence per¬
vades, and rules, and animates nature, refemble not the
limited operations of men, we can only form conjec¬
tures concerning the means by which his government is
conducted. 14
1. In the firfi place, then, it is not impofiible that the The Dei.
Deity fhould forefee the future adlions of intelligent be- ^ n^c^a*
ings. Many of thefe adlions depend upon the mecha- th^ a(I^,
nifm of the material world, which was formed by himfelf, 0£ men;
and muH be entirely known to him. Many men among
ourfelves poflefs much fagacity in difeerning the future
adlions of others, from attending to their known charac¬
ters, and the circumHances in which they are placed.
If fuperior natures do exiH, and minds more perfedl than
the human, they muH poflefs this penetration in a more
eminent degree in proportion to the excellence of their
intelledlual powers. But if this difeernment be in God
proportionable to his nature, as in lower beings it is
proportionable to theirs, it then becomes altogether
unlimited, and the future adlions of free agents are
at once unlocked and expofed to his view. Add to
this, that the Author of nature is well acquainted
with the creatures that he has made ; he knows the
mechanifm of our bodies, the nature and extent of our
underHandings, and all the circumHances by which we
are furrounded. With all thefe advantages, it is making
no great Hretch to fuppofe him capable of difeerning
the line of condudl which we will purfue ; and this
even fetting afide the infinity of his nature, to which a
thoufand years are as one day, and fuppofing him to
reafon from probabilities in the imperfedt manner that
we do. ... ij
2. There is no impoffibility at leafi, that men, whofe And may
charadlers and adtions are thus foreknown, may be in-thence fit
troduced into the world in fuch times and places as
that their adls and behaviour may not only coincide tlon8 in
with the general plan of things, but may alfo anfwer pfe.
many private cafes. The celefiial bodies are fo placed
that their jarring attradlions make oiit a fplendid fyfiem.
Why
PRO If <5
fy<m<Jene6 Why (hen may there not be in the Divine mind fome-
—-v—' thing like a proje&ion of the future hiitory of mankind,
as well as of the motions of the heavenly bodies > Arid
why (hould it not be thought poffible for men, as well
as for them, by fome fecret law, or rather by the ma¬
nagement of an unfeen power, to be brought into their
places in fuch a manner as that, by the free ufe of their
faculties, the conjunctions and oppofitions of their in-
terefts and inclinations, the natural influence of their
different degrees of talents, power, and wealth, they
may confpire to make out the great fcheme of human
affairs ? There is no abfurdity in this fuppofition : it is
beyond the power of an almighty and pe?h-t 13e-
x6 ing ; and it is worthy of him. Let us take from the
fhe poffi- Jewifh hiftory, as moft generally known, an example of
Dility of what may be fuppofed to happen daily It was the
hi* «cm* intention of providence to place David the fon of Jeffe
,Uficd' upon the throne of the Hebrews. The country is in¬
vaded by a foreign enemy : the hoftile armies meet, and
lie encamped upon oppofite mountains. A man comes
forth from the army of the invaders, as was extremely
common in thofe times, and defies the Hebrew holt to
fend forth a champion to meet him in Angle combat.
Terri ed by the gigantic bulk and mighty force ol Go-
liah, no man would rifk the unequal confliCf* David,
who was too young to carry arms, had been fent to the
-camp with proviiions for his brothers, and heard the
challenge. In defence of his flock he had killed fome
beafts of prey in the wildernefs, and he was an excellent
markfman with the fling. He thought it might pro¬
bably be as eafy to kill a man as a wild bead; at all
events, he knew that a done well diredted would prove
no iefs fatal to a giant than to a dwarf: he therefore
refolved to try his fkill; and he tried it with fuccefs.
Here no man’s free will was interrupted, and no miracle
was accomplifhed • Yet by this truin of circumltances
thus brought together, a foundation was laid for the fu¬
ture fortunes of the fon of Jefle, for the greatnefs of
his country, and for ftccomplifliing the purpofes of Pro¬
vidence. According to Seneca, “ Hoc dico, fulmina
non mitti a Jove, fed fie omnia difpbfita, ut ea etiam
quae ab illo non fiunt, tamen fine ratione non Hunt: quae
iHius ed.— Nam etfi Jupiter ilia nunc non facit, fecet
ut fierent.”—/ ^at the lightning comes not dire Sly
from the hand of Jove, but things are properly difpofed
for the indireS execution of his will; for he aQs not inane-
I* diately, but by the intervention of means.
Secret in 3. Laftlyl it is not impojfible that many things may
€uences on acComplifhed by fecret influence, upon the human
the miud inind> c;ther by the Deity himfelf, or by the intervention
of agents poffefled of powers fuperior to thofe which
belong ^ us. “ For indance, if the cafe fhould require
that a particular man be delivered from fome threaten¬
ing ruinr or from fome misfortune, which would certain¬
ly be fat him if he fhould go fuch a way at fuch a time,
as he intended: upon this occafion fome new reaions
may be prefented to his mind why he fhould not go at
a/lt or not then, or not by that road; or he may forget
ii ] FRO
to go. Or, if he is to be delivered from fome danger- Providence
are far
from im-
ipoflibit.
oua enemy, either fome new turn given to his thoughts
may divert him from going, where the enemy will be, or
the enemy may be after the fame manner diverted from
coming where he fhall be, or his refentment may be
qualified ; or fome proper method of defence may be fug-
geded to the perfon in danger. After the fame man¬
ner advantages and fuccefles may be conferred on the
deferring; as, on the other fide, men, by way of punifh-
ment for their crimes, may incur mifehiefs and calami¬
ties. Thcfe things, and fuch asthefe (fays Mr Wollas¬
ton*), may be. For fince the motions and actions of *
men, which depend upon their wills, do alfo depend
upon their judgments, as thefe again do upon the pre[ent{c&% 5.
appearances of things in their minds ; if a new profpeft
of things can be any way produced, the lights by which
they are feen a tered. new forces and directions imprefled
upon the fpirits, pafiions exalted or abated, the power of
judging enlivened or debiltated, or the attention taken off
without any fufpenfion or alteration of the Handing
laws of nature,—then, without that, new volitions, de-
figns, meafures, or a ceflation of thinking, may alfo be
produced ; and thus many things prevented that other-
wife would be, and many brought about that would not.
That there may poffibly be fuch infpirations of new
thoughts and counfels (continues our author), may
perhaps appear farther from this, that we frequently
find thoughts arifing in our heads, into which we are
led by no difeourfe, nothing we read, no clue of reafon-
ing, but they furprife and come upon us from we know
not what quarter. If they proceeded from the mobility
of fpirits draggling out of order, and fortuitous affections
of the brain, or were they of the nature of dreams^
why are they not as wild, incoherent, and extravagant
as they are ?” Is it not much more reafooable to ima¬
gine that they come by the order and direction of an
all-feeing and all-gracious God, who continually watches
over us, and difpofes every thing in and about us for the
good of ourfelves or others ? not to fpeak of the agree-
ablenefs of this notion to the opinions of the bed and
wifeft men in all ages (a). “ If this, then, be the cafe, as
it feems to be, that mens minds are fufceptible of fuch
inftnuations and imprejfions, as frequently, by ways un¬
known, do afteCt them, and give them an inclination
towards this or that; how many things (afks our
author) may be brought to pafs by thefe means without
fixing and ref \ ing the laws of nature, any more than
they are unfixed when one man alters the opinion of
another by throwing in his way a book proper for that
purpofe i” . . 1 ^
All this may be effeCted either by the immediate in-
terpofition of God himfelf, or by that of beings inyifible, ^
and in nature fuperior to us, who aft as the minifter3fuperjor to
of his providence. That there are fuch beings we can us, or by
hardly doubt, as it is in the highed degree improbable the Deity-
that fuch imperfeCt beings as men are at the top of the
fcale of created exidence. And fince we ourielves, by
the ufe of our limited powers, do often alter the courfe
4 H 2 of
(a) That fuch was the general belief of the Greeks in the days of Homer, is plain from that poet’s condantly
introducing his deities into the narrative of his poems, and telling us that Minerva, or fome othu god, a teie t ic
minds of his heroes. “ By this,” fays Plutarch, “ the poet does not mean to make O^ defiroy the wii of man,
but only move him to will: nor does he miraculoufly produce the appetites themfelvcs 10 naen, but only cauic*
fuch imaginations as arc capable of exciting them.”
PRO [ 61
Providence of things within aur fphere from what they would be
*—~v  jf left to the ordinary laws of motion and gravitation,
without being faid to alter thofe laws; why may not fu-
perior beings do the fame as inftruments of divine pro¬
vidence ? This idea of the intervention of fuperior na¬
tures is beautifully illultrated by Thomfon in the follow¬
ing palfage:
Thefe are the haunts of meditation, thefe
The feenes where ancient bards th’infpiring breath,
Ecflatic, felt ; and from this world retir’d,
Convers’d with angels and immortal forms,
On gracious errands bent: to fave th^ fall
Of virtue ftruggling on the brink of vice ;
In waking whifpers, and repeated dreams.
To hint pure thought, and warn the favour’d foul
For future trials fated to prepare.
We agree, however, with Mr Wollafton, in thinking
the power of thefe beings not fo large as to alter or fuf-
pend the general laws of nature (fee Miracle) ; for
the world is not like a bungling piece of clock-work,
which requires to be often let backwards or forwards.
We are likewife perfectly fatisfied, that they cannot
change their condition, to ape us or inferior beings;
and confequently we are not apt haitily to credit itories
of portents. See. fuch as cannot be true, unlefs the nature
of things and their manner of exittence were occafional-
ly reverfed. Yet as men may be fo placed as to become,
even by the free exercife of their own powers, itijiruments
of God’s particular providence to other men ; fo may
we well fuppofe that thefe higher beings may be lo
dijlributed through the univerfe, and fubje£t to luch an
economy, unknown to us, as may render them alfo in-
ftruments of the fame providence ; and that they may,
in proportion to their greater abilities, be capable, con-
JiJlently 'u '*b the,la<ws of nature, of influencing human af-
19 fairs in proper places.
Objeaions We {hall
next proceed to ftate feme of the chief
trine of ' obje&ions which in ancient or modern times have been
Providence brought againlt the opinion, that the world is governed
by a Divine providence.
From the 1. The firil of thefe is this, that the fyltem of nature
imperfec- contains many imperfe&ions which it ought not to do
I'ure ° na" ^ ** b€ the work of a perfectly wife and good Being.
To avoid the force of this obje&ion, feme modern wri¬
ters have deferted the ground of fupreme and abfo-
lute goodnefs, which the ancient theifts always occu¬
pied, and have aflerted that the divine perfection con-
iiits in unlimited power and uncontrouled fupremacy
of will; that confequently the Deify does not always
that which is bell, but merely what he himfelf pleafes;
and that for no other reafon but becaufe he riai//s to
do fo. But this is no better than atheifm itfelf.. For
it is of no importance to us whether the univerfe is go¬
verned by blind fate or chance, that is to fay, by no¬
thing at all ; or whether it is governed by an arbitrary
fovereign will that is dire&ed by chance, or at lealt by
a 1 no principle of beneficence.
Aiilwered. The true anfwer to this objeftion is, that no created
fyllem can have every perfection, becaufe it mull neceffa-
rily be deilitute of feli-exiftence and independence ; and
therefore if beings dellitute of fome perfections be bet¬
ter than nothing, it was worthy of infinite power and
perfeCl goodnefs to create fuch beings. In our prefent
2 ] PRO
Hate, we mortals Hand upon too low ground to take a Provident*
commanding view of the whole frame of things. We 1 r—^
can only reafon concerning what is unknown from the
little that is within our reach. In that little, we can
fee that wifdom and goodnefs reign; that nature al¬
ways aims to produce perfection ; that many falutary
elfeCts refult even from the thunder and the ftorm : and
we doubt not that a view of the whole ftruCture of the
univerfe would afford an additional triumph to the
goodnefs and fkill of its great Architect.
We fee a regular afeent in the fcale of beings from
mere lifelefs matter up to man ; and the probability is,
that the fcale continues to afeend as far above man in
perfection as created beings can poflibly be raifed.—
The foie purpofe of God in creating the world muff
have been to produce happinefs : but this would be molt
effectually done by creating, in the firfl place, as many
of the molt perfect clafs of beings as the fyftem could
contain ; and afterwards other claffes lefs and lefs per¬
fect, till the whole univerfe fhould be completely
full. We do not pofitively affert fuch a fcheme of
creation.
Where all muff full, or not coherent be ;
And all that riles, rife in due degree,
was actually in the divine Architect’s intention ; but
that it is poffible, is fufficiently obvious. No man will
pretend to fay, that this earth could afford a comfoit-
able fubfiltence to a greater number of the human race,
were all the inferior animals annihilated, than it could
at prefent, fwarming as every element is with life.—
Suppofe then, that as many men had been placed at
firft upon the earth as it could poffibly fupport, and
that matters had been fo conftitutcd, as that the num¬
ber fhould never have been either increafed or dimimlh-
ed ; we beg leave to afk, whether, fince there would have
been evidently room for inferior animals, it would have
been moft worthy of infinite gooduefs to leave the whole
globe to men, or to introduce into it different orders of
lefa perfeCt beings, which, while they could not incom¬
mode this principal inhabitant, would each find plea-
fure in its own exifleuce ? To this queltion different
anfwers cannot furely be given. L.et the reader then
extend his view, and confider the univerfe, which, how¬
ever vaft, cannot be pofitively infinite, as one fyftem as
< much united as the feveral parts of this globe ; let him
fuppofe that there were at firft created as many of the
highelt order of beings as it could have contained had
creation there ftopt; let him remember that happinefs
in many different degrees is valuable ;—and he will not
furely think it any imputation on the goodnefs of God
that there are in the univerfe many beings far fiom per¬
fection. The moft imperfeCt of thefe are by themfelve*
better than nothing ; and they all contribute to make
up a fyftem which, confidered as a whole, we have
every reafon to believe to be as perfeCt as any thing not
felf-exiftent can poflibly be.
2. If the world is conducted by a benevolent provi- objection ]
dence, how came evil to be introduced into it ? T his from the
queflion has perplexed mankind in all ages. The an-introduc-
cient PerJians refolved it, by afferting the exiftence of t‘on ol ev‘M
two gods, Oromafdes the author of good, and Arima-
nius the author of evil. From them the Chriftian he¬
retics called Mankhees borrowed their doCtrine of two
5 oppofite
PRO [ 61
Provldenee oppofite co-eternal principles. Both the Platonifts and
 Stoics afcribed the origin of evil to the perverfenefs or
imperfedion of matter, which they thought the Deity
could not alter; and Pythagoras imagined a ftate of
pre-exiftence, in which the fouls of men had committed
offences, for which they are here fuffering the punifh-
ment. But thefe hypothefes are, fome of them impious,
43 and all unfatisfactory.
Aniwcred. Taking the exprelhon in its mod extenfive fenfe, the
evils to which the human race are expofed may be re¬
duced to paw, uneajinefs, difappowtment of appetites, and
death ; of which not one could have been wholly pre¬
vented without occafioninggreater evils,inconfiftent with
the perfeft goodnefs of the Creator. As long as we
have folid bodies capable of motion, fupported by food,
fubjed to the influence of the atmofphere, and divifible,
they muff neceflarily be liable to diflblution or death :
But if a man could fuffer death, or have his limbs bro¬
ken, without feeling pain, the human race had been long
ago extind. A fever is a ftate of the body in which
the fluids are in great diforder. Pelt we no uneaflnefs
from that difordeis we fhould have no inducement to
pay the proper attention to our ftate, and fhould cer¬
tainly die unawares, without fufpeding ourfelves to be
in danger; whereas, under the prefent adminiftration of
divine providence, the pain and ficknefs of the diieafe
compel us to have recourfe to the remedies proper for
reftoring us to foundnefs and to health. Of the unea-
fmeffes to which we are liable, and which are not the ef-
fed of immediate pain, the greateft has been fometimea
faid to arife from the apprehenfion of death, which
conftantly flares us in the face, and frequently embitters
all our pleafures even in the hour of perfed health.—
But this dread of death is implanted in our breaks for
the very beft of purpofes. Had we no horror at the
apprehenfion of death, we fhould be apt, whenever any
misfortune befel us, to quit this world rafhly, and mfh
unprepared into the prefence of our Judge : but the
horror which attends our refledions on our own diffo-
lution, arifing not from any apprehenflons of the pain of
dying, but from our anxiety concerning our future ftate
of exiftence, tends ftrongly to make us ad, while we are
here, in fuch a manner as to enfure our happinefs here¬
after. Add to this, that the fear of death is the great-
eft fupport of human law s. We every day fee perfons
breaking through all die regulations of fociety and
good life, notwithilanding they know death to be the
certain confecjuence, and feel ail the liorrois of it that
are natural to man : and therefore were death divefted
of thefe horrors, how infignificant would capital puniih-
ments be as guardians of the law, and how infecure
would individuals be in civil fociety ?
With regard to the unavoidable misfortunes and an¬
xieties of our prefent ftate, fo far from being truly hurt¬
ful in themfelves, they are proofs of divine beneficence.
When we fee men difpleafed with their fituation, when
we hear them complain of the difficulties, the miferies,
and the cares of life, of the hardfhips which they have
undergone, and the labours w hich Hill lie before them ;
ihftead of accounting them unfortunate, we ought to
regard them as active beings, placed in the only fitua¬
tion that is fit for the improvement of their nature.
That difcontent, thefe reftlefs wifhes to improve thsir
condition, are fo many fare indications that their facul¬
ties will not languifh. They who are in the leak de-
3 j PRO
gree accukomed to obferve the human character, know Providenc e
well the influence which pleafure and repofe have in en- ‘
feebling every manly principle, and how capable they
are of attaching us even to a fordid and diihonourable
exikenee.
Happy indeed it is for the human race, that the
number of thofe men is fmall whom providence has
placed in iituations in which perfonal activity is unne-
ceffary. By far the greater number are compelled to
exert themfelves, to mix and to contend with their equals,
in the race of fortune and of honour. It is thus that
our powers are called forth, and that our nature reaches
its highek perfeftion. It is even perhaps a general
truth, that they who have Hruggled with the greateft
variety of hardfhips, as they always acquire the higheft
energy of character, fo if they have retained their in¬
tegrity, and have not funk entirely in the conteft, fel-
dom fail to fpend their remaining days refpeftable and
happy, fuperior to paflion, and fecured from folly by
the pofleffion of a wii'dom dearly earned. a*
But the benefits of phyfical evils have been fet in aPhyOcsf
{till ftronger light by a great mafter of moral wifdom,ev^h^
who was himfelf fubject to many of thofe evils. Thatm(ir;ii
man is a moral agent, fent into this world to acquire g00d.
habits of virtue and piety to fit him for a better ftate,
is a truth to which no confiftent theift will for a mo¬
ment refufe his affent. But almoft all the moral good
which is left among us, is the apparent effeift of phyfical
evil.
“ Goodnefs is divided by divines into fobernefs, righ- 'Jdnfon*
teoufnefs, and godlinefs. Let it be examined how each a
of thefe duties would be pra&ifed if there were no phyfi-
cal evil to enforce it.
“ Sobriety or temperance is nothing but the forbear¬
ance of pleafure ; and if pleafure was not followed by
pain, who would forbear it ? We fee every hour thofe
in whom the defire of prefent indulgence overpowers all
fenfe of pall, and all forefight of future mifery. In a
remiflion of the gout, the drunkard returns to his wine,
and the glutton to his feaft ; and if neither difeafe nor
poverty were felt or dreaded, every one would fink
down in idle fenfuality, without any care of others, or
of himfelf. To eat and drink, and lie down to keep,
would be the whole bufinefs of mankind.
“ Righteoufnefs, or the fyftem of focial duty, may be
fubdivided into juftice and charity. Of juftice, one of
the heathen fages has fhown, with great acutenefs, that
it was impreffed upon mankind only by the inconveni¬
ences which injuftice had produced. ‘ In the firft
ages (fays he) men adfted without any rule but the im-
pulfeof defire; they pradlifed injuftice upon others, and
fuffered it from others in their turn : but in time it was
difeovered, that the pain of fuffering wrong was greater
than the pleafure of doing it; and mankind, by a ge¬
neral compadl, fubmitted to the reftraint of laws, and
refigued the pleafure to efcape the pain.’
“ Of charity, it is fuperfluous to obferve, that it could
have no place if there were no want; for of a virtue
which could not be pradliied, the omiffion could not
be culpable. Evil is not only the occafional but the
efficient caufe of charity ; we are incited to the relief
of mifery by the confcioufnefs that we have the fame
nature*with the fufferer ; that we are in danger of the
fame diftreffes, and may fome time implore the fame af*
fiftance.
Godlinefs
P 'R O
t 6h 1
PRO
S>f0vWene<5
*5
ObjpdUon
from the
ft-rmtilion
of moral
guilt,
Anfwered.
u Godlmefs or piety is elevation of the mind towards
the Supreme Being, and extenl'ion of the thoughts of
another life. The other life is future, and the Supreme
Being is invifible. None would have recourfe to an
invifible power, but that all other fubjefts had eluded
their hopes. None would fix their attention upon the
Tuture, but that they are difcontented with the prefent.
If the fenfes were feafted with perpetual pleafure, they
would always keep the mind in fubje£Uon. Reafon
has no authority over us but by its power to warn us
againft evil,
“ In childhood, while our minds are yet unoccupied,
religion is imprefied upon them ; and the firft years of
almoft all who have been well educated are paffed in a
regular difcharge of the duties of piety i But as we
advance forward into the crowds of life, innumerable de¬
lights folicit our inclinations, and innumerable cares
didradl our attention. The time of youth is palled in
noify frolics; manhood is led on from hope to hope,
and from project to project; the dilfolutenefs of plea¬
fure, the inebriation of fuccefs, the ardour of expecta¬
tion, and the vehemence of competition, chain down
the mind alike to the prefent fcene; nor is it remem¬
bered how foon this mill of trifles mult be fcattercd,
and the bubbles that float upon the rivulet of life be
Jolt for ever in the gulph of eternity. To this confide-
ration fcarce any man is awakened but by fome prelling
and reiiftlefs evil; the death of thofe from whom he de¬
rived his pleafures, or to whom he deftined his pof-
feffions, fome difeafe which (hows him the vanity of
all external acquisitions, or the gloom of age which in¬
tercepts his profpeCts of long enjoyment, forces him to
fix his hopes upon another ftate ; and when he has con¬
tended with the tempefts of life till his ftrength fails
him, he flies at laft to the flicker of religion.
“ That mifery does not make all virtuous, experience
too certainly informs us; but it is no lefs certain,
that of what virtue there is, mifery produces far the
greater part. Phyfical evil may be therefore endured
with patience, fince it is the caufe of moral good ; and
patience itfelf is one virtue by which we are prepared
for that ftate in which evil lhall be no more.*’
The calamities and the hardlhips of our prefent ftate,
then, are fo far from being real evils, of which provi¬
dence ought to be accufed, that in every point of view
in which we can conlider them, they afford the fureft
proofs of the wifdom of its adminiftration, and of its
goodnefs to man.
The moft ferious difficulty lies in accounting for the
permiffion of moral evil or guilt, in a fyftem governed
by infinite benevolence and wifdom. Thofe who in a
confident manner hold the dodtrine of the abfolute ne-
ceffity of human adtions in its full extent, and acknow¬
ledge all its confequences, find it eafy to elude this diffi¬
culty. They very fairly deny the exiftence of any fuch
thing as moral evil in the abftract; and affert, that what
we call a cr 'ime% is nothing more than an adtion which
we always regard with a painful fenfation : that thefe
apparent evils endure only for a time ; and that all will
at laft terminate in the perfedtion and happinefs of eve¬
ry intelligent being.
Upon the fyftem of liberty, the fhorteft anfwer feems
to be this: that feme things are abfolutely impoffible,
not from any weaknefs in the Deity, but becaufe they
infer abfurdity or contradiaion. Thus it is impoffible
for twice two to be any thing elfe than four; and thus^oviden^
it is impoffible for Omnipotence itfelf to confer felf- * J—^
approbation upon an intelligent being who has never
deferved it; that is to fay, it is impoffibk for a man of
fenfe to be pleafed with himfelf for having done a cer¬
tain adtion, while he himfelf is confcious that he never
did that adtion. But felf-approbation conftitutes the
higheft, the moft unmingled, and permanent felicity, of
which our nature is capable. It is not in the power
of Omnipotence itfelf, then, to beftow the higheft and
tnoft permanent felicity of our nature; it muft be earned
and deferved before it can be obtained. In the fame
manner good defert, virtue or merit, cannot be confer¬
red ; they muft be acquired. To enable us to acquire
thefe, we muft be expofed to difficulties, and muft fuf-
fer in a certain degree. If thefe difficulties had no in¬
fluence upon our condudt and feelings, if they expofed
us to no real danger, no fabric of merit and of felf-
approbation could be reared upon them. All that the
Supreme Being could do for us, was to confer fuch an
original conftitution andcharadter as would enable us to
do well if we fhould exert our utmoft powers. The
univerfe is not ruled by favour, but by juftice. Com¬
plete felicity muft be purchafed. Guilt is an abufe of
our freedom, a doing ill where we could have done well,
and is entirely the work of man. Heaven could not
avoid permitting its exiftence, and expoling us to dan¬
ger ; for temptation is neceffary to virtue, and virtue is
the perfedtion of our nature, our glory, and our happi¬
nefs. *7
The permiffion of moral evil has been fo ably ac- Simpll-
counted for by Simplicius, a Pagan wiiter, and there-C1U8,
fore not biaffed by any partiality to the Jewifh or Chri-
ftian Scriptures, that we cannot deny ourfelves the plea¬
fure of laying his reafoning before our readers He
afks *, “ Whether God may be called the author of* Simplte.
fin, becaufe he permits the foul to ufe her liberty ? and ^"
anfwers the queltion thus : 186, 187.
“ He who fays that God fhould not permit the ex- *j. Salmf.
ercife of its freedom to the foul, mult affirm one of
thefe two things ; either that the foul, though by na¬
ture capable of indifferently choofing good or fW, fhould
yet be conftantly prevented from choofing evil; or elfe
that it fhould have been made of fuch a nature as to
have no power of choofing evil.
“ The former affertion (continues he) is irrational
and abfurd ; for what kind of liberty would that be in
which there fhould be no freedom of choice ? and what
choice could there be, if the mind were conftantly re-
ftrained to one fide of every alternative ? With refpeft
to the fecond affertion, it is to be obferved (fays he),
that no evil is in itfelf defirable, or can be chofen at
evil. But if this power of determining itfelf either
way in any given cafe muft be taken from the foul, it
muft either be as fomething not good, or as fome great
evil. But whoever faith fo, does not eonfider how many
things there are which, though accounted good and
defirable, are yet never put in competiton with this free¬
dom of will: for without it we fhould be on a level with
the brutes; and there is no perfon who would rather,be
a brute than a man. If God then fhows his goodnefs
in giving to inferior beings fuch perfections as are far
below this, is it incongruous to the divine nature and
goodnefs to give man a felf-determining power over his
actions, and to permit him the free exercife of that
power i
*8
Objeiftion
from the
apparent
eonfufion
human
affairs,
49 ,
Arifwered ^
PRO [
^evidence power > Had God, to prevent man*# fin, taken away
a— v the liberty of his will, he would likewife have deftroyed
the foundation of all virtue, and the very nature of man;
for there could be no virtue were there not apofiibility
of vice ; and man’s nature, had it continued rational,
would have been divine, becaufe impeccable. There¬
fore (continues he), though we attribute to God, as it*
author, this felf-determining power, which is fo necef-
fary in the order of the univerfe ; we have no reafon to
attribute to him that evil which comes by the abufe of
liberty : For God doth not caufe that averfion from
good which is in the foul when it fins ; he only gave to
the foul fuch a power as might turn itfclf to evil, out
of which he produces much good, which, without fuch
a power, could not have been produced by Omnipotence
itfelf.” So confonant to the doftrine of our feriptures
is the reafoning of this opponent of the writings of
Mofes ! Fus efl et ab hqjle doceri.
The lad objeaion to the belief of a divine provi¬
dence arifes from the apparent eonfufion of human af¬
fairs, that all things happen alike to all, that bad men
are profperous, and that a total want of juftice appears
to attend the divine adminiilrations. Even the belt
men have at times been lhaken by this confideration.—
But there are many reafons for rendering this world a
mixed feene : it would become unfit for a date of trial
and of edueation to virtue were it otherwife.
It has been Ihown already, that phyfical evil is the
parent of moral good; and therefore it would be abfurd
to expeft that the virtuous Ihould be entirely exempt¬
ed from that evil. For the occafional profperity of the
wicked, many reafons have been afiigned even by thofe
who, in their difquifitions, were not guided by that re¬
velation which has brought to light life and immorta¬
lity. “ God (fays Plutarch) fpares the wicked, that
he may fet to mankind an example of forbearance, and
tea«h them not to revenge their injuries too hadily on
each other. He fpare* fume wicked men from early
punilhment, in order to make them indruments of his
judice in punifhing others. And he fpares all for a
time, that they may have leifure for repentance; for
men (fays the fame excellent moralid) look at nothing
further, in the punilhments which they inflift, than to
fatisfy their revenge and malice, and therefore they pur-
fue thofe who have offended them with the utmoll rage
and eagernefs; whereas God, aiming at the cure of
thofe who are not utterly incurable, gives them
Atobut xpovo t « time to be converted.”
But this obje&ion receives the bed folution from the
doctrine of the immortality of the human foul.
 And fee !
’Tis come, the glorious morn ! the fecond birth
Of heav’n and earth ! awakening nature hears
The ueiv creating word, and darts to life,
In every height’ned form, from pain and death
For ever free. The great eternal fcheme.
Involving all, and in a perfeS tuhole
Uniting, as the profpedl wider fpreads,
To reafon’s eye cleared up a-pace.
Ye vainly wife ! Ye blind prefumptuous ! now.
Confounded in the dud, adore that Pow’r
And Wifdom oft arraign’d : fee now the caufe,
Why unaffuming worth in fecret liv’d
And died negledted: why the good man’s (hare
3«
By Plu¬
tarch.
The im¬
mortality
of thf. foul
the be ft an-
fwer to
this objec¬
tion.
615 ] PRO
In life was gall and bitternefs of foul:
Why the lone widow and her orphans pin’d
In darving folitude ; while luxury,
In palaces, lay draining her low thought.
To form unreal wants: why heav’n-born truth.
And moderation fair, wore the red marks
Of fuperdition’s fcourge ; why licens’d pain.
That cruel fpoiler, that embofom’d foe,
Imbitter’d all our blifs. Ye good didred !
Ye noble few ! who here unbending dand
Beneath life’s preffurc, yet bear up a while,
And what your bounded view, which only faw
A little part, deem’d evil, is no more :
The dorms of wintry time will quickly pafs.
And one unbounded fpring encircle all.
Tkomfon's Winter.
pRoriBENCE-Plantation, a colony of New-England,
which, with Rhode-ifiand, formerly condituted a char¬
ter government. Its chief town is Newport.
Providence, one of the lead of the Bahama iflands
in the American ocean, but the bed of thofe planted
and fortified by the Englifh. It is feated on the eaft
fide of the gulph of Florida. W. Long. 77. 35. N. Lat.
25. o.
PROVINCE, in Roman antiquity, a country of con-
fiderable extent, which, upon being entirely reduced
under the Roman dominion, was new-modelled accord¬
ing to the pleaiurc of the conquerors, and fubjetted to
the command of annual governors, fent from Rome ;
being commonly obliged to pay fuch taxes and contri¬
butions as the fenate thought fit to demand.
Of thefe countries, that part of France next the Alps
was one, and dill retains the name Provence.
Nicod derives the word a procul vivendo, “ living
afar offbut it is better deduced from pro and vinca
**■ I overcome.”
Province, in geography, a divifion of a kingdom
or date, comprifing feveral cities, towns, &c. all under
the fame government, and ufually dHtinguifhed by the
extent either of the civil or ecclefiadical jurifdldfion.
The church dittinguifhes its provinces by archbilhop-
rics ; in which fenfe, England is divided into two pro¬
vinces, Canterbury and York.
The United Provinces are feven provinces of the Ne¬
therlands, who, revolting from the Spanifh dominion,
made a perpetual alliance, offenfive and defenfive, at
Utrecht, anno 1579. See United Provinces.
PROVINCIAL, fomething relating to a province.
It alfo denotes, in Romilh countries, a perfon who has
the direction of the feveral convents of a province.
PROVISIONS, in a military fenfe, implies all man¬
ner of eatables, food or provender, ufed in an army,
both for man and bead.
PROVOST of a city or town, is the chief muni¬
cipal magidrate in feveral trading cities, particularly
Edinburgh, Paris, &c. being much the fame with mayor
in other places. Pie prelides in city-courts, and, to
gather with the bailies, who are his deputies, deter
mines in all differences that arife among citizens.
The proved of Edinburgh is called lord, and th<*
fame title is claimed by the provod of Glafgow. The
former calls yearly conventions of the royal boroughs
to Edinburgh by his mifiives, and is, ex ojficioy prefident
to the convention when met.
Pro-
Providence
II
Provoft.
Prudtn e.
PRO [
lYovoft P*.o*ost, or Prevot-Rnyal, a fort of inferior judge
il formerly eltabliilied throughout France, to take cog-
, nizance of all civil, perfonal, real, and mixed caufes,
among the people only. r, , j i j
Grand PRoratr of France,, or of the Houfehsld, had
mrifdi&ion in the king’s houfe, and over the officers
therein ; looked to the policy thereof, the regulation of
provifions, &c.
Grand Peorosr of the Conflabk, a judge who ma¬
nages proceffes againit the foldiers in the army who
have committed any crime.
He has four lieutenants diftributed throughout the
army, called provo/ls of the armyt and particularly pro-
vofts in the feveral regiments.
Prorost Marjhal of an Army, is an officer appoint¬
ed to feize and fecure deferters, and all other crimi¬
nals. He is to hinder foldiers from pillaging, to In¬
dia offenders, and fee the fentence palled on them ex¬
ecuted. He alfo regulates the weights and meafures,
and the price of provilions, &c. in the army. For.
the difeharge of his office, he has a lieutenant, a clerk,
and a troop of marlhal-men on horfeback, as alfo an
executioner.
There is alfo a provoft-marffial in the navy, who hath
charge over prifoners, &c.
The French alfo had a provoft-general of the marines,
whofe duty it was to profecute the marines when guilty
of any crime, and to make report thereof to the coun¬
cil of war ; befides a marine provoft in every veffel, who
was a kind of gaoler, and took the prifoners into his
pare, and kept the veffel clean.
Provosts of the Marjhals, were a kind of lieutenants
of the marlhals of France ; of thefe there were 180 feats
in France; their chief jurifdidfion regarded highwaymen,
footpads, houfe-breakers, &c.
Provost of the Mint, a particular judge inftituted for
the apprehending and profecutmg of faife coiners..
Provost, or Prcvot, in the king’s ftables ; his of¬
fice is to attend at court, and hold the king s llirrup
when he mounts his horfe. There are four prove ft s of
this kind, each of whom attends in his turn, monthly.
PROW, denotes the head or fore-part of a Ihip,
particularly in a galley ; being that which is oppofite
to the poop or ftern. r .
PROXIMITY, denotes the relation of nearnefs, ei¬
ther in refpeft of place, blood, or alliance. . .
PRUDENCE, in ethics, may be defined an ability
of judging what is belt, in the choice both of ends and
means. According to the definition of the Roman mo-
ralift, De Officiis, lib. i. cap. 43. prudence is the know¬
ledge of what is to be defired or avoided. According¬
ly, he makes prudentia f Lie Legibus, hb. i.) to be a con-
tra&ion of providentia or forefight. Plato (De Legibus,
lib. iii.) calls this the leading virtue ; and Juvenal, Sat. x.
obferves,
Nullum numen abef ft Jit prudentia.
The idea of prudence includes or due conful-
tation ; that is, concerning fuch things as demand con-
fultation in a right manner, and for a competent time,
that the refolution taken vip may be neither too preci¬
pitate nor too flow ; and or a faculty of difeern-
ing proper means when they occur; and to the perfec¬
tion of prudence, thefe three things aie farther required,
vijs. /nvcrijf, or a natural fagacity ; prefence of
6 ] PRO
mind, or a readf turn of thought; and or expe-Prudentiu*
rience. The extremes of prudence arc craft or cunning !!
on the one hand, which is the purfuit of an ill end by Pruning^
dire£t and proper though not honeit means; and folly ’"' ^
on the other, which is either a miftake, both as to the
end and means, or profecuting a good end by foreign
and improper means. Grove’s Moral Phtlofophy, vol.
ii. chap. ii..
PRUDENTIUS, orAuREtius Prudentius Cle¬
mens, a famous Chriftian poet, under the reign of The-
odofius the Great, who was born |in Spain in the year
348. He firfl followed the profeffiom of an advocate,
was afterwards a judge, then a foldier, and at length
had an honourable employment at court. We. have a
great number of his poems, which, from the choice of
his fubjects, may be termed Chrijlian poems; but the
ftyle is barbarous, and very different from the purity of
the Auguftan age. The moft efteemed editions of
Prudentius’s works are that of Amfterdam, in 1667,
with Heinfius’s Notes, and that of Paris in 1687, in
ufam Delphini.
PRUNELLA, in botany : A genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th order,
holoracea. The filaments are bifurcated, with an anthera
only on one point; the ftigma is bifid.
PRUNES, are plums dried in the funfnine, or in
an oven.
PRUNING, in gardening and agriculture, is the
lopping off the fuperfluous branches of trees, in order to
make them bear better fruit, grow higher, or appear
more regular.
Pruning, though an operation of very general ufe, is
neverthelefs rightly underftood by few ; nor is it to be
learned by rote, but requires a ftri& obfervation of the
different manners of growth of the feveral forts of fruit-
trees ; the proper method of doing which cannot be
known without carefully obferving how each kind is
naturally difpofed to produce its fruit: for fome do this
on the fame year’s wood, as vines; others, for the moft
part, upon the former year’s wood, as peaches, necta¬
rines, &c.; and others upon fpurs which are produced
upon w'ood of three, four, &c. to fifteen or twenty
years old, as pears, plums, cherries, &c. Therefore, in
order to the right management of fruit-trees, provifion
ffiould always be made to have a fufficient quantity of
bearing wood in every part of the trees; and at the fame
time there ffiould not be a fuperfluity of ufelefs branches,
which would exhauft the ftrength of the trees, and caufe
them to decay in a few years.
The reafons for pruning of fruit-trees, are, 1. To
preferve them longer in a vigorous bearing-ftate; 2. To
render them more beautiful; and, 3. To cauie the fruit
to be larger and better tailed.
The general inftruftions for pruning are as follow.
The greateil care ought to be taken of fruit-trees in the
fpring, when they are in vigorous growth; which is the
only proper feafon for procuring a quantity of good
wood in the different parts of the tree, and for difpla-
cing all ufelefs branches as foon as they are produced,
in order that the vigour of the tree may be entirely
diftributed to fuch branches only as are defigned to re¬
main. For this reafon trees ought not to be negleCled
in April and May, when their ffioots are produced :
however, thofe branches which are intended for bearing
the
P R U [ 617 ] P R U
Frunlnp. th« fucceeding year fliould not be fhortened during the
time of their growth, becaufe tin's would caufe them to
produce two lateral flioots, from the eyes below the
place where they were flopped, which would draw
much of the ftrength from the buds of the firft flioot:
and if the two lateral {hoots are not entirely cut away
at the winter-pruning, they will prove injurious to the
tree. This is to be chiefly underftood of ftcne-fruit
and grapes ; but pears and apples, being much harder,
fuffer not fo much, though it is a great difadvantage to
thofe alfo to be thus managed. It muft likewife be re¬
marked, that peaches, neftarines, apricots, cherries, and
plums, are always in the greateft vigour when they are
leafl maimed by the knife ; for where large branches
are taken off, they are fubjeft to gum and decay. It
is therefore the moll prudent method to rub off all ufe-
lefs buds when they are firft produced, and to pinch
others, where new (hoots are wanted to fupply the va¬
cancies of the wall; by which management they may
be fo ordered as to want but little of the knife in winter-
pruning. The management of pears and apples is much
the fame with thefe trees infummer; but in winter they
muft be very differently pruned: for as peaches and nec¬
tarines, for the moft part, produce their fruit upon the
former year’s wood, and muft therefore have their bran¬
ches fhortened according to their ftrength, in order to
produce new (hoots for the fucceeding year; fo, on the
contrary, pears, apples, plums, and cherries, producing
their fruit upon fpurs, which come out of the wood of
five, fix, and feven years old, flmuld not be fhortened,
becaufe thereby thofe buds which were naturally difpofed
to form thefe (purs, would produce wood-branches ; by
which means the trees would be filled with wood, but
would never produce much fruit. The branches of
ftandard-tre.es fhould never be (hortened unlefs where
they are very luxuriant, and, by growing irregularly on
one fide of the trees, attract the greateft pait of the fap,
by which means the other parts are either unfurniftied
•with branches, or are rendered very weak ; in which
cafe the branch fhould he fhortened down as low as is
neccffary, in order to obtain more branches to fill up
the hollow of the tree: but this is only to be underftood
of pears and apples, which will produce fhoots from
wood of three, four, or more years old ; whereas moft
forts of ftone-fruit will gum and decay after fuch ampu¬
tations : whenever this happens to (lone-fruit, it ftiould
be remedied by flopping or pinching thofe (hoots in the
fpring, before they have obtained too much vigour,
which will caufe them to pufh out fide-branches; but
this mud be done with caution. riou muil alfo cut
Out all dead or decaying branches, which caufe their
heads to look ragged, and alio attradl noxious particles
from the air: in doing of this, you ftiould cut them
clofe down to the place where they were produced,
otherwife that part of the branch which is left will alfo
decay, and prove equally hurtful to the reft of the tree;
for it feldom happens, when a branch begins to decay,
that it does not die quite down to the place where it
was produced, and if permitted to remain long uncut,
often infedls Come of the other parts of the tree. If the
branches cut off are large, it will be very proper, after
having fmoothed the cut part exaftly even with a knite,
chiffel, or hatchet, to put on a plaftcr of grafting clay,
which will prevent the wet from foaking into the tree
at the wounded part. All fuch branches as run acrofs
each other, and occafion a confufion in the head ol the
Vol. XV. Part II.
tree, fhould be cut off; and as there are frequently Pruning,^
young vigorous (hoots on old trees, which rife from the''"
old branches near the trunk, and grow upright into
the head, thefe ftiould be carefully cut out every year,
left, by being permitted to grow, they fill the tree too
full of wood.
As to the pruning of foreft-trees, if they be large, it
is bed not to prune them at all; yet, if there be an ab.
folute neceflity, avoid taking off large boughs as much
as pofiible. And, t. If the bough be fmall, cut it
fmooth, clofe, and Hoping. 2. If the branch be large,
and rhe tree old, cut it off at three or four feet from
the ftem. 3. If the tree grow crooked, cut it off at
the crook, (loping upward, and nurie up one of the moft
promifing (hoots for a new ftem. 4. If the tree grow
top-heavy, its head muft be lightened, and that by
thinning the boughs that grow out of the main branches.
But if you would have them fpring, rub off the budsy
and fhroud up the fide-fiioots. 5. If the fide-bough dill
break out, and the top be able to fuftain itfelf, give the
boughs that put forth in fpring a pruning after Midfum-
mer, cutting them clofe.
PRUNUS, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the icofandria clafs ot plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 36th order.
Pomace*. The calyx is quinquefid, inferior ; there are
five petals; the fruit is a plum, having a kernel with
prominent futures. There are 15 fpecies, of which fix
are cultivated in Britain: they are originally natives of
America and Siberia.
1. The domeftica, or common plum-tree, grows 20
or 30 feet high, garnifhed with oval, fpear-(haped leaves,
and with the pedunculi for the moft part (ingle, termi¬
nated by flowers, fucceeded by plums of many different
colours, fizes, and (hapes in the varieties. 2. The in-
fititia, wild-plum, or bullace-tree, grows 12 or 15 feet
high ; the branches fomevvhat fpinous ; the leaves oval,
hairy underneath ; and the pedunculi by pairs, termina¬
ted by white flowers fucceeded by’’fmall, round, plum¬
like, fruit of different colours in the varieties. 3. The
fpinofa, black-thorn, or floe-tree, grows 1 o or 12 feet
high, very branchy and bufhy quite from bottom, arm¬
ed with (trong, (harp (pines, fmall, ipear-fhaped, Imooth
leaves, pedunculi growing fingly, terminated by flowers,
fucceeded by fmall, round, black cherries in autumn.
It grows wild everywhere in hedges and woods ; and
is.very proper for planting field hedges, being of very
quick and clofe growth. 4. The cerafus, or common
cherry-tree, grows 20 feet or more in height, garnifhed
with oval clufters of lanceolate, fmooth leaves, umbellate
flowers, fucceeded by clufters of red roundifh fruit of
different fizes and properties in the varieties. Hanbury
fays, “ were this tree fcarce, and with much difficulty
propagated, every man, though poffeffed of a Angle tree
only, would look upon it as a treafure ; for befides the
charming appearance thefe trees have, when befnowed,
as it were, all over with bloom in the fpring, can any
tree in the vegetable tribe be conceived more beautiful,
ftriking, and grand, than a well-grown and healthy
cherry-tree, at that period when the fruit is ripe.”
The many kinds of cherry-trees afford an almoft end-
lefs variety ; all differing in fome refpeft in their man¬
ner of (hooting, leaves, flowers, or fruit: two in parti¬
cular demand admifiion into the pltafure-garden ; the
double-bloffomed and the red-flowering. The pleafmg
(how the common cherry-tree makes when in blow is
4. x known
P R U t 61
Prun^np. known to all; but that of the double.bloffomed is much
more enchanting. It bloflbms like the other in May ;
the flowers are produced in large and noble clufters ;
for each feparate flower is as double as a rofe, is very
jaroe, and placed on long and llender footftalks, fo as
to occafion the branches to have an air of eafe and free¬
dom. They are of a pure white; and the trees will be
fo profufely covered with them, as to charm the imagi¬
nation. Standards of thefe trees, when viewed at a
diftance, have been compared to balls of fnow; and the
nearer we approach, the greater pleafure we receive.
Thefe trees may be kept as dwarfs, or trained up to
ftandards; fo that there is no garden or plantation to
which they will not be fuitabie. By the multiplicity
of the petals the organs of generation are deltroyed ; fo
that thofe flowers which are really full are never fuc-
ceeded by any fruit.
The red-flowering cherry-tree differs in no refpedl
from the common cherry-tree, only that the flowers are
of a pale-red colour, and by many are efteemed on that
account. Befides the ornament and utility afforded us
fey the flowers and fruit of the cherry, its timber is a
further inducement for propagating it; more cfpecially
that of the fmall black wilding fort; which may perhaps
with propriety be confldered as the genuine fpecies, and
a native of this ifland. Be this as it may, it will grow,
in a foil and iituation it affefts, to be a large timber
tree; which, if taken in its prime before it become
tainted at the heart, will turn out perhaps not lefs than
a ton of valuable materials, peculiarly adapted to the
purpofes of furniture. The grain is fine, and the colour
nearly approaching to that of mahogany, to which va¬
luable wood it comes nearer than any other which this
country produces. 5. The avium, or great wild-cherry
tree, grows 40 or 50 feet high, having oval, fpear-fha-
ped leaves, downy underneath, with umbellate fcfiile
clufters of white flowers, fucceeded by fmall round fruit
of different properties in the varieties. 6. The padus,
or common bird-cherry tree, grows 15 or 20 feet high,
of a fhrub-like growth, with a fpreading head, large,
oblong, rough, ferrated leaves, having two glands at the
back of the bafe like the other, and with fliorter, more
compatt cl niters of flowers, fucceeded by large red fruit.
This grows wild in hedges in the north parts of Eng¬
land. 7. The Virginiana, or Virginian bird-cherry,
grows 30 feet high, dividing into a very branchy head,
having a dark purple bark, oval, flightly ferrated, (hining
green leaves, having two glands at the forepart of the
bale, and long clufters of white flowers, fueceeded by
fmall, round, berry-like, black fruit. 8. The Canaden-
fis, or Canada dwarf bird cherry, grows but four or five
feet high, branching horizontally near the ground with
fmooth branches; broad, fpear-lhaped, rough downy
leaves without glands; and long clufters of white
flowers, fucceeded by fmall, round, berry-like, black
fruit, ripe in autumn. 9. The mahaleb, or perfumed
cherry, grows 10 or 15 feet high, with fmooth whitifh
branches, fmall, oval, (hining green leaves, and corymbous
clufters of white flowers, fucceeded by fmall fruit. 10.
The armeniaca, or apricot tree, grows 20 feet high,
8 ] P R U
with a large fpreading head, having reddifti ftwetg,
large nearly heart-fhaped leaves, and clofe-fitti«g pale-
red flowers rifing all along the (ides of the young bran¬
ches ; fucceeded by large, roundim fruit of a yellow and
veddfth colour in different varieties. The fruit and the
kernels of the Primus Siber'ica, when eaten, excite a
continued head-ach : the kernels, infufed in brandy,
communicate an agreeable flavour.
Culture. All tbe different varieties of plums have at
firlt been raifed from the ftones, and are afterwards pre-
ferved by budding and grafting on any plum-llock.
The fame method is applicable to cherries ; only thefe
are grafted to mod advantage upon ftocks of the wild
black and red cherry raifed from the ftones of the fruit.
The apricot-trees are propagated by budding on any
kind of plum-ftocks,
PR.USA (anc. geog.), a town fituated at mount
Olympus in Mylia, built by Pruflas, who waged war
with Croefus, (Strabo) ; with Cyrus, (Stephanas) j
both cotemporary princes. Now called Bur fa or Prufat
capital of Bithynia, in Aha Minor. E. Eong. 29. 5.
N« Eat. 39. 22.
PRUSI AS, the name of feveral kings of Bithynia.
Prusias, a town of Bithynia, anciently called Ciort
from a cognominal river, and giving name to the Sinus
Cianus of the Propontis ; rebuilt by Prulias the fon of
Zela, after having been deftroyed by Philip the fon of
Demetrius: it flood on the Sinus Cianus, at tbe foot of
mount Arganthonius. Phis is the Prufias who harboured
Annibal after the defeat of Antiochus.—Of this place
was Afclepiades, furnamed Prujieus, the famous phyfician.
PRUSSIA, a modern,* but defervedly celebrated
kingdom of Europe, whofe monarch, along with Pruflia CCCCX.
Proper, poffeffes alfo the ele&orate of Brandenburg, and
fume other territories of confiderable extent. The di-
ftridl properly called Pruffia is of great extent, and di¬
vided into the Ducal and Regal Prufiia, the latter be-
• longing to the republic of Poland till the late partition
of the Poliih territories. Both together are of great
extent; being bounded on the north by the Baltic, on
the fouth by Poland and the duchy ol Mazovia, on the
weft by Pomerania, and on the ealt by Lithuania and x
Samogitia. The name is by fome thought to be deri- Etymology
ved from tbe BomJJi, a tribe of the Sarmatians, \vho,°* ^
migrating from the foot of the Riphasan mountains,naine*
were tempted by the beauty and fertility of the coun¬
try to fettle there. Others think that the name of
this country is properly Porujfta; Po in the language of
the natives flgnifying near, and Porujfia fignifying near
Rujfia. To the latter etymology we find the king of
Pruffia himfelf affeuting in the treatife intitled Memoirs
of tbe Houfe of Brandenburg. However, it mufl be
owned, tliat thefe or any other etymologies of the word
are very uncertain, and we find nothing like it mention¬
ed by hiftorians before the tenth century. 2
The ancient date of Pruflia is almoR entirely un-Extreme
known. However, the people are faid to have been barbarity
very favage and barbarous; living upon raw flefti, and0! f^e.a.n<*
drinking the blood of horfes at their feafts, according
to Stella, even to intoxication (a). Nay, fo extreme¬
ly
P!ate
(a) 'Ibis author does not mention any particular method by which they communicated an inebriating
quality to the blood of animals. Poflibly, however, the vital fluid may have a property of this kind, though
unknown in our days where fuch barbarous cuftoms are difufed. Drunkennefs from drinking blood is frequent*
Jy mentioned in Scripture, but whether Literally or metaphorically mull be decided by the learned.
Pruffia.
3 .
Teutonic
hnijhts
firft get
footing in
the coun¬
try.
4
Expelled.
Hiftory of
Branden¬
burg.
* N« ay,
Ice.
P R U [6
Jy favage were this people, that they were even unac¬
quainted with the method of conilrueding huts, and took
up their dwelling in caves and cavities of rocks and
trees, where they protected themfelves and children from
the inclemencies of the weather. Among fuch a people
it is vain to expett that any tranfaCtions would be re¬
corded, or indeed that any thing worthy of being re¬
corded would be tranfafted. We (hall therefore be¬
gin our hiftory of Pruffia with the time when the 1 eu-
tonic knights firlt got footing in the eountry. (See
7*eutonic Knights).
On the ex pul lion of the Chriftians from the Holy
Land by Saladin, a fettlement was given to (the Teu¬
tonic knights in Pruflia by Conrade duke of Mazovia,
the competitor of Boleflaus V. for the crown of Poland.
Their firft: relidence in this country was Culm ; to which
territory they wrere confined by the conditions of the do¬
nation, excepting what they could conquer from their
pagan neighbours, all which the emperor granted to them
in perpetuity.
Encouraged by this grant, the knights conquered the
greateft part of the country which now goes by the
name of Pruffia; and, not content with this, became
very' troublefome to Poland, infomuch that the monarchs
of that kingdom were fometimes obliged to carry on
dangerous and bloody wars with them ; for an account
of which we refer to the article Poland, n° 6i. 67, &c.
The Teutonic older continued in Pruflia till the year
l 1 ■ Their latt grand-mafter was Albert marquis.of
Brandenburg, and nephew to Sigifmund I. king ot Po¬
land. He was preferred to this dignity in hopes that
his affinity to Sigifmund might procure a reftitution of
fome of the places which had been taken from thp order
during the former uufuccefsful wars with Poland ; but
in this the fraternity were difappointed. Albert, how¬
ever, was fo far from endeavouring to obtain any favour
from his uncle by fair means, that he refufed to do ho¬
mage to him, and immediately began to make prepara¬
tions for throwing off his dependence altogether, and
recovering the whole of Pruffia and Pomerania by
force of stms. In this he was fo far from fucceeding,
that, being foiled in every attempt, he was forced to
refign the dignity of grand-marter; in recompenfe for
which, his uncle bellowed on him that part of Pruffia
now called Kucalf in quality of ajfecular duke. It was
now the intereft of the houfe of Brandenburg to affilt
in the expulfion of the fraternity ; and accordingly, be¬
ing at lall driven out of Pruffia and Pomerania, they
transferred their chapter to Manendal m 1 ranconia ;
but in that and other provinces of the empire where
they fettled, little more than the name of the order
once fo famous now remains.
The other molt conliderable part of his Pruffian ma-
jefty’s dominions is the Electorate of Brandenburg.
Like other parts of Germany, it was anciently jpof-
feffed by barbarians, of whom no hiltory can be given.
Thefe were fubdued by Charlemagne, as is related un¬
der the article France * ; but being on every occafioii
ready to revolt, in 927 Henry the Fowler eftabulhed
margraves, or governors of the frontiers, to keep the
barbarians in awe. The firlt tnargrave of Brandenburg
was Sigefroy, brother-in-law to the above-mentioned
emperor ; under whole adminiltration the bilhoprics of
Brandenburg and Havelberg were eltabliihed by Otho I.
»om this bigefroy, to Use fucccffion of the heufe of
19 ] p r u
Hohenzollern, from whom the prefent elector is defeen-
ded, there are reckoned eight different families, who ~"“
have been margraves of Brandenburg 5 namely, the fa¬
mily of the Saxons, of Walbeck, Staden, Plenck, An¬
halt, Bavaria, Luxemburg, and Mifnia. The margraves
of the four lirll races had continual wars with the Van¬
dals and other barbarous people ; nor could their ravages
be Hopped till the reign of Albert furnamed the Be<ir%
the firlt prince of the houfe of Anhalt. He was made
margrave by the emperor Conrad III. and afterwards
raifed to the dignity of elector by Frederic Barbaroffa,
about the year 1100. Some years afterwards the
king of the Vandals dying without iffue, left the
Middle Marche by his lall will to the elector, who was
befides poffeffed of the old March, Upper Saxony, the
country of Anhalt, and part of Luface. In 1332 this
line became extinCt, and the ele6torate devolved to the
empire. It was then given by the emperor Louis of
Bavaria to his ion Louis, who was the firlt of the iixth
race. Louis the Roman fucceeded his brother ; and
as he alfo died without children, he was fucceeded by
Otho, his third brother, who fold the electorate to the
emperor Charles IV. of the houfe of Luxemburg, for
200,000 florins of gold. Charles IV. gave the Marche
to his fon Wineellaus, to whom Sigifmund fucceeded.
This elector, being embarraffed in his circumftahces,
fold the New Marche to the knights of the Teutonic
order. Joffe fucceeded Sigifmund; but afpiring to the
empire, fold the electorate to William duke of Mif¬
nia ; who, after he had poffeffed it for one year, fold
it again to the emperor Sigifmund. In 1417, Fre¬
deric VI. burgrave of Nuremberg, received the invelti-
ture of the eountry of Brandenburg at the diet of Con-
Itance from the hands of the emperor Sigifmund ; who,
two years before, had conferred upcTn him the dignity
of eleCtor, and arch-chamberlain of the Ploly Roman ■
empire.
This prince, the firft of the family of Hohenzol-
lern, found himfelf poffeffed of the Old and Middle
Marche, but the dukes of Pomerania had ufurped the
Marche Ukraine. Againlt them, therefore, the elector
immediately declared war, and foon recovered the
province. As the New Marche Hill continued in the
hands of the Teutonic knights, to whom it had been
fold as we have already mentioned, the elector, to
make np for this, took poffelfion of Saxony, which at
that time happened to be vacant by the death of Al¬
bert the lalt eleCtor of the Anhalt line. But the em¬
peror, not approving of this itep, gave the inveftiturc-
of Saxony to the duke of Mifnia ; upon which Frede¬
ric voluntarily defitted from his acquifitions. This
eleCtor made a divifion of his poffeffions by will. His
eldeft fon was deprived of his right on account of his
having too clofely applied himfelf to fearch for the
philofopher’s ftone ; fo he left him only Voigtland.
The electorate was given to his fecund fon Frederic ; v
Albert, furnamed Achilles, had the duchies of Franco-
and Frederic, furnamed the Fat, had the Old
Prufiii.
ma , _ _
Marche ; but by his death it returned to the electorate
of Brandenburg.
Frederic I.'was fucceeded by his fon, called alfo
Frederic, and furnamed Iron-tooth on account of his
ftrength. He might with as great reafon have been
furnamed the Magnanimous, fince he refufed iwo
crowns, viz. that of Bohemia, which was offered him
4 I i hv
P R U . [620
Prufiii. the pope, and the kingdom of Poland to winch he
was invited by the people ; but Frederic declared he
would not accent of it unlefs Cafimir brother to La-
P R U
to his fon Frederic Willram, furnamed the Pruflia.
Exploits of
Albert fur-
named A-
(lilies.
would not accept
diflaus the late king refufed it. Thefe inftances _ of
magnanimity had fuch an efTeft on the neighbouring
people, that the ftates of Lower Lufatia made a vo¬
luntary furrender of their country to him. But as Lu-
latia was a fief of Bohemia, the king of that country
immediately made war on the elector, in order to re¬
cover it. However, he was fo far from being fuccefs-
ful, that, by a treaty of peace concluded in 1462, he
was obliged to yield the perpetual fovereignty of Cor-
bus, Peits, Sommerfeld, and fome other places, to the
elector. Frederic then, having redeemed the New
Marche from the Teutonic order for the fum of
100,000 florins, and ftill further enlarged his domi¬
nions, refigned the fovereignty in 1469 to his brother
Albert, lurnamed Achilles.
Albert was 57 years old when his brother refigned
the electorate to him. Mofl of his exploits, for which
he had the furname of Achilles, had been performed
while he was burgrave of Nuremberg. Fie declared
war againft Lewis duke of Bavaria, defeated, and
took him prifoner. He gained eight battles againfl
the Nurembergers, who had rebelled and contellcd
his rights to the burgraviate. In one of thefe he fought
fingly againll 16 men, till hss people came up to his
afuflance. He made himfelf mafter of the town of
Grexffenburg in the fame manner that Alexander the
Great took the capital of the Oxydracae, by leaping
from the top of the walls into the town, where he de¬
fended himfelf fingly againft the inhabitants till his
men forced the gates and referred him. The confidence
which the emperor Frederic III. placed in him, gain¬
ed him the direction of almoft the whole empire. He
commanded the Imperial armies againft Lewis the
Rich duke of Bavaria; and againft Charles the Bold
duke of Burgundy, who had laid fiege to Nnis, but
concluded a peace at the interpofition of Albert. He
gained the prize at I 7 tournaments, and was never dif-
mounted.
All thefe exploits, however, had been performed be¬
fore Albert obtained the electorate. From that time
rVe meet with no very important tranfaCtions till the
year 1594, when John Sigifmund of Brandenburg,
having married Anne the only daughter of Albert
duke of Pruflia, this united that duchy to the elec¬
torate, to which it has continued to be united ever
fince ; and obtained preteniions to the countries of Ju-
liers, Berg, Cleves, Marck, Ravenfburg, and Ravenllein,
to the fucceffion of which Anne was heirefs.
Sigifmund died in 1619, and was fucceeded by his
-rS- ^on George William ; during whole government the
tor George electorate fullered the rnoft mifcrable calamities. At
■William, this time it was that the war commenced between the
Proteftants and Catholics, which lafced 30 years. The
former, although leagued together, were on the point
of being utterly deftroyed by the Imperialifts under
the command of Count Tilly and Wallenftein, when
Guftavus Adolphus of Sweden turned the fcale in their
favour, and threatened the Catholic party with utter
* See Scce- dtftruction *. But by his death at the battle of Lut-
zen, the fortune of war was once more changed. At
lift, however, peace was concluded with the empe¬
ror j and> in 1640, the eleCtor died, leaving his do-
Prufiii and
IBraoden-
burg ui.it
3<1.
%
Uufortu-
minrons
Great.
This young prince, though only 20 years of age Re; ^ ^
at the time of his acceffion, applied himfelf with the t-Yederic
utmoft diligence to repair the Ioffes and devaluations William
occafioned by the dreadful wars which had preceded. tbe Great*
He received the inveftiture of Pruffia perfonally from
the king of Poland, on condition of paying 100,000
florins annually, and not making truce or peace with
the enemies of that crown. His envoy likewife recei¬
ved the inveftiture of the deflorate from the emperor
Ferdinand III. The eleflor then thought of recover¬
ing his provinces from thofe who had ufurped than*
lie concluded a truce tor 20 years with the Swedes,
who evacuated the greateft part of his eftates. He
likewife paid 140,000 crowns to the Swediih garri-
fons, which ftill poflefled fome of his towns; and he
concluded a treaty with the Heflians, who deliver¬
ed up a part of the duchy of Cleves ; and obtained
of the Hollanders the evacuation of fome other cities.
In the mean time, the powers of Europe began to
be weary of a war which had continued for Inch a
length of time with fuch unrelenting fury, lire cities-
of Ofhaburg and Munfler being chofen as the molt
proper places for negociation, the conferences were
opened in the year 1645 ; but, by reafon of the mul¬
tiplicity of bufinefs, they were not concluded till two
years after. France, which had efpoufed the interefls
of Sweden, demanded that Pomerania fhould be ceded
to that kingdom as an indemnification for the expences
which the war had coft Gultavus Adolphus and his
fucceflbrs. Although the empire and the elector refu¬
fed to give up Pomerania, it was at laft agreed to give
up to the Swedes Hither Pomerania, with the ifles of
Rugen and Wollin, alfo fome cities ; in return for
which ceflion, the bifhoprics of Halberlladt, Mindcn,
and Camin, were fecularized in favour of the elector,
of which he was put in pofl'efllon, together with the
lordfhips of’ Hochenftcin and Richenitein, with the
reverfion of the archbifhopric of Magdeburg. This was Treaty of
the treaty of Weftpbalia concluded in 1648, s^id which
ferves as a bafis to all the pofleflions and rights of the '’Wnc u
German princes. The elector then concluded a new
treaty with the Swedes, for the regulation of limits,
and for the acquittal of fome debts, of which Sweden
would only pay a fourth ; and next year the electorate,
Pomerania, and the duchies of Cleves, were evacuated
by the Swedes. it
Notwithftanding all thefe treaties, however, the rhe elec-
Swedes foon after invaded Pomerania, but were en-tor fuccecda
tirely defeated by the elector near the town of Fehr-
bellin. Three thoufand were left dead on the fpot,Swedcs*
among whom were a great number of officers ; and a
great many were taken prifoners. The elector then
purfued his victory, gained many advantages over the
Swedes, and deprived them of tire cities of Stralfund
and Gripiwald. On this the Swedes, hoping to
oblige the eleftor to evacuate Pomerania, which he
had almoft totally fubdued, invaded Pruffia, from Li¬
vonia, with 16,000 men j and advancing into the
country, they burned the fuburbs of Memel, and took
the cities of Tilfe and Inilerburg. The elector, to
oppoie the invaders, left Berlin on the 10th of Ja¬
nuary 1679, at the head of 9000 men. The Swedes
retired at his approach, and were greatly haraffed by
the
10
P R U
Pruffia. the troops on their march. So fuccefsful indeed was
  the eleftor on this occafion, that the Swedes loft al-
moft one half of their army killed or taken prifoners.
At laft, having crofted the bay of Frifch-hafF and
Courland on'fthe ice, he arrived on the 19th of January,
with his infantry, within three miles of Tilfe, where
the S.wedes had their head-quarters. The fame day,
his general, Trefenfeldt, defeated two regiments of
the enemy near Splitter ; and the Swedes who were
in Tilfe abandoned that place, and retired towards
Courland. They were purfued by General Gortz,
ii and entirely defeated with fuch {laughter, tnat Icarce
I? obliged 3000 of them returned to Livonia. \et, notwithftand-
to ciii.clui e j;ig. ajj thefe victories, the elector, being prefted on
peace with t'ie °^ier hy the victorious generals ot trance,
tiiun. M. Tureune and the prince of Conde, was obliged to
make peace with the Swedes. The conditions were,
that the treaty of Weftphaha fnouid ferve for a bafts
to the peace ; that the eleCtor fhould have the proper¬
ty of the cuftoms in all the ports of further Pomera¬
nia, with the cities of Camin, Gartz, Gricffenburg,
and Wildenbruck: on his part, he confented to give up
to the Swedes all that he had conquered from them,
and to give no aftiftance to the king ot Denmark, up¬
on condition that France delivered up to him his pro¬
vinces in Weitphalia, and paid him 300>000 ducats,
as an indemnification for the damages done by the
French to his {fates. This treaty was ftyied the. peace
r, of St Germain.
A ftrange " With the treaty of St Germain terminated the mi-
embaffy litary exploits of Frederic William, who pafled the laft
fr.m die yearr/ 0f h;s adminiftration in peace. His great quali-
Tartary t‘es rendered him refpedfed by all Europe, and
had even been heard of in Tartary. He received an
embaffy from Murad Geray, chair of the Tartars,
courting Ins friendfhip. i he barbarian ambaflador
appeared in fuch tattered clothes ss fcarce covered his
nakednefs, fo that they were obliged to furnifn him
with other clothes belore he could appear at court.
His interpreter had a wooden nofe and.no ears. In
1684, Frederic received into his dominions great num¬
bers of Proteftants who fled out of France from the
perfecutions of Louis XIV. after he had revoked the
edift of Nantz. Twenty thoufand of them are faid
to have fettled at this time in the ele&orate, where
they introduced new arts and roanufadlures, that weie
of the utmoft benefit to the country. By this, how¬
ever, he difobliged Louis XIV. for which reafon he
concluded an alliance with the emperor; and having
furntlhed him with 8000 troops again ft the I uiks in
Hungary, the emperor yielded to him the circle of
Schwibus in Si’efia, as an equivalent for all his rights
in that province.
Frederic!11. 1,1 l688> the eledor Frederic William died, and
obtains the was fucceeded by his fon Frederic III. Ibis prince
title of was remarkably fond of {how and ceremony, which,
km^iif during the courfe of his government, involved him in
Iu J* much expence. The regal dignity feemed to be the
greateft ob^e6f of his ambition. To obtain this, he
joined with the emperor in the alliance againft I; ranee,
in which he was engaged by William III. king of Bri¬
tain. He alfo yielded up the circle of Schwibus,
which had been given to his predeccflbr; and, in 1700,
obtained from the emperor that dignity which he had
fo earneftly deiired. The terms on which it was ob-
P R U
tained were, 1. That Frederic fhould never feparate Pruflia. ^
from the empire thofe provinces of his dominions
which depended on it. 2. That he {hould not, in the
emperor’s prefence, demand ar.y other marks of ho¬
nour than thofe which he had hitherto enjoyed.
3. That his Imperial majefty, when he wrote to him,
{hould only give him the title of Royal DilcSion.
4. That neverthslefs the minifters which he had at
Vienna {hould be treated like thofe of other crowned
heads. 5. That the eleftor {hould maintain 6000 men
in Italy at his own expence, in cafe the emperor {hould
be obliged to make war on account of the fuccefiion
of the houfe of Bourbon to the crown of Spain. 6.
That thofe troops {hould continue there as long as the
war lafted.
Thus was the kingdom of Pruffia eftabliftied through,
the friendftiip of the emperor, with whom Frederic I.
fo called as being the ftrlt king of Pruffia, continued all
his life in ftritt alliance. Indeed he was a pacific
prince ; and though contemptible in his perfon, and
incapable of atchieving great things, had this merit,
that he always preferved his dominions in peace, and
thus confulted the true interell ot his fubjefts much
more than thofe monarchs who have dazzled the eyes
of the world by their military exploits. He was indeed
vain, and fond of fhow, as we have already obferved;
but had a good heart, and is faid never to have vio¬
lated his conjugal vow; though it does not appear that
he was greatly beloved by his royal conforts (of whom
he had three) on that or any other account. 15
Frederic I. died in the beginning of 1713 and was Frederic R#
fucceeded by Frederic William. Pie was in almoft
every thing the reverfe ot his father. His difpofitions pr-ncCj
were altogether martial; fo that he applied himfelf en¬
tirely to the augmentation of his army, and perfedfing
them in their exercife, by which means they became the
moft expert foldiers in Europe. His foible was an am¬
bition of having his army compofed of men above the
ordinary fize ; but as thefe could not be procured, he
compofed a regiment of the talleft men he could find;
and as his officers made no fcruple of picking up fuch
men wherever they could find them for his majefty’s
ufe, the neighbouring ftates were frequently offended,
and a war was often likely to enfue even from this ridi¬
culous came. However, his Pruffian majefty was ne¬
ver engaged in any martial enterpriie of con{equence :■
but having put his army on the moft refpedlable foot¬
ing of any in the world, and tilltd his coffers, for he
was of a very faving difpofition, he put it in the power
of his fon to perform thofe exploits which have been
matter of aftonifhment to all Europe.
It was in this king’s reign that Pruffia firft per-I?-!iniIty ^
ceived her natural enemy and rival to be the houfe of Mr„^,a antj
Auftria, and not France as had been formerly fuppo- Aultria.
fed. Hence frequent bickerings took place between
thefe two powers, for which- the perfecution of the
Proteftants by feme of the Catholic Hates of the em¬
pire afforded a pretence; and though a war never ac¬
tually took place, yet it was eafy to fee that both
were mortal enemies to each other. But when Frede¬
ric William died in 1740, this enmity broke out in full
force. The emprefs queen was then left in a very
difagreeable fituation, as has been obferved under the ar-
tide Britain, n° 410, &e. Of this Frederic II. took the Frederic Hi
advantage to do iiimfelf iuitice, as he faid, with regard ^izes Si-
tokfiu<
r 621 1
p
R U
[ 622 ]
P R ' U
pmflia. (o Silefia, of which his anceflors had been unjuftly de-
—"V prived. This province he feized at that time : but it
coft him dear; for the emprefs, having at laft overcome
aJl difficulties, formed againft him the moil terrible com¬
bination that ever was known m liurope.
Xhe treaty was hardly' concluded with the king of
Pruffia, by which flie reluctantly yielded up the pro
vince of Sileha, and with it a clear
of
18
1,. 800,000 a-year, before (he entered into another
with the court of Peterfburg, which was concluded
Combina- blay 22. I his treaty, as far as it was made
tion agaiuft public, was only of a defenfive nature ; but fix le-
hmi. cret and feparate articles were added to it. By one
of thefe it was provided, that in cafe his Pruffian
majelty ffiould attack the emprefs queen, or the em-
preis of Ruffia, or even the republic of Poland, it
ffiould be confidered as a breach of the treaty of Dref-
den, by which Silelia was given up. It was alfo fh-
pulated, that, notwithftanding that treaty (which in¬
deed had been di&ated by the king of Pruffia himfelf),
the right of the emprefs-queen to Silefia ftill conti¬
nued, and for the recovery of that province the con-
trafting powers fliould mutually furnilh an army of
60,000 men. To this treaty, called the treaty of Pe-
terjburg, the king of Poland was invited to accede ;
but he, being in a manner in the power of the king
of Pruffia, did not think proper tp fign it: however,
he verbally acceded to it in iuch a manner, that the
other parties were fully convinced of his defign to co¬
operate with all their rneafures ; and in confideration
of this intention, it was agreed that he Ihould have
a {hare in the partition of the king of Pruffia’s do¬
minions, in cafe of a fuccefsful event of their enter-
prifes.
In confequence of thefe machinations, every art was
ufed to render the king of Pruffia perlonally odious to
the emprefs of Ruffia; the queen of Hungary made
vaft preparations in Bohemia and Moravia ; and the
king of Poland, under pretence of a military amufement,
drew together 16,000 men, w'ith wffiom he occupied
a ftrong poll at Pirna. The queen of Hungary, ilill
further to ftrengthen herfelf, concluded a treaty with
the court of France at Verfailles, dated May 1. 17 56*
But in the mean time, the king of Pruffia having un-
derftood by his emiffaries what was going forward, re*,
folved to be beforehand with his enemies, and at leafl
to keep the w ar ovit of his own country • and therefore
entered Saxony w'ith a conliderable army. At firft he
affected only to demand a free paffage for his troops,
and an obfervance of the neutrality profeffed by the
king of Poland ; but, having good reatons to doubt
this neutrality, he demanded, as a preliminary, that
thefe Saxon troops ffiould immediately quit the itrong
poll they occupied, and difperfe themfelves. This de¬
mand was refufed ; on which his Pruffian majelty
blockaded the Saxon camp at Pirna, refolving to re¬
duce it by famine, fince. its lining lituation rendered an
attack very dangerous. At that time there were in Bo¬
hemia two Saxon armies, one under the command of
M. Brown, and the other under M. Picolomini, To
keep thefe in awe, the king had fent M. Schwerin
with an army into Bohemia from the country of
Glatz, and M. Keith had penetrated into the fame
kingdom on the fide of Mifnia. But ftill the king of
Shuilia did not entirely confide in thefe difpoiiOons ;
4
*9
He invades
Saxony,
and therefore fearing left M. Brown might afford fame Pniffu*
affiltance ■ to the Saxons, he joined his forces under ^
Keith, and on December 1. attacked and defeated the An(^ takes
Auftrian general, fo that the latter found it impoffible I6,oco Sal¬
to relieve the Saxons, wTho, after a vain attempt to re-ons priloa-
tire from their poft, were all taken prifpners. Theer9-
king of Poland quitted his dominions in Germany,
and the Pruffians took up their winter-quarters in
Saxony. Here they feized on the revenues, levied ex¬
orbitant contributions, and obliged the country to fur-
niffi them with recruits. The king of Pruffia at this
time made himleli mailer of the archives ol Drefden,
by which means lie procured the originals of thole
pieces above-mentioned, which, wrhen produced to the
world, gave a full proof of the combination that had
been formed againft him, and confequently juftified
the meafures he had taken for his own defence.
No fooner had the king entered Saxony, in the man-He is pr»-
ner already related, than a procefs was commenced fecuted in
againft him in the emperor’s Aulic council, and beforej
the diet of the empire, where he was foon condemned put t0 ^
for contumacy, and put to the ban ot the empire.— ban of the
The various circles of the empire were ordered to fur-empire,
niffi their contingents of men and money to put this
fentence in execution ; hut thefe came in fo (lowly,
that, had it not been for the affiftance of the French
under the prince de Soubife, the army would pro¬
bably have never been in a condition to act. The 2’3’.
Auftrians, in the mean time, made great preparations
and railed 100,000 men in Bohemia, whom they com-tjonsa_
mitted to the care of prince Charles of Borrain, affiftedgainft him#
by M. Brown. The Czarina fent a body of.6o,coo
men under M. Apraxin, _to invade the Ducal Pruffia ;
whilit a ftrong ieet w’as equipped in the Baltic, in
order to co-opente with that army. The king of
Sweden alfo acceded to the confederacy, in hopes of
recovering the polleffions in Pomerania which his an-
ceftors had enjoyed ; and the duke of Mecklenburg
took the lame party, promiftng to join the Swedifh
army with 6000 men as loon as it ihould be ne-
ceflary. On the king of Pruffia’s fide appeared no¬
body excepting an army of between 30,000 and 40,000
Hanoverians commanded by the duke of Cumber¬
land ; and thefe were outnumbered and forced to yield
to a fuperior army of French commanded by M.
D’Etrees. rjj
In the mean time, his Pruffian majefty, finding He invades
that he mult depend for affiftance folely on his own
abilities, refolved to make the bell ufe of his time, defeats the
Accordingly, in the fpring 1757, his armies poured in-Auftrian
to Bohemia from two different quarters, while the army.
king himfelf prepared to enter it from a third. M.
Schwerin entered from Silefia; the prince of Bevern
from Lufatia, where he defeated an army of 28,000
Auftrians that ©ppyfed his paflage. As the intentions
of the king himielf were not known, the Auftrians de¬
tached a body of 20,000 men from their main army to
obferve his motions. This was no fooner done than
the king cut off’ all communication between the detach¬
ment and the main body; and having joined his two
generals with incredible celerity, he engaged the Au¬
ftrians near Prague, totally defeated them, took their
camp, military cheft, and cannon ; but loft the brave
general Schwerin, who was killed at the age of 82,
with a colonel’s ftandard in hia hand. On the Auftrian
fide
prufRa
H
BeSc^es
jind bom¬
bards
I'rague.
^5
Jbunt
Daun tak^s
the com-
nand of
the Au-
ftr/an ar-
16
Defeats the
Pruffians at
Colin.
»7
f5!ege of
Prague
taifed.
P R TJ [
fide, M. Btovvn was wounded, am} died in a f^ort
' time, though it is fuppofed more from the chagrin he
fuftered, than from the dangerous nature of the wound
itfelf.
About 40,000 of the Auftrian army took refuge in
Prague, while the relt fled different ways. The city
was inftantly in-veiled by the king, and all fuecours were
cut off. The great number of troops which it contain¬
ed rendered an attack unadvifable, but feemed to render
the redudlion of it by famine inevitable; however, the
king, to accomplifh his purpofe the more fpeedily, pre¬
pared to bombard the town. On the 29th of May,
after a moil dreadful florm of thunder and lightning,
four batteries began to play on the city. From thefe
were thrown, every 24 hours, 288 bombs, befides avail
number of red-hot balls, fo that it was foon on fire in
every' quarter. The garrifon made a vigorous defence,
and one well-condu6fed fally ; but had the misfortune
to be repulfed with great lofs. The magiftrates, burgh¬
ers, and clergy, feeing their city on the point of being
reduced to an heap of rubbifh, fupplicated the command¬
er in the moft earnelf manner to capitulate ; bftt he was
deaf to their intreaties, and drove 12,000 of the mod
ufeleis mouths out of town, who were quickly driven
in again by the Pruffians.'
Thus the affairs of the emprefs queen feeined ver¬
ging to deffru&ion, when Leopold count Daun took
upon him the command of the remains of M. Brown’s
army. This general had arrived within a few miles of
Prague the day after the great battle. He immedi¬
ately collefted the fcattered fugitives with the greatefl
diligence, and retired with them to a llrong pofl in
the neighbourhood, from whence he gave the troops
in Prague hopes of a fpeedy relief. It was now the
king of Pruffia’s bulinefs, either to have attempted to
make himfelf matter of the city by one defperate effort,
or entirely to have abandoned the euterprife, and
driven count Daun from his poll before his troops had
recovered from the terror of their late defeat ; but, by
attempting to do both, he rendered himfelf incapable
of doing either. Though the army of count Daun
already amounted to 60,000 men, and though they
were ftrongly entrenched, and defended by a vaft train
ef artillery, his majefty thought proper to fend no
more than 32,000 men. This body made the ardu¬
ous attempt on the 18 th of June; but though they
did all that human courage and condiutt could do, and
though the king himfelf at latt charged at the head of
his cavalry, the Pruffians were driven eut of the field
with great lofs. This engagement was named the battle
of Colin.
The firft confequence of the battle of Colin was,
that the king of Pruffia was obliged to raife the fiege
of Prague ; foon after which, he was obliged to quit
Bohemia, and take refuge in Saxony. The Auftrians
haraffed him as much as pofiible ; but, notwithttand-
ing their great fuperiority, their armies were not in a
condition to make any decifive attempt upon him, as
the frontiers of Saxony abounded with fituations eafily
defended. In the mean time, the Ruffians, who had
hitherto been very dilatory in their motions, began to
exert themfelver., and enter Ducal Pruffia, under M.
Apraxin and Fermor, where they committed innu¬
merable cruelties and exceffcs. A large body of
Auftrians entered Silcfia, and penetrated as far as
623 ] PR U
Breflau. Then they made a turn backwards, ami be- PruffU.
fieged Schweiduitz. Another body entered Lufalia,
and made themfelves matters of Zittau. An army of
22,000 Swedes entered Pruflian Pomerania, took the
towns of Anclam and Demmcin, and laid the whole
country under contribution. The French, too, being
freed from all reftraint by the capitulation of the duke
of Cumberland at Clutter Seven §, made their way in-§ See
to Halbertftadt and the Old Marche of Brandenburg, TA1N»
firft exacting contributions, and then plundering the441’
towns. The army of the empire, being reinforced by
that of the prince de Soubife, after many delays, was
on full march to enter Saxony, which left the Au¬
ftrians at liberty to exert the greateft part of their
force in the reduction of Silcfia. General Haddiek
penetrated through Lufatia, patted by the Pruflian ar¬
mies, and fuddenly appeared before the gates of Ber¬
lin, which city he laid under contribution. He re¬
tired on the approach of a body of Pruflians ; yet he
ft ill found means to keep fuch a poll as interrupted the
king’s communication with Silcfia. The dcttrudlion Berlin laid
of the king of Pruflia therefore now feemed inevitable. unrlcr con"
Every exertion which he had made, though brave t^Jurl<,n•
and well-conduCled, had been unfuccefsful. His general
Lehwald, who oppofed the Ruffians, had orders to 29
attack them at all events. Fie obeyed his orders; Lehwald a
and with 30,000 men attacked 60,000 of the enemy ^ruBiange»
ttrongly entrenched at a place called Nor hitter. Tlw
Pruflians behaved with the greateft valour; but after aufj
having killed live times more of the enemy than they funs,
themfelves loft, they were obliged to retire, though
more formidable after their defeat than the Ruffians
after their victory. The king, in the mean time, ex¬
erted himfelf on every, fide, and his enemies fled every¬
where before him ; but whilft he purfued one body,
another gained upon him in fome other part, and the
winter came on fall, while his ttrength decayed, and
that of his adverfaries feemed to increafe on every
quarter.
The Pruffian monarch, however, though diftrefled,
did not abandon himfelf to defpair, or loie that won¬
derful prefence of mind which has fo eminently diftin-
guiflied him in all his military enterprifes. Fie indu-
ftrioufly delayed a decifive adftion till the approach of^
winter ; but at laft, after various movements, on No-jra,nS
vember 5. 1757, he met at Rofbach with the united threat vie
army of his enemies commanded by the prince of Saxe tnry at
Hilburghaufen and the prince de Soubife. The allied K'*^J3r*u
army amounted to 50,000 men complete ; but moft of
the troops of the Circles were new-railed, and many
of them not well affected to the caufe. The Pruf¬
fians did not exceed 25,000 men ; but they were fu-
perior to any troops in the world, and were infpired,
by the prefence of their king, with the moft enthufi-
ailic valour. The Auftrians were defeated with the
lofs of 3000 killed, eight generals, 250 officers of dif¬
ferent ranks, and 6000 private foldiers, taken prifon-
ers, while night alone prevented the total deftrudtion of
the army.
By this battle the king was fet free on one fide ;
but this only gave him an opportunity of renewing
his labours on another. The Auftrians had a great
force, and now began to make a proportionable pro-
grefs in Silefia. After a fiege of 16 days, they had re¬
duced the ftrong fortrefs of Schweidnitz, and obliged
the
Paiffi;
P R U . {
Ac PrufTian garrlfon of 4000 men to foircndei- pn-
foners of war. Hearing then of the vvftory at Rof-
v b b and that the king of Pruffia was m full marc.
^thz7atn to relieve Silefia, they refolved to attack the Prmce
by -he ai> of Bevern in his ftrong camp under tne walls of B -
ftiian-. lau. They attacked the Princess army on November
2 2 d * but their attack was fuftained with the greatelt
„ refolution. The daughter of the Auflnans was pro-
Battle with digious. A great part of the enemy had retired from
the prince tjic held of battle, and the reft were preparing to retire,
of Bevern. aU at once tlie pruffian generals took the fame re¬
folution. Their army had fulfered much in the engage¬
ment, and they became apprehenfive of a total defeat
in cafe their intrenchments fhould be forced in any
part; for which reafon they quitted their ftrong pott,
and retired behind the Oder. Two days after, the
prince of Bevern, going to reconnoitre without clcort,
attended only by a groom, was taken pnfoner by an
advanced party of Croats, a fmall body of whom had
_ p ta On this the town of Breflau immediately furrendered,
t'X S'c where, as well as at Schweidnitz, the Auftnans found
Auftrians. great quantities of provihons, ammunition, aiid mo y.
All Silefia was on the point of falling into their hands,
and the Pruffian affairs were going into the utmoit di-
ftraftion, when the king hirrfelf by a mcftt rapid march
paffed through Thunngia, Mifma, and Lufatia, m
foite of the utmoft efforts of the generals Haddick and
Marffial, who were placed there to oppofe him ; and,
entering Silefia on the 2d of December, joined the
prince of Severn's corps, who repaffed the Oder
meet him. The garrlfon of Schweidmtz, who, as ^e
have already obferved, had been made pnioners of war,
alfo joined the king’s army unexpectedly ; and their
prefence contributed not a little, notwithftandmg
,4 fmallnefs of their number, to raife the fpuits ot the
GarSfon ei whole army. ’\ hey had fubmitted to the capitu a mu
Schwod- wJth t|V€ grenteft leludance ; but as the Auitr
"irT reC°' were conduding them to prifon, they happened to re¬
vive intelligence of the vidory at Rofhach : on winch
they immediately rofe on the effort that conduded
them, and entirely difperfed it; and altemards maic i-
ing in fuch a diredion as they thought might molt
readily lead them to their king, they accidentally tell
in with his army. , , -d n
His Pruffn n majefty now approached Brellau ; on
which the Auftrians, confiding in their fupenonty,
(for they exceeded 70,000, whiff the Pruflians fcaic
of frutua amounted to 36,0 c), abandoned tn^r rong
at Uuthcn. t^e fame which the prince of Bevern had for™f rl> .
copied, and advanced to give him battle, the king
did not intend by any means to difappomt them, but
advanced on his part with the greateft celerity 1 he
two armies met on December near the village ®f
Heathen. Count Daun made the beft dffpofitions poi-
fible. The ground occupied by his army was a plain,
with final! eminences in feme parts. Theff eminences
they furrounded with artillery ; and as the ground was
alfo interfperfed with thickets, they oug it to turn
thefe Hkewife to their advantage. On them right and
left were hills, on which they planted batteries of can¬
non. The ground in their front was interfteted by
many caufeways ; and to make the whole more impiac-
ticable, the Auftrians had felled a great number of
trees, and ffattered them in the vvay. It was almoit
4 ] p r U
impoffible at the hcg'mnmg of the engarement for the rrug.. f
Pruffian cavalry to aft, on account of thefc impedi¬
ments ; but, by a judicious difpoiition made by the king
himfelf, all difficulties were overcome. His majefty had
placed four battalions behind the cavalry of his right
wing ; forefeeing that General Nadafti, who was pla¬
ced on the enemy’s left with a corps de reffrve, defin¬
ed to attack him in flank. It happened as he had fore-
feen : that general’s cavalry attacked the Pruffian right
wing with great fury ; but he was received with fuch a
fevere fire from the four battalions, that he was obli¬
ged to retire in diforder. The king’s flank then, well
covered and fupported, was enabled to aft with fuch
order and vigour as repulffd the enemy. The Auftrian
artillery was alfo filenced by that of the Pruffians;
however, the Auftrians continued to make a gallant re-
fiftance during the whole battle. After having been
once thrown into difordcr, they rallied all their forces
about Leuthen, which was defended on every fide by
entrenchments and redoubts. 1 he Pruffians attacked
them with the utmoft impetuofity, and at laft became
mailers of the poll; on which the enemy fled on all
fides, and a total rout enfsc-d. In this battle the Au-
Itrians loft 6000 killed on the fpet, 15, oc taken pn
foners, and upwards of 200 pieces of cannon.
nifz re1;0
ver their
Lberty.
35
Count
Daun de¬
feated by
the king
of Pruflia
aeis, <vim v*. -*   —  ,4
The confequences of this viftory were very great. Bregau re.
Breflau was immediately invefted, and furrendered on taken.
December 29th; the garrifon, amounting to 13,000
men, were made prifoners of war. I he blockade of
Schweidnitz was formed as alofely as the feafon of the
year would permit; while detached Pruffian parties
over-ran the whole country of Silefia, and reduced every
place of lefs importance. The Ruffians, who had ra¬
vaged and deftroyed the country in fuch a manner that
they could not fubfift in it, thought proper to retire ^
out of the Pruffian dominions altogether. Thus Ge-Swedes
neral Lehwald was left at liberty to aft againft the^rten out
Swedes; and them he quickly drove out of Pruffian 0016
Pomerania, the whole of which country he not only
recovered, but alfo fome part of Swedifh Pomerania.
Thus the duchy of Mecklenburg being left quite ex-
poffid, the king took ample vengeance on it by exaft-
ing the moil ffivere contributions of men and money.
To complete this monarch’s good iortune alio, the
French, who had retired after the battle of Roibach,
were now oppoffd by the Hanoverians under Prince
Ferdinand, w!io kept them io well employed, that, du¬
ring the reft of the war, the king of Pruffia had no more
trouble from them. See Britain, n° 442, 3^
The beginning of the year 1758 was favourable to Schwa*
the arms of his Pruffian majefty. _ On the 3d of April
he commenced his operations againft Schweidnitz, and
puflied the fiege fo vigoroufly, that the place furren¬
dered in »3 days. He then difpofed his forces m
fuch a manner as might bell guard his dominions
againft his numerous enemies. For this purpofe count
Dohna commanded a body of troops on the fide of Po¬
merania ; another confiderable body was polled be¬
tween Wohlau and Glogau, in order to cover Silefia
from the Ruffians, in cafe they fhould make their in¬
road that way. An army, in a little time after, was
formed in Saxony, commanded by the king’s brother
Prince Henry. This army coniifted of 3 battalions
and 45 fquadrons, and was defigned to make head
againft the army of the empire; which, by great ef-
3 torti
Yruflu.
59
The kmg
belieges
Olmutz
without
fuccefs.
4° ,
The Ruf-
fians be-
fiege Cu-
Ari.n
4i
But are de
feated at
Zorndoiff
P R U . 62
forts made 'during the winter, and the junction of a
large body of Auftrians, was again in a condition to
adt. Between all thefe armies a ready communication
was kept up by a proper choice of pods. After the
reduction of Schweidnitz, the king having made a fhow
of invading Bohemia, fuddenly burit into Moravia,
where in a fhort time he made himfelf mafter of the
whole country, and on the 27th of May laid fiege to
Olmutz the capital. Of this M. Daun was no fooner
informed, than he took his route to Moravia through
Bohemia : and, though he was not in a condition to
rifle a battle, nor indeed would have done fo unlels he
had had a very confiderable advantage; yet, by placing
himfelf in a Itrong fituation where he could not be at¬
tacked, by harafiing the king’s troops and cutting off
their convoys, he at lad obliged him to abandon the en-
terprife. The king, however, who frequently owed a
good part of his fuccefs to the impenetrable fecrecy
with which he covered all his defxgns, gave not the
lead hint of his intention to raife the fiege of Olmutz.
On the contrary, the very day before the fiege wras
raifed, the firing continued as brifle as ever ; but in the
night (July I.) the whole army took the road to Bo¬
hemia in two columns, and gained an entire march up¬
on the Audrians. Thus, notwithdanding the utmod
efforts of his enemies, the Prufiian army reached Bo¬
hemia with very little moledation. Here he feized
upou a large magazine at Lieutomiflel; defeated fome
corps of Audrians who had attempted to interrupt his
progrefs ; and arrived at Konigfgratz, of which he took
poffeflion, after driving from it 7000 Auftrians who
were intrenched there. This city and feveral other
diftridts he laid under contribution : but foon after en¬
tered Silefia, and marched with the utmod rapidity to
encounter the Ruffians, who had at that time united
their forces under generals Brown and Fermor, entered
the New Marche of Brandenburg, and laid fiege to
Cudrin.
The king arrived at this city at a very critical period.
The Ruffians had laid fiege to it on the 15th of Au-
gud ; and though they were not well (killed in mana¬
ging artillery, yet, by furious and unremitting dif-
charges at random, they threw in fuch a number of
bombs and red-hot balls, that the town was foon on
fire in every quarter. Some of the wretched inhabi¬
tants were burned ; others buried in the ruins of their
houfes, or killed by the balls which fell like hail in the
dreets ; while many of the furvivors abandoned their
habitations, and fled out of the town on that fide where
it was not inveded. The governor did every thing for
the defence of the place ; but as the walls wrere built
after the old manner, it was impoffible that the town
could have made a defence for any length of time,
efpecially as the principal magazine of the befieged
had been blown up. The avenger of all thefe injuries,
however, was now at hand. The king came in fight
of the Ruffians on the 25th of Auguft, after a march
of 56 days, and beheld the country everywhere defo-
lated, and the villages in flames by the depredations
of his cruel enemy, who had raifed the fiege at his ap- •
proach, and retired towards a neighbouring village na¬
med Zortuiorjf. At nine o’clock in the morning, a mod
terrible tire of cannon and mortars poured dedruttion on
the right wing of the Ruffian army for two hours with¬
out intermiffion. The daughter was fuch as might
Vol. XV. Part II.
Preflri.
-—v—*“
J ] . P R U
have been expe<ded *, but the Ruffians kept their ground
wdth adonifhing refolution, new regiments dill preffing '
forward to fupply the places of thofe that fell. When
the fird line had fired away all their charges, they ruih-
ed forward on the Pruffians with their bayonets; and
all at once thefe brave troops, though encouraged by
the prefence of their king, gave wray and fled before an
enemy already half defeated. The Ruffian generals
ought now to have attacked with their cavalry the dii-
ordered infantry of their enemies, whicli would have
completed the defeat, and in all probability given the
finifhing ilroke to the king of Prulfia’s affairs. This
opportunity, however, they lod : but the king w^as not
fo negligent; for, by a very rapid and maderly mo¬
tion, he brought all the cavalry of his right wing to
the centre, and falling on the Ruffian foot uncovered
by their horfe, and even difordered by their own fuc¬
cefs, they pufhed them back with moft miferablc daugh¬
ter, at the fame time that the repulfed battalions of in¬
fantry, returning to the charge, and exafperated at
their late difgrace, rendered the victory no longer
doubtful. The Ruffians were now thrown into the
moft dreadful confuiion. The wind blew the dull and
fmoke into their faces, fo that they could not diflinguifli
friends from foes ; they fired on each other, plundered
their owm baggage wfliich flood between the lines, and
intoxicated themfelves with brandy: the ranks fell in
upon one another ; and, being thus crammed together
into a narrow fpace, the fire of the Pruffians had a full
and dreadful effeft, while their enemies kept up only a
fcattered and ineffedtual fire, generally quite over their
heads. Yet even in this difmal fituation the Ruffians
did not fly ; but fuffered themfelves to be flaughtered
till feven at night, when their generals having caufed
an attack to be made on the Prulfian right wing, the
attention of the enemy was drawn to that quarter, and
they had time to retire a little from the field of battle
to recover their order.
In this engagement, which was called the battle of
Zorhdorjf, the Ruffians loft 21,529 men, while that of
the Pruffians did not exceed 2000. A vaft train of ar¬
tillery was taken, together with the military cheft, and
many officers of high rank. The confequence was, that
the Ruffian army retreated as far as Landfperg on the
frontiers of Poland, and the king was left at liberty to
march with his ufual expedition to the relief of prince
Henry of Saxony.
The Prince was at this time forely preffed by M. Or>era<-iona
Daun. As foon as the king had left Bohemia in the°f
manner already related, M. Daun, confidering that it L>“ul'»
would have been to no purpofe to follow him, refolved
to turn his arms towards Saxony. Towards that coun¬
try, therefore, he took his route through Lufatia, by
Zittau, Gorlitz, and Bautzen. On the 3d of Septem¬
ber he inverted the Itrong fortrefs of Sonneftein ; which
unaccountably furrendered, after a fingle day’s refin¬
ance, to one of his generals named Macguire. He then
began to favour the operations of General Laudohn,
who had advanced through the Lower Lufatia to the
confines of Brandenburg ; and, by drawing the atten¬
tion of the Pruffian forces which were left in Silefia to
the northward of that duchy, he facilitated the pro¬
grefs of the generals Harfch and De Ville in the fouth-
ern parts. He then propofed that prince Henry fhould
be attacked by the army of the emplic, while, that of
4 K
42
the*
PrufTia.
43
Rendered
p r u r 626
tlic Auftnans fhould p ifs the Ijloe, and, falling at the
fume tune on tne T^ralhans, iecond the attach of the
ImperiaMs, and cut oft' the retreat of their enemies
from Drelden. The fudden appearance of the king of
1 P R U
pute was there. The Pruflians made three bloody and
unfuccefsful attacks on the village ; on the fourth they
earned it; but the Aullrians continually pouring in frdh
troops, at lall drove them out with prodigious flaughter
Pruflit.
fbonfve by Pruflia, however, put an end to this plan; general Lau- on all tides. The king then ordered a retreat, which
the king of dohn abandoned all his concpiefls in Lower Lufatia, and
Pruflia; rtt;rej towards M. Paun, while that general himfelf
retired from the neighbourhood of Drefden as far as
Zittau. The army of the empire only kept its ground;
pofleffing itfelf of the ftrong poil at Pirna, formerly
mentioned, but did not undertake any thing. As for
the Swedes, who had directed their motions by thofe
of the Ruffians, they no fooner heard of the viftory of
ZorndorfS than they retreated with much more expedi¬
tion than they had advanced.
Thus the king of Pruffia’s affairs feemed to be pret¬
ty well retrieved, when by one fatal piece of negligence
he was brought to the verge of ruin. M. Daun had
poffeffed himfelf of an advantageous camp at Stolphen,
by which he preferved a communication with the army
of the empire. On the other hand, the king of Pruffia,
having taken pofieffion of an important poll at Baut¬
zen, extended bis right wing to the village of Hoch-
kirchen, by which he preferved a communication with
his brother Prince Henry, protected Brandenburg, and
was better fttuated than he could be anywhere elfe for
throwing fuccours into Silefia. The two armies kept a
watchful eye on the motions of each other ; and as the
principal aim of M. Daun was to cut off the king’s
communication with Silefia, and of the king to cut off
M. Daun’s communication with Bohemia, a battle feem¬
ed inevitable, though great danger feemed to await that
44 party who fhould begin the attack.
"Who is fur- jn thjs critical poffure of affairs, the Auftrian gene-
jmfed and raj forrr,e^ a ddign of attacking the Pruffian camp in
the night. In what manner he came to furprife fuch
a vigilant enemy, has never been accounted for; but
that fuch a furprife was a&ually accomplifhed on the
14th of Ottober, is certain. In the dead of the pre¬
ceding night, the Auftrian army began to march in
three columns towards the camp of the king of Pruffia:
and though the night was exceedingly dark, and they
had a confiderable way to go, they all arrived at the
fame time, in fafety, without being difeovered, and
without the leaft confuiion ; and at five in the morn-
ing began a regular and welbcondu&ed attack. The
Pruffians were in a moment thrown into confufion ;
Marfhal Keith, one of their heft generals, received two
mufket-balls, and fell dead on the fpot. Prince Francis
©f Brunfwick had his head {hot off by a cannon-ball as
he was mounting his horfe ; and every thing feemed to
announce the total deftru&ion of the army. Still, how¬
ever, the king preferved his wonderful prefence of mind,
which indeed he never appears to have loft on any oc-
cafton. He ordered fome detachments from his left to
Support his right wing ; but the moment that thefe or¬
ders were received, the left itfelf was furioufly attack¬
ed. General Ketzow, who commanded in that quar¬
ter, repulfed the Auftrians- with difficulty, and was not
able to afford any confiderable affiftance to the right;
which alone was obliged to fuftain the weight of the
grand attack. The Auftrians, in the beginning of the
engagement, had driven the Prnffians out of the vil¬
lage of Hochkirchen ; and as the fate of the day de¬
pended on the poffeffion of that poll, the hotteft dif-
<lefe*ffd at
Hochkir¬
chen.
was condiufted in good order, without being purfued ;
however, this bloody action coft him 7000 men, toge¬
ther with a great number of cannon. The Auftrians
computed their own lofs at 5000.
His Pruffian majefty, having thus happily efcapecl
fuch imminent danger, took every poffible meafure to
prevent the enemy from gaining any confiderable ad¬
vantage from his defeat. Perceiving that the only ad¬
vantage they wiftied to derive from it was to cover the
operations of their armies in Silefia, and that he had
now nothing to fear on the fide of Saxony, he largely
reinforced his own army from that of Prince Henry',
and haftened into Silelia, in order to raife the fiege of
Neifs, vvhich had been completely invefted on the 4th
of Oftober. On the 24th of that month, therefore, he
quitted his camp, and, making a great compafs, to
avoid obftrudtions from the enemy, arrived in the plains
of Gorlitz. A body of the Auftrians had in vain at¬
tempted to fecure this poft before him, and fome who
arrived after him were defeated with the lofs of 800
men. From this place the king purfued his march
with the utmoft diligence ; but was followed by gene¬
ral Laudohn, at the head of 24,^00 men, who con-
ftantly hung on his rear, and harafled his army. The
king, however, knowing the importance of his expe¬
dition, continued his march without interruption, and
fuffered his antagonift to obtain many little advantages
without moleftation. Daun, however, not content with
the oppofition given by Laudohn, fent a large body of
horfe and foot by another route to reinforce the gene¬
rals Karfch and De Ville, who had formed the fiege of
Neifs and the blockade of Cofel, while he himfelf pafs-
ed the Elbe, and advanced towards Drefden.
All thefe precautions, however, were of little avail.
The generals Karfch and De Ville, notwithilanding their
reinforcement, no fooner heard of the king of Pruffia’s
approach, than they raifed the fiege of both places, and
retired, leaving behind them a coniiderable quantity of
military {lores. The end of the Pruffian monarch’s march
being thus accompliffied, he inftantly returned by the
fame way he came, and haftened to the relief of Sax¬
ony, the capital of which (Drefden) was in great dan¬
ger from Marlhal Daun. The place was but indiffe¬
rently fortified, and garrifoned only by 12,000 men ;
fo that it could not promife to hold out long againft a
numerous and well-appointed army. It was befides
commanded by a large fuburb, of which, if once the
enemy got poffeffion, all defence of the city muft then
be vain. For this reafon M. Schmettau, the Pruffian Suburbs ©f
governor, determined to fet thefe iuburbs on fire, t’rcfdeo
which was a£tually done November lotty, with an in- urnU
credible lofs to the inhabitants, as in the fuburbs were
carried on moll of thofe valuable manufaftures which
render the city of Drefden remarkable. This difap-
pointed the defigns of M. Daun ; but, though the ac¬
tion was agreeable to the laws of war, and htid beem
executed with all the ckution and humanity of which-
fuch an aftion was capable, yet the Aullrians exclaim¬
ed againft it as a piece of the moft unprovoked and
wantoiv cruelty recorded in hiilory.
After
P R U
Prutl'ia After the king of Pruflia had approached Drefden,
^^—■" all the Aullrian armies retired into Bohemia, where
o they took up their winter-quarters, as the king of
jlrHied by Pruffia did in Saxony. U'liis unhappy country he faid
the king of he would now confider as his own by right of conquefl.
1’ruiHa. ^ut Jnftead of treating the conquered people as his
lawful lubjeCts, he opprefled them in all polfible ways,
by levying the moil fevere and exorbitant contribu¬
tions, furrounding the exchange with foldiers, and con¬
fining the merchants in narrow lodgings on itraw-beds,
till they drew upon their correfpondents lor fuch fums
as he wanted.
In 1759, as early as the 23d of February, the Pruf-
fians commenced their military operations. General
Woberfow marched with a body of troops into Poland,
where he deftroyed feveral very large magazines be¬
longing to the Ruffians, and returned into Silefia
without any lofs on the 18th of April. In the mean
time, by feme movements ol the king of Prullia him-
p j 4^.^ felt, the greateit part of the Auflrian troops had been
bivaded by drawn towards the frontiers of Silefia. Prince Henry
i'rmte immediately took advantage of this opening, and on
Henry. the 15th of April entered Bohemia with his army di¬
vided into two columns. One, commanded by him-
felf, marched towards Peterfwade ; the other, under
general Hulfen, paffed by the towns of Pafberg and
Commottau. That commanded by Prince Henry
bimfclf penetrated as far as Lobofchutz and Leitme-
ritz ; the enemy flying everywhere before them, and
burning or abandoning the valt magazines which they
had amafled in thefe parts. The body under general
Hulfen had a more a&ive employment. A Itrong pafs
48 at Pafherg was defended by a confiderable body of
A 1) d\ of Auftrians. General Hulfen, having conduced his ca-
defeated by vauy by another way in inch a manner as to fall di-
CJeueral re£tly on their rear, attacked them in front with his in-
Huifcn. fantry, drove them out of their intrenehments, and to¬
tally defeated them with the lofs of a great number kill¬
ed, and 2000 taken prifoners, while that of the Pruf-
lians did not exceed 7 0 in killed and wounded. After
this exploit they returned into Saxony, with hoflages
for the contributions which they had largely exacted
during the courfe of their expedition.
Some other fucceffes obtained by Prince Henry,
cleared the country of Franconia of his enemies ; but
now the approach of the Ruffians feemed once more to
bring the affairs of the king of Pruflia to a crilis. Not-
withftanding the defti u&ion of their magazines, they
bad continued to advance into Silefia, where they were
oppofed by Count Dohna ; but as the troops he had
•with him were very far inferior to his enemies, he
found it irnpofiible to do more, at leaf! with any ap¬
pearance of luccefs, than to obfevve their motions and
harafs them on their march. But this was fo difplea-
fing to the king, that he difgraced this general, and
appointed Wedel to fucceed him, with orders to at¬
tack the Ruffians at all events. To enable him, how¬
ever, in fome ineafure to comply with this defperate
order, he fent him fome reinforcements, which brought
his army up to near 30,003. With thefe, on the 23d
of July 1759, General Wedel attacked 70,000 Ruf-
49 fians puffed in the moil advantageous manner at Zuli-
Pruflians chau, and defended by a numerous artillery. Though
Zulichaa^ t^e ^>ru^ians marched on to certain dettraction and dif-
grace, they fiflained the attack for a long time with
P R U
unparalleled rcfolutlon. At lafl;r however, they gave Priiffia.
way, and were obliged to retire with the lois of 4700 ——
killed or taken prifoners, and 3300 wounded. 50
The confequences of this victory were, that the Ruf- Phe Ruf¬
fians penetrated into the king’s territories, and tooktian*ta,ce
pofleffion of the towns of Crofien and Frankfort on the
Oder, which made it abfolutely neceflary for the kingon the O-
to come in perfon to oppofe them. Accordingly, under,
the 4th of Auguit, he joined Wedel with a confiderable
body of forces, having left the greateit part of his army
in Saxony under Prince Henry. But as Marfhal Daun
had fent a body of 12,000 horfe and 8000 foot under
General Laudohn to the affiftance of the Ruffians, the
king ftill found himfelf unable to fight them ; as, with
this and tome other reinforcements, their armv now
amounted to upwards of 93,003. He therefore re¬
called General Finck, whom he had fent into Saxony
with 9000 men ; but, with all his reinforcements, it
was found impollible to augment his army to 50,000
complete. His iituation, however, was now fo critical,
that a battle was unavoidable ; aud therefore, on the
12th of Auguft, with this inferiority of number, the
king attacked his. enemies llrongly intrenched, and de¬
fended by a prodigious number of cannon. In this ac¬
tion, his principal effort was againit the left wing of the
Ruffian army. He began the attack, according to cu-
itom, with a heavy cannonade ; which having produced
the defired effect, he attacked that wing with feveral 51
battalions difpofed in columns. The Ruffian intrench-«A‘l,R
ments were forced with great fiaughter, and 72 pieces
of cannon were taken. But ftill there was a defile tothe ru(.
be paffed, and feveral redoubts which covered the village fians at
of Lunnerfdorf to be maltered. Thefc were attacked C-nners-
with the fame refolution, and taken one after another. l'or*'
The enemy made another Hand at the village, and en¬
deavoured to preferve their ground there by pufhing
forward feveral battalions of horfe and foot: but this
alfo proved unfuccefsful; they were driven from poll
to poll quite to the laft redoubts. For upwards of fix
hour? the Pruffians were fuccefsful, and everywhere
broke the enemy with prodigious daughter; drove
them from almofl all the ground they had occupied be¬
fore the battle, took more than half their artillery, and
fcarce any thing feemed wanting to make the victory
complete. In thefe circumltances, the king wrote the
following billet to the queen: “ Madam, we have
beat the Ruffians from their intrenchments. In two
hours expert to hear of a glorious victory.” Of this vic¬
tory, however, he deprived himielf, by an exceffivc
eagernefs for conqueft. The enemy, defeated alinoft
in every quarter, found their left wing, (battered as it
was, to be more entire than any other part ot their
army. Count Soltikoff, the Ruffian general, therefore
aflcmbled the remains of his right wing, and, gathering
as many as he could from his centre, reinforced the left,
and made a (land at a redoubt which had been erected
on an advantageous eminence in a place called the jews
burymg-ground. All the king’s generals axe faid to*
have been of opinion, that lie ought to uiloto the Ruf¬
fians the peaceable poffeflion of this poll. Their army
had already fuffered fo much, that it would have been
impoflible for them to have attempted any enterprile
of confequence after the battle ; but their artillery was
ftill numerous, the poll very ftrong, and the Pruflian
troops greatly fatigued. Theiti reaions for a few mo*
4 K 2 ments
[ 6i7 1
P R U
PruITia.
General
Fir.ck wich
ii,ooo
J’rufTians
furrenders
to the Au-
Itrians.
nicnts had fome weight with the king : but the natu¬
ral impetuofity of his temper getting the better of
his reafon, he led on his wearied troops again and
again ; till at lalt, when their ftrength was in a man¬
ner totally exhaufted, they were attacked and utterly
routed by the Auftrian and Ruffian cavalry, the former
of which had hitherto remained quite ina&ive, and were
therefore quite frefh, and irrefitlible by the enfeebled
Pruffians. The night, and the prudent ufe of fome
eminences, prevented the total dellruftion of the ar¬
my ; however, their lofs amounted to 20,000 men
killed and wounded. The king, when he found the
vi&ory totally loft, fent another billet to the queen,
expreffed in the following manner : “ Remove from
Berlin with the royal family ; let the archives be car¬
ried to Potfdam ; the town may make conditions with
the enemy.”
Immediately after this defeat, the king fet himfelf
about repairing his Ioffes with the utmoft diligence. In a
few days every thing was again put in order in his camp.
He replaced his artillery from Berlin ; recalled Gene¬
ral Kliell with 5000 men from Pomerania ; detached
6000 from his own army to the defence of Saxony ;
and with the remainder put himfelf between the Ruf¬
fians and Great Glogau, covering that city which had
been the chief objeft of their defigns ; and in fhort, not-
withftanding their vi&ory, obliged them t© return to Po¬
land without accomplifhing any thing befides the car¬
nage at Cunnerfdorff.
The misfortunes of the Pruffian monarch, however,
were not at an end. Prince Henry indeed, by a moft
extraordinary and well-condudted march, entered Sax¬
ony, which was now totally over-run by the armies of
the enemy. At the fame time, ftrong detachments ha¬
ving been fent into that country under generals Finck
and Wunfeh, the whole was in a fhort time recovered
except Drefden. Towards this place Marlhal paun
retired, and in all probability would foon have been,
obliged to leave Saxony entirely. But the king’s im¬
patience could not be fatisfied without cutting off his
retreat, and forcing him to a battle ; for which purpofe
lie fent General Finck with upwards of 12,000 men
according to the Pruffian account, but 20,oco accord¬
ing to the Auftrians, to feize fome paffes through which
M. 13aim could only take his route towards Bohemia.
This commifiion was executed with great exa&nefs;
but the Pruffian general, having probably advanced too
far into thefe defiles, and negledfed to preferve a com¬
munication with the main army, gave his enemy an op¬
portunity of furrounding him, and at laft forcing him
and his whole army to furrender prifoners of war. This
diXafter was loon after followed by another. General
Durceke was pofttd at the right of the I'ffbe, oppofite
to Meffen ; but on the approach of a large body of Au-
ftrians, they prepared to retreat over the river into a
place where they hoped to be more fecure. But having
been obliged by an hard froft to withdraw their bridge
of boats, a thaw fupervened, when they attempted to
lay a bridge of pontoons, fo that they were again obli¬
ged to have recourie to their b^ats. In this fituation,
their rear-guard was attacked with great fury by the
Auftrians, and all the ioldiers who compofed it killed or
taken. The lofs ot the Pruflians on this occafion was
computed at 3 00 men.
The year 17 60 ftiowed the Prufiian monarch in a more
[ 628 ] P R U
dangerous fituation than he had ever yet experienced. Pruflia.
Indeed his affairs now feemed to be altogether defperate
“V
53
His Ioffes were not to be meafured by the number °fi3efp£rate
the killed or prifoners, but by armies deftroyed or ta-fimatioivof
ken. Forty generals had died or been killed in his the king 0*
fervice fince the beginning of Odfober i75^> exclusive n' u*
of thofe who were wounded or taken prifoners. ff his
of itfelf would have been an irreparable lols, had not
the very wars which deftroyed thefe furniftied others
equally capable of filling their places, But another de¬
ficiency, which could not be remedied, ftill remained.—
The king had, by his indefatigable induftry and exer¬
tions, fupplied all the deficiencies of men in his armies,
but they were not the fame men as before. 'I he
hardy veterans, with whom he had originally taken
the field, were now no more, and their places were
ftipplied by others who had neither the fame expei ience
nor difeipline ; fo that now he was obliged to fuppiy
this deficiency by his own genius and heroifm.
But whatever abilities the Pruffian monarch might
poffefs, and though he undoubtedly exerted them to the
utmoft, it feemed only to he contending againft fate,
and his enemies gained ftill greater and greater advan- 54
tages. General Taudohn, with whom none but the
king himfelf feems to have been able to cope, by a Lamiflnu,
ries of artful movements, drew into a difadvantageous
fituation M. Fouquet, one of the Pruffian generals,
with a ftrong body of forces. Perceiving it impoffible
for them to efcape, Laudohn then made a violent at¬
tack on their intrenchments in the dead of the night
of June 23d. The Pruffians made a gallant defence,,
but at laft were all killed or taken prifoners except
about 300. Of the Pruflians were killed 4000, and
7000 taken prifoners ; 58 pieces of cannon, and a gicat
number of colours, were alfo loft. The vidfory, how¬
ever, was dear bought; for the Auftrians loft abov .
12,000 men in killed and wounded ; whom, howevei,
they could better fpare than the Pruffians, on account
of their numbers.—<This action was called the battle of
Landjhul. _ . r)
Baron Laudohn failed not to improve this victory
to the utmoit. He inftantly turned back from k<and-^u^j
fluit, and fell upon the city ol Glatz ; which he took
in a very {hart time, with the garrifon who defended
it, confifting of 2000 men. In this place were found
10I pieces of brafs cannon, with immenie quantities
of provifions and, military itores. From thence he
marched againit Breflau, and immediately invefted it.
But, in the mean time, the king of Prufiia, whole mo¬
tions had been all this time countera&ed by M. Daun
in Saxony, marched with his ufual rapidity towaids
Silefia. By this means he drew M. Daun out of Sax¬
ony ; and indeed the Auftrian general ufed fuch ex¬
pedition, that he gained two full days on the king.
This was no fooner known to his Pruffian majeity,
than he returned with the fame expedition that he J* _
had advanced, and fat down before Drefden. Offiegedbut
this M. Daun foon received intelligence, and returned wjthout
alfo. In the mean time, however, the buildings oflkccefs by
the city were terribly fhattered by the king’s cannon of
and bombs which continually played on it. His en¬
deavours, however, proved incfteCIual ^ to reduce it
before the arrival of M. Daun. I he liege had
been begun on the J3th of July, and the 19^
M. Daun appeared within a league of Drelden. 1 he
o Pruflians
Pruflia
57
Three Au*
ftrian jje.
nerai* join
him.
P R U [62
Pruffians tlien redoubled their efforts. They had that
day received reinforcements of heavy cannon and mor¬
tars, with which they battered the place ineeffantly.
The cathedral church, New Square, feveral principal
ftreets, and fome palaces, and the noble manufa&ory
of porcelain, were entirely deftroyed. The fiege was
continued till the 22d : but, on the night of the 21ft,
M. Daun had thrown 16 battalions into the city ;
which rendered it impoffible for the king to continue
longer before it with any profpeef of fuccefs. He
therefore raifed the liege, and retired without molefta-
tion, though there were three coniiderable armies of
the enemy in the neighbouihood. Breflau was fiercely
bombarded by Laudohn, but the approach of Prince
Henry obliged him to deiift from' his enterprife on the
5th of Augull.
But, in the mean time, the fortune of the king feem-
ed likely to be terminated by one fatal ftroke. Find¬
ing it impoffible for him to cany on a defenfive war,
he marched towards Siltlia with fuch allonifhing ra¬
pidity, that before the middle of Auguft he had ad¬
vanced 200 miles, leaving Marfhal Daun with his army
far behind him. This expedition he undertook in
order to engage General Taudohn before he could
their*!orce* have time to effect a junction with Daun and Lacy,
a^ainft another Auftrian general; which triple union feemed
to threaten him with unavoidable deltrudtion at once.
This, however, he found it impoffible to prevent r and
the three armies, when joined, formed a molt tre¬
mendous line of encampments, extending no lefs than
30 Englilh miles ; at the fame time that every one of
their polls was Itrong, and the communication be¬
tween them eafy. The king was ftrongly encamped
at Lignitz ; and for feveral days employed all his mi¬
litary Ikill in attempting to induce one of the bodies
to detach itfelf from the reft, or to attack them at
fome difadvantage ; but without effect. At laft, the
Auftrian generals, liaving maturely weighed all circum-
ftances, refolved to attack the king’s camp itfelf,
ftrong as it was ; and Marfhal Daun, remembering the
advantage he had gained at Hochkirchen by an at¬
tack in the night-time, refolved to follow the fame
plan now. The plan therefore was laid in the follow¬
ing manner. The whole army, as foon as it fhould
begin to grow dark, was to march from their feveral
polls to Inch fituations as were marked out for each
corps 1 they were to ftnke their tents, but yet to keep
up the fires in their camps, and to have the drums
beat the tattoo as ufual, by which means they had
a probability of furprifing the enemy ; or if not, they
judged it abfolutely impoffible for him to efcape them,
though he fhould be ever fo much on his guard. In
what manner the king of Pruffia became acquainted
with this plan, is not known. His friends attributed
it to his own penetration and knowledge of the ftra-
tagems of war; the Auftrians, to intelligence given
him by deferters» But, in whatever way he became ac¬
quainted with this defign, it is certain that he took
the moll effe&ual methods of preventing it. As the
Auftrian plan was to furround his camp, and this
could not be done without the divifion of their army
which he had fo long defired, he refolved to intercept
one of the parties ; and if that fhould be difabled from
afting, he could then more eafily deal with the other
two. Therefore, in the very evening calculated for
9 ] P R U
the decifive attack on his camp, he quitted it with ,
the utmoft privacy, and took an advantageous poll
on the road through which General Laudohn was to
pafs. The . nature of this poll was fuch, that at the
fame time that it flopped the progrefs of Laudohn iu
front, Daun would lie under great difficulties if he
fhould attempt his rear; at the fame time that, for his
further fecurity, the king ftren,<thened the rear with
feveral batteries. As foon as his army was drawn up,
he divided it ; leaving his right on the ground where
it had been formed, to obferve Marfhal Daun, and to
maintain that poft ; whilft with his left he turned in or¬
der to fall on the corps under General Laudohn. In
the mean time, that commander, ignorant of the fate
which was awaiting him, advanced with the utmoft ex¬
pedition towards the place which had been affigned him,
in order to ftiare in the glory of deflroying the Pruf-
fian monarch ; when, at three in the morning, on the.
I i;th of Auguft, a thick fog which covered the ground,
fuddenly clearing up, difeovered, like the opening of
a great feene, the dreadful front of the Piuffian army 58
regularly embattled, and advantageoufly polled. -^au" cJeocn^ *
dohn, though furprifed, made the bell difpofitions that4 audohnj
circumltances would admit of, and an obftinate engage-md intimi-
ment enfued ; in which, however, he was at lafl obliged data? the
to yield to the fuperior ikill of his adverfary, with the u ians*~
lofs of 10,000 killed, wounded, and prifoners, 82 pieces
of cannon, and 23 pair of colours.
The vidtory, though complete, gave but a partial re¬
lief to the king of Pruffia. The moll effential fervicei
it did was the preventing of the Ruffians from joining
thofe enemies which he already had. Count Czerni-
chew had been advancing with 2 4,oco men, and had-
even paffed the Oder; but was fo intimidated by this-
news, that he inftantly repaffed that river on the lame
bridges which he had lately built, even though M. Daun
fent him a ftrong body of troops in order to encourage
him to advance. Soon after this battle, the king join¬
ed his brother Prince Henry at New Marche ; and
marched againft Daun, who had begun to form the
blockade of Schweidnitz, fell upon a corps under Ge¬
neral Beck, made two battalions of Croats prifoners,
and difperfed the reft, which obliged the enemy to
abandon the enterprife they had j ull undertaken. A-
bout the fame time, General Hulfen gained a confide-
rable advantage over the Imperial army in Saxony, with
very trifling lofs on his part, by which he effedlually
prevented them from cutting off his communication
with the city of Torgau.
By thefe fucceffes the affairs of his Pruffian majefty*
feemed to revive .* but there was no end of his enemies.
The late manoeuvres had drawn him fo far into Silefia,
that his communication with Brandenburg was almofl:
wholly cut off. The Ruffian army, which after it had
repafled the Oder began to move out of Silefia, fent
forward a powerful detachment under Count Czerni-
chew towards the march of Brandenburg. A body
of 15,000 Auftrians, under the generals Lacy and
Brentano, and the whole united body of Auftnans and
Imperialifts which afled in Saxony, began their march
in concert with the Ruffians, and propofed to unite at
the gates of Berlin. Thefe armies amounted to
40,000 men. To oppofe this formidable power, ge¬
neral Hulfen called to his affiftance general Werner,
who had been fent with a body of troops intp Pome-
P It U [ 6 jo ] P R U
’Priiflia,
59
Iterlin ta-
l:en by tl.e
Anli-ians
And Ri,f-
iiaus.
rania; but, after being joined by him, their united forces
were found not to exceed 15,000 or 16,000 men. To
attempt a defence of the capital with this force would
have been little (hart of madnefs : and therefore thefe
commanders were obliged to leave Berlin to its late ;
which indeed, confidering the barbarity of the Ruffians
and the animoiity of the Aullrians, feemed to be a
dreadful one. However, by the powerful mediation
of feveral foreign minilters, the town obtained terms
which were not altogether intolerable ; but the maga¬
zines, arfesals, and founderies were deitroyed, and an
immenfe quantity of military Itores fei/.ed, with a num¬
ber of cannon and other arms. The city was firft obli¬
ged to pay 800,000 guilders, after which a contribution
of 1,900,000 crowns was laid on: yet, notwithflanding
this, many violences were committed, and the king’s
palace was plundered and the furniture abided in a
Icandalous manner.
The combined armies {laid in Berlin only four days ;
dreading the fevere vengeance of the king of Prulfia,
^ who they heard was advancing towards that place with
Extreme great expedition. But fo great were the embarrais-
embarrfIT- ments which now attended that monarch, that it ieem-
ment of abfolutely beyoud human power to retrieve his af-
u ie king. pajrs> Xmperialiits, on their return from Berlin,
having no army to oppofe them, made themfelves ma¬
ilers of Leipfic, Torgau, MeifTen, and Wirtemberg ;
in which kill city they found the grand magazine of
the Pruflians immenfely llored with provilions, ammu¬
nition, See. M. Stainville alfo, with a detachment from
Broglio the French general’s army, laid the city and
duchy of Halberiladt under contribution. In Eallern
Pomerania, the Ruffians had befieged Colberg by fea
and land. In the Weftern Pomerania, the Swedes ad¬
vanced with great celerity, hoping to lhare in the plun¬
der of Berlin. In Silelia, the king no fooner began
his march to the northward, than Laudohn advanced,
and laid fiege to the important fortrefs ol Cofel; and,
to complete this diftrefs and embarraffment, the king
himfelf was attended at every Hep by Count Daun with
a fuperior army well prepared to take every advantage.
In this defperate Situation the king, being joined by
his generals Hulfen and prince Eugene of Wittemberg
with the corps under their command, advanced up the
Elbe, while M. Daun fell back to cover Eeipfic and
Torgau; but the latter, finding that the Prufiians direc¬
ted their march towards the Elbe, encamped within
reach of Torgau; one part of his army extending co
the Elbe, by which he was covered on that fide, whilit
on the other he was covered by hills and woods, fo
that it was impoffible to choofe a more advantageous
fituation. The Pruffian army did not amount to 50,000
men, whilft that of the Aullrians exceeded 86,000: yet
luch were the unfortunate circumftances of the king,
that he was obliged to fight under all thefe difadvanta-
ges; and therefore he caufed his army to be informed,
that he was now to lead them to a moll defperate at¬
tempt, that his affairs required it, and that he was de¬
termined to conquer or die. His foldiers uiianimoufiy
6r declared that they would die with him.
He defeats 3^ °f November 1760 was the day on which
liaim1 .*mP°rtant affair was decided. The king divided
Tort'au ^orces ^nt0 three columns. General Hulfen was to
take poll with one in a wood that lay on the left of
the Anltrian army, and had orders not to move until he
found the red of the Pruffians engaged. General Ziethen Pruffix.
was to charge on the right ; and the great attack in v—
front was to be condu&ed by the king in perfon. His
forces were difpofed in fuch a manner, that either his
right or left mull take the enemy in rear and dofe them
in, fo as to difable them from undertaking any thing
againll the part where he intended to effedl his principal
attack. On the other hand, M. Daun perceiving the
king to be lerious in his defign of fighting, to prevent
contufion, lent all his baggage over the Elbe, acrofa
which he threw three bridges in cafe a retreat fhould
be neceffary. At the fame time he caufed Torgau to
be evacuated ; and then, extending his fiiil line to a
village called Zmne on the left, he ilretched it to ano¬
ther called Crojii’itz on the right; fupporting the right
of his fecond line upon the Elbe. In this difpofition
he was found, when, about two o’clock in the afternoon,
the king began his attack. He was received by the
fire of 200 pieces ot cannon, which were difpofed along
the Aullrian front. The Prufiians were thrice led on
to the attack; but were every time repulfed and broken
with terrible llaughter. The king at length command¬
ed a frelh body ot cavalry to advance, which at firlt
compelled the Aullrians to retire; but new reinforce¬
ments continually coining in, this cavalry was in its
turn obliged to fall back, and the Prufiians maintained
themfelves with extreme difficulty, until General Zie-
then, with the right wing, attacked the enemy in the
rear, rtpulfed them, and poffeffed himfelf of fome emi¬
nences which commanded the whole Aultrian army.
Encouraged by this iuccefs, the Pruffian infantry once
more advanced, maltered feveral of the enemy’s intrench-
ments, and made way for a new attack of their cavalry,
which broke in with irrefiftible fury on the Auftrians,
and threw feveral bodies of them into irreparable difor-
der. It w?.s now about 9 o’clock, and of confequence
both armies were involved in thick darknefs; yet the
fire continued without internuffion, and the battalions
with a blind rage difeharged at one another without
dillinguilhing friend from foe. M. Daun received a
dangerous wound in the thigh, and was carried from
the field, which probably" haitened the defeat of his
troops. The command then devolved on Count O’Don-,
ncll; who, finding the greateil part ol his troops in dit-
order, the night advanced, and the enemy poffeffed of
lome eminences which commanded his camp, and from
which it was in vain to think of driving them, ordered
a retreat, which was conducted with wonderful order
and exatlnels; none were loll in puffing the bridges,
and by far the greater part of their artillery was prefer-
ved. The lofs of the Pruffians was ellimated at 10,000
killed and wounded, and 3000 taken priibners. That
ol the Aullrians in killed ami wounded is not known ;
but 8000 were taken prifoners, with 216 officers, among
whom were four generals. ,
The confequence ol the vidloiy of Torgau was, that AM ^ax-e
the king recovered all Saxony except Dreiden ; and in0 T except
the mean time General Werner having marched into .
Pomerania, the Ruffians railed the liege of Colberg,
and retired into Poland, without having effe&ed any
thing further than walling the open country. Werner
then Hew to the afliltance of Weltern Pomerania, where
lie defeated a body of Swedes, and at lalt drove them
totally out of the country. General Laudohn too ab¬
ruptly raffed the blockade of Cofel; and -afterwards,
abandoning
P R U l 63
VmfTia. abandoning Landffmt, he retired into the Andrian Si-
'•—v—— lefta, leaving the PrufTian part entirely in quiet. M.
Daun placed one part of his army in Drefden, and the
ether in feme ftroog polls which lie tc the fouth and
well of it, by which he commanded the Elbe, and pre¬
ferred his communication with Bohemia. The army of
the empire retired into Franconia, and placed its head¬
quarters at Bamberg.
Though thefe fuccelTes had, to appearance, retrieved
the king’s affairs in fome meafure, yet his ftrength
feemed now to be wholly exhaulled ; and in the cam¬
paign of 1761, he made no fuch vigorous efforts as he
had formerly done. The Ruffians, dividing themfelves
into two bodies, invaded Silelia and Pomerania. In
the former country they laid fiege to Brellau, and in
the latter to Colberg. Tottleben alfo, who had com¬
manded the Ruffian armies, was now removed on a fu-
fpicion that he had correfponded with the king of Pruf-
fia, and general Romanzow put in his place by which
it was expedled that the Ruffian operations would be
more brilk this year than formerly.
The king continued llrongly encamped near Schweid-
nitz; where he was fo clofely watched by generals Daun
and Laudohn, that he could attempt nothing. How¬
ever, he defeated the defigns of the Ruffians againll Bre¬
llau, by fending general Platen to dellroy their maga¬
zines ; which he accomplifhed with great fuccefs, at the
fame time cutting off a body of 4000 of their troops.
But this only brought the more fure dellruftion upon
Colberg; to which place that body of Ruffians imme¬
diately marched, cruelly walling the country as they
went along. The king of Pruffia could do nothing but
lend detachments of fmall parties, which, though they
could not oppoie their enemies in the field', yet he ho¬
ped, by cutting off the convoys of the enemy, might
dillrefs them to fuch a degree as to oblige them to
abandon the fiege, or at leall protrail it till the feverity
of the winter mould render it impoffible for them to
carry on their operations. Thus he weakened his own
; army fo much, that it was found requifite to draw 4000
taken^ men out Schweidnitz in order to reinforce it; and
no fooner was this done, than general Laudohn fudden-
ly attacked and took that fortrefs by a coup de main.
Colberg made a brave defence ; but the troops fent to
its relief being totally unable to cope with the Ruffian
army confilling of 50,000 men, it was obliged to fur-
render on the 3d of December; and thus the fate of
the Pruffian monarch feemed to be decided, and almoll
64 every part of his dominions lay open to the invaders.
Emprefs of In the midll of thefe gloomy appearances the em-
Ruflia-dieJ. prefs of Ruffia, the king’s mod inveterate and inflex¬
ible enemy, died on the 2d of January 1762. Her fuc-
ceffor, Peter III. inllead of being the king’s enemy,
was his moll fanguine friend. As early as the 23d of
February, in a memorial delivered to the miniders of
the allied courts, he declared, that, “ in order to the
dlablilhment of peace, he was ready to facrifice all the
conqueds made in this war by the arms of Ruffia, in
hopes that the allied courts will on their parts equally
prefer the redoration of peace and tranquillity, to the
advantages which they might expert from the continu¬
ance of the war, but which they cannot obtain but by
a continuance of the effufion of human blood.”—This,
add refs was not fo well relilhed by the allies: however*
they were very willing to make peace, provided it wa&
7
Pruflla.
6<
63
Sehweid-
nitz and
1 ] P R U
for their own intered; but they reccommended to fus
attention fidelity to treaties, which conditutes a no lefs
valuable part of the royal charadler, than humanity and
difinteredednefs. This anfwer made no impreffion on
the czar; a fufpenfion of hodilities took place on the
16th of March, which was followed by a treay of alii- be*
ance on the 5th of May. In this treaty the czar dipu-
lated nothing in favour of his former confederates; on den ami
the contrary, he agreed to join his troops to thofe of Prtflia.
the king of Pruffia, in order to a£l againd them. Swe¬
den, which had for a long time adled under the direc¬
tion of Ruffian counlels, now followed the example of
her millrefs, and concluded a peace with Pruffia on the
2 2d of May. 66
It is not to he fuppofed that the king of Pruffia Succc®!?
would remain long inactive after fuch an unexpended
turn in his favour. His arms were now everywhere
attended with fuccefs. Prince Henry drove the Impe-
rialids from fome important pods in Saxony, by which
he fecured all that part which the Pruffians poffeffed ;
and though the Andrians frequently attempted to re¬
cover thefe pods, they were condantly repulfed with
great daughter. The king was not joined by his new
allies till the latter end of June ; after which he drove
M. Daun before him to the extremity of Silefia, leaving
the town of Schweidnitz entirely uncovered, and which
the king immediately prepared to invefl. In the mean
time different detachments of Prufiians, fome on the
fide of Saxony, and others on that of Silefia, penetrated
deep into Bohemia, laid many parts of the country un¬
der contribution, and fpread an univerfal alarm. A con-
fiderable body of Ruffian irregulars alfo made an irrup¬
tion into Bohemia, where they praftifed on the Audri-
ans the fame cruelties which they had long been accuf-
tomed to prattife on the Pruffians. 67
But while the king was thus making the bed ufe of ^ BCW r*"
his time, he was all at once threatened with a fatal re- 13
verfe of fortune by a new revolution in Ruffia. The
emperor was depofed, and his depofition was foon after
followed by his death. The emprefs, wlio fucceeded
him, fufpefted that her hufband had been mifled by the
counfels of his Pruffian majedy, againd whom, there¬
fore, die entertained a mortal enmity. She could not,
however, in the very beginning of her reign, undertake
again a war of fo much importance as that which had
been jud concluded. SJre therefore declared her inten¬
tion of obferving the peace concluded by the late em¬
peror ; but, at the fame time, of recalling her armies,
from Silefia, Prwffia, and Pomerania ; which indeed the
unfettled date of the kingdom now made in fome degree
neceflary. At the fame time a difeovery was made
with regard to the king of Pruffia himfelf, which turn¬
ed the fcale greatly in his favour. The Ruffian fenate.
flaming with refentment againd this monarch, and
againd their late unfoitunate fovereign ; and the em¬
prefs, full of fufpicion that the condudl of the latter
might have been influenced by the councils of the for¬
mer, fearched eagerly amongd the papers of the late'
emperor for an elucidation or proots of this point.
They found indeed many letters from the Pruffian mo¬
narch } but in a drain abfolutely different from what
th'Cy had expedled. The king had, as far as prudence
would permit, kept a referve aud didancc with regard
the too rafh advances of this unhappy ally; and, in
particular, counfelkd him to undertake nothing again ft
flBNj
08
General
jLaudohn
•utterly de
ieated.
P R U [
'PrufTia. t’nc einprefs his confort. The hearing of thefe letters
 v  read is laid to have had fuch an effeA upon the emprefs,
that the buidt into tears, and expreffed her gratitude
towards the Prufiian monarch in the warmeft terms.
Still, however, the Ruffian army was ordered to feparate
from the Pruffians; but all the important places •which
the former had taken during the whole war were faith¬
fully reftored.
The king, fihding that the Ruffians were no more to
take an aftive part in his favour, refolved to profit by
their appearance in his camp ; and therefore, the very
day after the order for their return had arrived, lie at¬
tacked the Auftrian army, and drove their right wing
from fome eminences and villages where they were ad-
vantageoufly polled; by which means he entirely cut
off their communication with Schweidnicz, fo that no¬
thing' could be attempted for its relief. Prince Henry
kept them 4n continual alarms for Bohemia; and a
great pail of their attention, and no fmall pail of their
forces, were engaged on that fide. Marlhal Daun, now
finding himfelf rendered almofl incapable of underta¬
king any thing, detached general Laudohn, with a
force very much fuperior, to attack the prince of Be-
vern, and drive him from the advantageous poll he oc¬
cupied. But the prince defended himfelf with fuch re-
folution, that all the efforts of Laudohn could not fuc-
ceed before the king had time to come to his affillance.
The Aullrians, being then put between two fires, were
routed and purfued with terrible flaughter; after which,
the king met with no more dillurbance in his prepara¬
tions for the fiege, and the trenches were opened on
the 18th of July. Marlhal Daun made no attempts
to relieve the place; but the garrifon being very llrong,
it held out for near two months from the opening of
the trenches. It is faid that the attack was conduced,
and the defence made, by two engineers who had
written on the fubjett of the attack and defence of
fortified places; and they were now pradlically engaged
to prove the fuperiority of their fyftems. At lall, how¬
ever, the garrifon, to the number of 8000 men, furren-
dered prifoners of war ; and the whole body, except
nine, were foon after drowned at the mouth of the O-
der, on their paffage to their intended confinement at
Konigfberg.
The king of Pruffia, now become mafier of Schweid-
uitz, turned his attention towards Saxony, where he
confiderably reinforced his brother’s army, and made
preparations for laying fiege to Drefden. In this coun¬
try the Auftrians had lately met with fome fuccefs, and
driven Prince Henry back as far as Freyberg ; but on
the 29th of O&ober, they were attacked by the Pruf-
fian army thus reinforced, and totally routed. Great
numbers were flain, and near 6000 taken prifoners.
This viflory proved decifive: and the emprefs-queen,
finding herfelf deferted by all her allies, was glad to
conclude a treaty; the fubltance of which was, that a
mutual reftitution and oblivion Ihould take place, and
both parties fit down at the end of the war in the fame
fituation in which they began it. This treaty is called
the peace of Hubertjhurg.
The war was no fooncr concluded than the king of
Pruffia,
70
69
The total
defeat of
the Auftri¬
ans at
Trey berg
produces a
peace.
Pruffia turned his attention to domellic policy, and the
recovery of his dominions from thofc innumerable ca¬
lamities which had befallen them during the war. He
632 T P R XT
immediately diftiibuted lands to his difbanded fokhers,
and gave them the horfes of his artillery to affiil them
in their cultivation. By his wife and prudent manage¬
ment, the horrors of war were foon forgot; and the
country was quickly in as fiourifhing a flate as ever.
Notwithflanding this pacific difpofition, however, the
king never flackened his endeavours for the defence of
his country, by keeping a refpe&able army on foot;
which might be able to acl on the leaft emergency.
In the year 1778, a new difference with the houfe of A rew war
Auftria took place, concerning the duchy of Bavaria. £omj^etn*
But though the mofl enormous warlike preparation9pro’cjuce I
were made on both fides, and immenfe armies brought memorable
into the field, nothing of confequence was effefted. event.
What little advantage there was, feems to have been
fo that no- on the Pruffian fide, fince they made themfelves mailers
of feveral towns, and kept the war in the enemy’s coun¬
try. However, the emperor a&ed with fo much caution,
and ffiowed fo much fkill in a defenfive war, that all the
manoeuvres of his Pruffian majefty could gain no mate¬
rial advantage; as, on the other hand, his adverfary was
too wife to venture an engagement. A peace .therefore
was very foon concluded, and fince that time the hiftory
of Pruffia, during the remainder of the great Frederic’s
reign, affords no remarkable event which we have not
mentioned in the life of that hero, and in the article yr
Poland. He left his crown to his nephew, whofe ^lC great
character was not then much developed ; and it was ea-
fily feen that a new kingdom, which had rifen fuddenly nc.
to fuch unexampled power and greatnefs as to excite jihew.
the jealoufy or apprehenfion of all its neighbours, would
require great abilities to preferve it from difmemberment. ^
The late king had indeed bequeathed the moil effec-state cf the
tual fecurities to his fucceffor for the prefervation of nation, and
his dominions, that human wifdom could provide or de-^^^10“r
vife; by leaving him a full treafury, the fined army in^jj,^
the world, and a people enthuiiaftically attached to his 0
memory and government. The new monarch, with
thefe advantages, was not wanting to himfelf. The
late king’s predilection for the French language and
French literature were not grateful to his fubjefts.
The prefent fovereign began his reign with declaring
in council, “ Germans we are, and Germans I mean we
ffiall continue;” giving directions at the fame time, that
their native language ffiould refume its natural rank and
Ration, from which for near half a century it had been
degraded by the French. This was a very popular
meafure, and it was followed by another ftill more fo.
Obferving that he had marked with great concern the
progrefs of impiety and profanenefs on the one hand,
and of enthufiafm on the other, he declared, that he
would not have his fubjeCts corrupted either by fanatics
or atheifts, and ffridlly prohibited all publications tend¬
ing to excite a contempt or indifference for religion.
Such, on his immediate acceffion to the throne, was
the pacific conduft of the monarch, which endeared
him to his fubjeds, and commanded the approbation
of all good men. An opportunity foon occurred, in He a7^9
which he was thought to have difplayed fuch talents the ftad-
in negotiation and in military arrangements, as proclaim-a--
cd him in every refped a worthy fucceffor of his uncle.
The States of Holland, who had long been jealous of Holland,
the power of the Stadtholder, and inclined to a republi¬
can government without any permanent chief,.had gain¬
ed
Pruflia.
74
Air, foil,
end p >pu-
lation, of
PruiSa,
7S
Commerce
and manu-
fadlures.
?6
Conlhtu-
tion.
P R U [ 63
ed fucli an afcendancy in the ftates general, that in
1786 and 1787 they in effett divefted the prince of O-
range of all his prerogatives (fee United Provinces).
They proceeded even to the feizure and imprifonment
of the princefs, filter to the king of Pruflia; and de¬
pending upon fupport from France, treated with info-
lence every power connefted with them in Europe.
The court of Berlin did not witnefs thefe proceedings
without indignation ; and the king formed his plan for
reftoring the power of the Stadtholder with fuch fecrecy
and prudence, that perhaps nothing could furpafs it but
the bravery and military fltill of the duke of Brunfwick,
by whom it was carried into execution. In the Ihort
fpace of one month, that accomplifhed general led
18,000 Pruflians to Amfterdam, and reftored the juft
prerogatives of the prince of Orange. And here, we
believe, the friends of the houfe of Brandenburg will
agree with us, that our hiftory of Pruflia thould con¬
clude. The monarch’s fubfequent conduft has not
been fuch as the beginning of his reign gave reafon to
expeft. Something of it will be feen under the article
Poland, and more under Revolution and United
Provinces ; and it is not a fubjeft upon which we de¬
light to dwell.
The air of Pruflia is wholefome, and the foil fruitful
in grain; affording, belides, plenty of pitcoal and
other fuel. The rivers and lakes are well ftored with
filh ; and amber is found on its coaft towards the Bal¬
tic. The principal rivers are the Viftula, Bregel, Me-
mel, the Paffarge, and the Elbe ; all of which frequent¬
ly do damage by their inundations.
The inhabitants of this country were, by Dr Euf-
ching, computed at 635,998 perfons capable of bear¬
ing arms ; and by another German author, at 450,000.
Since the year 1719 it is computed that about 34,000
colonifts have removed hither from France, Switzerland,
and Germany ; of which number one half were Saltz-
burgers. Thefe emigrants have built 400 fmall villages,
11 towns, 50 new churches, and founded 1000 village-
fchools. The manners of the people differ but little
from thofe of the Germans. The eftablifhed religions
are thofe of Luther and Calvin, but chiefly the former $
though almoft all other fefts are tolerated.
The late king of Pruflia, by the afliftance of an ex¬
cellent police, brought the commerce and manufadtures
of this country to a very flouriftiing ftate, which during
his life were daily improving. The manufadlures of
Pruflia confift in glafs, iron-work, paper, gunpowder,
copper, and brafs-mills; manufadlures of cloth, camblet,
linen, filk, gold and fxlver lace, ftockings, and other ar¬
ticles. The inhabitants export variety of naval ftores ;
amber, lint-feed and hemp-feed, oat-meal, fifli, mead,
tallow, and caviar; and it is faid that 500 ftiips are
loaded with thofe commodities every year, chiefly from
Koninglberg.
His Prufiian majefty is abfolute through all his do¬
minions ; but the late king was too wife to opprefs his
fubjecls, though he availed himfelf to the full of his
power. How the prefent fovereign treats them we
know not, as the whole of his condudb for fome time
paft has related to the Polifli and French revolutions.
The government of this kingdom is by a regency of
four chancellors of ftate, viz. 1. The great-mafter; 2.
The great burgrave ; 3. The great-chancellor ; and, 4.
The great-marfhal. There are alfo fome other coun-
Vol. XV. Part II.
3 1 PRY
cils, and 37 bailiwicks. The ftate conflfts, 1. Of conn- Ir-* -*
fellors of ftatc ; 2. Of deputies from the nobility ; and, p ' ,,e
3. From the commons. Befides thefe inftitutions, the
late king erefted a board for commerce and naviga¬
tion. 77
FI is Prufiian majefty, by means of the happy fltua- Revcrv-es.
tion of his country, its inland navigation, and the ex¬
cellent regulations of his predeceflbr, derives an amazing
revenue from this country, which, about a century and
a half ago, was the feat of boors and barbarifm. It is
faid, that amber alone brings him in 26,000 dollars an¬
nually. His other revenues arife from his demefnes, his
duties of culloms and tolls, and the fubftdies yearly
granted by the feveral ftates; but the exadh fum is not
known, though we may conclude that it is very confider-
able, from the immenfe charges of the late war. 73
The military regulations introduced by the late king VTilita^y
had a wonderfully quick operation in forming his troops* I'-ngth*
and recruiting his annies. Every regiment has a par¬
ticular diftridf afligned it, where the young men proper
for bearing arms are regiftered ; and when occalion of¬
fers, they join theii regiment, and being incorporated
with veterans they foon become well difciplined troops.
The Prufiian army, in time of peace, conflfts or
175,000 of the bell difciplined troops in the world;
and during the laft war, that force was augmented to
300,000 men. , T)
The royal arms of Pruflia are argent, an eagle dif-R yal
played fable, crowned, or, for Pruflia: azure, the Im-armt»
perial feeptre, or, for Courland: argent, an eagle dif-
playcd, gules, with femicircular wreaths, for the mar-
quifate of Brandenburg: to thefe are added the refpec-
tive arms of the feveral provinces fubjeft to the Pruf-
fian crown.
There are two orders of knighthood ; the firft, that
of the Black Eagle, inftituted by Frederic I. on the
day of his coronation at Koningfberg, with this motto,
Suuin cuique. The fovereign is always grand-mafter ;
and the number of knights, excluflve of the royal fami¬
ly, is limited to 30: Next to this is the order of Me¬
rit, inftituted by his late majefty; the motto is, Pour
le mente.
PRUSSIAN blue. See Chemistry-Z/i^, at
Colouring Mutter and Prujfian Blue.
PRUSSIC ACID, according to M. Berthollet, is Chemical
combination of azot of hydrogene and carbon. It appears. ^ ’ 0 '
much lefs akin to acids than to ammoniac; it has, how- &cj
ever, too many properties in common with other acids
not to place it in the fame clafs, the rather becaufe our
clafiifications are always in a degree arbitrary, and ought
to be confidered rather as ufeful methods, than as divi-
flons formed by nature. When the Pruflic acid is com¬
bined with alkali and oxyd of iron, it cannot be fepara-
ted by any other acid, unlefs heat be employed, or it
be expofed to light; and neverthelefs, when it is dilen-
gaged by one of thefe means, it cannot feparate iron,
even from the weakeft acid, unlefs it be by a double af¬
finity. It appears that this property is connected with
the elaftic ftate, which is unfavourable to thefe combi¬
nations : it muft have loft this ftate, in other words its
fpecific heat muft be dimmifhed, in order that it may
poffefs its afftnities with metallic oxyds and alkalis.
Nitrous gas, oxygenated muriatic acid, and fulphureous
acid, prefent analogous phenomena.
PRYNNE (William), an Englilh lawyer, much
4 L diftinguifhed
PSA [634] PSA
Pryrme dtllinguinied in the civil commotions under Charles I.
li was born at Swamfwick in Somcrfetfhire in 1600. His
rfalmana- J{yirlom.iJilx, written againft ftage-plays in 1632, con-
. ' taining fome refle&ions that olFended the court, he was
fentenced by the liar-chamber to pay a fine of 5000 1.
to (land in the pillory, to lofe his ears, and to perpe¬
tual imprifonment. During his confinement, he wrote
feveral more books; particularly, in 1637, one entitled
Ntws from Ipfwichy which refledling feverely on the
bifhops, he was again fentenced by the liar-chamber to
another line of 5000 1. to lofe the remainder of his ears
in the pillory, to be branded on both cheeks with S. L.
for feditious libeller, and to be perpetually imprifoned
in Caernarvon caltle. Nothing but cutting off his hands
could have preventcd#Prynne from writing : he wrote
Hill; and in 1640, being fet at liberty by the houfe of
commons, he entered London in a kind of triumph,
was eledled into parliament for Newport in Cornwall,
and oppofed the Silhops with great vigour, being the
chief manager of archbifhop Laud’s trial. In the long
parliament he was zealous in the Prefoyterian caufe ;
but when the Independents gained the afcendency, he
oppofed them warmly, and promoted an agreement
with the king. When the army garbled the houfe
and refufed him entrance, he became a bitter enemy to
them and their leader Cromwell, and attacked them with
his pen fo feverely, that he was again imprifoned: but
he pleaded the liberty of the fubjeft fo fuccefsfully,
that he was enlarged, to write more controverfial books.
Being reltored to his feat after Cromwell’s death, with
the other fecluded members, he aflifled in promoting
the relloration, and was appointed keeper of the Tower
records; a place excellently well calculated for him,
and where he was very ufeful by the colledlions he pub-
liHied from them. He prefented 40 volumes of his
works, in folio and 410, to Lincoln’s-inn library, of
which fociety he was a member; and, dying in 1669,
was buried under the chapel.
PRYTANES, in Grecian antiquity, were the pre-
fidents of the fenate, whofe authority conlxlled chiefly
in affembling the fenate ; which, for the moil part, was
done once every day.
The fenate confdled of 500, 50 fenators being elected
out of each tribe : after which, lots were call, to de¬
termine in what order the fenators of each tribe fliould
prelide ; which they did by turns, and during their pre-
hdentfhip were called prytanes. Howe\rv, all the 50
prytanes of the tribes did not govern at once, but one
at a time, viz. for feven days ; and after 35 days, ano¬
ther tribe came into play, and prefided for other five
weeks ; and fo of the reft.
PSALM, a divine fong or hymn; but chiefly appro¬
priated to the 150 Pfalms of David, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament.
Moft of the pfalms have a particular title, fignifying
either the name of the author, the perfon who was to
fet it to mufic or ling it, the inftrument that was to be
ufed, or the fubieft and occafion of it. Some have ima¬
gined that David was the foie author of the Book of
Pfalms; but the titles of many of them prove the con¬
trary', as pfalm xix. which appears to have been written
by Mofes. Many of the pfalms are infcribed with the
names Korah, Jiduthun, Sic. from the perfons who were
to fmg them.
PSALMANAZAR (George), the fi&itious name
of a pretended Formofan, a perfon of learning and in- Halmana-
genuity. He was born in France, and educated in a
free-fchool, and afterwards in a college of Jefuits, in
an archiepifcopal city, the name of which, as likewife
thofe of his birth-place and of his parents, are unknown.
Upon leaving the college, he was recommended as a
tutor to a young gentleman ; but foon fell into a mean
rambling life, that involved him in difappointments and
misfortunes. His firft pretence was that of being a
fufferer for religion. He procured a certificate that he
was of Irifh extraftion, that he left that countiy for the
fake of the Catholic faith, and was going on a pilgri¬
mage to Rome. Being unable to purchafe a pilgrim’s
garb, and obfcrving one in a chapel, dedicated to a mi¬
raculous faint, which had been fet up as a monument
of gratitude by fome wandering pilgrim, he contrived
to take both the ftaff and cloak awayr; and, being thus
accoutred, begged his way in fluent Latin, accofling
only clcrgyonen or perfons of figure; whom he found fo
generous and credulous, that, before he had gone 20
miles, he might ealily have faved money, and put him-
felf in a much better drefs : but as foon as he had got
what he thought was fufficient, he begged no more ;
but viewed every thing worth feeing, and then retired
to fome inn, wdiere he fpent his money as freely as he
had obtained it. Having heard the Jefuits fpeak much
of China and Japan, he ftarted the wild fcheme, when
he was in Germany, of pafling for a native of the
ifland of Formofa ; and what he wanted in knowledge,
he fupplied by a pregnant invention. He formed a
new charadler and language on grammatical principles,
which, like other oriental languages, he wrote from
right to left with great readinefs; and planned a new
religion, and a divifion of the year into 20 months,
with other novelties, to credit his pretenlions. He wras
now a Japanefe convert to Chriftianity, travelling for
inftrudlion, with an appearance more wretched than
even that of common beggars. He then entered as a
foldier in the Dutch fervice: but, ftill defxrous of palling,
for a Japanefe, he altered his plan to that of being an
unconverted heathen; and at Sluys, brigadier Lauder,
a Scots colonel, introduced him to the chaplain, who,
with a view of recommending himfelf to the bilhop of
London, refolved to carry him over to England. At
Rotterdam, fome perfons having put fhrevvd queftions
to him, that carried the air of doubt, he took one
more whimfical Hep, which was to live upon raw flelh,
roots, and herbs; which ftrange food he thought
would remove all fcruples. The bilhop of London pa¬
tronized him with credulous humanity; and Pfalma-
nazar found a large circle of friends, who extolled him
as a prodigy. Yet wrere there fome who entertained a
juft opinion of him, particularly the Drs Halley, Mead,
and Woodward; but their endeavours to expofe him as
a cheat only made others think the better of him, efpe-
cially as thofe gentlemen were efteemed no great admi¬
rers of revelation. But in this inftatice at leaft, ealrnefs
of belief was no great evidence of penetration. He
was employed to tranflate the church-catechifm into
the Formofan language, which was examined, approved,
and laid up as a valuable MS ; and tire author, after
writing his well-known Hijlory of Formofa, was reward¬
ed and fent to Oxford to ftudy what he liked, while
his patrons and opponents were learnedly difputing at
London on the merits of his wrork. The learned
members
PSA r 6u I P S E
pfalmift members of the univerfity were no better agreed in
II their opinions than thofe at London ; but at length
Pfatynans. tpie fceptjc8 triumphed. Some abfurdities were difeo-
vered in his hiftory, of fuch a nature as to dilcredit
the whole narration, and faved him the trouble of an
open declaration of his impoiture ; which however he
owned at length to his private friends. For the remain¬
der of his life, his learning and ingenuity enabled him to
procure a comfortable fupport by his pen; he being con¬
cerned in feveral works of credit, particularly The Uni-
verfal Hijlory. He lived irreproachably for many years,
and died in 1763.
PSALMIST, in the church of Rome, one of the
lefler ecclefiaftical orders ; the fame with what among
us is called clerk, (recentor, or f\nger.
PSALMODY, the art or aft of fmging pfalms.
See Psalm.
Pfalmody was always efteemed a confiderable part of
devotion, and ufually performed in the Handing poiture:
and as to the manner of pronunciation, the plain fong
was fometimes ufed, being a gentle infleftion of the
voice, not much different from reading, like the chant
in cathedrals; at other times more artificial compofitions
were ufed, like our anthems.
As to the perfons concerned in finging, fometimes a
fingle perfon fung alone ; fometimes the whole affembly
joined together, which was the moil ancient and general
praftice. At other times, the pfalms w’ere fung alter¬
nately, the congregation dividing themfelves into two
parts, and finging verfe about, in their turns. There
Was alfo a fourth way of finging, pretty common in the
fourth century, which was, when a fingle perfon began
the verfe, and the people joined with him in the dole :
this was often ufed for variety, in the fame fervice with
alternate pfalmody.
The ufe of mufical inilruments, in the finging of
pfalms, feems to be as ancient as pfalmody itfelf; the
rirlt pfalm we read of being fung to the timbrel, viz.
that of Mofes and Miriam, after the deliverance of the
Ifraelites from Egypt : and afterwards, mufical inftru-
ments were in conflant ufe in the temple of Jerufalem.
See Organ.
PSALTER, the fame with the book of pfalms. See
the article Psalm.
Among the religious in the Popifh countries, the
term pfalter is alfo given to a large chaplet or rofary,
confilting of 150 beads, according to the number of
pfalms in the pfalter.
PSALTERY, a mufical inftrument, much in ufe
among the ancient Hebrews, who called it nebel.
We know little or nothing of the precife form of the
ancient pfaltery. T hat now in ufe is a flat inftrument,
ki form of a trapezium or triangle truncated at top; it
is ftrung with 13 wire-chords, let to unifon or oftave,
and mounted on two bridges, on the two fides : it is
firuck with a pleftrum, or little iron rod, and fometimes
with a crooked flick. Its chefl or body refembles that
of a fpinet. See Nablum and Plate CCCXLIV.
PSAMME 1 ICUS, or PsammitiChus, a renown¬
ed conqueror, who, fubduing 11 other petty kings of
Egypt, became the founder of the kingdom of Egypt,
about 670 B. C. He is memorable likewife for taking
the city of Azot, after a fiege of 29 years ; and for difeo-
vering the fources of the river Nile. See Egypt, n° 10.
PSATYRIANS, a ftft of Arlans, who, in the
council of Antioch, held in the year 360, maintained, Pfe’A*.
that the Son was not 1 ke the Father as to will; that 1
he was taken from nothing, or made of nothing; and
that in God, generation was not to be diftinguifhed
from creation.
PSELLUS (Michael), a learned Chriflian of the^A^
tlth century, was, by birth, a Constantinopolitan of
confular rank, and flourifhed under the emperor Con-
ftantine Monomachus. His genius and induftry raifed
him far above the level of his cotemporaries ; and the
female hiilorian Anna Comnena fpeaks of him as one
who had been more indebted for his attainments to his
own excellent talent than to the inilruftions of his pre¬
ceptors ; adding, that having made himfelf mafter of all
the wifdom of the Greeks and khe Chaldeans, he was
juftly efteemed the molt learned man of the age. Thus
furnifhed, he became the chief inftruftor of the Con-
flantinopolitan youth. He was at the fame time the
companion and the preceptor of the emperor, who was fo
captivated by the ftudies and amufements in which Pltl-
lus engaged him, that, according to Zonaras, he ne-
glefted the concerns of the empire. The Byzantine
hiltorians complain, that the emperor, deluded by the
head of the philofophers (the title with which Pfellus
was honoured), loll the world. Meeting, towards the
clofe of his life, with fome difappointment, Pfellus re¬
tired into a monaftery, and foon afterwards died ; the
time of his death is uncertain. His works, which have
been much celebrated, are, Commentaries upon Arifto-
tle’s Logic and Phyfics ; a Compendium of Queftions
and Anfwers; and an Explanation of the Chaldean
Oracles. The two latter works prove him to have
been converfant, not only with Grecian, but with Ori¬
ental, philofophy.
PSEUDO, from a Greek term ufed in the
compofition of many words, to denote falfe or fpuriows :
as the pfeudo-acacia, or baflard acacia ; pfeudo-fumaria,
or baflard-fumitory; pfeudo-ruta, or baflard-rue, &c.
We alfo fay, a pfeudo-apoflle, or falfe apoille; a
pfeudo-prophet, or lalfe prophet, &c.
PsRUDo-Chimt. See Smilax.
PsEVDo-Galena, or Black-Jack. See Zinc, and
Mineralogy, p. 62.
PsrvDo-Tinea, in natural hiflory, the name of a veiy
remarkable fpecies of infeft deferibed by M. Reaumur,
approaching to the nature of the tinea, or clothes-inot:)
while in the worm-flate, but not making themfelves
coats of the fubilance of leaves, cloth, &c. though they
form a fort of cafes for their defence againft a very ter¬
rible enemy.
Thefe creatures are of the caterpillar kind, and have,
in the manner of many of thefe infefts, 16 legs. They
feed on wax, and for food enter the bee-hives ; where
they boldly engage the bees, and are not to be pre¬
vented by them from feeding, though at the expence of
their habitations and the celkr of their refervoirs of ho¬
ney : fo that it is no uncommon thing for a fwarm of
bees to be forced to change their place of habitation,
and make new combs elfewhere; leaving the old ones
to this contemptible victor, whom they know not how
to drive out or difpoffefs.
Virgil and Ariilotle, and all the authors who have
written on bees, have complained (ff this deilruftive
animal. It never eats the honey, but feeds only on
the wax ; attacking principally thofe waxy cells where
4 L 2 the
r s e - [ 636 ] p s 1
Pfeurfo. the female bee depofites her eggs for the future pro-
' geny. '
The bees, who are a match for mod other creatures
by means of their flings, would eafily deflroy thefe
weak creatures, were it not for the impervious armoua
they are covered with. They form themfelves a coat
of armour of a double matter. The firfl, which imme¬
diately covers the body, is of a kind of filk of their own
fpinning ; and the outer covering over this is of the
bees-wax : this is laid confiderably thick ; and the crea¬
ture, juft thrufting out its head to feed, goes on devour¬
ing the cells undifturbed, while a whole army of the
inhabitants are-in vain buzzing about him, and attempt-
ing to pierce him with their flings. He never forfakes
his covering, but lengthens and enlarges it as he goes ;
and gnawing down the fides of the cells in his march,
without flaying to eat them one by one, the havock
and deftrudtion he occafions are fcarce to be conceived.
When the time of the change of this creature approach¬
es, it contrails its body within its double covering, and
there changes into the nymph flate; whence, after a
* proper time, it comes forth in form of a moth, with
granulated horns and a crooked probofcis.
The bees have cunning enough to know their de-
ftruilive enemy in this new form; and as this is a weak
and defencelefs ftate, they attack and deftroy all the
moths of this fpecies they can meet with. They fei-
dom are fo fortunate, however, as to kill the whole
race as foon as produced; and if only one efcapes, it
is able to lay a foundation of revenge for the death of
its brethren. All the files of the moth kind lay a vaft
number of eggs, and this is behind hand with none of
them in that particular: the young ones produced from
the eggs of one furviving female of this fpecies are fuf-
ficient to deitroy many honey-combs ; nay, many hives
of them. The moth produced by this caterpillar flies
but little ; yet it is very nimble in avoiding danger, by
running, which it does with great fwiftnefs.
There is a fpecies of thefe pfeudo-tineae, or wax-eat¬
ing caterpillars, which infeil the fubterraneous hives of
wafps and other creatures which make wax : the man¬
ner of living, feeding, and defending themfelves from
their enemies, is the fame in all the fpecies. Thefe
laft, if they are at any time diilrefled for food, will eat
their owm dung ; the wax having palled almoft unalter¬
ed through their bodies, and being ftill wax, and capa¬
ble of affording them more nouriftiment on a fecond di-
geftion. Thefe fpecies, though they naturally live on
this foft food, yet if by any accident they meet with
harder only, they know how to live upon it; and can
eat a way into the covers and leaves of books, and make
themfelves cafes and coverings of the fragments of thefe
t The accurate author f of thefe obferva-
ir/C v"/ ^ tions deferibes alfo a kind of pfeudo-tmea which feeds
^ ’ on wool, and another that eats leather; both making
themfelves houfes alfo of the materials they feed on.
There is alfo another kind very deftrudtive to corn :
thefe make themfelves a covering by faftening together
a great number of the grains, and there living and eat¬
ing in fecret. All thefe creatures, whatever be their
food or habitation, finally become p haler o’, or moths;
and may be diftinguilhed, even in this ftate, from the
other fpecies, by having granulated horns of a remark¬
able ftruClure, and all of them a probofcis, or trunk,
more or lefs incurvated.
PSEUDONYMUS, among critics, an author who Pfeudony-
publilhes a book under a falfe or feigned name; as cryp- mus
tonymus is given to him who publilhes one under a dif- pfItt^cus
guifed name, and anonymous to him who publilhes with- - y
out any name at all.
PSIDIUM, the guava : A genus of the monogv-
^nia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 19th or¬
der, Hefperidete. The calyx is quinquefid, fuperior;
there are five petals; the berry is unilocular and mono-
fpermous. T here are two fpecies : 1. The pyriferum,
or white guava; 2. The pomiferum, or red guava. Both
thefe are thought to be only varieties of the fame plant.
The red guava rifes to the height of 20 feet, and is co¬
vered with a fmooth bark ; the branches are angular,
covered with oval leaves, having a ftrong midrib, and
many veins running towards the fides, of a light green
colour, Handing oppofite upon very Ihort footilalks.
From the wings of the leaves the flowers come out up¬
on footftalks an inch and an half long : they are com¬
peted cf five large roundilh concave petals, within
which are a great number of llamina Ihorter than the
petals, and tipped with pale yellow tops. After the
flower is pall, the germen becomes a large oval fruit
lhaped like a pomegranate.
A deco&ion of the roots of guava is employed with
fuccefs in dyfenteries: a bath of a decodlion of the
leaves is faid to cure the itch and other cutaneous erup-
tions. Guayava, or guava, is diftinguilhed from the
colour of the pulp, into the two fpecies above-mention¬
ed, the white and the red ; and, from the figure of the
fruit, into the round, and the pear-falhioned or perfumed
guava. The latter has a thicker rind, and a more deli¬
cate tafte than the other. The fruit is about the big-
nefs of a large tennis-ball; the rind or Ikin generally of
a ruffet ftained with red. The pulp within the thick
rind is of an agreeable flavour, and interfperfed with a
number of fmall white feeds. The rind, when Hewed,
is eaten with milk, and preferred to any other Hewed
fruit. From the fame part is made marmalade ; and
from the whole fruit is prepared the fineft jelly in the
world. The fruit is very allringent, and nearly of the
fame quality with the pomegranate ; fo Ihould be
avoided by all who are fubjtdt to coftivenefs. The
feeds are fo hard as not to be affe&ed by the fermenta¬
tion in the ftomachs of animals ; fo that when voided
with the excrements, they take root, germinate, and
produce thriving trees. Whole meadows in the Weft
Indies are covered with guavas, which have been pro¬
pagated in this manner. The buds of guava, boiled
with barley and liquorice, produce an excellent ptifan
for diarrhoeas, and even the bloody flux, when not too
inveterate. The wood of the tree, employed as fuel,
makes a lively, ardent, and lafting fire.
PSITTACUS, or Parrot, in ornithology ; a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of pica. The bill in this
genus is hooked from the bafe ; and the upper, man¬
dible is moveable : the noftrils are round, placed in the
bafe of the bill, which in fume fpecies is furniftied with
a kind of cere: the tongue is broad, and blunt at one
end: the head is large, and the crown flat: the legs
are fhort, the toes placed two before and two behind.
It might feem a wonder why nature has deftined to
this, which is not naturally a bird of prey, but feeds
on fruits and vegetable fubftances, the crooked beak
I allotted
rfmaois
P S I
allotted to the hawk and othefcarnivorous birds : but
the reafon feems to be, that the parrot being a heavy-
bird, and its legs not very fit for fervice, it climbs
up and down trees by the help of this (harp and hook¬
ed bill, with which it lays hold of any thing and fe-
cures itfelf before it ftirs a foot; and befides this, it
helps itfelf forward very much, by pulling its body on
with this hold.
Of all animals, the parrot and crocodile are the
only ones which move the upp^r jaw ; all creatures elfe
moving the lower only. As fome particular animals
befide are fond of particular foods, fo the parrot loves
nothing fo much as the feeds of the carthamus, or ba-
llard-faffron ; and eats them without any hurt, though
they are a purge when given to other creatures.
Parrots are found almoit everywhere within the tro¬
pics ; and in their natural Hate they live on fruits and
feeds, though, when tame, they will eat flefh,and evenfifh.
In the Eaft and Weft Indies they are very common,
and in fuch warm climates are very brifk and lively ;
here, however, they lofe much of their vigour. They
feldom make nefts, but breed like owls in hollow trees;
they lay two eggs. At particular times they fly in
very large troops, but ftill they keep two and two to¬
gether. This genus confifts of infinite variety, not fo
much owing to mixture of fpecies, however, as might
be fuppofed. They feem to run vaftly into one ano¬
ther, fo as to appear to be related, though received
from different parts of the world ; this, however, may
poffibly be occafioned by their being carried from one
place to another for the fake of fale. This uncertainty
of native place has prevented Mr Latham from follow¬
ing Buffon’s plan, and ranging them according to the
places they are fuppofed to inhabit ; he divides them
therefore into thofe with uneven and thofe with even
tails.
Buffon ranges the parrots in two great claffes: the
firft of which comprehends thofe of the Old Con¬
tinent, and the fecond thofe of the New. The former
he fubdivides into five families, the Cockatoos, the Par¬
rots, properly fo called, the Lories, the long-tailed Paro¬
quets, and the fhort-tailed ones; and the latter into fix,
viz. the Macaos, the Amazonians, the Creeks, the Po¬
pinjays, the long-tailed Paroquets, and the fliort-tailed
ones.
Mr Latham has increafed the genus from 47 to 163;
and fince the time he wrote h's Index at leaft 20 more
have been difeovered. They are very generally divided
into three kinds : 1. The larger, which are as big as a
moderate fowl, called macaos and cocketoons ; thefe have
very long tails. 2. The middle-fized ones, commonly
called parrots, which have fhort tails, and are a little
larger than a pigeon. And, 3. The fmall ones, which
are called paroquets, and have long tails, and are not
larger than a lark or blackbird.
1. The pfittacus macao, or red and blue macao, is red,
except the wing quills, which above are blue, below ru¬
fous : the fcapular feathers are variegated with blue and
green : the cheeks are naked and wrinkled. It is about
tv/o feet feven inches and a half long, and about as big
as a capon. Edwards fays, when perfedl, it will rneafure
a full yard from bill to tail. It inhabits Brafil, Guiana,
and other parts of South America. It was formerly
very common in St Domingo, but is now rarely found
there. It generally lives in moift v/oods, efpecially
p S o
fuch as are planted with a particular kind of palm, per- Pfittacur
haps what is called the macaw tree. It does not in II
general learn to fpeak, and its voice is particularly _
rough and difagreeable. The flefh is hard, black,
and unfavoury, but makes good foup, and is much
ufed by the inhabitants of Cayenne and other places.
This fpecies, in common with other parrots, is fubjeift
to fits when tamed; land though it will live for many
years though the returns be pretty frequent, it gene¬
rally falls a vidtirn to that difeafe at laft. The Ameri¬
cans call it gon%a!o. 2. The pfittacus ararauna, or blue
and yellow macaw, is blue above, and yellow below,
and the cheeks are naked, with feathery lines. It is
about the fame fize with the laft, and inhabits Jamaica,
Guiana, Brafil, and Surinam. 3. The pfitttacus feve-
rus^or Brafilian green macaw, is black, with a greenilh
fplendor; the bill and eyes are reddifh, and the legs are
yellow. It is about one foot and five inches long, and
is common in Jamaica, Guiana, and Brafil. It is how¬
ever comparatively rare ; but it is extremely beautiful,
and of a very amiable and fociable temper when familiar
and acquainted ; but it can neither bear ftrangers nor
rivals : its voice is not ftrong, nor does it articulate very
diftinftly the word ara. See Plate CCCCXVI. %
4. The pfittacus aurora, or yellow amazon, is about
12 inches long, of a green colour, with blue wing quills,
and a white front; its orbits are fnowy. It inhabits
Mexico or Brafil; but in all probability the latter, from
the one which Salerne faw, and which pronounced
Portugueie words. The pfittacus guineenlis, or yel¬
low lory, is about ten inches long, and is an inhabitant
of Guinea. The bill is of a black colour ; the cere, the
throat, and fpace about the eyes, are white ; above the
eye there is a patch of yellow, and the reft of the head
and neck is crimfon. The breaft is yellow, wing co¬
verts green, and the quills are blue, edged with yellow'.
Under the wings, belly, thighs, vent, and to the under
part of the tail, the colour is white, which laft is tip¬
ped with red ; the legs are dufky, and the claw's black.
See Plate CCCCXVI.
5. T he pfittacus pullarius, red-headed Guinea parraket,.
or Guinea fparrow, is about five inches and a halflong.
It inhabits Guinea, and is found in Ethiopia, the Eaft
Indies, and the ifland of Java, and fometimes in Suri¬
nam. It is green, with a red front, fulvous tail, black
bar, and cinereous orbits. The male of this fpe¬
cies is peculiarly affcfkionate to the female. See
Plate CCCCXVI.
In Mr White’s 'Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, w'e find a defeription, with excellent engra¬
vings, of feveral fpecies of this extenfive genus ; and in-
Governor Philip’s Voyage to the fame place, we find
deferiptions and prints of feveral of the fame ipecies.
But the moft particular of the later authors are Buffon
and Latham, efpecially the laft; to whofe extenfive and
accurate work we therefore refer our readers for that
information which our limits permit us not to give. See
his Synopfis, vol. i. p. 194—323. See alio Buffbn,,
vol. vi. p. 63 — 245.
PSOAS, in anatomy. See there, Table of the
Mufles.
PSOPHIA, in ornithology ; a genus belonging to
the order gallina. The bill is moderate ; the upper
mandible is convex ; the noilrils are oblong, funk, and:
pervious; the tongue is cartilaginous, flat, and fringed;
at
f 637 ]
«
r s o [638] p s y
K<>i hK at the end ; and the legs are naked a little above the
a ta‘ knees. The toes are three before and one behind j the
W~*v~**~ lalt of which is fmall, with a round protuberance be¬
neath it, which is at a little diftance from the ground.
Plate Mr Latham only enumerates two fpecies : 1. Pfophia
CCCCXV1 crepitan8, or gold-breaded trumpeter. Its head and
breaft are fmooth and finning green. By the Spani¬
ards of Maynas it is called trompettro^ and by the French
at Cayenne agami, under which laft BufFon deferibes it.
It inhabits various parts of South America, Brafil,
Guiana, Surinam, &c. but it is'moil plenty in the A-
mazons country. It is about 20 inches long, being
about the fize of a large fowl, and lays eggs rather lar¬
ger, of a blue green colour. It is met w ith in the Car-
ribee iflands, where it is called a pheafanty and its flefh
is reckoned as good as that of a pheafant. The moil
charafteriilic and remarkable property of thefe birds
coniifts in the wonderful noife they make either of
themfelves, or when urged by the keepers of the mena¬
gerie. Some have fuppofed it to proceed from the
r.nusy and fome from the belly. It is now certain, how¬
ever, that this noife proceeds from the lungs. See
BufFon, vol. iv. p. 390, &c. Another very remarkable
circumflance is, that they follow people through the
ftreets, and out of town, and that too even perfect
Hrangers. It is difficult to get rid of them ; for if you
enter a houfe, they will wait your return, and again
join you, though often after an interval of three hours.
“ I have fometimes (fays M. de la Borde) betaken
myftlf to my heels; but they ran fafter, and always got
before me ; and when I flopped, they flopped alfo. —
I knowT one (continues he) which invariably follows all
the Itrangers who enter his mailer’s houfe, accompa¬
nies them into the garden, takes as many turns as they
do, and attends them back again.” 2. Pfophia undu-
lata, or undulated trumpeter, is about the fize of a
goofe. The upper part of the body is of a pale red-
difh brown colour, beautifully undulated with black.
The head is adorned with a dependent crefl. On each
fide of the neck, beneath the ears, begins a lift of
black, widening as it defeends, and meeting on the lower
part before, where the feathers become greatly elon¬
gated, and hang loofely down. The under parts are
generally white, the legs are of a dufky blue co¬
lour, like the bill. It is a native of Africa : Mr La¬
tham’s fpecimen came from Tripoli.
PSORALEA, in botany : A genus of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 32d or¬
der, Papilionacet. The calyx is powdered, with cal¬
lous points, and as long as the monofpermous legumen.
The mofl remarkable fpecies are, 1. The primata, or
pinnated pforalea, rifes with a woody foft flern, branch¬
ing five or fix feet high, pinnated leaves of three or
four pair of narrow lobes terminated by an odd one,
and at the axillas clofe-fitting blue flowers with white
keels. It is a native of Ethiopia. 2. The bituminofa,
or bituminous trifoliate pforalea, rifes with a fhnibby
llalk, branching fparingly about two or three feet high,
with ternnte or three-lobed leaves of a bituminous
feent, and blue flowers in’ clofe heads; it grows in I-
taly and in Prance. 3. The aculeata, or aculeated prick¬
ly pforalea, rifes with a fhrubby branching Item three
or four feet high, with ternate leaves, having wedg-e-
fbaped lobes, terminating in a recurved fliarp point,
and the branches terminated by roundifh heads of blue Pfy^oiri'ir,
flowers ; it grows in Ethiopia. Thefe plants flower ll1, ,
here every fummer ; the firfl fort greatell part of that
featon, and the others in July and Augufl ; all of
which arc fucceeded by feeds in autumn. Keep them
in pots in order for removing into the green-houfe in
winter. They are propagated by feeds, fown in a
hot bed in the fpring ; and when the plants are two
or three inches high, prick them in feparate fmall pots,
and gradually harden them to the open air, fo as to
bear it fully by the end of May or beginning of June.
They may alfo he propagated by cuttings any time in
fummer, planted in pots, and plunged in a little heat,
or covered clofe with hand-glaffes, fhaded from the fun,
and watered.
PSYCHOTRIA, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
47th order, Sit Unit. The calyx is quinquedentate,
peril fling, and crowning the fruit ; the corolla is tubu¬
lated ; the berry globofe ; with two hemifpherical fal¬
cated feeds.
The fpecies are four, viz. 1. Afpatiea ; 2. Serpens;
3. Herbacea; and, 4. Emetica. They are all natives
of Jamaica. See Ipecacuan h a.
PSYLLI, (Strabo, Ptolemy): a people in the
fouth of Cyrcnaica, fo called from king Pfyllus, (Aga-
thargides, quoted by Pliny) : almoll all overwhelmed
by fand driven by a fouth wind (Herodotus). They
had fomething in their bodies fatal to ferpents, and
their very fmell proved a charm againlt them, accord¬
ing to Pliny, Lucan, &c.
Though we may jullly look upon it as fabulous,
that thefe people had any thing in their bodies diffe¬
rent from others ; it is, however, certain that there are
in Egypt at this day fome perfons who have a me¬
thod of handling the moll poifonous ferpents without
any hurt. Of thefe Mr Haffelquift gives the following
account:
“ They take the moll poifonous vipers with their
bare hands, play with them, put them in their bo-
foms, and ufe a great many more tricks with them,
as I have often feen. I have frequently feen them
handle thofe that were three or four feet long, and of
the moll horrid fort. I inquired and examined whe¬
ther they had cut out the vipers poifonous teeth ; but
I have with my own eyes feen they do not. We may
therefore conclude, that there are to this day Pfylli in
Egypt; but what art they ufe is not ealily known.
Some people are very fuper Hit ions, and the generality
believe this to be done by fome fupernatural art which
they obtain from invilible beings. I do not know
whether their power is to be aferibed to good or evil ;
but T am periuaded that thofe who undertake it ufe
many fuperilitions.
“ The art of fafeinating ferpents is a fecret amongft
the Egyptians. It is worthy the endeavours of all natu*
ralills, and the attention bf every traveller, to learn fome¬
thing decilive as to this affair How ancient this art
is among the Africans, may be concluded from the an¬
cient Marii and Pfylli, who were from Africa, and daily
Ihowed proofs of it at Rome. It is very remarkable
that this fhould be kept a fecret for more than 2000
years, being known only to a few, when we have feen
how many other fecrets have within that time been re¬
vealed.
P S Y
[ 639 1
PTE
Pfyili. vealed. The circumftances relating to the fafcination
of ferpents in Egypt, related to me, were principally,
1. That the art "is only known to certain families, who
propagate it to their offspring. 2. The perfon who
knows how to fafcinate ferpents, never meddles with
other poifonous animals, fuch as fcorpicns, lizards, .
&c. There are different perfons who know how to
fafcinate thefe animals ; and they again never meddle
with ferpents. 3. Thofe that fafcinate ferpents, eat
them both raw and boiled, and even make broth of
them, which they eat very commonly among ft them;
but in particular, they eat fuch a difh when they go
out to catch them. I have been told, that ferpents
fried or boiled are frequently eat by the Arabians both
in Egypt and Arabia, though they know not how to
fafcinate them, but catch them either alive or dead.
4. After they have eat their foup, they procure a blef-
fing from their feheik (prieft or lawyer), who ufes fome
fuperftitious ceremonies, and amongft others, fpits on
them feveral times with certain geftures. 1 his man¬
ner of getting a bleffing from the prieft is pure fuper-
ftition, and certainly cannot in the leaft help to fafcinate
ferpents ; but they believe, or will at leaft perfuade
others, that the power of fafeinating ferpents depends
upon this circumftance.,,
Notwithhanding this tefiimony of Haffelquift, the
ftory of the incantation of ferpents, though frequently
alluded to in Scripture, has been generally treated as
a fable. It is, however, affirmed as a certain truth,
both by Mr Bruce and M. Savary. “ There is no
doubt (fays the former of thefe travellers) of its reali¬
ty. The Scriptures are full of it. All that have been
in Eeypt have feen as many different inftances as they
thofe. Some have doubted that it was a trick ; and
that the animals thus handled had been firft trained,
and then deprived of their power of hurting ; and fond
of the difeovery, they have relied themfelves upon it,
without experiment, in the face of all antiquity. But
I will not hefitate to aver, that I have feen at Cairo
(and this may be feen daily without any trouble or cx-
pence), a man who came from the catacombs, where
the pits of the mummy birds are kept, who has taken
a ceraftes w ith his naked hand from a number of others
lying at the bottom of a tub, has put it upon his bare
head, covered it with the common red cap he wears,
then taken it out, put it in his breaft, and tied it about
his neck like a necklace ; after which it has been ap¬
plied to a hen, and bit it, wdiich died in a few minutes;
and, to complete the experiment, the man has taken it
by the neck, and beginning at his tail, has ate it as one
would do a carrot or ftock of celery, without any feem-
ing repugnance.
“ We know from hiftory, that where any country has
been remarkably infefted with ferpents, there the people
have been fereened by this fecret.
“ To leave ancient hiftory, I can myfelf vouch, that
all the black people in the kingdom of Sennaar, whe¬
ther Funge or Nuba, are perfetlly armed againft the
bite of either fcorpion or viper. They take the cera¬
ftes in their hands at all times, put them in their bofoms,
and throw them to one another as children do apples or
balls, without having irritated them by this ufage fo
much as to bite. The Arabs have not this fecret na¬
turally, but from their infancy they acquire an exemp¬
tion from the mortal confequences attending the bite
of thefe animals, by chewing a certain root, and waffl¬
ing themfelves (it is not anointing) with an infufton of
certain plants in water.”
From this account we fhould be apt to think, that "
thefe vipers really would not bite any who were thus
armed againft their poifon ; efpecially as he adds, that
he “ conftantly obferved, that the vipei, however
lively before, upon being feized by any of thefe barba¬
rians, feemed as if taken with ficknefs and feeblenefs,
frequently ftmt his eyes, and never turned his mouth
towards the arm of the perfon who held him.” Yet ,
in another place, fpeaking of the aSivity of the cera¬
ftes, he fays, “ I faw one of them at Cairo, in the
houfe of Julian and Rofa, crawl up the fide of a box in
which there were many, and there lie ftill, as if hiding
himfelf, till one of the people who brought them to us
came near him ; and though in a very difadvantageous
pollure, fticking as it were perpendicularly to the fide
of the box, he leaped near the diftance of three feet,
and faftened between the man’s forefinger and thumb,
fo as to bring the blood. The fellow ftiowed no figns
of either pain or fear, and even kept him with us full
four hours, without his applying any fort of remedy, or
feeming inclined to do fo.”
It is difficult to fee how thefe two accounts can be
reconciled. If thofe who catch vipers are in danger of
being bit by them after they are catched, certainly they
mult be fo before, and then the whole relation becomes
contmdi&ory. Our author tells us, that thefe feats
were performed for a feafon, by thofe who were artifi¬
cially armed againft the viper’s poifon, as well as thofe
who had the exemption naturally ; but though put in
poffeffion of the drugs, he never had the courage to
make the experiment. That he (hould have made fuch
a dreadful experiment on himfelf, no perfon in his fenfes
would expedl; but it is indeed very furprifing, that he
did not attempt by means of thefe medicines to arm
fome of the brute creatures, of the lives of which he
was fufficiently prodigal, againft the effe&s of that
deadly poifon by which fo many of them perifhed.—
As furprifing it is, that he did not try what effedl the
root or its deco&ion would have upon the ferpents
themfelves; or that though he fays he had a fmall
quantity of this extraordinary root by him, he gave
neither drawing nor defeription of it.
Though it is impoffible to reconcile the particulars
of this account to one another, the general fail of
the incantation is confirmed by the teftimony of M.
Savary. This writer tells us, that he faw at the feaft
of Sidi Ibrahim, a troop of people, feemingly poffeffed,
with naked arms and a fierce look, holding in their
hands enormous ferpents, which twined round their
body, and endeavoured to efcape. Thefe Pfyili, grafp-
ing them ftrongly by the neck, avoided the bite ; and
notwithftanding their biffing, tore them with their
teeth, and ate them alive, while the blood ftreamed from
their mouth.
PTARMIGAN, in ornithology. See Tetrad.
PTELEA, shrub-trefoil: A genus of the mo--
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is tetra-
petalous ; the calyx quadripartite inferior ; the fruit is-
monofpermous, with a roundih membraile in the
middle,
o The
Pfyili
II
Ptelea.
PTE [ 640 1 P T I
?teHs. The fpecies are, r. The trifohata, or Carolina fhrub-
—v——' trefoil, hath a fhnibby upright ftem, dividing into a
branchy head eight or ten feet high, covered with a
fmooth purplifh bark, trifoliate leaves, formed of oval
fpear-fhaped folioles, and the branches terminated by
large bunches of greenifh-white flowers, fucceeded by
roundifh, bordered capfules. 2. The vifcofa, or vifcous
Indian ptelea, rifes with feveral ftrong flirubby {terns,
branching eredtly 12 or 15 feet high, having a light
brown bark, fpear-fhaped, ftiff’, Ample leaves, and the
branches terminated by clufters of greenifh flowers.
The (irft fpecies is a hardy deciduous flmib, and a
proper plant for the fhrubbery and other ornamental
plantations to increafe the variety. It is propagated
by feeds, layers, and cuttings.
The fecond fpecies is a itove-plant, and is propaga¬
ted commonly by feeds.
PTERIS, in botany; a genus of the order of
Alices, belonging tb the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
The fructifications are in lines under the margin.
There arc 19 fpecies; the moft remarkable is the
aquilina, or common female fern. The root of tin's
is vifeid, naufeous, and bitterifh ; and like all the reft of
the fern tribe, has a fait, mucilaginous tafte. It creeps
under the ground in fome rich foils to the depth of
five or fix feet, and is very difficult to be deftroyed.
Trequent mowing in pafture-grounds, plentiful dung¬
ing in arable lands, but, above all, pouring urine up¬
on it, are the moft approved methods of killing it. It
lias, however, many good qualities to counterbalance
the few bad ones. Fern cut while green, and left to
rot upon the ground, is a good improver of land ; for
its allies, if burnt, will yield the double quantity of
fait that moft other vegetables will.—Fern is alfo an
excellent manure for potatoes ; for if buried beneath
their roots, it never fails to produce a good crop.—
Its aftringency is fo great, that it is ufed in many places
abroad in dreffing and preparing kid and chamois lea¬
ther.— In feveral places in the north, the inhabitants
mow it green, and, burning it to affies, make thofe
allies up into balls, with a little water, which they diy
in the fun, and make ufe of them to wafli their linen
with inftead of foap. In many of the Weftern Ifles the
people gain a very confiderable profit from the fale of
the allies to foap and glafs makers.—In Glen Elg in
Invernefslhire, and other places, the people thatch
their houfes with the ftalks of this fern, and fallen
them down with ropes made either of birk-bark or
heath. Sometimes they ufe the whole plant for the
fame purpofe, but that does not make fo durable a co¬
vering.—Swine are fond of the roots, efpecially if
boiled in their wafli.—In fome parts of Normandy we
read that the poor have been reduced to the miferable
neceffity of mixing them with their bread. And in
Siberia, and fome other northern countries, the inha¬
bitants brew them in their ale, mixing one-third of the
roots to two-thirds of malt.—The ancients ufed the
root of this fern, and the whole plant, in decoftions
and diet-drinks, in chronic diforders of all kinds, ari-
fing from obftruftions of the vifeera and the fpleen.
Some of the moderns have given it a high charaCler in
the fame intentions, but it is rarely ufed in the prefent
practice. The country people, however, Hill conti¬
nue to retain fome of its ancient ufes ; for they give the
powder of it to deftroy worms, and look upon a bed
of the green plant as a fovereign cure for the rickets in Pjeroca?
children. - puj.' *
Pi EROCARPUS, in botany : A genus of the de- I!
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of ptinm.
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
3 2d order, P a pi lion act tr. The calyx is quinquedentate,
the capfule falcated, fihaceous, vancofe. The feeds are
few and folitary. There are four fpecies, viz. 1. Dra-
C0i 7. Ecajlaphyllum ; 3. Lunatus ; and, 4. Santalinus.
I his laft is by fome referred to the genus Santa/um. It
is called red founders ; and the wood is brought from
the Eaft Indies in large billets, of a compadt texture, a
dull red, almolt blackilh colour on the outlide, and a deep
brighter red within. This wood has no manifeft fmell,
and little or no tafte. It has been commended as a
mild aftringent, and a corroborant of the nervous fyf-
tem; but thefe are qualities that belong only to the
yellow fort.
The principal ufe of red faunders is as a colouring
drug ; with which intention it is employed in fome for¬
mulas, particularly in the tindura lavmdttla compofita.
It communicates a deep red to rectified fpirit,but gives
no tinge to aqueous liquors; a fmall quantity of the
refin, extracted by means of fpirit, tinges a large one of
frelh fpirit of an elegant blood-red. There is fcarcely
any oil, that of lavender excepted, to which it com¬
municates its colour. Geoffroy and others take notice,
that the Brazil woods are fometimes fubftituted for red
faunders ; and the college of Bruflels are in doubt whe¬
ther all that is fold among them for faunders be not
really a wood of that kind. According to the account
which they have given, their faunders is certainly the
Brazil wood ; the diftinguilhing charadler of which is,
that it imparts its colour to water.
PTE^OCOCEUS, in botany, is a fpecies of the
genus Calligonum. See Calligonum.
PTERONIA, in botany: A genus of the polyga-
mia equalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compoft*. The receptacle is full of mul¬
tipartite briftles ; the pappus a little plumy ; the calyx
imbricated.
PTEROSPERMUM, in botany: A genus of. the
polyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37th order, Columniferx. The calyx is quinquepartite;
the corolla confifts of five oblong fpreading petals. Tire
filaments are about 15, which unite towards the bafe
into a tube. The ftyle is cylindrical; the capfule is oval,
woody, and quinquelocular, each of which are bivalved,
containing many oblong, compreffed, and winged feeds.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the Pentapetes^ a native
of the Eaft Indies ; the wood of which is very hard,
and very like that of the holly-tree.
PTINUS, a genus of infefts belonging to the order
of coleoptera. The antennas are filiform : The laft or
exterior articulations are longer than the others : The
thorax is nearly round, without a margin, into which
the head is drawn back or received : The feet are
made for leaping. The moft remarkable fpecies are,
1. The pedlinicornis. This is produced from a worm
that lodges in wood and the trunks of trees, fuch as
the willow, where it makes deep round holes, turns to
a winged infedt, takes flight, and roofts upon flowers.
It is diftinguilhed by its antennas pedlinated on one
fide
v
Ptifan
I!
Ptolemy.
PTO
Title, whence it has the name of feathered.
and thorax are of a deep clay-coloured brown, the an¬
tennae and legs are of a pale brown.
2. The pertinax. The foim of this infeft refembles
the preceding one, favitig that its antennae are filiform.
It is all over of a deep blackiih brown colour refem-
bling foot. It attacks houfehold-furniture, clothes,
furs, and efpccially animals dried and preferved in col-
lettions of natural hiftory, where it makes great havock.
When caught, this infetft bends its legs, draws back
its head, and lies as if it was dead till it thinks itlelf
out of danger. It cannot be forced out of this Hate ot
inaction either by pricking or tearing ; nothing but a
lirong degree of heat can oblige it to refume its mo¬
tion and run away. There are many beautiiul varieties
of this genus ; but they in general efcape our attention
"by their minutenefs, and living among hay, dried
leaves, and divers other dully matters, where they un¬
dergo their metamorphofes. The larvae of fome are
found in trunks of decayed trees, in old tables, chairs,
&c. See Plate CCCCXVI.
PTISAN, is properly barley decorticated, or de¬
prived of its hulls, by beating in a mortar, as was the
ancient pra&ice ; though the cooling potion obtained
by boiling fuch barley in water, and afterwards fweet-
euing the liquor with liquorice-root, is what at prefent
goes by the name of ptifan ; and to render it laxative,
fome add a little fena or other ingredient of the fame
intention.
PTOLEMAIC Syjlem of 4ftronomyy i9 t^at 'n_
vented by Claudius Ptolemaeus See Ptolemy (Clau-
dius).
PTOLEMAIS, (anc. geog.) ; the port of Arfinoe,
fituated on the well branch of the Nile, which concurs
to form the ifland called Nomos Heracleoles} to the
fouth of the vertex of the Delta.
Ptolemais, (Strabo) ; the largeft and moll confi-
derable town of the Thebais, or Higher Egypt, and
in nothing fhort of Memphis; governed in the man*
ner of a Greek republic ; fituated on the well fide of
the Nile, ahnoll oppofite to Coptos. This town,
which was built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is now
known bv the name of Ptolometa. The walls and gates
are Hill entire, and there are a vail number of Greek in-
icriptions, but only a few columns of the portico re¬
main. There is likewife an Ionic temple, done in the
moll ancient manner of executing that order, of which
Mr Bruce took a drawing, which is preferved m the
king’s collection.—Another, of Cyrenaica, anciently
called Barce.—A third of the Troglodytica, furnamed
Epitheras, from the chace of wild bealls, as elephants i
lying in the fame parallel with Meroe (Strabo) ; on the
Arabian gull (Pliny) ; 4820 ftadia to the fouth of
Berenice.—A fourth, of Galilee, anciently called Aca>
•or Aeon ; made a Roman colony under the emperor
Claudius (Pliny).—A fifth of Pamphylia ; fituated near
the river Melas, on the borders of Cilicia Afpera.
PTOLEMY (Soter, or Lagus), king of Egypt* a
renowned warrior, and an excellent prince : he ella-
blilhed an academy at Alexandria, and was himfelf a
man of letters. Died 284 B. C. aged 92.
Ptolemy (Philadelphus), his fecond fon, fucceeded
him to the exclufion of Ptolemy Ceraunus. He was re¬
nowned as a conqueror, but more revered for his great vir-
Vcl. XV. Part II.
t 64i 1 ... P U C
The elytra tues and political abilities. He ellablifned and augthentea
the famous Alexandrian library, which had been be¬
gun by his father. He greatly increafed the commerce
of Egypt, and granted conliderable privileges to the
Jews, from whom he obtained a*copy of the Old Te-
ftament, which he caufed to be tranllated into Greek,
and depofited in his library. This is fuppofed to have
been the verfion called the SeptuaginU He died 246
years B. C. aged 64.
Ptolemy (Ceraunus), the elder brother, fled M
Seleucus king of Macedon, who received him hofpi1'-
tably ; in return for which he aflaflinated him, and
ufurped his crown. He then invited Arfijaoe, who
was his widow and his own filler, to lhare the govern¬
ment with him ; but as foOn as he got her in his pow¬
er, he murdered her and her children. He was at
length defeated, killed, and torn limb from limb by
the Gauls, 279 B. C.
Ptolemy (Claudius), a celebrated mathematcian
and allrologer, was born at Pelufium* and furnamed
by the Greeks Mo ft Divine and Mojl IVife. He flou-
rilhed at Alexandria in the fecond century, under the
reigns of Adrian and Marcus Aurelius, about the
138th year before the Chrillian era. There are Hill
extant his Geography, and feveral learned works on
allronomy. The principal of which are, 1. The Alma-
gell ; 2. De Judiciit AJlrologtcts; Planifpbtrium. His
fyftem of the world was for many years adopted by
the philofophers and aftronomers ; but the learned have
reje&ed it for the fyftem of Copernicus. Sec Astro*
nomy, n* 16.
PTYALISM, in medicine, a falivation, or frequent
and copious difeharge of faliva. The word is Greek*
formed from “ to fpit.”
PUBERTY, denotes the age at which a perfon is
capable of procreating or begetting children. See Man,
nai3—18.
Puberty, in law, is fixed at the age of 12 in fo
males, and 14 in males; after which they are rec¬
koned to be fit for marriage. But as to crimes and
punifhments, the age of puberty is fixed at 14 in both
iexes.
PUBES, in anatomy, denotes the middle part of the
hypogaftric region in men or women, lying betweeA
the two inguina or groins.
Seftion of the Pubes. See Midwifery and SiGAVt*
TIAN Operation* *
Pubes, in botany, the hair or down on the leaves
of fome plants. See Hair.
PUBLICAN, among the Romans, one who farm¬
ed the taxes and public revenues.
PUBLICATION, the art of making a thing known
to the world, the fame with promulgation.
PUBLIUS Syrus, a Syrian mimic poet, who flou-
riflied about 44 years before Chrift. He was original¬
ly a flave fold to a Roman patrician, called Domkhis)
who brought him up with great attention, and gave
him his freedom when of age. He gained the efleem of
the moil powerful men at Rome, and reckoned]. Ciefar
among his patrons. He loon eclipfed the poet Laberi-
us, whofe burlefque compofitions were in general elleem.
There remains of Publius, a colleftion of moral fett-
tences, written in iambics, and placed in alphabetical
order. ^
Oak
Ptolemy
Ns
Publius
Poceron
Puffendoi i
P U F [ 64.2 *] PUL
OAKPUCERON.a name given by naturalifts to a very
. remarkable fpecies of animal of the puceron kind. They
’ bury themfelves in the clefts of the oak and fome other
trees, and getting into the crevices, where the bark is
a little feparated from the wood, they there live at cafe,
and feed to their lill, without being expofed to their
common enemies. They are larger than the other pu-
cerons, the, winged ones being nearly as large as a com¬
mon houfe fly; and thofe without wings are alfo larger
than any other fpecies of the fame genus. The wing¬
ed ones are black, and the others of a coffee colour.
Their trunk is twice the length of their bodies, and,
when walking, it is carried llraight along the belly, trail¬
ing behind it with the point up. When the creature
has a mind to fuck a part of the tree that is juft before
it, it draw's up, and fhortens the trunk, till it brings it
to a proper length and dife&ion ; but when it fucks
in the common way, it crawls upon the inner furface of
the bark, and the turned up end of the trunk, wdiich
refembles a tail, fixes itfelf againft the wood that is be¬
hind it, or contiguous to its back, and fucks there. The
extremity of this trunk holds fo faft by the wood, that
when it is pulled aw'ay, it frequently brings a fmall piece
of the wood away w ith it.
The ants are as fond of thefe as of the other fpecies
©f pucerons, and that for the fame rcafon, not feeding
upon them, but on their dung, which is a liquid mat¬
ter of a fweet tafte, and is the natural juice of the tree,
very little altered. Thefe creatures are -the fureft
guides where to find this fpecies of puceron ; for if we
at any time lee a number of thefe crawling up an oak
to a certain part, and there creeping into the clefts of
the bark, w'e may be aflured that in that place there
are quantities of thefe oak pucerons. The ants are fo
extremely fond of the juices of the tree, wdien prepared
for them by palling through the body of this animal,
that when the puceron has a drop not yet evacuated, but
hanging only in part out at the paflage, an ant wull of¬
ten feize on it there.
Pucerons, Vine-fretters, or Plant-lice. See Aphis.
PUDENDA, the parts of generation in both fexes.
See Anatomy, n° 107 and 108.
PUERILITY, in difeourfe, is defined by Longinus
to be a thought which, by being too far fetched, be¬
comes flat and infipid. Puerility, he adds, is the com¬
mon fault of thofe who affeft to fay nothing but what
is brilliant and extraordinary.
PUFFENDORF (Samuel de) was born in 1631
at hleh, a little village in Mifnia, a province in Up¬
per Saxony ; and was fon of Elias Puftendorf, minifter
of that place. After having made great progrefs in
the fciences at Leipfic, he turned his thoughts to the
lludy of the public law', which in Germany confifts of
the knowledge of the rights of the empire over the
princes and ftates of which it is compofed, and thofe
of the princes and ftates with refpeft to each other.
But though he ufed his utmoft efforts to diftinguilh him-
felf, he defpifed thofe pompous titles which are fo much
fought for at univerfities, and never would take the de>
gree of doftor. He accepted the place of governor to
the fon ol Mr C»yet, a Swedilh nobleman, who was
then ambaffador from Swreden to the court of Den¬
mark. kor this purpofe he went to Copenhagen, but
roaxinued not long at eafe there j for the war beipg re¬
newed fome time after between Denmark and Sweden, Puffendorll
he was feized with the whole family of the ambaflador. II
During his confinement, w'hich lafted eight months, as ^u^ey* .
he had no books, and w'as allowed to fee no perfon, * "•
he amufed himfelf by meditating on what he read in
Grotius’s treatife De Jure Belli et Pacts, and the
political writings of Mr Hobbes. Out of thefe he
drew up a fhort fyftem, to which he added fome
thoughts of his own, and publifhed it at the Hague in
1660, under the title of Element a 'Jurifprudenliee Uni-
’verfaiis. This recommended him to the elector Pala¬
tine, who invited him to the univerfity of Heidelberg,
where he founded in his favour a profefforfliip of the
law of nature and nations, which was the firft of that
kind eftablifhed in Germany. Puffendorf remained at
Heidelberg till 1673, when Charles XL of Sweden
gave him an invitation to be profeffor of the law of
nature and nations at Lunden ; which place the elector
Palatine reluftantly allowed him to accept. He went
thither the fame year ; and after that time his reputation
greatly increafed. Some years after, the king of Swe¬
den fent for him to Stockholm, and made him his hifto-
riographer, and one of his counfellors. In 1688, the
eledtor of Brandenburg obtained *the confent of his
Swedifh majefty, that he fhould come to Berlin, in or¬
der to write the hiftory of the eledfor William the
Great; and in 1694 made him a baron. But he died
that fame year of an inflammation in his feet, occalioned
by cutting his .nails ; having attained his grand climac¬
teric. Of his works, which are numerous, the follow¬
ing are the principal: 1. A Treatife on the Law of
Nature and Nations, written in German ; of which
there is an Englifh tranflation with Barbeyrac’s Notes.
2. An Introduction to the Hiftory of the Principal
States which at prefent fubfilt in Europe ^written in.
German ; which has been alfo tranflated into Englifh.
3. The Hiftory of Sweden, froift Guftavus Adolphus’s
expedition into Germany to the abdication of Queen
Chriftina. 4. The Hiftory of Charles Guftavus, two
volumes folio, &c.
PUFFIN. See Alca, n° 3.
PUGET (Peter Paul), one of the greateft painter#
and fculptors France ever produced, though but little
noticed by their own writers, was born at Marfeillea
in 1623. In his youth he w'as the difciple of Roman,
an able fculptor; and then went to Italy, where he
ftudied painting and architedure. In painting he fo
well imitated the manner of Peter de Cortona, that this
painter defired to fee him, and entered into a friend-
flu’p with him. In 1657, a dangerous diforder obliged
him to renounce the pencil, and devote himfelf to fculp-
ture ; and his reputation caufing him to be invited to
Paris, he enjoyed a penfion of 1200 crowns, as fculp¬
tor and director of the works relating to veffels and
galleys. He died at Marfeilles in 1695, and has left a
number of admirable ftatues behind him both in Franca
and Italy.
PUGIL, in phyfic, &c. fuch a quantity of flowers,
feeds, or the like, as may be taken up between the
thumb and two fore-fingers. It is reckoned the eighth
part of the manipulus or handful.
PULEGIUM, or PEunr-Royal. See Mentha.
PULEX, the Flea, in zoology, a genus of infeCts
belonging to the order of aptera. It has two eyes,
4 ane)
Puk*,
PUL [643
and fix feet fitted for leaping; the feelers are like
threads ; the roftrum is infle&ed, fetaceous, and armed
with a fting ; and the belly is comprefled.
The generation of this familiar vermin affords fome-
thing very curious, firft difeovered by Sig. Diaci.ento
Ceftore. Fleas bring forth eggs, or nits, which they
depofit on animals that afford them a proper food : thefe
eggs being very round and fmooth, ufually flip ftraight
down ; unlefs detained by the piles, or other inequali¬
ties, of the clothes, hairs, &c. Of thefe eggs are
hatched white worms, of a ftiining pearl colour, which
feed on the feutfy fubflance of the cuticle, the downy
matter gathered in the piles of clothes, or other the
like fubftances. In a fortnight they come to a tolerable
fize, and are very lively and aftive; and, if at any
time difturbed, they fuddenly roll themfelves into a
kind of ball. Soon after this, they come to creep, af¬
ter the manner of filk-worms, with a very fwift motion.
When arrived at their fize, they hide themfelves as
much as poffible, and fpin a filken thread out of their
mouth, wherewith they form themfelves a fmall round
bag, or cafe, white within as paper, but without al¬
ways dirty, and fouled with dull. Here, after a fort¬
night’s reft, the animalcule burfts out, transformed in¬
to a perfect flea ; leaving its exuviae in the bag. While
it remains in the bag, it is milk-white, till the fecond
day before its eruption ; when it becomes coloured,
grows hard, and gets ftrength ; fo that upon its firft
delivery it fprings nimbly away.
The flea, when examined by the microfcope, affords
a very pleafing object. It is covered all over with black,
hard, and fhelly feales or plates, which are curioufly
jointed, and folded over one another in fuch a manner
as to comply with all the nimble ipotions of the crea¬
ture. Thefe feales are all curioufly polifhed, and are
befet about the edges with fliort fptkes in a very beau¬
tiful and regular order. Its neck is finely arched, and
much refembles the tail of a lobfter: the head alfo is
very extraordinary ; for from the fnout-part of it there
proceed the two fore-legs, and between thefe is placed
the piercer or fucker with which it penetrates the ikin
to get its food. Its eyes are very large and beautiful,
and it has two fhort horns or feelers. It has four other
legs joined all at the breaft. Thefe, when it leaps,
fold fhort one within another ; aid then, exerting their
ipring all at the fame inftant, they carry the creature
to a furprifing diftance. The legs have feveral joints,
and are very hairy, and terminate in two long and hook¬
ed {harp claws. The piercer or fucker of the flea is
lodged between its fore-legs, and includes a couple of
darts or lancets ; wt/ich, after the piercer has made an
entrance, are thrull farther into the flefh, to make the
blood flow from the adjacent parts, and occafion that
round red fpot, with a bole in the centre of it, vulgarly
called afea-bite. This piercer, its fheath opening fide-
wife and the two lancets within it, are very difficult to
be feen ; unlefs the two fore-legs, between which they
are hid, be cut off clofe to the head: for the flea rarely
puts out its piercer, except at the time of feeding, but
keeps it folded inwards; and the belt way of feeing
it is by cutting off firft the head, and then the fore¬
legs, and then it is ufually feen thruft out in convulfions.
By keeping fleas in a glafs tube corked up at both
ends, but fo as to admit frefh air, their feveral ac*
]
PUL
Pile*. *
tions may be obferved, and particularly their way of
coupling, which is performed tail to tail; the female, —
which is much the larger, {landing on the male. They
may alfo be thus feen to lay their eggs, not all at once,
but ten or twelve in a day, for feveral days fucceffively;
which eggs will be afterwards found to hatch fuccef¬
fively in the fame order. The flea may eafily be dif¬
fered in a drop of water; and by this means the fto-
mach and bowels, with their periftaltic motion, may be
difeovered very plainly, as alio their teftes and penis,
with the veins and arteries, though minute beyond all
conception. Mr Lieuwenhoek affirms alfo, that he has
feen innumerable animalcules, fhaped like ferpents, in
the femen mafeulinum of a flea. This blood-thirfty in-
fed, which fattens at the expence of the human fpecies, Genera 0/
prefers the more delicate fkin of women ; but preys Infers,
neither upon epileptic perfons, nor upon the dead or P- 330, 5c
dying. It loves to neftle in the fur of dogs, cats, and
rats. The neiis of river-fwallows are fometimes plen¬
tifully ftored with them.
Fleas are apterous ; walk but little, but leap to a
height equal to 200 times that of their own body.
This amazing motion is performed by means of the ela*
fticity of their feet, the articulations of which are fo
many fprings. Thus it eludes, with furprifing agility,
the purfuit of the perfon on whom it riots.—Among
the memorabilia of fleas, one, they fay, has been feen
to draw a fmall filver piece of ordnance to which it
was faftened, the firing of the gun nowife daunting its
intrepidity. The owner carried it about in a litttle
box lined with velvet, every now and then placing it
on her arm to let it feed ; but winter put an end to
the being of this martial flea. Another flea that be¬
came Have to an Englifhman, had, for its daily and
eafy tafk, to drag its golden chain and padlock, of the
weight of one grain. A third flea ferved as a thrill-
horfe to an Englifh artift, who had made an ivory
coach and fix, that carried a coachman with his dog
between his legs, a poftilion, two footmen, and four
infide riders. At Surat fleas, bugs, and other voraci¬
ous vermin, are in fo great veneration, that they have
an hofpital endowed, where every night a poor fellow,
for hire, fuffers himfelf to be preyed upon. Fie is
faftened naked on a bed, when the feaft begins at his
expence. In Turkey there is a fimilar foundation for
decayed dogs ; an inftitution lefs ridiculous than the
other. Mercurial ointment, brimftone, a fumigation
with the leaves of penny-royal, or frefh-gathered leaves
of that plant fewed up in a bag, and laid in the bed, are
remedies pointed out as deftru&ive of fleas.
Pulex-Arboreus, in natural hiftory, the name given
by Mr Reaumur to a very large genus of fmall animals.
They are a kind of half-winged creatures : they have
granulated antennae; and fome of them, in their molt
perfeft ftate, have complete wings. Thefe are diftin-
guifhed from the others by the name of mujea-puhx or
the winged-pulex.
The feveral fpecies of thefe creatures are of different
colours : fome are brown, others yellow ; but the moft
frequent are green. They all feed upon the leaves of
trees, which become withered and curled up on their
eroding them ; and they are fo common, that where-
ever a leaf of a tree is found curled up, or of a diffe*
r«nt form from the others, it is highly probable theft
4 M 2 animals
Fuiex.
* Reaumur,
IHJltty of
Juft its.
PUL [ 644 ] PUL
animals are on if, or that it is their work. Among
trees the willow and the rofe are the mod infe&ed by
them; and among plants, the bean and the poppy.
They live a focial life, multitudes of males and females
being- found together. The females are eafily dillin-
puilhed from the males, by their being thicker in the
body, and having larger bellies.
It is very wonderful, that of all the known animals
t)f the winged kind, thefe are the only one^ which are
viviparous. This is eafily feen beyond a poflibility of
doubt; for, on examining a elufter of them together,
it is a common thing to fee, by the help of a imall
magnifier, a female in the act of parturition ; and ihe
author* of this account frequently faw the young pulex
protruded out, from a pafl’age near the anus of the
female, perfectly formed. He had fufpefted this
from the total want of eggs among fo numerous a tribe
of animals, and from their remarkably fpeedy propaga¬
tion, and was thus convinced of it by ocular demonilra-
tion.
They are armed with a tender and flexile proboscis;
with which they feize hold of the young (hoots of the
tree they live upon, twilling the probofeis round it.
Thefe creatures are always feen naked and expofed,
ifanding on the outfide of the ftalks and leaves, and
fucking in their juices for nourifhment v/ith their pro¬
bofeis. But there is another fpeeies ot them, which
are alike viviparous, and agree with them in all re-
fpe&s except in their manner of living. Thefe get
into the inner fubftance of the leaves, like the worms
called afcar'uies; and feed on the parenchyma, being de¬
fended from all injuries by living between the integu¬
ments. In this cafe, the leaves they bury themfelves
in become fcabrous and deformed, and produce a fort
of galls : fo that Malpighi erred in fuppofing all the
galls of trees to be produced by the animals hatched of
the eggs of ichneumon flies ; fince thefe animals, which
are viviparous, and are of a very diflerent kind from
the worms of the ichneumon flies, equally produce them.
A female of the fpecies here treated of has been feen
to bring forth feven young ones in a day: and thus
from reiiding alone in the tubercles which (he'had form¬
ed on a leaf, (he in a little time becomes the mother
of a numerous family ; each of which raifes its own tu¬
mour or gall on the leaf, which at firft are fmall and
round, and of a beautiful red like kermes.
Such of thefe as arc of the male fpecies have a cer¬
tain time of red, in which they lie buried in a filky
matter, and afterwards become winged, flying nimbly
about ; whereas the females never are able to fly, but
rtmain always half-winged. It is to be obferved, how¬
ever, that there is. a different fpecies of winged infefts
frequently found flying about the female pulices, as
well as their own males ; fo that all the fmall-winged
infedls about tfcem are not to be thought of their own
fpecies. Thefe do not greatly differ in figure ; but the
one are harmlefs, and the others have flings, and hurt
any part of the body on which they fix.
Pulkx Aquat'icui auflorum (monoculus pulex of Lin-
uaeus), in entymology, is a fpecies of the genus Mono¬
culus, which fee. It is a moil curious infedl of the
fize of a flea, and has been noticed by many writers
who have examined" its parts with accuracy, and is that
wliich, uniting together in vail numbers, occafions the
beautiful red patches which may be obferved iira dry Pule*,,
fummer feafon on flagnant waters,, giving rife to re-
ports of water being turned to blood, and in the minds
of the lefs informed thought to portend dire events.
The other fpecies of the fame genus collect on waters
in a fimilar way, and occafion a fimilar appearance, as
has been mentioned under the generic name, to which
we refer our readers. See alfo Swammerdam’s Book of
Nature, p. 39. ; Baker’s Employment for the Mtcrojcope,
p. 3:2. ; Schaeffer’s Icon. Inf. ; Sultz. Inf. p. 30 ; De
Seer’s Inf. vol. 7. &c. tvhere there are alfo excellent fi¬
gures of it. We have given a figure of it magnified and Plate
drawn from life:. The outward form of the body, ccccxv‘'
Swammerdam fays, is a kind of fquare ; under the
eye there is a (harp beak ; on the Iweafi are a kind of
arms divided into branches like the boughs of trees,
and in the abdomen there, is a tranfparent fubilance
with the legs and tail, and in the hinder part of the
body, its legs appear placed as it were on the middle
of the back : The eyes are almoil clofe together, and.
are reticulated ; the beak is tranfparent.
It appeal's that iniedts of this tribe are enabled to-
bear the extremes of heat and cold : for Ray, in his llif-
tona Injectoi am, p. 41. obierves, that the pulex jlu-viati¬
lls was met with by Mr Willoughby in a Itot bath
near Vicenza in Italy, the temperature of which was
fuch as to prevent any other living therein ; and, on
the contrary, O. Fabrichis, in his Fauna Graulandut,
p. 264. mentions the ciicumitance of the mono cuius pulex
being frequently found under the ice in the llagnant
waters of Greenland.
The chego,. or pulex minimus,
mericanus of Catefby, is a very
in warm climates. It is a very
efpecially to negroes and fuch as are llovenly or go
barefooted. They penetrate the (kin, under which they
lay a bunch of eggs, which fweli to the bignefs of a
fmall pea or tare. They are exceedingly painful; and
unlefs great care is ufed in taking them out, they are dan¬
gerous. It is about one-fourth the fize of a common pi3t(.,
flea; the figure is confiderably magnified^ From the ccccxvft
mouth iflues a hollow tube like that of a common
flea, between a pair of antennae. It has fix jointed
legs, and fomething like a tail. Under it is one of its
eggs, which is fcarcely vifible to the naked eye. Thefe
animals are a great nuifance to mod parts of America
between the tropics. See Sir Hans Sloane’s Hijiory of
"Jamaica, Introd. p. cxxiv.^tmd vol. ii. p. 191, 192.
PuLhx-JEaters, a name given by naturalids to a fort
of worms frequently found on the leaves of trees, where
they devour the animals called pulices arlorel.
Of thefe there are feveral fpecies, which owe their
origin to the eggs of different creatures ; ^lor there are.
none of them in their ultimate date in this their time
of feeding. According to the diderent animals whofe
eggs they are hatched from, thefe are of different form
and drudture. Some are hexapodes, or endued with fix
feet; thefe belong to the beetle-tribe, and finally change
into beetles like the parent animal from whofe eggs
they fprung. Others have no legs, and are produced
from the eggs of dies of various kinds. And, finally,
others are genuine caterpillars, though fmall; but thcle
are the mod rare of all.
The tw o general kinds are the hexapodcs, or beetle-
worms ;
cutem penetrans, A-
fmall animal found
troublefome infedt.
Pulley
^Pulfe*
PUL ' I 645 ]
worms ; and tht apodes, or fly-worms. The fly which of motion,
gives origin to the hit of thefe is a four-winged one ;
and takes care always to depofit her eggs in a place
where there are plenty of the polices, ulually on the
italk or young branches of a tree in the midtl of large
families of them. The worm, as foou as hatched, finds
jtfelf in the midit of abundance of food, preying at
pleafure on thefe animals, which are wholly defence-
lefs. The ftalks of the elder and woodbine are fre¬
quently found covered over with thefe police*.; and
among. them there may ufually he found one or more
of thefe deft rovers feeding at will, fucking in the juices
from their bodies, and then throwing away the diy
{kins. Be fide s the worms of this four-winged fly, there
is one of a two-winged vvafp fly, very deitruttive of
thefe animals.
PULLEY, in mechanics, one of the five mechanical
powers. See M e c h an 1 c s, p. 739..
PULMO, the Lungs, in Anatomy. See there,
ip 117.
PULMONARIA, Lungwort: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
41ft order, Afperfoli*. The corolla is funneUhaped,
with its throat pervious ; the calyx is prifraatjc and
pentagonal. 1 here are ievyal ipecies ; ot which the
moft remarkable is the officinalis, common fpotted lung¬
wort, or Jerufalem cowllip. This is a native of woods
and (hady places in Italy aad Germany, but has been
cultivated in Britain for medicinal ufe. The leaves are
of a green colour, ipotted with white ; and of a mu¬
cilaginous tafte, without any fmcll. I hey are recom-
nrended in phthifis, ulcers of the lungs, &c. but their
virtues in tiwfe diieafes are not warranted by experi¬
ence.
PULO pinang. See Pmnce of IVales's IjlanJ.
PULP, in pharmacy, the fteftiy and fucculent parts
of fruits extracted by iufuiion or boiling, and palled
through a fieve.
PULPIT, an elevated place in a church, whence
fermons are delivered. The French give the fame name
to a reading-delk.
PULPITUM, in the Grecian and Roman theatres,
was a place where the players performed their parts.. It
was lower than the icena, and higher than the orcheftra.
It nearly anfwered to what we call the ftage, as diftin-
guifhed from the pit and galleries.—Pulpitum was alfo
a moveable delk or pulpit, from which dilputants pro¬
nounced their didertations, and authors recited their
works.
PULSE, in the animal economy, denotes the beat¬
ing or throbbing of the heart and arteries.
No dottrine has been involved in more difficulties
than that of pulfes ; fmee, in giving a phyfiological ac¬
count of them, phyficians have efpoufed quite oppofite
fentiments; whilft lome doubt whether the pulfe is
owing to the fyftole or diaftole; as alfo, whether the
motion of the heart and arteries is- one and the fame,
for a moment of time.
With regard to motion, the pulfes are reckoned
only four ; great and little, quick and flow. When
quicknefs and greatnefs are joined together, it becomes
violent; and when it is little and flow it is called a weal
fulft. They are'alfo laid to be frequent and jrvre, equal
syid unequal; but thefe are not the effential afk&ions
PUL
Frequency and quicknefs are otten coo*
founded with each other. A pulfe is faid to be bard "
or foft, with regard to the artery, according as it is
teiife, renitent, and hard, or flaccid, foft, and lax : for
tlie diipofltion of the arteries contributes greatly to the
change of the pulfe ; wherefore it fometimes happens,
that the pulfe in both arms is not alike, which is very
common in a hemiplexy. Add to tuele a convullive
pulfe, which does not proceed from the blood, but
from the ftate of the artery ; and is known by a tre¬
mulous fubfultory motion, and the artery fee ms to be
drawn upwards : this, in acute fevers, is the iign of
death ; and is faid to be the pulfe in dying perfons,
wrhich is likewife generally unequal and intermitting.
A great pulfe fliows a more copious affiux of the blood-
to the heart, and Irom tlieuce into the arteries ; a little
pulfe the contrary.
The pulfes of 'perfons differ according to the large-
nefs of the heart and velfcls, the quantity and tempe-
rica of the blood, the elaftic force of tne canals ; as al_
fo with regard to the fex, age, feafon, air, motion, food,
fleep, watchings, and paffions of the mind. The pulfe
is larger and more quick in men than in women; iu
tire bilious and fanguineo-bilious, than in the phlegma¬
tic and melancholic. i hofe who are lean, with tenle
fibres and large veffels, have a greater and a ftronger
pulfe, than thofe that are obefe, with lax fibres and
{'mail veffcls; whence they are move healthy, tobuft,
and apt for labour. In children, the pulfe is quick and
foft; in adults greater and more violent. In the old,
it is commonly great, hard, and flow. Labour, mo¬
tion, and exercife of the body, increale the circulation
of the blood, the excretions, and particularly refpira-
tion ; reft renders the circulation flow and weak ; in-
tenfe fpeaking increafes the circulation, and f onfequent.
ly renders the pulie larg'u and quick. In w’atching, the
pulfe is more evident; in fltep, more flow and languid.
After drinking hot things, fuch as coffee and tea, or
hot bath-v/aters, as well as after meals, the pulfe vi¬
brates more quick. But nothing produces a greater
change in the pulfe than affections ot the mind : 111
teno^.it is unequal, finall, and contracted ; in joy, fre¬
quent and great; in anger, quick and hard; in iadnefs,
flow, fmall, deep, and weak; and in intenfe iludy, lan¬
guid and weak. Wfith regard to the air, when, after the
predominancy of a .weft or fouth wrind, it becomes north
or call, the pulfe is ftronger and larger ; as alfo when.,
tfie quickfiiver rifes in the barometer. But when the
atmoiphere is denfe, humid, rainy, with a long fouth
wind ; as alfo wdiere the life is fedentary, the fleep
long, and the feafon autumnal, the pulfe is languid and
fmall, and the perfpiration decrealed. In May it is
great, and fometimes violent; in the middle of fummer,
quick but weak ; in th^ autumn, flow, foft, and weak ;
in the winter, hard and great. A drailic purge and an
emetic render the pulle hard, quick, and weak, with
lefts of {Length; chalybeates, and the bark, render it
great and robufl, and the complexion lively ; volatiles
amplify and increafe the pulfe ; acids and nitrous re¬
medies refrigerate the body, and appeafe the pufte ;
opiates and the like render it fmali and weak, and
dtcreafe the elafticity of the folids; and pohons ren¬
der it fmall, contracted, and hard. \\ hen tlie quantity
of the blood is too great, bleeding raifes the pulfe.
Pulse, is alfo ufed for the itroke with which any
medium
Pulfe*
PUL [ 646 ] P U M
Pukrr.ey, medium Is affected by the motion of light, found, See.
Pulveriza- through {t.
tl0n^ Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the velocities
i'~T’ 0f the pulfes in an elaltic fluid medium (whofe elaftici-
ty ig proportionable to its denfity) are in a ratio com¬
pounded of half the ratio of the elaftic force dirertly,
and half the ratio of the denfity inverfely ; fo that in a
medium whofe elafticity is equal to its denfity, all pulfes
will be equally fwift.
Pulse, in botany, a term applied to all thofe grains
or feeds which ate gathered with the hand ; in contra-
diftin&ion to corn, &c. which are reaped, or mowed :
or, It is the feed of the leguminous kind of plants, as
beans, vetches, &c. but is by feme ufed for artichokes,
afparagus, &c.
PULTENEY (William), the famous oppofer of Sir
Robert Walpole in parliament, and afterward earl of
Bath, was defeended from one of the moll ancient fa¬
milies in the kingdom, and was born in 1682. Being
well qualified in fortune, he early procured a feat in the
houfe of commons, and diftinguilhed himfelf as a \varm
partifan againll Qmeen Anne’s miniftry ; whofe errors
he had fagacity to detedl, and fpirited eloquence to ex-
pofe. When King George I. came to the throne,
Mr Pulteney was made fecretary at war, and foon af.
ter cofferer to the king’s houfjhold ; but the good un-
derftanding between this gentleman and Sir Robert
Walpole, who then acted as prime minilter, was inter¬
rupted in 1725, on a fufpicion that Walpole was defi-
rous of extending the limits of prerogative, and of pro-
' moting the intereits of Hanover, to the prejudice of
thofe of Britain. His oppofition to Sir Robert was
indeed carried to fuch indiferiminate lengths, that fomc
have been of opinion he often afted againft meafures
beneficial to the public, merely from perfonal motives.
It would be impracticable here to trace his parliamen¬
tary conduCt: fo it muft fuffice to obferve in general,
that he became fo obnoxious to the crown, that in 1731
the king called for the council-book, and with his own
hand ftruck out his name from the lift of privy-coun-
fellors ; a proceeding that only ferved to inflame his
refentment and increafe his popularity. Thus he ftill
continued to attack the minifter with a feverity of elo¬
quence and farcafm that worfted every antagonirt ; fo
that Sir Robert was heard to declare, he dreaded that
man’s tongue more than another man’s fword. At
length, when Walpole found the place of prime minifter
no longer tenable, and refigned in 1741, among other
promotions Mr Pulteney refumed his place in the pri¬
vy-council, and was created earl of Bath ; a title pur-
chafed at the expence of that popularity which after¬
ward he naturally enough affeCted to contemn. In
1760, toward the clofe of the war, he publifhed 4
Letter to two Great Meny recommending proper ar¬
ticles to be infilled on in a treaty of peace ; which,
though the writer was then unknown, was greatly ap¬
plauded, and went through feveral impreflions. He
died in 1764 ; and as his only fon died before him, the
title became extinft.
PULVERIZATION, the art of pulverizing, or
reducing a dry body into a fine powder; which is per¬
formed in friable bodies by pounding or beating them
in a mortar, &c.; but to pulverize malleable ones,
other methods muft be taken. To pulverize lead, or
tin, the method Is this ; Rub a round wooden box all Pumtx
over the infide with chalk ; pour a little of the melt- II
ed metal nimbly into the box ; when fhutting the lid, * imP'
and ftiaking the box brifldy, the metal will be reduced -1
to powder.
PUMEX, the Pumice-stone, a fuhftance frequent¬
ly thrown out of volcanoes, though there are many
which are never known to throw it out. It is very full
of pores and blifters; in confequence of which it is
fpecifically very light, and refembles the frothy flag
produced in our iron furnaces. It is of two colours,
black and white ; the former being that which it has
when thrown out of the volcano ; the latter, as Cron-
ftedt conje&ures, being perhaps faded and bleached.
M. Magellan confiders it rather as a volcanic eje&ion
than a volcanic produftion ; and deferibes it as of a
white, reddilh-brown, grey,' or black colour, ft is of a
rough and porous confiftence, being made up of flender
fibres parallel to each other, and very light, fo that it
fwims on water. It ftrikes fire with fteel, though with
difficulty, and feems originally to have been an afbeftos
decompofed by the aftion of fire ; but, on obferving
the appearance of that glafly flag produced in^the iron-
furnaces, which entirely refembles the pumice-ftone,
and is produced from the calcareous fluxes ufed to pro¬
mote the fulion of the ore, our author is of opinion
that the formation of pumice may be rather attributed
to that kind of froth which muft be formed at the top
of the melted matters in the volcanic crater. An hun¬
dred parts, according to Bergman, contain from 6 to
15 of magnefia, with a fmall proportion of calcare¬
ous earth, and the greateft part lilex. Another kind
of pumice, which feems to be a ferruginous granite al¬
tered by fire, has been difeovered by Dolomieu at
Stromboli.
Pumice-ftone is ufed in feme mechanical arts; as for
rubbing and fmoothing the furface of metals, wood,
paileboard, and Hone ; for which it is well fitted by
reafon of its harlh and brittle texture; thus fcouring
and carrying off the little inequalities from the furfaces
juft mentioned,
PUMICE-stone. See the preceding article.
PUMP, an hydraulic machine for railing water by
means of the preffure of the atmofphere. 1
It would be an entertaining and not an uninftruc-Of the in-’l
tive piece of information to learn the progreffive fteps vemi n of
by which the ingenuity of man has invented the vari- PumPs*
ous methods of raifing water. A pump muft be con-
fidered as the laft ftep of this progrefs. Common as it
is, and overlooked even by the curious, it is a very ab-
ftrufe and refined invention. Nothing like it has been
found in any of the rude nations whom the reftlefs fpn-
rit of the Europeans has difeovered, either in the new
continent of America or the illands of the Pacific
Ocean. Nay, it was unknown in the cultivated em¬
pire of China at the time of our arrival there by fea j
and it is ftill a rarity everywhere in Afia, in places un¬
frequented by the Europeans. It does not appear to
have been known to the Greeks and Romans in early
times ; and perhaps it came from Alexandria, where
phylical and mathematical fcience was much cultivated
by the Greek fchool under the prote&ion of the Ptole¬
mies. The performances of Ctefibius and Hero are
fpoken of by Pliny and Vitruvius as curious novel¬
ties.
p U M
r 647 1
p U M
Pump.
Pla'e
CfiCCXXlV,
lies (a). It is perhaps not difficult to trace the fteps
by which thofe mechanicians were led to the inven¬
tion. The Egyptian wheel was a common machine all
over Alia, and is ftill in ufe in the remoteit corners,
nnd was brought by the Saracens into Spain, where it
is ftill very common under its ancient name nori a. The
Panifh miffionaries found in a remote village in the
kingdom of Siam the immediate offspring of the noria
(Lettres Edifiantes ft Curlcufes.) It was a wheel turned
by an afs, and carrying round, not a firing of earthen
pots, but a firing of wifps of hay, which it drew
through a wooden trunk. This rude chain-pump was
in frequent ufe for watering the rice fields. It is
highly probable that it is of great antiquity, although
we do not recoiled! its being mentioned by any of the
Greek or Roman writers. The Arabs and Indians
were nothing lefs than innovators; and we may fup-
pofe with great fafetyr that what arts we now find
among them they poftefled in very remote periods.
Now the flep from this to the pump is but fhort, though
it is nice and refined ; and the forcing pump of Ctefibi-
us is the eafieft and moft natural.
Let AB (fig. 1.) be the furface of the water in the
well, and D the height where it is to be delivered. Let
Ctefibius’s DC be a long wooden trunk, reaching as deep under
pump. water as pofhble. Let the rope EF be fitted with its
knot of hay F. When it is drawn up through the
trunk, it will bring up along with it all the water lying
between C and A, which will begin to run out by the
fpout D as foon as the knot gets to G, as far be¬
low D as C is below A. All this is very obvious ;
and it required but little refledlion to be affured, that if
F was let down again, or pufhed down, by a rod inftead
of a rope, it would again perform the fame office. Here
t is a very fimple pump. And if it was ever put in prac¬
tice, it behoved to fhow the fuppo’jting power of the
atmofphere, becaufe the water would not only be lifted
by the knot, but would even follow it. The imper-
fedion of this pump behoved to appear at firft iighr,
and to fuggeft its remedy. By pufhing down the knot
F, which we fhall henceforward call the pijlon, all the
force expended in lifting up the water between A and
G is thrown away, becaufe it is again let down. A
valve G, at the bottom, would prevent this. But then
there muft be a paffage made for the water by a lateral
tube KBD (fig. 2.) And if this be alfo furniftied with
a valve H, to prevent its lofing the water, we have the
pump »f Ctelibius, as Iketched in fig. 2. 1 he valve is
the great refinement: but perhaps even this had made
its appearance before in the noria. for, in the more
perfed kinds of thefe machines, the pots have a ftop
•r valve in their bottom, which hangs open while the
Purr.p
pot defeends with its mouth downwards^ and then al¬
lows it to fill readily in the ciftern ; whereas, without
the valve, it would occafion a double load to the wheel.
If we fuppofe that the valve had made its appearance
fo early, it is not improbable that the common pump
fketched in fig. 3* was as old as thatol Ctetibius. ^ For
a further defeription of the pump of Ctefibius as it was
ufed by the ancients, and of thofe pumps which have
been deduced from it and are now in common uie, fee
Hydrostatics n° 28—32. In this place we ffiall firll
give a ftiort defeription of the chief varieties of thefe en¬
gines, confidering them in their fimpleft form, and we
{hall explain in very general terms their mode of opera¬
tion. We (hall then give a concife and popular theory
of their operation, furnifhing principles to dired us in
their conftrudion ; and we (hall conclude w ith the de¬
feription of a few peculiarities which may contribute to
their improvement or perfedion.
There are but two foils of pumps which eflentially
differ ; and all the varieties that we fee are only modifi¬
cations of thefe. One of thefe original pumps has a fohd
pifton ; the other has a pifton with a perforation and
a valve. We ufually call the firft a forcing pump,
and the fecond a lifting or sucking pump. 3
Fig. 2. is a (ketch of the forcing pump in its moft17 rd g
fimple form and fituation. It coniifts of a hollow
linder ACro, called the working barrel, open at both v
ends, and having a valve G at the bottom, opening up¬
wards. This cylinder is filled by a fohd pifton EF, co¬
vered externally with leather or tow, by which means it
fits the box of the cylinder exadly, and allows no water
to efcape by its fides. There is a pipe KHD, which com¬
municates laterally with this cylinder, and has a valve at
fome convenient place H, as near as poffible to its junc¬
tion with the cylinder. This valve alio opens upwards.
This pipe, ufually called the rising pipe, or main, ter¬
minates at the placeD,where the water muft be delivered. ^
Now fuppofe this apparatus fet into the water, fo it. mode of
that the upper end of the cylinder may be under or operation,
even with the furface of the water A B ; the water
will open the valve G, and after filling the barrel and
lateral pipe, will alfo open the valve H, and at laft
Hand at an equal height within and without. Now
let the pifton be put in at the top of the working bar¬
rel, and thruft down to K. It will pulh the water be¬
fore it. This will (hut the valve G, and the water will
make its way through the valve H, and fill a part B b
of the rifing pipe, equal to the internal capacity of the
working barrel. When this downward motion of the
pifton ceafes, the valve H will fall down by its own
weight and Ihut this paflage. Now let the pifton be
drawn up again : The valve H hinders the water in
(a) In the early Greek writings, it does not appear that the words ’avrX'f, ’*vtx7»*. ’« rM«, &c. were ufed to
exprefs any thing like what we call a pump. In all thefe paflages the words either exprefs geneially the di aw¬
ing of water, or, more particularly, the drawing it with a bucket or fomething iimilar. v which is the pri¬
mitive, is a drain, fink, or receptacle for colle£ling fcattered water, either for ufe, or to get rid of it; hence it
came to fignify the fink or well of a Ihip; and was fynonymous with our verb ‘ to bale the boat.
{Odyjl O. 476. M. 411. Euryp. Hrcuba., IQ25). ’Avr/uo* is the vejfd or bucket with which water is drawn.
’avtxioc Jg the fervice (generally a punifhment) of drawing water. Avtxf v, “ to draw water with a bucket : hence
the force of Ariftotle’s expreffion [Oecon. 1) ^ W Ltauv tW «•<. See even the late authority of the
New Teftament, John ii. 8. ; iv. 7. 11. Here is evidently fomething whidr the woman brought
along with her; probably a bucket and rope.
1
P U M t 648 ] P U M
Pump, 'riling pipe from returning into the working barrel.
jjut now the valve G is opened by the preflure of the
external water, and the water enters and fills the cylin¬
der as the pifton rifes. When the pifton has got to
the top, let it be thrull down again : The valve G
will again be flint, and the water will be forced through
the paflage at II, and rife along the main, pufliing be¬
fore it the water already there, and will now have its
furface at L. Repeating this operation, the water
rmift at lad arrive at D, however remote, and the next
ftroke would raife it to e ; fo that during the next rife
of the pilton the water in eD will be running off by
the fpout.
The efFefl will be the fame whatever is the pofition
of the working barrel, provided only' that it be under
water. It may lie horizontally or Hoping, or it may
be with its mouth and pilton rod undermoit. It is (till
the fame forcing pump, and operates in the fame man¬
ner and by the fame means, viz. the preflure of the fur¬
rounding water.
The external force which muft: be applied to produce
this effeft is oppofed by the preflure exerted by the wa¬
ter on the oppofite face of the pifton. It is evident,
from the common laws of hydroftatics, that this oppo-
■fing preffure is equal to the weight of a pillar of wa¬
ter, having the face of the pifton for its bale, and the
perpendicular height A of the place of delivery
above the furface of the water AB in the ciftern for its
height. The form and dimeniions of the rifing pipe
are indifferent in this refpett, becaufe heavy fluids prefs
only in the proportion of their perpendicular height. Ob¬
serve that it is not dY, but ei A, which meafures this
preffure, which the moving force muft balance and fur-
mount. The whole prefture on the under furface Tf
•f the pifton is indeed equal to the weight of the pillar
/■/ F/J; but part of this is balanced by the water AY fa.
If indeed the water does not get into the upper part
of the working barrel, this compenfation does not
obtain. ’While we draw up the pifton, this preflurc is
removed, becaufe all communication is cut off by the
i alve FI, which now bears the whole preflure of the
water in the main. Nay, the afcent of the pifton is
even affifted by the preffure of the furrounding water.
It is only during the defeent of the pilton therefore
that the external force is neceffary.
Obferve that the meafure now given of the external
force is only what is neceflary for balancing the prefiure
of the water in the rifing pipe. But in order that the
pump may perform work, it muft fur mount this pref-
fure, and caufe the water to iffue at D with fuch a ve¬
locity that the required quantity of water may be deli¬
vered in a given time. This requires force, even al-
thought here were no oppofing prellure; which would be
the cafe if the main were horizontal. The water fills
it, but it is at reft. In order that a gallon, for in-
ftance, may be delivered in a fecond, the whole water
in the horizontal main muft be put in motion with
a certain velocity. This requires force. We mult
therefore always diftinguifh between the Hate of equili¬
brium and the ftate of adtual working. It is the
equilibrium only that we confider prefent ; and no
more is neceflary for underllanding the operation of the
diflerent fpecies ot pumps. The other force is of much
more intricate iuveiligation, and will be ccyilidered by
itfeif.
The fimpleft form and fituation of the lifting pump Pump,
is reprefented by the fketch fig. 3. The pump is
immerfed in the cdlern till both the valve G and pifton j jftu^g
F are under the furface AB of the furrounding water, pump.
By this means the water enters the pump, opening both
valves, and finally {lands on a level within and without. 6
Now draw up the pifton to the furface A. It muft: nwideof
lift up the w’ater which is above it (becaufe the valve °l>erat‘n8*
in the pifton remains flint by its own weight) ; fo that
its furface will now be at A a being made equal to
AF. In the mean time, the preffure of the furround¬
ing water forces it into the working barrel, through
the valve G; and the barrel is now filled with water.
Now, let the pifton be pufhed down again; the valve
G immediately (huts by its own weight, and in oppo-
fition to the endeavours which the water in the barrel
makes to efcape this way. This attempt to comprefs
the water in the barrel caufes it to open the valve F in
the pilton ; or rather, this valve yields to ou-r endeavour
to pufli the pifton down through the water in the work¬
ing barrel. By this means' we get the piilon to the
bottom of the barrel; and it has now above it the whole
pillar of water reaching to the height a. Drawing up
the pifton to the furface A a fecond time, muft lift this
double column along with it, and its furface now will be
at b. The pifton may again be thrull down through the
water in the barrel, and again drawn up to the fu.face;
which will raife the water to c. Another repetition
will raife it to J ; and it will now {how itfeif at the in¬
tended place of delivery. Another repetition will raife
it to e; and while the pifton is now delcending to make
•another ftroke, the water in e d will be running off
through the fpout D ; and thus a ftream will be pro¬
duced, in fome degree continual, but very unequal. Thi*
is inconvenient in many cafes : thus, in a pump for do-
meftic ufes, fuch a hobbling ftream would make it very
troublefomc to fill a bucket. It is therefore ufual to ter¬
minate the main by a ciftern LMNO, and to make the
fpout fmall. By this means the water brought up by the
fucceflive itrokes of the pifton rifes to fuch a height in
this ciftern, as to produce an efflux by the fpout nearly
equable. The fmaller we make the fpout D the more
equable will be the ftream ; for when the pifton brings
up more water than can be difeharged during its de¬
feent, fome of it remains in the ciftern. This, added
to the fupply of next ftroke, makes the water rife high¬
er in the ciftern than it did by the preceding ftroke..
This will caufe the efflux to be quicker during the de¬
feent of the pifton, but perhaps not yet fufficiently
quick to difeharge the whole fupply. It therefore rifes
higher next ftroke ; and at lait it rifes fo high, that the
increafed velocity of efflux makes the difeharge precife-
ly balance the fupply. Now, the quantity fupplied in
each ftroke is the fame, and occupies the iame room in
the ciftern at top ; and the furface will fink the fame
number of inches during the defeent of the pifton, whe¬
ther that furface has been high or low at the beginning.
But becaufe the velocities of the efflux are as the fquare
roots of the heights ot the water above the fpout, it is
evident that a fink of two or three inches will make a
fmaller change in the velocity of efilux when this height
and velocity are great. This feems but a trifling ob-
fervation ; but it ferves to illuftrate a thing to be conli-
dered afterwards, which is important and abftrufe, but
perfectly limilar to this.
3
It
Pump.
EffJ of We have fuppofed, in our account ot the lifting pump, oy uic w<uc. ^
KjKh‘ Ithat the rife of the P^on dways terminated at the fur- of the column/f ^ which prc(re8 „ ,
r”-" !Z ^t^JghtaCbe Med "by the ^effure bodies? that is, with the weight of the pil,ar/a. On
° i . . r 4-1,-,4- 4-1^^
p U M [ 649 ]
It is evident, that the force neceflary fof this opera- mofphere.
tion muft be equal to the weight of the pillar of water
^AflD, if the pipe be perpendicular. If the pump
be Handing aflope, the preflure which is to be balanced
is ft ill equal to the weight of a pillar of water ot tins
perpendicular height, and having thefurface of the pifton
foritsbafe, ,, . r ,
Such is the fimpleft, and, we may add, by tar the
beft, form of the forcing and lifting pumps; but it is not
the moft ufual. Circumftances of convenience, econo¬
my, and more frequently of fancy and habit, have cau-
fcd the pump-makers to deviate greatly from this form.
It is not ufual to have the working barrel in the water;
this, efpecially in deep wells, makes it of difficult accels
for repairs, and requires long pifton rods. This would
not do in a forcing pump, becaufe they would bend.
We have fuppofed, in our account of the lifting pump,
P U M.
Let the under furface of the pifton be at h;
when the pifton was at /, 33 feet above the furface of
the ciftern, the water was raifed to that height by the
preflure of the atmofphere. Suppofe a partition made
at £ by a thin plate, and all the water above it taken
away. Now pierce a hole in this plate. The preflure of
the atmofphere was able to carry the whole column /"a.
Part of this column is now removed, and the remainder
is not a balance for the air's preflure. This will therefore
caufe the water to fpout up through this hole and rife
to/. Therefore the under furface of this plate is pref-
fed up by the contiguous water with a force equal to
the weight of that pillar of water which it formeily
fupported; that is, with a force equal to the weight of
the pillarfb. Now, the under furface of the pifton,
when at by is in the fame fituation. It is prefled upwards
by the water below it, with a force equal to the weight
Pump.
iiroke.
&•
inconveni¬
ent and un
neceffary.
•of the furrounding water. But 1- t us fuppofe that the
rife of the pifton does not end here, and that it is gra¬
dually drawn up to the very top : it js plain that the
preflure of the atmofphere is by this means taken off
from the water in the pipe (fee Pneumatics), while it
remains prefling on the water of the ciftern. It will
therefore caufe the water to follow the piilon as it rues
through the pipe, and it will raife it in this way 33 feet
at a medium. If, therefore, the fpout D is not more
than 33 feet above the furface of the water in the ci¬
ftern, the pipe will be full of water when the pifton is
at D. Let it be puftied down to the bottom ; the wa¬
ter will remain in the pipe, becaufe the valve G will
‘(hut: and thus we may give the pifton a ftroke of any
length not exceeding 33 feet. If we raife it higher
than this, the water will not follow; but it will remain
in the pipe, be lifted by the pifton, after it has been
pulhed down through it to the bottom.
But it is not neceffary, and would be very inconve¬
nient, to give the pifton fo long a ftroke. 1 he great
ufe of a pump is to render effe&ual the reciprocation
of a fhort ftroke which we can command, while fuch a
long ftroke is generally out of our power. Suppofe
that the pifton is puftied down only to b ; it will then
have a column bf incumbent on it, and it will litt this
column when again drawn up. And this operation
may be repeated like the former, when the pifton was
always under water ; for the preffure of the atmofphere
will always caufe the water to follow the pifton to the
height of 33 fefet.
Nor is it neceflary that the fixed valve G be placed
at the lower orifice of the pipe, uor even under water.
For, while things are in the ftate now deferibed, the
pifton drawn up to /, and the whole pipe full of wa¬
ter ; if we fuppofe another valve placed at b above the
furface of the ciftern, this valve can do no harm. Now
let the piften defeend, both valves G and b will fhut.
G may now be removed, and the water will remain (up-
ported in the fpace b G by the air ; and now the alter¬
nate motions of the pifton will produce the fame effedt
9 as before.
Effe6t of We found in the former cafe that the pifton was car-
oTthe^wa- ry*inS a ^oa<^ e(lua^ to weight of a pillar of water of
ter and height AD, becaufe the furrounding water could
preffurft of only fupport it at its own level. Let us fee what change
the atmo- fs produced by the afiiftance of the preffure of the at-
fPhcrt- Vol. XV. Fart II.
bodies 1 that is, with the we'ight of the pillar/a. On
the whole, therefore, it is prefled downwards by a force
equal to the difference of the weights of the pillars/a
and fb ; that is, by a force equal to the weight of the
pillar b a. . , •
It may be conceived better perhaps in this way.
When the pifton was under the fmface of the water in
the ciftern, it was equally prefled on both fldes, both by
the water and atmofphere. 1 he atmofphere exerted its
preflure on it by the intervention of the water ; which
being, to all fenfe, a perfe-a fluid, propagates every ex¬
ternal preflure undimimflicd. When the pifton is drawn
up above the furface of the pit-water, the atmofphere
continues to prefs on its upper furface with its whole
waight, through the intervention of the water which
lies above it 4 and its prtffure muft therefore be added
to that of the incumbent water. It alfo continues to
prefs on the under furface of the pifton by the intervene
tion of the water; that is, it preffes this water to the
pifton. But, in doing this, it carries the weight of
this water which it is preffing on the pifton. The pref¬
fure on the pifton therefore is only the excefs of the
whole preffure of the atmofphere above the weight of
the column of water which it is fupporting. There¬
fore the difference of atmofpheric preffure on the upper
and under furfaces of the pifton is preciiely equal to the
weight of the column of water'fupported in the pipe by
the air. It is not, however, the individual weight of
this column that loads the pifton ; it is the part of the
prdlure of the atmofphere on its upper furface, which
is not balanced by its preffure on the under furface.
In attempting therefore to draw up the pifton, we have
to furmount this unbalanced part o( the preflure of the
atmofphere, and alfo the weight of the water which
lies above the pifton, and muft be lifted by it: and thus
the whole oppofing preflure is the (ame as before, name¬
ly, the weight of the whole vertical pillar reaching trom
the furface of the water in the cifteru to the place of
delivery. Part of this weight is immediately carried by
the preflure of the atmofphere ; but, in lieu of it, there
is an equal part of this preffure of the atmofphere ab-
ftratted from the under furface of the pifton, while its
upper furface fuftains its whole preffure. 1®
So far, then, thefe two ftates of the pump agree.—Other^ar-
But they differ exceedingly in their mode of operation ;tQ bc at_
and there are fpme circumftances not very obvious which tcn(>8j t0,
ir.uft be attended to, in order that the pump may deli-
4 N vel:
p u m r 65
ver any water at the fpout D. This requires, therefore,
a ferious examination.
Let the fixed valve G (fig. 4.) be fuppofed at the
furface of the cittern water. Let M m be the loweft,
and N n the higheft, petitions of the piilon, and let
H A = ^ be the height of a column ©f water equipon¬
derant with the atmofphere.
When the pump is filled, not with water, but with
air, and the pifton is in its loweft petition, and all in
equilibrio, the internal air has the fame denfity and
elafticity with the externah The fpace MA a m, there¬
fore, contains air of the common denfity and elafticity.
Thefe may be meafured by ht or the weight of a co¬
lumn of water whofe height is h. Now, let the pitton
be drawn up to N w. The air which occupied the fpace
MA a m now occupies the fpace N A a «, and its denfi-
, MA am , n. . .
ty is now “ ^tS e^a^lclty 18 now dimimthed, be¬
ing proportionable to its denfity (fee Pneumatics), and
no longer balances the prelfure of the atmofphere. The
valve G will therefore be forced up by the water, which
will rife to fome height SA. Now let the pifton again
defeend to M m. It cannot do this with its valve (hut;
for when it comes down fo far as to reduce the air again
to its common denfity, it is not yet at M, becaufe the
fpace below it has been diminiftied by the water which
got into the pipe, and is retained there by the valve G»
The pifton valve, therefore, operis by the air which we
thus attempt to comprefs, and the fuperfluous air
efcapes. When the pifton has got to M, the air is
again of the common denfity, and occupies the fpace
MS/w. Now draw the pifton up to N. This air will
expand into the fpace NSj«, and its denfity will be re-
MS s m
duced to and its elafticity wiH no longer ba¬
lance the preflure of the atmofphere, and more water
will enter, and it will rife higher. This will go on
continually. But it may happen that the water will
never rife fo high as to reach the pifton, even though
not 33 feet above the water in the ciftern : For the fuc-
ceffive diminutions of denfity and elafticity are a feries
©f quantities that decreafe geometrically, and therefore
will have a limit. Let us fee what determines this li¬
mit.
At whatever height the water ftands in the lower
part of the pipe, the weight of the column of water
SA a s, together with the remaining elafticity of the air
above it, exaftly balances the preflure of the atmofphere
(fee Pneumatics, ncio8.) Nowthe elafticity of the air
* .1 r xto • 1 . MS s m
m the fpace NSju is equal to — Therefore,
in the cafe where the limit obtains, and the water rifes
no farther, we muft have h — K.S\h or, becaufe
the column is of the fame diameter throughout, h —
AS+;’NS and “NS = ^ —AS, = HS, and NS : MS
—HA : HS, and NS—MS : NS=HA—HS : HA, or
NM : NSrrAS : AH, and NMxAHzrNSxAS. 
Ihertfore, if AN, the diftance of the pifton in its
higheft pofition from the water in the ciftern, and NM
the length of its ftroke, be given, there is a ce'rtain de¬
termined height AS to which the water can be raifed
by the preffure of the air : For AH is a conftant quan-
o ] P U M
tity; and therefore when MN is given, the re&angle Pump,
ASxSN is given. If this height AS be lefs than that
of the pifton in its loweft pofition, Nthe pump will raife
no water, although AN may be lefs than AH. Yet
the fame pump will raife water very effectually, if it be
firft of all filled with water ; and we have feen profef-
fional engineers much puzzled by this capricious failure
of their pumps. A little knowledge of the principles
would have prevented their difappointment. ir
To infure the delivery of water by the pump, the^0^eo^rr‘
ftroke muft be fuch that the reftangle MNxAPI may
be greater than any re&angle that can be made of the °
parts of AN, that is, greater than the fquare of half
AN. Or, if the length of the ftroke be already fixed
by other circumftances, which is a common cafe, we mufl;
make AN fo fliort that the fquare of its half, meafured
in feet, ftiall be lefs than 33 times the ftroke of the
pifton.
Suppofe that the fixed valve, inftead of being at the
furface of the water in the ciftern, is at S, or any where
between S and A, the performance of the pump will
be the fame as before ; But if it be placed anywhere
above S, it will be very different. Let it be at T. It
is plain that when the pifton is puttied down from N to
M, the valve at T prevents any air from getting down;
and therefore, when the pifton is drawn up again, the
air contained in the fpace MT/m will expand into the
fpace NT/«, and its denfity will be This is lefs
NT ’
MS
than -^g-, which expreffes the denfity of the air which
was left in the fpace fS rf by the former operations.—
The air, therefore, in TS s t will alfo expand, will open
the valve, and now the water will rife above S. The
proportion of NS to NT may evidently be fuch that the
water will even get above the valve T. This diminilhes
the fpace NT t n ; and therefore, when the pifton has
been puttied down to M, and again drawn up to N, the
air will be ftill more rarefied, and the water will rife ftill
higher. The foregoing reafoning, however, i^fuffici-
ent to fhow that there may ftill be a height which the
water will not pafs, and that this height depends on the
proportion between the ftroke of the pifton and its dif¬
tance from the water in the ciftern. We need not give
the determination, becaufe it will come in afterwards in
combination with other circumftances. It is enough
that the reader fees the phyfical caufes of this limitation :•
And, laftly, we fee plainly that the utmoft fecurity will
be given for the performance of the pump, when thd '
fixed valve is fo placed that the pifton, when in its loweft:
pofition, ttiall come into contaft with it. In this cafe, r ,
the rarefa&ion of the air will be the completeft poffible;
and, if there were no fpace left between the pifton and air-ti^ht.
valve, and all were peife&ly air-tight, the rarefa&ion
would be complete, and the valve might be any thing
lefs than 33 feet from the furface of the water in the
ciftern. \ ^
But this perfect conta6t and tightnefs is unattainable;
and though the pump may be full of water, its conti¬
nual downward preffure caufes it to filtrate flowly
through every crevice, and the air enters through ev^ry
pore, and even difengages itfelf from the water, with
which a conliderable portion had been chemically com¬
bined. The pump by this means lofes water, and it
requires feveral lirokes of brifk working to fill it again:
and
Pump.
*3
Pefcrip-
Uon of the
1'ucking-
punip.
P U M t 6ji ]
and if the leathers have become dry, fo much admiflion the cone
may be given to the air, that the pump will not fill itfelf
with water by any ’working. It is then necefiary to pour
water into it, which (huts up thefe pafiageSj and foon
fets all to rights again. For thefe reafons, it is always
prudent to place the fixed valve as low as other circum-
jlances will permit, and to make the pifton rod of fuch
a length, that when it is at the bottom of its ftroke it
ihall be almoft in contact with the valve. When we
are not limited by other circumftances, it is evident that
the beft poflible form is to have both the pifton and the
fixed valve under the furface of the water of the cittern.
In this fituation they are always wet and air-tight. The
chief objedtion is, that by this difpoiition they are not
eafily come at when needing repair. 'Ihis is a material
objedtion in deep mines. In fuch fituations, therefore,
we muft make the beft' compenfation of different cir¬
cumftances that we can. It is ufual to place tke fixed
valve at a moderate diliance from the furface of the wa¬
ter, and to have a hole in the fide of the pipe, by
which it may be got out. This is carefully (hut up by
a plate firmly fcrewed on, with leather or cement be¬
tween the parts. This is called the clack door. It
would, in evtfry cafe, be very proper to have a fixed
■valve in the lower end of the pipe. T his would com¬
bine all advantages. Being always tight, the pipe would
retain the water, and it would leave to the valve above
it its full effedt of increafing the rarefadtion. A fimi-
lar hole is made in the working barrel, a little above the
higheft pofition of the pifton. When this needs repair,
it can be got at through this hole, without the immenfe
trouble of drawing up the whole rods.
Thus we have condudled the reader ftep by ftep, from
the fimpleft form of the pump to that which long ex¬
perience has at laft feledted as the moft generally conve¬
nient. This we ftiall now defcribe in fome detail.
The Sucking Pump confifts of two pipes DCCD,
BAAB (fig. 5.); of which thesformer is called the Bar¬
rel, or the Working Barrel, and the other is called the
SuSion-pipe, and is commonly of a fmaller diameter.—
Thefe are joined by means of ftanches E, F, pierced
with holes to receive fcrewed bolts. A ring of lea¬
ther, or of lead, covered with a proper cement, is put
between them; which, being ftrongly compreffed by
the fcrew-bolts, renders the joint perfedtly air-tight.—
The lower end A of the fudfion-pipe is commonly fpread
out a little to facilitate the entry of the water, and
frequently has a grating acrofs it at A A to keep out filth
or gravel. This is immerged in the {landing water \ Z.
The working barrel is cylindrical, as evenly and fmooth-
ly bored as pofiible, that the pifton may fill it exadtly
through its whole length, and move along it with as
little fridtion as may be confiftent with air-tightnefs.
The pifton is a fort of truncated cone OPKL, gene¬
rally made of wood not apt to iplit, fuch as elm or
beech. The fmall end of it is cut off at the fides, fo
as to form a fort of arch OQP, by which it is fatt¬
ened to the iron rod or fpear. It is exhibited in difter-
ent politions in figures 6, 7. which will give a more di-
ilindt notion of it than any defeription. I he two ends
of £he conical part mayr be hooped wyth brafs. 1 his
cone has its larger end furrounded with a ring or band
of llrong leather fattened with nails, or by a copper
hoop, which is driven on it at the fmaller end. This
band ihould reach to fome diftance beyond the bafe of
p U M
the farther the better: and the whole muft Tump
be of uniform thicknefs all round, fo as to fuffer equal
tompreflion between the cone and the working barrel. NeCe(fity of
The feam or joint of the two ends of this band muft air tight-
be made very clofe, but not fewed or ftitched together, nef* not
This would occafion bumps or inequalities, which would *
fpoil its tightnefs; and no harm can refult from the want
of it, becaufe the two edges wall be fqueezed clofe to¬
gether by the comprefiion in the barrel. It is by no ^
means neceffary that this compreflion be great. This
is a very detrimental error of the pump-makers. It
occafions enormous fridtion, and deftroys the very pur-
pofe which they have in view, viz. rendering the pifton
air-tight; for it caufes the leather to w'ear through very
foon at the edge of the cone, and it alfo wears the
working barrel. This very foon becomes wide in that
part which is continually paffed over byr the pifton, while
the mouth remains of its original diameter, and it be¬
comes impofiible to thruft in a pifton which ftiall com- ^
pletely fill the worn part. Now, a very moderate pref- An eafy
lure is fufficient for rendering the pump perfectly tight, mode of
and a piece ot glove leather would be futficient for this r‘LrI ^
purpofe, if loole or detached from the folid cone ; for
i'uppofe fuch a loofe and flexible, but impervious, band
of leather put round the pifton, and put into the barrel;
a *1 let it even be fuppofed that the cone does not com-
prefs it in the fmallell degree to its internal furface.—
Four a little w’ater carefully into the infide of this fort
of cup or difti ; it will caufe it to fwell out a little,
and apply itfelf clofe to the barrel all round, and even
adjuft itfelf to all its inequalities. Let us fuppole it to
touch the barrel in a ring of an inch broad all round.
We can eafily compute the force with which it is pref-
fed. It is half the weight of a ring of water an inch
deep and an inch broad. This is a trifle, and the fric¬
tion occalioned by it not worth regarding ; yet this
trifling preffure is fufficient to make the paffage per¬
fectly impervious, even by the moft enormous prellure
of a high column of incumbent water: for let this
preffure be ever fo great, the preffure by which the lea¬
ther adheres to the barrel ahvays exceeds it, becaufe the
incumbent fluid has no preponderating power by which
it can force its way between them, and it muft infinuate
itfelf precifely fo far, that its preflure on the iniide of
the leather {hall ftill exceed, and only exceed, the prel-
fure by which it endeavours to infinuate itfelf; and thus
the pilton becomes perfectly tight with the fmallell pof-
fible friCtion. This reafoning is perhaps too refined for
the uninftruCted artift, and probably will not perfuade
him. To fuch we wrould recommend an examination jg
of the piftons and valves contrived and executed by that Prcmd fo
artift, whofe {kill far furpafles our higheft conceptions, ^ rra^hca-
the all-wife Creator of this world. The valves which h^n)rd°^n '
ihut up the paffages of the veins, and this in places fiamc.
where an extravasation would be followed by inilant
death, are cups of thin membrane, wrhich adhere to
the fides of the channel about half way round, and
are detached in the reft of their circumference. When
the blood comes in the oppofite direction, it pufhes the
membrane aiide, and has a paffage perfectly tree. But
a ftagnation of motion allows the tone of the mufcular
(perhaps) membrane, to rcllore it to its naturalfhape, and
the lealt motion in the oppofite direction caufes it inltant-
ly to clap clofe to the lides of the vein, and then no
preffure whatever can force a paffage. We Ihall recur
4N 2 **
P U M
[ 651 1
P U M
Pump.
17
Beft form
of a pi lion
recom¬
mended.
to this again, when defcribing the various contrivances
of valves, &c. What we have faid is enough for fup-
porting our direftions for conftrufting a tight piiton.
But we recommended thick and ftrong leather, while
our prefent reafoning feems to render thin leather pre¬
ferable. If the leather be thin, and the folid pifton in
any part does not prefs it gently to the barrel, there
will be in this part an unbalanced preflure of the incum¬
bent column of water, which would inftantly buril even
a ftrong leather bag ; but when the folid pifton, cover¬
ed with leather, exaftly fills the barrel, and is even pref-
fed a little to it, there is no fuch rifle ; and now that
part of the leather band which reaches beyond the folid
pifton performs its office in the completeft manner. We
do not hefitate, therefore, to- recommend this form of a
pifton, which is the moft common and fimple of all, as
preferable, when well executed, to any of thofe more
artificial, and frequently very ingenious, conftruftions,*
which we have met with in the works of the firft engi¬
neers. To proceed, then, with our defcription of the
lS fucking-pump.
Farther de- At the joining of the working barrel with the fuc-
1’cription of tion pipe there is a hole H, covered with a valve open-
the fucking-jng UpWar^s> This hole H is either made in a plate
tump. which makes a part of the fu&ion-pipe, being caft along
with it, or it is made in a feparate plate. This laft is
the moft convenient, being ealily removed and replaced.
Different views are given of this valve in fig- 8, 9, 10.
The diameter EF (fig. 10.) of this plate is the fame
with that of the fianches, and it has heles correfpond-
ing to them, through which their bolts pafs which keep
all together. A ring of thick leather NKL is applied
to this plate, having a part cut out between N and L,
to make room for another piece of ftrong leather NR
(fig. 9.) which compofes the valve. The circular part
of this valve is broader than the hole in the middle of
fig. to. but not quite fo broad as to fill up the infide
of the ring of leather OQP of this fig. which is the
fame with GKI of fig. 10. The middle, of this lea¬
ther valve is ftrengthened by two brafs (not iron)
plates, the uppermoft of which is feen at R of fig. 9 :
the one on its underfide is a little fmaller than the hole
in the valve-plate, that it may go freely in; and the up¬
per plate R is larger than this hole, that it may com-
prefs the leather to its brim all round. It is evident,
that when this plate with its leathers is put between
the joint flanches, and all is fcrewed together, the tail
of leather N of fig. 9. will be comprefled between the
plates, and form a hinge, on which the valve can turn,
rifing and falling. There is a fimilar valve {aliened to
the upper fide, or broadeft bafe of the pifton. This de-
feription ferves for both valves, and in general for molt
valves which are to be found in any parts of a pump.
The reader will now underitand, without any repeti¬
tion, the procefs of the whole operation of a fucking-
pump. The pifton rarefies the air in the working bar¬
rel, and that in the fudlion-pipe expands thro’ the valve
into the barrel; and, being no longer a balance for the
atmofphevic preffure, the water rifes into the fu&ion-
pipe ; another ftroke of the pifton produces a fimilar
efiedl, and the water rifes farther, but by a finaller
ftep than by the preceding ftroke : by repeating the
ftrokes of the pifton, the water gets into the barrel; and
when the pifton is now pulhed down through it, it gets
above the pifton, and muft now be lifted up to any
, *9
It? mode
of opera*
tkm.
height. The fuftion-pipe is commonly of fmaller fize
than the working barrel, for the fake of economy. It ^
is not neceffary that it be fo wide : but it may be, and
often is, made too fmall. It Ihould be of fuch a fize,
that the preflure of the atmofphere may be able to fill
the barrel with water as fall as the pi lion rifes. If a
void is left below the pifton, it is evident that the pi¬
fton mull be carrying the whole weight of the atmo¬
fphere, befides the water which is lying above it. Nay,
if the pipe be only fo wide, that the barrel Ihall fill
precifely as fall as the pifton rifes, it muft fuftain all
this prefiure. The fu£lion-pipe Iheuld be wider than
this, that all the prefiure of the atmofphere which ex¬
ceeds the weight of the pillar in the fu&ion-pipe may
be employed in preffing it on the under furface of the
pifton, and thus diminiffi the load. It cannot be made
too wide; and too ilri<ft an economy in this refpedl may
very fenfibly diminilh the performance of the pump,
and more than defeat its own puipofe. This is moll
likely when the fu&ion-pipe is long, becaufe there the.
length of the pillar of water nearly balances the air’s-
prelfure, and leaves very little accelerating force; fo
that water will rife but llowly even in the. wideit pipe-
All thefe things will be made the fubjedts of computa¬
tion afterwards.
It is plain that there will be limitations to the rife,
of the water in the fudtion-pipe, fimilar to what we
found when the whole pump was an uniform cylinder.
Let a be the height of the fixed valve above the water
in the ciftern: let B and b be the fpaces in cubic mea-
fure between this valve and the pifton in its higheft and
loweft pofitions, and therefore exprefs the bulks of the
air which may occupy thefe fpaces: let y be the di-
llance between the fixed valve and the water in the ruc¬
tion-pipe, when it has attained its greateft height by
the rarefaction of the air above it : let h be the height
of a column of water in equilibrio, with the whole
preffiire of the atmofphere, and therefore having its
weight in equililibrio with the elafticity of common air :
and let x be the height of the column whofe weight
balances the elaftieity of the air in the fudlion-pipe,
when rarefied as much as it can be by the adlion of the
pifton, the water Handing at the height a—y.
Then, becaufe this elafticity, together with the
column a—y in the fu&ion-pipe, mull balance the
whole preflure of the atmofphere, (fee Pneumatics,
n° 108.), we mull have h zz x a —y, and y « 4-
x — h.
When the pifton was in its loweft pofition, the bulk
of the air between it and the fixed valve was b. Sup-
pofe the valve kept Unit, and the pifton railed to ita
higheil pofition, the bulk will be B, and its denfity
and its elafticity, or the height of the column whofe
b
Pump,
weight will balance it, will be h
B*
If the air in the
fudlion-pipe be denfer than this, and confequently more
elaftic, it will lift the valve, and fome will come in ;
therefore, when the pump has rarefied the air as much
as it can, fo that none does, in fadt, come in, the ela¬
fticity of the air in the fudtion-pipe nwji be the lame.
Therefore x ~ b -g-.
We
P U M
[
Pump
We had ^ -f * — h,
b — B
b, = <3 + jj b? — a
B — ^
Therefore v,rhen ^ b
Therefore y zz a h
B —b
B
h.
is lefs than
the fixed valve.
the water
But when
B
will flop before it reaches
a is lefs than S-|p h, the water will get above the
will reach
the pifton
now come
dimenfions
/
40
The fame
pump is
ufed in an
inverted i
pofttion ;
6j3 1 P U M
£ pipe mufl generally have. The third LNOM is pro- P *mp,
perly the beginning of the main, and is continued to '_‘_v
the place of delivery. At the joint IK there is a
hanging valve or clack S ; and there is a valve R on the
top of the fu&ion-pipe.
The pifton PQTV is folid, and is faftened to a ftout
iron rod which goes through it, and is fixed by a key
drawn through its end. The body of the pifton is a
fort of double cone, widening from the middle to each
end, and is covered with two bands of very ftrong
leather, fitted to it in the manner already deferibed. 43
The operation of this pump is abundantly fimple. ^ m.ide
When the pifton is thruft into the pump, it pufties the°^ptra'
air before it through the valve S, for the valve R re¬
mains {hut by its own weight. When it has reached
near the bottom, and is drawn up again, the air which
filled the fmall fpace between the pifton and the valve
S now expands into the barrel; for as foon as the air
fixed valve, y becoming negative.
But it does not follow that the water
the pifton, that is, will rife fo high that
will pafs through it in its defeent. Things
into the condition of a pump of unitorm
from top to bottom ; and this point will be determined
by what was faid when treating of fuch a pump. _
There is another form of the fucking pump which is „ —r —;  ' . , n- f
much ufed in great water works, and is of equal effi- begins to expand, it ceafes to balance the preflure of
caev with the one now deferibed. It is indeed the the atmofphere, which therefore {huts the valve S. By
fame pump in an inverted pofition. It is reprefented the expanfion_of the air in the barrel the equilibrium
in fig; 11. where ABCD is the working barrel, im-
meifed, with its mouth downwards, in the water of the
ciftern. It is joined by means of flanches to the nling
pipe or MAIN. mt r n. TJT'T'r'
This ufually confifts of two parts, bhe tirit, 15L.!
is bent to one fide, that it may give room for the iron
frames TXYV, which carries the rodjNO of the pifton
M, attached to the traverfes RS, TOY of this frame.
The other part, EGHI*, is ufually of a lefs diameter,
and is continued to the place of delivery. 1 he pifton
frame XTVY hangs by the rod Z, at the arm of a lever
or working beam, not brought into the figure. *1110
pifton is perforated like the former, and is furrounded
like it with a band of leather in form of a taper-difh.
It has a valve K on its broad or upper bafe, opening
when prefled from below. The upper end of the work¬
ing barrel is pierced with a hole, covered with a valve
1, alfo opening upwards.
Now fuppofe this apparatus immerfed into the ci-
Itern till the water is above it, as marked by the line
2, 3, and the pifton drawn up till it touch the end of
the barrel. When the pifton is allowed to defeend by its
own weight, the water rifts up through its valve K,
and fills the barrel. If the pifton be now drawn up by
the moving power of the machinery with which it is
connefted, the valve K {huts, and the pifton pufties the
water before it through the valve I into the main-pipe
EFGH. When the pifton is again let down, the
valve I {huts by its own weiglit and the preflure of the
water incumbent on it, and the barrel is again filled by
the water of the ciftern. Drawing up the pifton pulhes
this water into the main pipe, &c. and then the w'ater
is at length delivered at the place required.
Antfi* cal- This pump is ufually called the lifting \puntp; perhaps
led athe fimpleft of all in its principle and operation.
pump. Jt needs no farther explanation: and we proceed to de-
feribe
The Forcing Pump, reprefented in fig. 12. It
confifts of a working barrel ABCD, a fu£lion-pipe
CDEF, and a main or rifing pipe. This laft is ufually
in three joints. The firft GHKI may be conlidered as
making part of the working barrel, and is commonly
call in one piece with it. The fecond IKLM is join¬
ed to it by flanches, and forms the elbow which this
44
Forcing-
pump <!e-
cribed.
at the valve R is deilroyed, and the air in the fuftion-
pipe lifts the valve, and expands into the barrel; confe-
quently it ccafes to be a balance for the preffure of the-
atmofphere, and the w'ater is forced into the fuftion-
pipe. Puftiing the pifton down again forces the air *
in the barrel through the valve S, the valve R in the
mean time {hutting. When the pifton is again drawn-
up, S {huts, R opens, the air in the fudion-pipe dilates
anew, and the water rifes higher in it. Repeating
thefe operations, the water gets at laft into the work¬
ing barrel, and is forced into the main by pufhing down
the pifton, and is puftied along to'the place of deliver)'. 14
The operation of this pump is therefore two-fold, Is two-f»U.
fucking and forcing. In the firft operation, the fame
force muft be employed as in the fucking-pump, name¬
ly, a force equal to the w eight of a column ot water
having the fe&ion of the pifton for its bafe, and the
height of the pifton above the water in the eiftern for
its height. It is for the fake of this part of the opera¬
tion that the upper cone is added to the pifton. 1 he
air and water would pafs by the fides of the lower cone
while the pifton is drawn up ; but the leather of the
upper cone applies to the furface of the barrel, and pre¬
vents this. The fpace contained between the barrel
and the valve S is a great obftrudtion to this part of
the operation, becaufe this air cannot be rarefied to a
very great degree. For this reafon, the fu&ion-pipe of
a forcing-pump muft not be made long. It is not in¬
deed neceffary; for by placing the pump a few feet lower,
the water will rife into it without difficulty, and the
labour of fu&ion is as much diminiffred as that of im-
puliion is increafed- However, an intelligent artiit
will always endeavour to make this fpace between the
valve S and the loweft place of the pifton as imall as
pofiible.
The power employed in forcing muft evidently fur-
mount the preflure of the whole water in the rifing
pipe, and (independent of what is neceflary for giving
the water the required velocity, fo that the proper
quantity per hour may be delivered), the pifton has to
withftand a force equal to the weight of a column of
water having the fedtion of the pifton for its bafe, and
the perpendicular altitude of the place of delivery above
the lower furface of the pifton for its height. It is
«uite
Pufnp.
P U M f 654 ] P U M
quite indifferent in tins refpe& what is the diameter of convetiient part of the rifing pipe beyond the valve S there
the rifing pipe ; becaufe the preffure on the pilton de- is annexed a capacious veffel VZ (fig. 1 3 n° 1 and 2 )
pends on the altitude of the water only, independent clofe atop, and of great ftrength. When the water is fo7
of its quantity. We fhall even fee that a fmall rifing ced along this pipe, partof it gets into this veffel, keepino-
pipe will require a greater force to convey the water
along it to any given height or diftance,
AVhen we would employ a pump to raife water in
a crooked pipe, or in any pipe of moderate dimenfions,
this form of pump, or fomething equivalent, muff be
ufed. In bringing up great quantities of water from
mines, the common fucking-pump is generally employ¬
ed, as really the beft of them all: but it is the molt
expenfive, becaufe it requires the pipe to be perpendi¬
cular, ftraight, and of great dimenfions, that it may
contain the pifton rods. But this is impra&ieable when
the pipe is crooked.
If the forcing pump, conftru&ed in the manner now
defcribed, be employed, we cannot ufe forcers with long
rods. Thefe would bend when pufhed down by their fur¬
ther extremity. In this cafe, it is ufual to employ only a
ffiort and ftiff rod, and to hang it by a chain, and load
it with a weight fuperior to the weight of water to be
raffed by it. The machinery therefore is employed,
not in forcing the water along the rifing-pipe, but in
vailing the weight which is to produce this effeft by
its fubfequent defcent.
*In this cafe, it would be much better to employ the
Ifftmg-pump of fig. ii. For as the load on the forcers
muff be greater than the refinances which it muff fur-
mount, the force exerted by the machine muff in like
manner be greater than this 'load. This double excefs
would be avoided by ufing the lifting-pump.
  .11 wiU reat% occur to the reade° that the quantity
<hc quant,- of water delivered by any pump will be in the joint
P^P^ion of the furface or bafe of the pifton
and its velocity : for this meafures the capacity
of that part of the working barrel which the pifton
paffes over.. The velocity of the water in the conduit
pipe, and jn its paffage through every valve, will be
greater or lefs than the velocity of the pifton in the
*5 ,
Meafuie ef
delivered
by any
pimp.
the air confined above it, and it fills it to fuch a height
V, that the elafticity of the confined air balances a co¬
lumn reaching to T, we lhall fuppofe, in the rifing
pipe. The next ftroke of the pifton fends forward
more water, which would fill the rifing pipe to fome
height above F. But the preffure of this additional
column caufes fome more of it to go into the air vef¬
fel, and comprefs its air fo much more that its elafti-
ciiy now balances a longer column. Every fucceeding
ftroke of the pifton produces a like effed. The wa¬
ter rues higher in the main pipe, but fome more of it
goes into the air-veffel. At lail the water afi/>ear, at
the place of delivery ; and the air in the air-veffel is
now fo much compreffed that its elafticity balances the
preffure of the whole column. The next ftroke of the
• pifton fends forward fome more water. If the diame¬
ter of the orifice of the main be fufficient to let the
water flow out with a velocity equal to that of the
pifton, it will fo flow out, rifing no higher, and pro¬
ducing no fenfible addition to the compreffion in the
air-veffel. But if the orifice of the main be contradl-
ed to half its dimenfions, the water fent forward by
the pifton cannot flow out in the time of the ftroke
without a greater velocity, and therefore a greater
force. Part of it, therefore, goes into the air-veffel,
and iucreafes the compreffion. When the pifton has
ended its fti oke, and no more water comes forward,
the compreflion of the air in the air-veffel being great¬
er than what was fufficient to balance the preffure of
the water in the main pipe, now forces out fome of
the water which is lying below it. This cannot return
towards the pump, becaufe the valve S is now ffiut.
It therefore goes forward along the main, and produces
an efflux during the time of the pifton’s rifing in or¬
der to make another ftroke. In order that this efflux
may be very equable, the air-veffel muft be very lartre.
T f it A.*.- ~ T * _ „ 1 , • t • /- V •
The opera¬
tion of
pumps not
equable;
cient force to the pifton.
It is evident that the
*7
And the
mode of
making
them io.
fame nronortinn tW r e 'JT uc vei7 eciuaDie, me air-vellei mult be very large.
ing ba^eUs grLler or le& th! P f0",0' W°/k‘ ,If ^ be ^ the of that ^ barged
or ’ valve For ^ wW ^ h ^ the condint b7 11 du.1 lnS the return of ^ P^on makes fo great a por-
through any feftion ofVhe workin^h ^ ^ 0f ^ that the el.afticit7 of the confined air
the fame quantity muft o-n th - in a ^Cl?nd’ 18 j00 mucb dim,ni{lied by this enlargement of its bulk,
paffages. This enables us toFroodone o^.tbe^ and tbe rate of efflux muft diminifh accordingly. The
the water as we piaffe - we ran VeIocity of cfPacity of the air-veffel fflould be fo great that the
gree at the place of delivery bv ^ t<J de‘ c.bang^ °f bulk ol the compreffed air during the inac-
tare through jvhich it paflff nrnvff't" ' V011 '.'i t te P1^00 ma7 inconhderable. It muft there-
cient forrei prOV,ded "•= “PP'X M- be very ftrong.
It is pretty indifferent in what way this air-veffel is
connefted with the rifing pipe. It may join it lateral¬
ly, as in fig. 13. 1. and the main pipe go on with¬
out interruption ; or it may be made to furround an
interruption of the main pipe, as in fig. 13. n° 2. It
may alio be in any part of the main-pipe. If the foie ef-
fetft intended by it is to produce an equable jet, as in orna¬
mental water-works, it may be near the end of the main.
This will require much lefs ftrength, becaiffe there re¬
mains but a Ihort column of water to comprefs the air
in it. But it is, on the whole, more advantageous to
place it as near the pump as poffible, that it may pro¬
duce an equable motion in the whole main-pipe. This
is of confiderable advantage ; when a column of water
fevfral hundred feet long is at reft in the main-pipe,
and the pifton at one end of it put at once into motion,
even
n . , , , —- °Peration of a pump is by
ftarts, and that the water in the main remains at reft^
preffing onthe valve during the time that the pifton
is withdrawn from the bottom of the working barrel
I is m moft cafes defirafcle to have this motion equable,
and in fome cafes it is abfolutely neceffary. Thus in
fT exti"?ui<hing fir^, the fpout of water
aim gand Inff" r0^ neVer be dlrcaed with a certain
> nd halt of the water would be loft by the wav
becaufe a body at reft cannot in an into be Dut I'
rapid motion, and the 6rft portion of eve v fck of
water would have bu, a fmall velocity A ve.v Le
We have not been able to
Pump-
Pump*
P U M [ 655 1 P U M
tm* with a moderate velocity, the drain on the pipe the pidon during its efftaive droke. The continued
28
The rlefal
tory mo
lion ©f
the
would be very great. Indeed if it were poffible to put
the pifton inftantaueoufly into motion with a finite ve¬
locity, the ft rain on the pipe, tending to burft it, would
be next to infinite. But this feems impoffible m nn-
PuW-
—
ture
dual,
all changes of motion which we ohferve are gra-
becaufe all impelling bodies have fome elafticity
1 0I s or foftnefs by which they yield to compreffion. And
P1‘ °nS in the way in which piftons are commonly moved, iva.
29
C«ireded.
30
But on a
by cranks, or fomething analogous to them, the mo
tion is ’very fevjthly gradual. But ftdl the an-vefftl
tends to make the motion along the main-pipe lefs de-
fultory, and tlierefore diminifties thofe ftrains which
would really take place in the main-pipe. It a&s like
the fprings of a travelling carriage, whofe jolts are in¬
comparably lefs than tliofe of a cart; and by tins means
really enables a given force to propel a greater quan¬
tity of water in the fame time.
We may here by the way obferve, that the attempts
of mechanicians to correft this unequal motion of the
pifton-rod are mifplaced, and if it could be done, would
greatly hurt a pump. One of the heft methods of
producing this effea is to make the pifton-rod confiit
of two parallel bars, having teeth in the fides which
front each other. Let a toothed wheel be placed be¬
tween them, having only the half of its circumference
furniftied with teeth. It is evident, without any far¬
ther defeription, that if this wheel be turned uniformly
round its axis, the pifton-rod will be moved unifoimly
up and down without intermiflion. T. his has often
been put in pra&ice ; but the machine always went by
jolts, and feldom lafted a few days. Unflolled mecha¬
nicians attributed this to defedl in the execution : but
the fault is eflential, and lies in the principle.
The machine could not perform one ftroke, if the
wrong prir-firft mover did not fiacken a little, or the different parts
cipk
of the machine did not yield by bending or by compref¬
fion ; and no {Length of materials could withftand the
violence of the ftrains at every reciprocation of the mo¬
tion. This is chiefly experienced in great works which
are put in motion by a water-wheel, or fome other
equal power exerted on the mafs of matter of which
the machine confifts. The water-wheel being of great
weight, moves with confiderable fteadinefs or unifor¬
mity ; and when an additional refiftance is. oppofed to
it by the beginning of a new ftroke of the pifton, its
great quantity of motion is but little affefted by this
addition, and it proceeds veiy little retarded ; and the
machine muft either yield a little by bending and com¬
preffion, or go to pieces, which is the common event.
Cranks are free from this inconvenience, becaiffe they
accelerate the pifton gradually, and bring it gradually
to reft, while the water-wheel moves round with almofl
perfedl uniformity. The only inconvenience (and it
may be confiderable) attending this flow motion of the
pifton at the beginning of its ftroke is, that the valves
do not ftiut with rapidity, fo that fome water gets back
through them. But when they are properly formed
and loaded, this is but trifling*
Tlief^c ua rnu1^- not imagine» that becaufe the ftream pro-
hk puiT.pi duced by the affiltance of an air-barrel is almoft per-
deliver vary feftly equable, and becaufe as much water runs out du-
hfle more ring the returning of the pifton as during its adfive
the1 ethers1 ftroke, it therefore doubles the quantity of water. No
more water eau run out than what is fent forward by
3*
converted
into a lilt¬
ing pump.
ftream is produced only by preventing the whole of
this water from being difeharged during this time, and
by providing a propelling force to aft during the pifton’s
return. Nor does it enable the moving force of the pi¬
fton to produce a double effeft: for the compreffiou
which is produced in the air-veffel, more than what is
neceffary for merely balancing tfie quiefeent column of
water, reafts on the pifton, refilling its compreffiou
juft as much as the column of water would do which
produces a velocity equal to that of the efflux. Thus
if the water is made to fpout with the .velocity of eight
feet per fecond, this would require an additional column
of one foot high, and this would juft balance the com¬
preffion in the air-veffel, which maintains this velocity
during the non-aftion of the pifton. It is, however, a
matter of faft, that a pump fumiftied with an air-veffel
delivers a little more water than it would do without it.
But the difference depends on the combination of ma¬
ny very diffimilar circumftances, which it is extremely
difficult to bring into calculation. Some of thefe will
be mentioned afterwards.
To deferibe, or even to enumerate, the immenfe
variety of combinations of thefe three Ample pumps
would fill a volume. We fhall feleft a few, which are
more deferving of notice. ^
I. The common fucking-pump may, by a fmall ad- Fheluck-
dition, be converted into a lifting-pump, fitted for pro-^g
pelling the water to any dillancc, and with any velo
city.
Fig. 14. is a fucking-pump, whofe working-barrel
ACDB has a lateral pipe AEGHF connefted with it
clofe to the top. This terminates in a main or riling
pipe IK, furnilhed or not with a valve L. The top
of the barrel is ftiut up by a ftrong plate MN, having a
hollow neck terminating in a final! flanch. The pifton
rod Q^R paffes through this neck, and is nicely turned
and polifhed. A number of rings of leather are put
over the rod, and ftrongly compreffed round it by ano¬
ther flanch and feveral ferewed bolts, as is reprefented
at OP. By this contrivance the rod is dofely grafped
by the leathers, but may be eafily drawn up and down,
while alt paffage of air or water is effeftually pre¬
vented.
The pifton S is perforated, and fumiftied with a
valve opening upwards. There is alfo a valve 1 on
the top of the fuftion-pipe YX ; and it will be of ad¬
vantage, though not abfolutely neceffary, to put a valve
L at the bottom of the rifing pipe. Now fuppofe the
pifton at the bottom of the working-barrel. When it
is drawn up, it tends to comprefs the air above it, be¬
caufe the valve in the pifton remains ftiut by its own
weight. The air therefore is driven through the valve
L into the rifing pipe, and efcapes. In the mean time,
the air which occupied the ftnall' fpace between the pi¬
fton and the valve T expands into the upper part of
the working barrel ^ and its elafticity is fo much dimi-
niftied thereby, that the atmofphere preffes the watei of
the ciftern into the fuftion-pipe, where it will rife till
an equilibrium is again produced. 1 he next down¬
ward ftroke of the pifton allows the air, which had
come from the fuftion-pipe into the barrel during the.
afeent of the pifton, to get through its valve. Upon
drawing up the pifton, this air is alio drawn off through
the rifing pipe. Repeating this proceis brings the wa-
6 t,JE
P U M [ ‘6s6 1
Pump, ter at lail into the working-barrel, and it is then driven
along the rifing-pipe by the pifton.
, 33 ^ rpjjjg js one of the bell forms of a pump. The ra¬
ff‘f'hKfn-refaaion may be very perfect, becaufe the pifton can
veifion. be brought fo near to the bottom of the working-
barrel : and, for forcing water in oppofition to great
-preffures, it appears preferable to the common forcing-
pump ; becaufe in that the pifton rods are comprelfed
and expofed to bending, which greatly hurts the pump
fey wearing the pifton and barrel on one fide. This
foon renders it lefs tight, and much water fquirts out
by the Tides of the pifton. But in this pump the pifton
rod is always drawn or pulled, which keeps it ftraight;
and rods exert a much greater force in oppofition to a
pull than in oppofition to compreflion. The collar of
leather round the pifton-rods is found by experience to
need vciy little repairs, and is very impervious to water.
The whole is very accefiible for repairs; and in this re-
fpeft much preferable to the common pump in deep
mines, where every fault of the pifton obliges us to
draw up fome hundred feet of pifton-rods. By this
addition, too, any common pump for the fervice of a
houfe is converted into an engine for extinguifhing fire,
or may be made to convey the water to every part of
the houfe ; and this without hurting or obftru&ing its
common ufes. All that is neceflaiy is to have a large
-cock on the upper part of the working barrel oppo-
fite to the lateral pipe in this figure. This cock ferves
for a fpout when the pump is ufed for common pur-
pofes; and the merely (hutting this cock converts the
whole into an engine for extinguilhing fire or for fup-
plying diftant places with water. It is fcarcely necef-
fary to add, that for thefe fervices it will be proper to
conned! an air-vefiel with fome convenient part of the
riling pipe, in order that the current of the water may
34 be continual.
Equable kave frequently fpoken of the advantages of a
duced18inr0’cont‘nued current in the main pipe. In all great works
great worksa conliderable degree of uniformity is produced by the
by combi- manner of diipofing the aftions of the different pumps;
nations. for jg very rarely that a machine works but one
pump. In order to maintain fome uniformity in the
reiiftance, that it may not all be oppofed at once to the
moving power, with intervals of total ina&ion, which
would produce a very hobbling motion, it is uftfal to
diftribute the work into portions, which fucceed alter¬
nately ; and thus both diminilh the ftrain, and give
greater uniformity of adlion, and frequently enable a
natural power which we can command, to perform a
piece of work, which would be impofiible if the whole
refiftance were oppofed at once. In all pump ma¬
chines therefore we are obvioufly diredted to conftrudt
them fo that they may give motion to at leaft two
pumps, which work alternately. By this means a much
greater uniformity of current is produced in the main
pipe. It will be rendered ftill more uniform if four are
employed, fuccecding each other at the interval of one
quarter of the time of a complete ftroke.
A fingle , But ingenious men have attempted the fame thing
pump for with a fingle pump, and many different conftrudt ions
this purpofe for this purpqfe have been propofed and executed,
e c i v . The thing is not pf much importance, nor of great re-
fearch. . We lhall content ourfelves therefore with the
defeription ol one that appears to us the moft perfedf,
both m refpedl of fimplicity and effod.
P U M
II. It confifts of a working-barrel AB (fig. 15.) Pump,
clofe at both ends. The pifton C is folid, and the rod'v
OP paffes through a collar of leathers in the plate,
which clofes the .upper end of the working-barrel. This
barrel communicates laterally with two pipes H, K ; the
communications m and « being as near to the top and
bottom of the barrel as poffible. Adjoining to the
paffage m are two valves F and G opening upwards.
Similar valves accompany the paffage w. The two
pipes H and K unite in a larger rifing pipe L. They
are all reprefented as in the fame plane ; but the upper
ends mull be bent backwards, to give room for the mo¬
tion of the pilton-rod OP.
Suppofe the pifton clofe to the entry of the lateral
pipe «, and that it is drawn up : it compreffes the air
above it, and drives it through the valve G, where it
efcapes along the rifing pipe ; at the fame time it
rarefies the air in the fpace below it. Therefore the
weight of the atmofphere fhuts the valve E, and caufea
the water of the ciftern to rife through the valve D,
and fill the lower part of the pump. When the pifton
is puftied down again, this water is firft driven through
the valve E, becaufe D immediately Hints ; and then
moft of the air which was in this part of the pump at
the beginning goes up through it, fome of the water
coming back in its Head. In the mean time, the air
which remained in the upper part of the pump after the
afeent of the pifton is rarefied by its defeent; becaufe
the valve G (huts as foon as the pifton begins to de-
feend, the valve F opens, the air in this fuftion pipe
Ff expands into the barrel, and the water rifes in¬
to the pipes by the preffure of the atmofphere. The
next rife of the pifton muft bring more water into the
lower part of the barrel, and muft drive a little more
air through the valve G, namely, part of that which
had come out of the fuclion-pipe Ff; and the next
defeent of the pifton muft drive more water into the
rifing pipe H, and along with it moft if not all of th e
air which remained below the pifton, and muft rarefy
ftill more the air remaining above the pifton; and more
water will come in through the pipe F/, and get into
the barrel. It is evident that a few repetitions will at
laft fill the barrel on both Tides of the pifton with water.
When this is accomplifhed, there is no difficulty in per¬
ceiving how, at every rife of the pifton, the water of
the ciftern will come in by the valve D, and the water
in the upper part of the barrel will be driven thro’ the
valve G; and, in every defeent of the pifton, the water of
the ciftern will come into the barrel by the valve F,
and the water below the pifton will be driven through
the valve E : and thus there will be a continual influx
into the barrel through the valves D and F, and a con¬
tinual difeharge along the rifing pipe L through the
valves E and G. ^
This machine is, to be hire, equivalent to two forcingrt is^equiva*'
pumps, although it has but one barrel and one pifton ;lei;t to two
but it has no fort of fuperiority. It is not even more^orcinK“
economical in mull cafes ; becaufe we apprehend that^um^s*
the additional workmanlhip w ill fully compenfate for
the barrel and pifton that is faved. There' is indeed a
faving in the reft of the machinery, becaufe one lever
produces both motions. We cannot therefore fay that
it is inferior to twro pumps ; and we acknowledge that
there is fome ingenuity in the contrivance.
We recommend lo our readers the perufal of Beli-^
5 dor*«
p U M
r
Fump.
dor’s ArchiieSure Hydraui'ique, where is to be found a
^reat variety of combinations and forms of the fimple
AiJth'n re PumPs » but vve mul^ cautiou them with refpedt to his
commend-* theories, which in this article are extremely defective.
37
«d.
Plate
ceccxxv.
Alfo in Leopold’s Theat rum Maehlnarum Hyihaulica-
rum, there is a prodigious variety of all kinds of pumps,
many of them very lingular and ingenious, and many
which have particular advantages, which may fuit local
circumftances, and give them a preference. But it
would be improper to fwell a work of this kind with fo
' many peculiarities ; and a perfon who makes himfelf
mailer of the principles delivered here in fufficient de¬
tail, can be at no lofs to fuit a pump to his particular
views, or to judge of the merit of fuch as may be pro-
poied to him.
We mull now take notice of fome very confiderable
and important varieties in the form and contrivance of
"8 t the elfential parts of a pump.
Im/'diff* HI* The forcing pump is fometimes of a very diffe-
rent’v coi - rent form from that already deferibed. Inllead of a
flr,.<9:ec}. piilon, which applies itfelf to the infide of the barrel,
and Hides up and down in it, there is a long cylinder
POQJfig. 16.) nicely turned and polilhed on the out-
fide, and of a diameter fomewhat lefs than the inlide of
the barrel. This cylinder (called a plunger) Hides
through a collar of leathers on the top of the working-
barrel, and is conllrufted as follows. The top of the
barrel terminates in a Ranch a b, pierced with four holes
for receiving fcrew-bolts. There are two rings of me¬
tal, cd, ef, of the fame diameter, and having holes cor¬
responding to thofe in the flanch. Four rings of foft
leather, of the fame fize, and fimilarly pierced with
holes, are well foaked in a mixture of oil, tallow, and a
little rofin. Two of thefe leather rings are laid on the
pump flanch, and one of the metal rings above them.
The plunger is then thruft down through them, by
which it turns their inner edges downwards. The other
two rings are then flipped on at the top of the plun¬
ger, and the fecond metal ring is put over them, and
then the whole are Hid down to the metal ring. By
this the inner edges of the kill leather rings are turned
tipwarc^s. The three metal rings are now forced to¬
gether by the ferewed bolts; and thus the leathern
rings are ilrongly comprefled between them, and made
to grafp the plunger fo clofely that no preflure can
force the water through between. The upper metal
ring juft allows the plunger to pafs through it, but
without any play; fo that the turned up edges of the
leathern rings do not come up between the plunger and
-the upper metal ring, but are lodged in a little conical
taper, which is given to the inner edge of the upper
plate, its hole being wider below than above. It is on
this trifling circumftance that the great tightnefs of the
collar depends. To prevent the leathers from flirinking
by drought, there is ufually a little ciftern formed
round the head of the pump, and kept full of water.
The plunger is either forced down by a rod from a
working beam, or by a fet of metal-weights laid on it,
as is reprefented in the figure.
It is hardly neceffary to be particular in explaining
operation, the operation of this pump. When the plunger is at
the bottom of the barrel, touching the fixed valve M
with its lower extremity, it almoft completely fills it.
That it may do it completely, there is fometimes a fmall
pipe RSZ branching out from the top of the barrel,
Vol. XV. Part II.
* 39
Ks mode of
657 1 P U M
and fitted with a cock at S. Water is admitted till the **an”V.
barrel is completely filled, and the cock is then fhut. -
Now when the plunger is drawn up, the valve N in the
riling pipe mull remain Hint by the preflure of the at-
mofphere, and a void muft be made in the barrel. There¬
fore the valve M on the top of the fuclion-pipe muft
be opened by the elafticity of the air in this pipe, and
the air muft expand into the barrel; and, being no longer
a balance for the atmofphere, the water in the cillern
muft be forced into the fuftion-pipe, and rife in it to a
certain height. When the plunger defeends, it muft
drive the water through the valve N (for the valve M
will immediately Ihut), and along with it moll of the
air which had come into the barrel. And as this air
occupied the upper part of the barrel, part of it will re¬
main when the plunger has reached the bottom ; but
a ftroke or two will expel it all, and then every fucceed*
ing ftroke of the defeending pillon will drive the water
along the riling pipe, and every afeent of the plunger
will be followed by the water from the ciftern.
The advantage propofed by this form of pifton is,
that it may be more accurately made and polilhed than
the infide of a working barrel, and it is of much eafier
repair. Yet we do not find that it is much ufed, al¬
though an invention of lull century (we think by Sir
Samuel Morland), and much praifed by the writers on
thefe fubjefts. ^
It is eafy to fee that the fucking-pump may be vari-Suckins:-
ed in the fame way. Suppofe this plunger to be openPi mP^)mi*
both at top and bottom, but the bottom filled with a va
valve opening upward. When this is pufhed to the
bottom of the barrel, the air which it tends to com-
prefs lifts the valve (the lateral pipe FIK being taken
away and the paffage Hint up), and efcapes through the
plunger. When it is drawn up, it makes the fame ra-
refa&ion as the folid plunger, becaufe the valve at O
Hints, and the water will come up from the ciftern as in
the former cafe. If the plunger be now thruft down
again, the valve M (huts, the valve O is forced open,
and the plunger is filled with water. This will be lifted
by it during its next afeent; and when it is pufhed
down again, the water which filled it muft now be pufh¬
ed out, and will flow over its fides into the ciftern at the
head of the barrel. Inflead of making the valve at the
bottom of the pifton* it may be made at the top ; but
this difpofition is much 'inferior, becaufe it cannot rare¬
fy the air in the barrel one half. This is evident; for
the capacity of the barrel and plunger together cannot
be twice the capacity of the barrel.
IV. It may be made after a flill different form, as Another
reprefented in fig. 17. Here the fudlion-pipe CO form of the
comes up through a ciftern KMNL deeper or longer
than the intended ftroke of the pifton, and has a valvePomP*
C at top. The pifton, or what a£ts in lieu of it, is a
tube A HOB, open at both ends, and of a diameter
fomewhat larger than that of the futtion-pipe. The
interval between them is filled up at HG by a ring or
belt of foft leather, which is faftened to the outer tube,
and moves up and down with it. Hiding along the
fmoothly polilhed furface of the fu£tion-pipe with veiy
little friction. There is a valve I on the top of this
pifton, opening upwards. Water is poured into the
outer ciftern.
The outer cylinder or pifton being drawn up from And it*
the bottom, there is a great rarefadtion of the air which niodc
c ^ operatic
4 O
was
operatiom
P U M [ 658 1 P U M
Pump.
43
The pifton
cylinder
differently
formed.
44
Pumps
without
fridtion
not of im¬
portant
Hfe.
45
F.xamp’e
of a limple
pump with
out fric¬
tion.
was between them, and the atmofphete prefles tlie wa¬
ter up through the fudtion-pipe to a certain height;
for the valve I keeps (hut by the preflure of the utmo-
fphere and its own weight. Pufhing down the piilon
caufes the air, which had expanded from the fu&ion-
pipe into the pifton, to efcape through the valve I ;
drawing it up a fecond time, allows the atmofphere to
prefs more water into the fu£tion-pipe, to fill it, and al-
fo part of the pifton. When this is pufhed down again,
the water which had come through the valve C is now
forced out through the valve I into the ciftern KMNL,
and now the whole is full of water. When, therefore,
the pifton is drawn up, the water follows, and fills it, if
not 33 feet above the water in the ciftern ; and when it is
pufhed down again, the water which filled the pifton is.
all thrown out into the ciftern ; and after this it delivers
its full contents of water every ftroke. The water in the
ciftern KMNL effectually prevents the entry of any
air between the two pipes ; fo that a veiy moderate
compreflion of the belt of foft leather at the mouth of
the pifton cylinder is fufticient to make all perfectly
tight.
It might be made differently. The ring of leather
might be faftened round the top of the inner cylinder
at DE, and Hide on the infide of the pifton cylinder ;
but the firft form is moft eafily executed. Mufchen-
broeck has given a figure of this pump in his large
fyftem of natural philofophy, and fpeaks very highly of
its performance. But we do not fee any advantage
which it poffeffes over the common fucking-pump. He
indeed fays that it is without fridftion, and makes no
mention of the ring of leather between the two cy¬
linders. Such a pump will raife water extremely wadi
to a fmall height, and it feems to have been a model only
which he had examined: But if the futtion-pipe 13
long, it will by no means do without the leather ; for
on drawing up the pifton, the water of the upper ci¬
ftern will rife between the pipes, and fill the pifton, and
none wall come up through the fu<ftion-pipe.
We may take this opportunity of obferving, that the
many ingenious contrivances of pumps without friclion
are of little importance in great w-orks ; becaufe the
fri&ion which is completely fufficient to prevent all
efcape of water in a wxll-eonftruded pump is but a
very trifling part of the whole forQf. In the great pumps
which are ufed in mines, and are worked by a fteam-
engine, it is very ufual to make the piftons and valves
without any leather whatever. The working barrel is
bored timly. cylindrical, and the pifton is made of me¬
tal 6f a fize that will juft pafs along it without flick¬
ing. When this is drawn up with the velocity compe¬
tent to a properly loaded machine, the quantity of wa¬
ter which efcapes round the pifton is infignificant. The
pifton is made without leathers, not to avoid fri&ion,
which is alfo inftgniflcant in fueli wrorks; but to avoid
the neceffity of frequently drawing it up for repairs
through fuch a length of pipes.
V. If a pump abfolutely without fri&ion is W’anted,
the following feems preferable for fimplicity and per¬
formance to any we have feen, when made ufe of in
proper fituations. Let NO (fig. 18.) be the furface
ol the water in the pit, and K the place of delivery.
1 he pit muft be as deep in wrater as from K to NO.
ALCD is a wooden trunk, round or fquare, open at
both ends, and having a valve T at the bottom. The
top of this trunk muft be on a level with K, and has a Putnp>
fmall ciftern EADF. It alfo communicates laterally  * f
with a rifing pipe GHK, furnifhed wTith a valve at H
opening upwards. LM is a beam of timber fo fitted
to the trunk as to fill it without flicking, and is of at
leaft equal length. It hangs by a chain from a work¬
ing beam, and is loaded on the top with weights ex¬
ceeding that of the column, of water which it difplaces.
Now fuppofe this, beam allowed to defeend from the
politien in which it is drawn in the figure ; the wa¬
ter muft rife all around it, in the crevice which is be¬
tween it and the trunk, and alfo in the rifing pipe ; be¬
caufe the valve P fliuts, and H opens ; fo that when the.
plunger has got to the bottom, the water will Hand at
the level of K. When the plunger is again drawn up
to the top by the aftion of the moving power, the wa¬
ter finks again in the trunk, but not irr the rifing pipe,,
becaufe it is flopped by the valve H. Then allowing
the plunger to defeend again, the water mull again rife
in the trunk to the level of K, and it muft now flow
out at K; and the quantity difeharged will be equal to
the part of the beam below the furface of the pit-
water, deducing the quantity which fills the fmall fpace
between the beam and the trunk. This quantity may
be reduced almoll to nothing; for if the infide of the
trunk and the outfide of the beam be made tapering,.
the beam may be let down till they exaftly fit ; and as
this may be done in fquare work, a good workman can
make it exceedingly accurate. But in this cafe, the
lower half of the beam and trunk mull not taper; and
this part of the trunk muft be of fufficient width
round the beam to allow free paffage into the riling
pipe. Or, which is better, the rifing pipe mull branch
off from the bottom of the trunk. A. difeharge may
be made from the ciftern FADE, fo that as little wa¬
ter as poffible may defeend along the trunk when the
pifton is raifed.
One great excellence of this pump is, that it is per-[ts excel-
feftly free from all the deficiencies which in common lencies «r<t
pumps refult from want of being air-tight. Another conh^er"
is, that the quantity of water raifed is precifely equala^lc*
to the power expended ; for any want of accuracy in
the work, while it occafions a diminution of the quan¬
tity of water difeharged, makes an equal diminution in
the weight which is neceffary for pufhing down the
plunger. We have feen a machine confifting of two
fuch pumps fufpended from the arms of a long beam,
the upper fide of which was formed into a walk with
a rail on each fide. A man flood on one end till it
got to the bottom, and. then walked fobeily up
to the other end, the inclination being about twenty-
five degrees at firll, but gradually diminifhed as he went
along, and changed the load of the beam. By this
means he made the other end go to the bottom, and fo
on alternately, with the eafielt of all exertions, and
what we are moft fitted for by our ftrutture. With this
machine, a very feeble old man, weighing no pounds,
raifed 7 cubic feet of water 114 feet high in a minute,
and continued working 8 or 10 hours every day. A
flout young man, weighing nearly 135 pounds, raifed
8y to the fame height; and when he carried 30 pounds,
conveniently flung about him, he raifed 9^ feet to this
height, working 10 hours a-day without fatiguing
himfelf. This exceeds Defaguh’er’s maximum of a
hogfkead of water 10 feet high in a minute, in the pro-
S portion
-P^Rip.
it is Ii-
«uccd.
4S
Haikin’s
pump de-
itnbcd.
49
Its mode
optra-
P U M t <
portion of 9 to 7 nearly. It xa limited to very mode¬
rate heights; but in fuch Situations it is very tffe&ual.
It was the contrivance of an untaught labouring man,
pofleffed of uncommon mechanical genius. We (hall
have occaiion to mention, w ith refpeft, fome other con¬
trivances of the fame pex-fon in the article Water-
JVorks.
VI. The moft ingenious contrivance of a pump with¬
out fridtion is that of Mr Hafkins, deferibed by Defagu-
liers, and called by him the Quicksilver Pump. Its
conftru&ion and mode of operation are pretty compli¬
cated ; but the following preliminary obfervations will,
we hope, render it abundantly plain.
Let ilmk (fig. 19.) be a cylindrical iron pipe, about
fix feet long, open at top. Let eghf be another cy¬
linder, conne&ed with it at the bottom, and of fmaller
diameter. It may either be folid, or, if hollow, it
mud be clofe at top. Let aedb be a third iron
cylinder, of an intermediate diameter, fo that it may
move up and down between the other two without
touching either, but with as little interval as poflible.
Let this middle cylinder communicate by means of the
pipe AB, with the upright pipe FE, having valves C
and D (both opening upwards) adjoining to the pipe
of communication. Suppofe the outer cylinder fuf-
pended by chains from the end of a working beam, and
let mercury be poured into the interval between the
three cylinders till it fills the fpace to 0 p, about ^ of
their height. Alfo fuppofe that the lowor end of the
pipe FE is immerfed into a ciftern of water, and that
the valve D is lefs than 33 feet above the furface of this
water.
Now fuppofe a perforation made fomewhere in the
pipe AB, and a communication made with an air-pump.
When the air-pump is worked, thu air contained in CE,
in AB, and in the fpace between the inner and middle
cylinders, is rarefied, and is abltra&ed by the air-pump ;
for the valve D immediately {huts. The preflure of
the atmofphere will caufe the water to rife in the pipe
CE, and will caufe the mercury to rife between the*
inner and middle cylinders, and fink between the outer
and middle cylinders. Let us fuppofe mercury 12
times heavier than water : Then for every foot that
the water rifes in EC, the level between the outfide
and infide mercury will vary an inch ; and if we fup¬
pofe DE to be 30 feet, then if we can rarefy the air
fo as to raife the water to D, the outfide mercury will
be deprefied to y, r, and the infide mercury will have
rifen to st t, s q and t r being about 30 inches. In this
Hate of things, the water wifi run over by the pipe BA,
'and every thing will remain nearly in this pofition. The
columns of water and mercury balance each other, and
balance the prefFure of the atmofphere.
While things are in this ftate of equilibrium, if we
allow the cylinders to defeend a little, the water will
rife in the pipe FE, which we may now confider as a
liudion-pipe ; for by this motion the capacity of the
whole is enlarged, and therefore the prefiure of the at¬
mofphere will Itill keep it full, and the lituation of the
mercury will again be fuch that all lhall be in equilibrio.
It will be a little lower in the infide fpace -and higher
in the outfide.
'faking this view of things, we fee clearly how the
water is fupported by the atmofphere at a very couli-
159 ] • P U M
fiderable height. The apparatus is analogous to a fy.
phon which has one leg filled with water and the other
with mercury. But it was not necefiary to employ an
air-pump to fill it. Suppofe it again empty,. and all
the valves fiiut by their own weight. Let the cylinders
defeend a little. The capacity of the fpaces below the
valve D is enlarged, and therefore the included air is
rarefied, and fome of the air in the pipe CE muft dif-
fufe itfelf into the fpaee quitted by die inner cylinder.
Therefore the atmofphere will prefs fome water up the
pipe FE, and fome mercury into the inner fpace be¬
tween the cylinders. When the cylinders are raifed
again, the air which came from the pipe CE would re¬
turn into it again, but is prevented by the valve C.—
Railing the cylinders to their former height would com-
prefs this air ; it therefore lifts the valve D, and efcapes.
Another depreflion of the cylinders will have a fimilar
effe£. The water will rife higher in FC, and the mer¬
cury in the inner fpace ; and then, after repeated ftrokes,
the water will pafs the valve C, and fill the whole ap¬
paratus, as the air-pump had caufed it to do before.—
The pofition of the cylinders, when things are in tin's
fituation, is reprefented in fig. 20, the outer and inr.fr
cylinders in their lovveft pofition having defeended about
30 inches. The mercury in the outer fpace Hands
at y, r, a little above the middle of the cylinders, and
the mercury in the inner fpace is near the top / / of the
inner cylinder. Now let the cylinders be drawn up.
'I'he water above the mercury cannot get back again'
through the valve C, which {huts by its own weight.
We therefore attempt to comprefs it; but the mercury
yields, and defeends in the inner fpace, and rifes in
the outer till botli are quickly on a level, about the
height w. - If we continue to raife the cylinders, the
compreffion forces out more mercury, and it now Hands
lower in the inner than in the outer fpace. But that
there may be fomething to balance this inequality of
the mercurial columns, the water goes through the
valve D, and the equilibrium is reltored when the
height of the water in the pipe ED above the furface
of the internal mercury is 12 times the difference of
the mercurial columns (on the former fuppeiition of
fpecific gravity.) If the quantity of water is fuch as
to rife two feet in the pipe ED, the mercury in the
outer fpace will be two incites higher than that in tfie
inner fpace. Another depreflion of the cylinders will
again enlarge the fpace within the apparatus, the mer¬
cury will take the pofition of fig. 19. and more water
will come in. Raifing the cylinders will fend this
water four feet up the pipe ED, and the mercury' will
be four inches higher in the inner than in the outer
fpace. Repeating this operation, the water will be
raifed Hill higher in DE ; and this will go on till the
mercury in the outer fpace reaches the top of the cy¬
linder ; and this is the limit of the performance. The
dimenfions with v/hich we fet out will enable the ma¬
chine to raife the water about 30 feet in the pipe ED ;
which, added to the 30 feet of CF, makes the whole
height above the pit-water 60 feet. By making the
cylinders longer, we increafe the height of FD. ' This
machine mult be worked with great attention, and but
Howly ; for at the beginning of the forcing flroke the
mercury very rapidly finks in the inner fpace and rifes
in the outer, and will dafh out and be lofl. To pre-
4 O 2 vent
Pump.
fur.p,
50
Ingenuity
of the con¬
nivance
g'eat,
51
But the ad¬
vantage
Viflirg.
5l .
Defcrigtion
of another
pump with¬
out fric¬
tion.
53
Its mode
of opera¬
tion, &c.
p U M [ 660 ]
vent this as much as poHible, the outer eylmdtr term!* fill part of the trunk,
nates in a fort of cup or dhh, and the inner cylinder
{hould be tapered atop.
The machine is exceedingly ingenious and refined ;
and there is no doubt but that its performance will ex¬
ceed that of any other pump which raifes the water to
the fame height, becaufe fri&ion is completely avoided,
and there can be no want of tightnefs of the pifton.—
But this is all its advantage ; and, from what has been
obferved, it is but trifling. The expence would be e-
normous ; for with whatever care the cylinders are made,
the interval between the inner and outer cylinders mull
contain a very great quantity of mercury. The middle
cylinder mull be made of iron plate, and mull be without
a feam,.for the mercury would difiblve every' folder. For
fuch reafons, it has never come into general ufe. But
it-would have been unpardonable to have omitted the
defeription of an invention which is fo original and in¬
genious ; and there are feme occafions where it may be
of great ufe, as in nice experiments for illuflxating the
theory of hydraulics, it would give the finelt pillons for
meafuring the preflures of water in pipes, &c. It is
on precilcly the fame principle that the cylinder bel¬
lows, deferibed in the article Pneumatics, are con-
ftrudled.
We beg leave to conclude this pail of the fubjeft
with the defeription of a pump w ithout friftion, which
may be condrudted in a variety of ways by any common
carpenter, without the afliilauce of the pump-maker or
plumber, and wull be very effedlive for railing a great
quantity of water to fmall heights, as in draining
marflies, marie pits, quarries, &c. or even for the fervice
of a houfe.
VII. ABCD (fig. 21.) is a fquare trunk of carpen¬
ter’s work open at both ends, and having a little ci-
lleni and ipout at top. Near the bottom there is a
partition made of board, perforated with a hole E,
and covered with a clack, f ff f reprefents a long cy¬
lindrical bag or pudding, made of leather or of double
canvas, with a fold of thin leather fuch as fheepfldn be¬
tween the canvas bags. This is firmly nailed to the
board E with foft leather between. 'I he upper end of
this bag is fixed on a round board, having a hole and
valve F. This board may be turned in the lathe with
a greove round its edge, and the bag faltened to it by
a cord bound tight round it. The loi k of the. pifton-
rod FG is firmly fixed into this board; the bag is kept
dillended by a number of wooden hoops or rings of
ilrong wire //, //, //, &c. put into it at a few inches
dillance from each other. It will be proper to connect
thefe hoops before putting them in, by three or four
cords from top to bottom, which will keep them at
their proper diftances. Thus will the bag have the
form of a barber’s bellows powder-puff. The dillance
between the hoops fhould be about twice the breadth
of the rim of the wooden ring to which the upper valve
and pillon-rod are fixed.
Now let this trunk be immerfed in the water. It is
evident that if the bag be liretched from the compref-
fed form which its own weight will give it by drawing
up the pillon-rod, its capacity will be enlarged, the
valve F will be fhut by its owrn weight, the air in the
bag will be rarefied, and the atmofphere will prefs the
water into the bag. When the rod is thrall down
Sgain, this water will come out by the valve F, and
Pump.
P U M
A repetition of the operation
will have a fimilar effeft ; the trunk will be filled, and
the water will at laft be difeharged by the fpout-
Here is a pump without fridtion, and perfectly tight.
For the leather between the folds of canvas renders the
bag impervious both to air and water. And the can¬
vas has very confiderable llrength. We know from
experience that a bag of fix inches diameter, made of
fail-cloth n°3. with a fheep Ik in between, will bear a co¬
lumn of 15 feet of water, and Hand fix hours work
per day for a month without failure, and that the pump
is conliderably fuperior in effect to a common pump
of the fame dimenfions. We mull only obferve, that the
length of the bag mull be three times the intended
length of the ftroke; fo that when the pilton-rod is in
its higheft pofition, the angles or ridges of the bag'may
be pretty acute. If the bag be more ftretched than
this, the force which mull be exerted by the labourer
becomes much greater than the weight of the column
of water which he is railing. If the pump be laid
afiope, which is very ufual in thefe occafional and haily
drawings, it is neceffary to make a guide for the pi-
fton-rod within the trunk, that the bag may play up
and down without rubbing on the fidesy which would
quickly wear it out.
The experienced reader will fee that this pump is
very like that of Goffet and De la Deuille, deferibed bv
Belidor Vql^ II. p, 120. and moll writers on hydraulics^
It would be Hill more like it, if the bag were on the
under lide of the partition E, and a valve placed farther
down the trunk. But we think that our form is great¬
ly preferable in point of Hrength. When in the other
fituation, the column of water lifted by the pillon
tends to lurjt the bag, and this with a great force, as
the intelligent reader well knows. But in the form re¬
commended here, the bag is comprrjfai, and the Hraia
on each part may be made much lefs than that which
tends to buril a bag of fix inches diameter. The near¬
er the rings are placed to each other the fmaller will
the Hrain be.
The fame bag-piHon may be employed for a forcing
pump, by placing it below the partition, and inverting
the valve ; and it will then be equally Hrong, becaufe
the refinance in this cafe too will a<H by comprefiion.
We now come naturally to the confideration of the
different forms which may be given to the piitons and
valves ol a pump. A good deal of what we have been
delcribing already is reducible to this head; but, having
a more general appearance, changing as it were the
whole form and HruClure of the pump, it was not im¬
proper to keep thefe things together.
The great deiideurtum in a piffon is, that it be as
tight as pollible, and have as little fridtion as is con-flumldhav*
fiilent with this indifpenfable quality. We have al-little trie-
ready laid, that the common form, when carefully exe-tiou‘
cuted, has thefe properties in an eminent degree. And
accordingly this form has kept its ground amidH all
the improvements which ingenious artiils have made.
Mr Belidor, an author of the firff reputation, has given
the defeription of a pillon which he lughly extols, and
is undoubtedly a very good one, conffruAed from prin¬
ciple, and extremely well compofed.
It confifts of a hollow cylinder of metal g h (fig. 22.) An imprtv-
pierced with a number ot holes, and having at top a ve(l one by
Hanch AB, whofe diameter is nearly equal to that 0f Beli^or*
the
54
Vorw'*
F U M [ 661
the workin'j-barrel of the pump, ^hit fimtch has a
groove round it. Tire re is another flaneh Uv bdow,
by which this hollow cylinder is fattened with bolts to
the lower end of the pitton, reprefented in hg. 23.
This confifts of a plate CD, with a grooved edge fimi-
lar to AB, and an intermediate plate which forms the
feat of the valve. The compofition of this part is bet¬
ter underttood by infpedbing the figure than by any
defeription. The pitton-rod HL is fixed to the tipper
plate by bolts through its different branches at G> G.
This metal body is then covered with a cylindiical bag
of leather, fattened on it by cords bound round it, filling
up the grooves in the upper and lower plates. The
operation of the piilon is as follows.
A little water is poured into the pump, which gets
paft the fides of the pifton, and lodges below in the
fixed valve. The pifton being puttied down dips into
this water, ami it gets into it by the valve. But as the
pifton in defeending compreffes the air below it, this
compreffed air alio gets into the inttde of the pitton,
fwells out the bag which furrounds it, and compreffes it
to the fides of the vyorking-barrel. When the pifton is
drawn up again, it mutt remain tight, becaule the valve
will fhut and keep in the air in its moft compreffed
ftate ; therefore the pitton mutt perfonn well during the
fudftion. It mutt a£t equally well when puttied down
again, and adling aa a forcer ; for however great the
refiftance may be, it will affoft the air within the piftou
to the fame degree, and keep the leather clofe applied
to the barrel. There can be no doubt therefore of the
pifton’s performing both its offices completely ; but we
imagine that the adhefion to the barrel will be greater
than is neceffary; it will extend over the whole fur-
face of the pitton, and be equally great in every part of
its furface ; and we fufpedt that the fridfipn will there¬
fore be very great. We have very high authority for
fuppofing that the adhefion of a pitton of the common
form, carefully made, will be fuch as will make it per¬
ils dtfifls. fcdfly tight ; and it is evident that the adhefion of Bc-
lidor’s pifton will be much greater, and it will be pro¬
ductive of worfe confequences. If the leather bag is
worn through in any one place, the air efcapes, and
the pifton ceafes to be compreffed altogether; whereas
in the common pirton there will very little harm refult
from the leather being worn through in one place, ef-
pecially if it projeCt a good way beyond the bafe of the
cone. We ftill think the common pitton preferable.
Belidor’s pifton would do much better inverted as the
pifton of a fucking pump; and in this fituation it would
be equal, but not fuperior, to the common.
Btlidor dtferibes another forcing pifton, which he
had executed with fuccefs, and prefers to the common
wooden forcer. It confifts of a metal cylinder or cone,
having a broad flanch united to it at one end, and a fi-
milar flanch which is ferewed on the other end. Be¬
tween thefe two plates are a number of rings of leather
ftrongly compreffed by the two flanches, and then turn¬
ed in a lathe like a block of wood, till the whole fits
tight, when dry, into the barrel. It will fw’ell, fays he,
and foften with tire water, and withftand the greateil
preffures. We cannot help thinking this but an indif¬
ferent pifton. When it wears, there is nothing to
fqueeze it to the barrel. It may indeed be taken out
and another ring or twro of leather put in, or the flanch¬
es may be more ftrongly ferewed together ; hut all this
1
P U M
Pump,
—-v—
59
56
57
Another by
the fame
author.
. 58
©hied ions
to it.
may be done with any kind of pifton } and this has
therefore no peculiar merit.
The following will, we prefume, appear vaftly pre-^norher
ferable. A BCD (fig. 24.) is the folid wooden or metal recom-
block of the pifton; LF is a metal plate, wliich is turn- mended as
ed hollow or ditti like belowr, fo as to receive w ithin it referable,
the folid block. The pifton rod goes .through the
whole, and has a {boulder above the plate EF, and a
nut FI below. Four fcrevv-bolts, fuch as i /•, / m, alio go
through the whole, having their heads 1, m funk into
the block, and nuts above at /, /. The packing or
fluffing, as it is termed by the workmen, is reprefented
at NO. This is made as folid as poffible, and generally
confifts of foft hempen twine well foaked in a mixture
of oil, tallow, and roiln. The plate F.F is gently ferew¬
ed down, and the whole is then put into the barrel,
fitting it as tight as may he thought proper. When it
wears loofe, it may be tightened at any time by ferew-
ing dow n the nuts i /, which caufe the edges of the ditti
to fqueeze out the packing, and comprefs it againft the
barrel to any degree. g0
The greateft difficulty in the conflrudlion of ^_piflon Difficultiss
is to give a fufficient paffage through it for the water, ’V conf|.ruc*
and yet allow' a firm fupport for the valve, and fixture
for the pifton rod. We fhall fee prefently that it oc- 1
cations a conliderable cxpence of the moving power to
force a pifton with a narrow perforation through the
water lodged in the w’orking barrel. When we are
raifing water to a fmall height, fuch as 10 or 20 feet,
the power fo expended amounts to a fourth part of the
whole, if the water-way in the pifton is lefs than one-
half of the fedlion of the barrel, and the velocity of the
pifton two feet fer fecond, which is very moderate.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that metal piflons •
are preferable, becaufe their greater ftreugth allows
much wider apertures. 61
1 he following pifton, deferihed and recommended Confider-
by Belidor, feems asperfedl in thefe refpedls as the na- ll,ly remo- -
ture of things will allow. We fhall therefore deferibe
it in the author’s own w ords as a model, which may by uclidor.
be adopted with confidence in the greateft works.
“ i he body of the pifton is a truncated metal cone y>iate
CCXX (fig. 25.), having a fmall fillet at the gieater ccccxxvu
end. Fig. 26 fhows the profile, and fig. 27. the plan
of its upper bale ; where appears a crofs bar DD, pier¬
ced with an oblong mortife E for receiving the tail of
the pifton-rod. A band of thick and uniform leather
A A (t g. 26. and 28.) is put round this cone, and fe-
cured by a brafs hoop BB firmly driven on its fmaller
end, where it is pvevioufly made thinner to give room
for the hoop.
“ This pifton is covered with a leather valve, fortified
with metal plates GG (fig. 29.) Thefe plates are
wider than the hole of the pifton, fo as to reft on its
rim. There are fimilar plates below the leather of a
fmaller fize, that they may go into the hollow of the
pifton ; and the leather is firmly held between the metal
plates by ferew’s FI, FI, which go through all. This
is reprefented by the dotted circle IK. 1 bus the pref-
fure of the incumbent column of water is fuppocted by
the plates GG, wluffe circular edges reft on the brim
of the w'ater-way, and thus ftraight edges reft on the
crofs bar DD of fig. 26. and 27. This valve is laid
on the top of the conical box in fuch a manner that ita
middle FF refts on the crofs bar. To bind all together,
the
Fump.
62
Advanta¬
ges of this
piftou.
63
Another
ingenious
Und ufeful
pifton de¬
scribed.
64
Another on
p u m r 662
the en3 of the pifton-rod is formed like a crofs, and the
arms MN (fig. 30.) are made to reft on the diameter
FF of the valve, the tail EP going through the hole E
in the middle of the leather, and through the mortife E
of the crofs bar of the box ; and alfo through another
bar QR (fig. 28. and 29.) which is notched into the
lower brim df'the box. A key V is then driven into
the hole T in the pifton-rod ; and this wedges all faft.
The bar QR is made ftrong ; and its extremities projeft
a little, fo as to fupport the brafshoop BB which binds
the leather band to the pifton-box. The adjoining
fcale gives the dimenfions of all the parts, as they were
executed For a fteam-engine near Condo, where the pi-
Iton gave complete fatisfa£lion.,,
This pifton has every advantage of ftrength, tightnefs,
and large water-way. The form of the valve (which
has given it the name of the lutterjly-valve) is extreme¬
ly favourable to the pafiage of the water; and as it has
but halft the motion of a complete circular valve, lefs
water goes back while it is fhutting.
The . following pifton is alfo ingenious, and has a
good deal of merit. OPPO (fig. 31.) is the box of
the pifton, having a perforation Q, covered above with
a flat valve K, which refts in a metal plate that forms
the top of the box. ABCBA is a ftirrup of iron to
which the box is fixed by fqrews a, a, aya, whofe heads
are funk in the wood. This ftimip is perforated at C,
to'receive the end of the pifton-rod, and a nut H is
fcrewed on below to keep it faft. DEFED is another
ftirrup, whofe lower part at DD forms a hoop like the
foie of a ftirrup, which embraces a fmall part of the top
of the wooden box. The lower end of the pifton-rod
is fcrewed ; and before it is put into the holes of the
two ftimips (through which holes it Aides freely) a
broad nut G is fcrewed on it. It is then put into the
holes, and the nut H firmly fcrewed up. The packing
RR is then wound about the pifton as tight as poflible
till it completely fills the working barrel of the pump.
When long ufe has rendered it in any degree loofe, it
may be tightened again by fcrewing down the nut G.
This caufes the ring DD to comprefs the packing be¬
tween it and the projefting {boulder of the box at PP j
and thus caufes it to fwell out, and apply itfelf clofely
to the •barrel.
Pump,
65
] P U M
When the pifton-rod is drawn up again, the box does
not move till the plate E lodged in the feat PP, and
thus fhuts the water-way; and then the pifton lifts the
water which is above it, and ads as the pifton of a
fucking pump.
1 his is a very fimple and efleftive conftruftion, and ft? ad van-
makes a very tight valve. It has been much recom- tagcs,
mended by engineers of the firft reputation, and is
frequently ufed ; and from its fimplicity, and the great
folidity of wluch it is capable, it feems veiy fit for
great works. But it is evident that the water-way is
limited to lefs than one-half of the area of the working-
barrel. For if the perforation of the pifton be one-half
of the area, the diameter of the plate or ball EF muft
be greater ; and therefore lefs than half the area will
be left for the paflage of the water by its fides. ^
We come now to conlider the forms which may beobferva-
given to the valves of a hydraulic engine. tions on
The requifites of a valve are, that it {hall be tight,valves
of fufficient ftrength to refift the great prefliues to
which it is expofed, that it afford a fufficient paflage
for the water, and that it do not allow much to go back
while it is {hutting.
We have not much to add to what has been faid already Clack/
on this fubjeft. The valves which accompany the pump valves.
fig* 5* are called clack valves, and are of all the moft
obvious and common ; and the conftruCtion defcribed on
that occafion is as perfe<ft as any. We only add, that
as the leather is at laft deftroyed at the hinge by fuch
inceflant motion, and it is troublefome, efpecially in
deep mines, and under water, to undo the joint of the
pump in order to put in a new valve, it is frequently
annexed to a box like that of a ptfton, made a little
conical on the outfide, fo as to fit a conical feat made
for it in the pipe, as reprefented in fig. 33. and it has
an iron handle like that of a bafkct, by which it can
be laid hold of by means of a long grappling-hook let
down from above. 1 bus it is drawn up ; and being very
gently tapered on the fides, it flicks very faft in its
place.
The only defeft of this valve is, that By opening
very wide when pufhed up by the itream of water, it them,
allows a good deal to go back during its {hutting again.
In fome great machines which are worked by a flow
nother un \Ve {hall add only another form of a perforated pifton ; turning crank, the return of the pifton is fo very flow,
Princnle.11 ^ich being on a principle different from all the prece- that a fenfible lofs is incurred by this ; but it is nothing
ding, will fuggeft many others; each of which will have ,:i t-— ta . _r_ _ i-. r , r ’• ’
its peculiar advantages
OO in fig. 32. reprefents the
box of this pifton, fitted to the working barrel in any
of the preceding ways as may he thought belt. AB
is a crofs bar of four arms, which is fixed to the top of
the box. CF is the pifton-rod going through a hole in
the middle of AB, and reaching a little way beyond
the bottom of the box. It has a {boulder D, which
prevents its going too far through. On the lower end
there is a thick metal plate, turned conical on its upper
fide, fo as to fit a conical feat PP in the bottom of the
pifton-box.
When the pifton-rod is pufhed down, the fri&ion on
the barrel prevents the box from immediately yielding.
The rod therefore flips through the hole -of the crofs
bar AB. The plate E, therefore, detaches itfelf from
the box. When the {boulder D preffes on the bar
AB, the box muft yield, and be pulhed down the bar¬
rel®, and the water gets up through the perforation.
like what Dr Defagidiers fays, one-half of a cylinder
whofe height is equal to the diameter of the valve.—
For in fuch machines, the laft part of the upward
ftroke is equally flow, and the velocity of the water
through the valve exceedingly fmall, fo that the valve
is at this time almoft {hut.
The butterfly-valve reprefented in figures 29, See. is utility ef
free from moft of thofe inconveniences, and feems the fhe butter-
moll perfedl of the clack valves. Some engineers make Ay-valves,
their great valves of a pyramidal form, confifting of four
clacks, whofe hinges are in the circumference of the
water-way, and which meets with their points in the
middle, and are fupported by four ribs which rife up
■from the fides, and unite in the middle. This is an ex¬
cellent form, affording the moft fpacious water-way,
and {hutting very readily. It feems to be the beft pof-
{ible for a pifton. The rod of the pifton is branched
out on four fides, and the branches go through the pi¬
fton-box, and arc faftened below with fcrewe. Thefe
branches
Itamp.
70
Button
valves
7i
Very ufe-
ful;
71
Though
fomewhat
imperfed;
irvthe wa-
ter-wiy.
73
A very
funple
valve de-
fcribed.
74
A valve
by Belidor
uniting e-
very requi*
file.
P U M [663
branches form the fupport for the four clacks. We
have feen a valve of this form in a pump of fix feet di¬
ameter, which difcharged 20 hogfheads of water every
Itroke, and made 12 ilrokes in a minute, railing the wa¬
ter above 22 feet.
There is another form of valve, called the button or
tail valvs. It confifts of a plate of metal AB (fig. 34.)
turned conical, fo as exactly to fit the conical cavity
a £ of its box. A tail CD projects from the under
fide, which palfes through a crofs bar EF in the bot¬
tom of the box, and has a little knob at the end, to hin¬
der the valve from rifing too high.
This valve, when nicely made, is unexceptionable.
It has great ftrength, and is therefore proper for all fe-
vere Itrains, and it may be made perfe6lly tight by
grinding. Accordingly it is ufed in all cafes where this
is of indifpenfable confequence. It is molt durable,
and the only kind that will do for paflages where fleam
or hot water is to go through. Its only imperfec¬
tion is a frnall water-way ; which, from what has been
faid, cannot exceed, nor indeed equal, one-half of the
area of the pipe.
If we endeavour to enlarge the water-way, by giving
the cone very little taper, the valve frequently Hicks
fo fall in the feat that no force can detach them.—
And this fometimes happens during the working of the
machine; and the jolts and blows given to the machine
in taking it to pieces, in order to difcover what has
been the reafon that it has difcharged no water, fre¬
quently detaches the valve, and we find it quite loofe,
and cannot tell what has deranged the pump. When
this is guarded againll, and the diminution of the wa¬
ter-way is not of very great confequence, this is the bell
form of a valve.
Analogous to this is the fimplell of all valves, repre-
fented in fig. 33. It is nothing more than a fphere of
metal A, to which is fitted a feat with a fmall portion
BC of a fpherical cavity- Nothing can be more effec¬
tual than this valve ; it always falls into its proper
place, and in every pofition fits it exaftly. Its only
imperfection is-the great diminution of the water-way.
If the diameter of the fphere does not conliderably ex¬
ceed that of the hole, the. touching parts have very
little taper, and it is very apt to Hick fall. It oppofes
much lefs refinance to the paffage of the water than the
fiat under-furface of the button-valve. N. B. It would
be an improvement of that valve to give it a taper-fhape
below like a boy’s top. The fpherical valve muff not
be made too light, otherwife it will be hurried up by
the water, and much may go back while it is returning
to its place..
1
P U M
Belidor defcribes with great minutenefs (vol. ii. p.
221, &c.) a valve which unites every requiiite. But
it is of fuch nice and delicate conHruClion, and its de-
feCls are fo great when this exaftnefs is not attained, or
is impaired by ufe, that we think it hazardous to in¬
troduce it into a machine in a fituation where an intel¬
ligent and accurate artiff is not at hand. For this
reafon we have omitted the defcription,. which cannot
be given in few words, nor without many figures; and
defire our curious readers to confult that author, or per-
ufe Dr Defagulier’s tranflation of this paffage. Its
principle is precifely the fame with the following rude
contrivance, with which we fhallconcludethe'defcrip-
tive part, of this article.
Suppofe ABCD (fig. 36.) to be a fquare wooden Pump,
trunk. EF is a piece of oak-board, exaftly fitted to
the trunk in an oblique pofition, and fupported by anAnojh5er
iron pin which goes through it at I, one-third of its valve on
length from its lower extremity E. The two ends of cb? fame
this board are bevelled, fo as to apply exa&ly to thePr*nci^e‘
fides of the trunk. It is evident, that if a Hream of
water comes in the diredlion BA, its preffure on the
part IF of this board will be greater than that upon
El. It will therefore force it up and rulh through,
making it Hand almoll parallel to the fides of the trunk.
To prevent its rifing fo far, a pin muH be put in its
way. When this current of water changes its direc¬
tion, the preffure on the upper fide of the board being
again greateff on the portion IF, it is forced back again
to its former fituation ; and its two extremities reffing
on the oppofite fides of the trunk, the paffage is com¬
pletely Hopped. This board therefore performs the
office of a valve j and this valve is the moll perfeft that
can be, becaufe it offers the freed paffage to the water,
and it allows very little to get back while itis (hutting ; •-
for the part IE brings up half as much water as IF al¬
lows to go down. It may be made extremely tight,
by fixing two thin fillets H and Cx to the fides of the
trunk, and covering thofe parts of the board with lea¬
ther which applies to them ; and in this Hate it perfect¬
ly refembles Belidor’s fine valve. ^5
And thb conHruClion of the valve fuggefls, by theDefcriptioa
way, a form of an occafional pump, which may be °fan ^
quickly fet up by any common carpenter, and will beca^ >nal
very effeClual in fmall heights. Let a b c d e (fig. 36.) be jil^con-*
a fquare box made to Hide along this wooden trunk with-ftrudUd.
out (hake, having; two of its fides projecting upwards,
terminating like the gable-ends of a houfe. A piece of
wood e is mortifed into thefe two fides, and to this the
piHon-rod is fixed. This box being furniffied with a
valve fimilar to the one below, will perform the office
of a piHon. If this pump be immerfed fo deep in the
water that the pifion (hall alfo be under water, we
fcruple not to fay that its performance will be equal to
any. The pifion may be made abundantly tight by co¬
vering its outfide neatly with foft leather. And as no -
pipe can be bored with greater accuracy than a very or¬
dinary workman can make a fquare trunk, we prefume
that this pump will not be very deficient even for a con-
fiderable fuCtion.
We now proceed to the lafi part of the fubjeCl, to p|ie
77
confider the motion of water in pumps, in reference totionofwa*-
the force which muH be employed. What we haveter irl
hitherto faid with refpeCl to the force which muH be?11111?8
applied to a pifion, related only to the fufiaining the
water at a certain height: but irv aCfual fervice we
muft not only do this, but we mufi difeharge it at the
place of delivery in a certain quantity ; and this mufi
require a force fuperadded to what is neceffary for its
mere fupport at this height.
This is an extremely intricate and difficult
and very imperfeCUy underfiood even by profeffed en- cate fub-
gineers. The principles on which this knowledge mutl jedt-
be founded are of a much more abfirufe nature than the
ordinary laws of hydroftatics ; and all the genius of
Newton was employed in laying the foundation of this
part of phyfical fcience. It has been much cultivated
in the courfe of this century by the firfi mathematicians
of Europe. Daniel and John Bernoulli have written
very
fubjea,An I’f,;.
T*nmpf
79 .
rJ'he theory
denomina¬
ted lryifrO-
Jyfiamici,
8o
Jhough
imperteeft
is very
ufeful.
Sr
E-urdamen.
tal propofr
tion.
p U M
664 1
P U M
very elaborate treatifea on the fubjeil, urm : <* fhe very
appofite name of Hydrodynamics; in which, although
they have added little or nothing to the fundamental
proportions eftablifhed in fome fort by Newton, and
acquiefced in by them, yet they have greatly contribu¬
ted to our progrefs in it by the methods which they
have purfued in making application of thofe fundamen¬
tal propofitiens to the moil important cafes. It mud
be acknowledged, however, that both thefe propor¬
tions, and the exteniions given them by thefe authors,
are Supported by a train of argument that is by no
means unexceptionable; and that they proceed on af-
fumptions or poftulates which are but nearly true in
any cafe, and in many are inadmiflible : and it remains
to this hour a wonder or puzzle how thefe proportions
and their rebuts correfpond with the phenomena which
we obferve.
But fortunately this correfpondence docs obtain to
a certain extent. And it feems to be this correfpond¬
ence chiefly which has given thefe authors, with New¬
ton at their head, the confidence which they place in
their refpeftive principles and methods : for there are
conflderable differences among them in thofe refpedls ;
and each feems convinced that the others arc in a miffake.
Meffieurs d’Alembert and De la Grange have great¬
ly corre6ted the theories of their predeceffors, and have
proceeded on podulates which come much nearer to
the real date of the cafe. But their invedigations in¬
volve us in fuch an inextricable maze of analytical in-
vedigation, that even when we are again condudted to
the light of day by the clue which they have given us,
we can make no ufe of what we there difeovered.
But this theory, imperfeft as it is, is of great fer-
vice. It generalizes our obfervations and experiments,
and enables us to compofe a practical doRnne from a
heap of fails which otherwife mud have remained fo-
litary and unconneiled, and as cumberfome in their ap¬
plication as the charailers of the Chinefe writing.
The fundamental propofition of this practical hydro-
• dynamics is, that water or any fluid contained in an
open veflel of indefinite magnitude, and impelled by its
weight only, will flow through a fmall orifice with the
velocity which a heavy body would acquire by falling
from the horizontal furface of the fluid. Thus, if the
orifice is 16 feet under the furface of the water, it will
iiTue with the velocity of 32 feet in a fecond.
Its velocity correfponding to any other depth h of
the orifice under the furface, will be had by this eafy
proportion : “ As the fquare root of 16 is to the fquare
root of h ; fo is 32 feet to the velocity required : or,
alternately, //16 : 32 = y'A ; v, and v =
V 1 o
7 2
'V
8 \/ h : that is, multiply the fquare root of
the height in feet by eight, and the produdl is the re¬
quired velocity. f
On the other hand, it frequently occurs, that we
want to difeover the depth under the furface which will
produce a known velocity v
Therefore
y'i=s’
and h
64 : t^iat ‘s’ divide the fquare of the velo¬
city by 64* and the quotient is the depth wanted in
feet.
This propofiticn is fufficient for all our purpyftr. pump.
For fince water is nearly a perfe<£l fluid, and propagates 
all impreflions undiminifhed, we can, in place of any lts 8-,.f
preflure of a pifton or other caufe, fubllitute a perpen- 5 ut“i y
dicular column of water whofe weight is equal to this
preflure, and will therefore produce the fame efflux.—-
Thus, if. the furface of a piffon is half a fquare foot,
and it be preffed down with the weight of 500 pounds,
and we would wlfti to know with what velocity it would
caufe the water to flow through a fmall hole, we know
that a column of water of this weight, and of half a
foot bafe, would be 16 feet high. And this propoii-
ti >n teaches us, that a veflel of this deptli will have a
velocity of efflux equal to 32 feet in a fecond.
If therefore our prefiing power be of fuch a kind
that it can continue to prefs forward the pillon with
the force of 50O pounds, the water will flow with this
velocity, whatever be the fize of the hole. All that re¬
mains is, to determine what change of afluul prejfure
on the pifton relults from the motion of the pillon it-
felf, and to change the velocity of efflux in the fubdu-
plicate ratio of the change of a£lual preffure. § .
But before we can apply this knowledge to the cir-Remirk
cumflances which take place in the motion of water in Previou*
pumps, we mult take notice of an important modxfica-\
tion of the fundamental propofition, which is but very
obfeurely pointed out by any good theory, but is efta¬
blifhed on the moll regular and unexceptionable obfer-
vation.
If the efflux is made through a hole in a thin plate-,
and the velocity is computed as above, we fflall difeover
the quantity of water which iffues in a fecond by obfer-
ving, that it is a prifm or cylinder of the length indica¬
ted by the velocity, and having its tranfverfe fedlion
equal to that of the orifice. Thus, in the example al¬
ready given, fuppofing the hole to be a fquare inch, the
folid contents of this prifm, or the quantity ol water if-
fuing in a fecond, is I X 32 X 12 cubic inches, or 384
cubic inches. This we can ealily meafure by recei¬
ving it in a veflel of known dimenfions. Taking this
method, we uniformly find a deficiency of nearly 38
parts in 100; that is, if we fliould obtain 100 gal¬
lons in any number of feconds, we (hall in fail get only
62. This is a moll regular fail, whether the velocities
are great or fmall, and whatever be the fize and form
of the orifice. The deficiency increafes indeed in a
very minute degree with the velocities. If, for in-
ftance, the depth of the orifice be one foot, the dil-
charge is rVoVs ; if it be 15 feet, the difeharge is
6 1 ? 1
t . . .
This deficiency is not owing to a diminution of
velocity ; for the velocity may be eaiily and accurately
meafured by the diftanee to which the jet will go, it
direiled horizontally. This is found to correfpond very
nearly with the propofition, making a very fmall allow¬
ance for friflion at the border of the hole, and for the s
reliftance of the air. Sir liaac Newton aferibed the de¬
ficiency with great jullice to this, that the lateral co¬
lumns of water, furrounding the column which is in¬
cumbent on the orifice, prefs towards the orifice, and
contribute to the expence equally with that column.
Thefe lateral filaments, therefore, ifliie obliquely, crofs-
ing the motion of the central ftream, and produce a
contraclion of the jet ; and the whole ftream does not
acquire a parallel motion and its ultimate velocity till it
7 • has
p U M
Pump, has got to fome diftance from the orifice
.—v  fervation (bowed him that this was really the cafe, but
even his genius could not enable him to afcertain the
motion of the lateral filaments by theory, and he was
obliged to meafure eveiy thing as he faw it. He found
the diameter of the jet at the place of the greatell con¬
traction to be precifely fuch as accounted for the defi¬
ciency. His explication has been unanimoufly acqui-
efced in ; and experiments have been multiplied to afcer¬
tain all thofe circumftances which our theory capnot de¬
termine cipvtoFt* The molt complete fet of expenmeuts
are thofe of Michelotti, made at Turin at the expence
of the prince of Piedmont. Here jets were made of i,
2, 3, and 4 inches diameter ; and the water received into
citterns molt accurately formed of brick, and lined with
ftucco. It is the refult of thefe experiments which we
have taken for a meafure of the deficiency.
We may therefore confider the water as flowing
through a hole of this contracted dimenfion, or fubfti-
tute this for the real orifice in all calculations. . For it
is evident that if a mouth piece (fo to call it) were
made, whofe internal (hape precifely tallied with the
form which the jet aflumes, and if this mouth-piece be
applied to the orifice, the water will flow out without
any obttruCtion. The veflel may therefore be confldered
as really having this mouth-piece.
Nay, from this we derive a very important obferva-
tion, “ that if, inftead of allowing the water to flow
through a hole of an inch area made in a thin plate,
we make it flow through a hole in a thick plank, fo
formed that the external orifice fhall have an inch area,
but be widened internally agreeably to the (hape which
nature forms, both the velocity and quantity will be
that which the fundamental propofltion determines.
Michelotti meafured with great care the form of the
great jets of three and four inches diameter, and found
that the bounding curve was an elongated trochoid.
He then made a mouth-piece of this form for his jet of
one inch, and another for his jet of two inches ; and he
found the difeharges to be two an(i iVtsW* an^ he,
with juftice, aferibed the trifling deficiency which (till
remained, partly to friftion and partly to his not having
exadlly fuited his mouth-piece to the natural form. We
imagine that this laft circumilance was the foie caufe :
For, in the firft place, the water in his experiments, be¬
fore getting at his jet-holes, had to pafs along a tube of
eight inches diameter. Now a jet of four inches bears
too great a proportion to this p*pe ; and its narrownefs
undoubtedly hindered the lateral columns from contri¬
buting to the efflux in their due propertion, and tliere-
fore rendered the jet lefs convergent. And, in the
next place, there can be no doubt (and the obfervations
of Daniel Bernoulli confirm it)
gency begins within the veflel, and perhaps at a very
confiderable diftance from the orifice. And we ima¬
gine, that if accurate obfervations could be made on the
motion of the remote lateral particles within the veflel,
and an internal mouth-piece were (haped according to
the curve which is deferibed by the remoteft particle
that we can obferve, the efflux of water would nimoft
perfectly tally with the theory. But indeed the coin¬
cidence is already fufflciently near for giving us very va¬
luable information. We learn that the quantity of wa¬
ter which flows through a hole, in confequence of its
<wn weight, or by the adlion of any force, may be
Vol. XV. Part II.
[ 66.5 ] P U M
Careful ob- increafed one half by properly (haping the paflage to Pump.
this hole ; for we fee that it may be increafed from -
62 to near 99.
But there is another modification of the efflux, which
we confefs our total incapacity to explain. If the
water iflues through a hole made in a plate whofe
thicknefs is about twice the diameter of the hole, or,
to exprefs it better, if it iffues through a pipe whofe
length is about twice its diameter, the quantity difehar-
ged is nearly tVc what refults from the propofition.
If the pipe be longer than this, the quantity is dimi-
niffled by friftion, which increafes as the length of the
pipe increafes. If the pipe be (horter, the water will
not fill it, but detaches itfelf at the very entry of the
pipe, and flows with a contra&ed jet. When the pipe
is of this length, and the extremity is (lopped with the
finger, fo that it begins to flow with a full mouth, no
fubiequent contraaion is obferved ; but merely linking
on the pipe wdth a key or the knuckle is generally fut-
ficient to detach the wrater in an inttant from the fide#
of the pipe, and reduce the efflux to rgV*
This effea is mod unaccountable. It certainly arifes
from the mutual adhefion or attraction between the
water and the fides of the pipe ; but how this, ading
at right angles to the motion, (hould produce an in-
creafe from 62 to 82, nearly -J-, we cannot explain. It
(hows, however, the prodigious force of this attradion,
which in the (pace of two or three inches i^able to
communicate a great velocity to a very great body of
w'ater. Indeed the experiments on capillary tubes (how
that the mutual attradion of the parts of w ater is fome
thoufands of time greater than their weight.
We have only further to add, that every increafe of
pipe beyond two diameters is accompanied with a di¬
minution of the difeharge ; but in what ratio this is di-
minilhed it is very difficult to determine. We (hall only
obferve at prefent that the diminution is very great.
A pipe of 2 inches diameter and 30 feet long has it»
difeharge only tVs of what it would be if only 4
inches long. If its length be 60 feet, its difeharge will
be no more than T3eV A pipe of 1 inch diameter
would have a difeharge of and tV<5> fam$
fituation. Hence we may conclude that the difeharge
of a 4-inch pipe of 30 leet lortg will not exceed y of
what it would be if only 8 inches long. I his will fuf-
fice for our prefent purpofes; and the determination ot
the velocities and difeharges iu long conduits from
pump-machines mutt be referred to the article IVatf.r~
IVoris. At prefent we (hall confine our attention to the
pump itfelf, and to what will contribute to its improve¬
ment.
Before we can proceed to apply this fundamental
propofition to our purpofe, we mutt anticipate in a loofe
way a propofition of continual ufe in the conftrudiion of
IVATER-Works.
Let water be fuppofed ftagnant in a veflel EFGH
(fig. 37.) and let it be allowed to flow out by a cylin¬
drical pipe HIKL, divided by any number of partitions
B, C, D, &c. ' Whatever be the areas B, C, D, of
thefe orifices, the velocity in the intermediate parts of
the pipe will be the fame ; for as muoh pafles through
any one orifice in a fecond as pafles through any other
in the fame time, or through any iedlion of the inter¬
vening pipe. Let this velocity in the pipe be V, and
let the area of the pipe be A. The velocity in the 01 i-
4 P ficcs
but that this conver-
Pump.
P U M [
„ VA VA VA
nces B, C, D, muft be -jr > "q-* "iT-’ ^:c, ^et £
be the velocity acquired in a fecond by a heavy body.
Then, by the general propofition, the height of water
VA
in the veiTel which will produce the velocity in
B
the firft orifice alone, is j—. After this pafiage the
velocity is again reduced to V in the middle of the
fpace between the fir 11 and fecond orifices. In the fe-
VA
cond orifice this velocity is changed to • This a-
V2 A*
lone would have required a height of water
But the water is already moving with the velocity V,
which would have refulted from a height of water in
velfel (which we fhail, in the language of the art, call
V1
the head of water) equal to —. Therefore there
. , , Vz A* V?
is only required a head of water  — —, or
  1 2gCl 2g*
V2 A1
—— i. Therefore the whole height necelfary
lor producing the efflux through both orifices, fo as
ftill to preferve the velocity V in the intervening pipe,
V2vA2 , A1
— X j- 1.
2 g
In like manner the third orifice
D would alone require a head
A*
IT 2'
84
To derer-
mine the
motion of
water, &c.
f * v* A*
of water — X ——1;
and all the three would require a head X —+
4 2g B2^C
By this induction may eafily be feen wdiat
head is neceffar)’- for producing the efflux through any
number of orifices.
Let the expence or quantity of water difeharged in
an unit of time (fuppofe a fecond) be exprelfed by the
fymbol This is meafured by the produdl of the ve¬
locity by the area of the orifice, and is therefore =: VA,
VA w VA O2
or —g- X B, or -g X C, See. and V = There¬
fore we may compute the head of water (which we
fhail exprefs by H) in reference to the quantity of wa¬
ter di'charged, becaufe this is generally the intereding
Qi
eircumftance. In this view we have H X
     2gA
—2: hiows that the head of water
B2 C2 D2
neceffary for producing the difeharge increafcs in the
proportion of the fquare of the quantity of water which
is difeharged.
Thefe things being premifed, it is an eafy matter to
determine the motion of water in a pump, and the quan¬
tity difeharged, refulting from* the action of any force
on the pifton, or the force which muft be applied to
the pifton in order to produce any required motion or
quantity difeharged. We have only to fuppofe that the
force employed is the preffure of a column of water of
the diameter of the working barrel ; and this is over
and above the force which is neceffary for merely fup-
666 1 P U M
porting the water at the height of the place of delivery. Pump.
) he motion of the water will be the fame in both ~~ v—**^
cafes.
Let us, firft of all, confider a fucking-pump. The in theVucL
motion here depends on the preffure of the air, and will mg-punip,
be the fame as if the pump were lying horizontally, and
communicated with a refervoir, in which js a head of
water fufficient to overcome all the obftrulftions to the
motion, and produce a velocity of efflux fuch as we de¬
fire. And here it muft be noted that there is a limit.
No velocity of the pifton can make the water rife in the
fudtion-pipe with a greater velocity than what would
be produced by the preffure of a column of water 33
feet high ; that is, about 46 feet per fecond.
Let the velocity of the pifton be V, and the area of
the working barrel be A. Then, if the water fills the
barrel as fall as the pifton is drawn up, the difeharge
during the rife of the pifton, or the number of cubic
feet of water per fecond, muft be = VxA. This is
always fuppofed, and we have already afeertained the
circumftances which enfure this to happen. If, there¬
fore, the water arrived with perfedl freedom to the pif¬
ton, the force neceffary for giving it this velocity, or
for difeharging the quantity VxA in a fecond, would be
equal to the weight of the pillar of water whofe height
. V2
is  , and bafe A.
It does not appear at firft fight that the force ne¬
ceffary for producing this difeharge has any thing to di»
with the obftruCtions to the afeent of the water into the
pump, becaufe this is produced by the preffure of the
atmofphere, and it is the adtion of this preffure which
is meafiiFcd by the head of water neceffary for produ¬
cing the internal motion in the pump. But we muft al¬
ways recoiled! that the pifton, before bringing up any
water, and fupporting it at a certain height, was preffed
on both fides by the atmofphere. While the air fup-
ports the column below the pifton, all the preffure ex¬
pended in this fupport is abllradted from its preffure on
the under part of the pifton, while its upper part ftill
fupports the whole preffure. The atmofphere continues
to prefs on the under furface of the pifton, through the
intermedium of the water in the fudtion-pipe, with the
difference of thefe two forces.—Now, while the pifton
is drawn up with the velocity V, more of the atmofphe-
ric preffure muft be expended in caufing the water to
follow the pifton ; and it is only with the remainder of its
whole preffure that it continues to prefs on the under
furface of the pifton. Therefore, in order that the
pifton may be raifed with the velocity V, a force muft be
applied to it, over and above the force neceffary for
merely fupporting the column of water, equal to that
part of the atmofpheric preffure thus employed ; that
is, equal to the weight of the head of water neceffary
for forcing the water up through the fudtion-pipe, and
producing the velocity V in the working barrel.
Therefore let B be the area of tire mouth of the
fudtion-pipe, and C the area of the fixed valve, and let
the fudtion-pipe be of equal diameter with the working
barrel. The head neceffary for producing the velocity
,. , , . V2 / Ax A4 \
V on the working barrel is +_C2 1 j* ^
d exprefs the deniity of water; that is, if d be the
2 . number
P U M
p U M
[ 667 1
Pump.
number of pounds m a cubic foot of water, then J A ^
will exprefs the weight of a column whofe bafe is A,
and height-1, all being reckoned in feet. Therefore
b 2g _ , .
the force which mull be applied, when eftimated in
__</AV* /A* , A*
pounds, will be />, ^ g-jT^r—
The firft general obfervation to be made on what
has been faid is, that the power which muil be employ¬
ed to produce the neceffary motion, in oppofition to all
the obtlacles, is in the proportion of the fquare of the
velocity which we would produce, or the fquare of the
quantity of water we would difeharge.
We have hitherto proceeded on the fuppofition, that
there is no contra&ion of the jet in palling through thefe
two orifices. This we know would be very far from the
truth. We mull; therefore accommodate things to thefe
circumftances, by diminilhing B and C in the ratio of
the contraaion, and calling the diminilhed areas b and
V* AW
2 g ~ _ .
the fuaion-pipe, with which the water arrives at itu
After this the velocity is changed to
AV in
valve, where it is again changed to ,and requires for
this change a head of water equal to
AW
zgc1
But
the velocity retained in the fuaion-pipe is equivalent to
J A1V*
the elfea of a head of water . 1 herefore the
*Xa
head necelfary for producing fuch a current through the
fixed valve, that the water may follow the pilton with
AW1 AW1 AW1
4*
the velocity V,
W / A1 . A
2 £ \
or =
2 j?
+
2 g cl 2ga
This is evidently lefs than
A1
A5
')•
c; then we have* —
2g \ b c ■■■■I
What this diminution may be, depends on the form
of the parts. If the fixed valve, and the entry into
the pump, are fimply holes in thin plates, then
B and c z= entrycommonly widened or
trumpet-lhapcd, which diminilhes greatly the contrac¬
tion : but there are other obltacles in the way, arifing
from the ftrainer ufually put round it to keep out filth.
Thevalve mayhave its contraftion greatly diminilhed alfo
by its box being made bell-fhaped internally ; nay, even
giving it a cylindrical box, in the manner of fig. 33. is
better than no box at all, as in fig. 5. ; for fuch a cy¬
lindrical box will have the unaccountable effedt of the
Ihort tube, and make i B, inftead of -rAy B*
Thus we fee that circumlfances feemingly very trifling
may produce great effedts in the performance of a pump.
We Ihould have obferved that the valve itfelf prefents
an obftacle which diminilhes the motion, and requites
an increafe of power ; and it would feem that in this
refpedl the clack or butterfly valve is preferable to the
button valve.
Example. Suppofe the velocity of the pifton to be
2 feet or 24 inches fecond, and that the two con-
traded areas are each f °f the area of the pump, which
is not much lefs than what obtains in ordinary pumps.
We have + ^ ~ 1 ) =^(^ + 25—0
— 36,75 inches, and the force which we muft add to
what will merely fupport the column is the weight of a
pillar of water incumbent on the piflon, and fomething
more than three feet high. 1 his would be a fenfible
portion of the whole force in raifing water to fmall
heights.
We have fuppofed the fudtion-pipe to be of the fame
diameter with the working barrel ; but it is ufual to
make it of fmaller diameter, generally equal to the-wa-
ter way of the fixed valve. T his makes a confiderable
change in the force neceflary to be applied to the pif¬
ton. Let a be the area of the fudtion-pipe, the area of
the entry being Hill B; and the equivalent entry with¬
out contradlioii being Hill we have the velocity at
AV
the entrance = , and the producing head of water —•
before, becaufe a is lefs than A, and therefore-
is greater than unity, which was the lall term of the
former formula. There is fome advantage, therefore,
derived from making the diameter of the fudtion-pipe
lefs than that of the working barrel: but this is only be¬
caufe the paflage of the fixed valve is fmaller, and the
infpedtion of the formula plainly points out that the area
of the fudtion-pipe fhould be equal to that of the fixed
valve. When it is larger, the water muft be accelerated
in its paflage through th^ valve ; which is an ufelefs ex¬
pence of force, becaufe this velocity is to be immediate¬
ly reduced to V in the working-barrel. If the forego¬
ing example be computed with a equal to j of A, we
(hall find the head H equal to 29 inches inftead of 37.
But this advantage of a fmaller fudtion-pipe is in all
cafes very moderate; and the pump is always inferior to
one of uniform dimenfions throughout, having the ori¬
fice at the fixed valve of the fame area. And if thefe
orifices are confiderably diminilhed in any proportion,
the head neceflary for overcoming the obftacles, fo that
the required velocity V may ftill be produced in the
working barrel, is greatly increafed. If we fuppofe the
area 0 £ of A, which is frequently done in houfe pumps,
where the diameter of the fudtion-pipe does feldom ex¬
ceed -f of that of the working-barrel; and fuppofe every
thing made in proportion to this, which is alfo ufual,
becaufe the unflcilled pump-makers ftudy a fymmetry
which fatisfies the eye; we fliall find that the pump
taken as an example will require a head of water =
13 feet and upwards. Befides, it muft be obferved
that the fridtion of the fuction-pipe itfelf has not been
taken into the account. This alone is greater, in moft
cafes, than all the obftrudlions we have been fpeaking
of; for if this pipe is three inches diameter, and that of
the working-barrel is fix, which is reckoned a liberal al¬
lowance for a fudtion-pipe, and if the fixed valve is 25
feet above the furface of the pit-water ; the fridtion of
this pipe will amount to one-third of the whole propel¬
ling fiorce.
Thus we have enabled the reader to affertain the
force neceflary for producing any required difeharge of
water from a pump of known dimenfions: and the
converfe of this determination gives us the difeharge
which will be produced by any given force. For ma-
A* A1 A* ..... ,
kmg -f- —-^7, (which is a known quantity,
refulting from the dimenfions of the pump) = M, we
a P 2 luve
Pump.
—v—'
P U M
Pump.
have H = — M, and V1 =
2g
J M ‘ Now H is that part of the natural power
which we have at command which exceeds what is ne-
ceffary for merely fupporting the column of water.
Thus, if we-have a pump whofe pilton has an area of
-4 of a fquare foot, its diameter being 6| inches; and
we have to raife the water 32 feet, and can apply a
power of 525 pounds to the pifton ; we wifh to know
at what rate the pifton will be moved, and the quantity
of water difcharged ? Merely to fupport the column of
water of this height and diarpeter, requires 500 pounds.
Therefore the remaining power, which is to produce
the motion, is 25 pounds. This is the weight of a co¬
lumn 1 foot 4 inches high, and H — 1,333 ^eet*
us fuppofe the diameter of the fudtion-pipe i of that of
the working-barrel, fo that -j; = 4. We may fuppofe
it executed in the bell manner, having its lower extre¬
mity trumpet-fhaped, formed by the revolution of the
proper trochoid. 'I he contraction at the entry may
A A*
therefore be confidered as nothing, and -^-=4, and
~ 16. We may alfo fuppofe the orifice of the fixed
A*
ralve equal to the area of the fu£tion-pipe, fo that
is alfo — 16, and there is no contraction here ; and
[ 668 ] P U M
„„J V — Pl(lon. in order to occupy the fpace above, which
M ’ 18 kft ky the pifton, Jl there were no contra&ion, the
water would go thro* with the velocity V ; but as
there will always be fome contraction, let the dimini/h-
ed area of the hole (to be difeovered by experiment) be
l; the velocity therefore will be V —This re-
Punnp,
):
A
dierefore is alfo 16. And laftly, ^ is alfo 16.
,r. _ A* A* A1
Therefore
M, ~ 16 + 16 — 16,
quires for its produ(ftion a head of water ^^
This is the height of a column of water whofe bafe is-
not A but A a. Calling the denfity of water d, we
have for the weight of this column, and the force p is
we fee again, is proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city of the pifton in its defeent, and has no relation to
the height to which the water is laifed.
If the pifton has a button valve, its furface is at leaft
equal to a ; and therefore the preffure is exerted on the
water by the whole furface of the pifton. In this cafe
r/V*A3
we (hall have ^ ^ 4- confiderably greater than
before. We cannot afeertam this value with great pre-
cifion, becaufe it is extremely difficult, ifpoffible, to
determine the refiftance in fo complicated a cafe. But
the formula is exa<ft, if b can be given exaCtly; and
we know within very moderate limits what it may
amount to. In a pump of the very btrft conftru&ion,
with a button valve, b cannot exceed one-half of A •
A3 *
and therefore ~r% cannot be lefs than 8. In this
= 16.
•J
/—nr r v* a 5 v1
We have alfo 2 ^ = 64. Now V —2Z ^ 2 W1^ "8^* 3 ^eam*engine pump
64 X i»333
j 5 » — 2>3°9 feet> and the pifton will
move with the velocity of 2 feet 4 inches nearly. Its
velocity will be lefs than this, on account both of the
fri&ion of the pifton and the friction of the water in
the fuCtion-pipe. rl hefe two circumftances will pro¬
bably reduce it to one foot eight inches ; and it can
hardly be lefs than this.
We have taken no notice of the friction of the water
in the working-barrel, or in the fpace above the pifton;
becaufe it is in all cafes quite infignifieant. The longeft
pipes employed in, our deep mines do not require more
than a few inches of head to overcome it.
But there is another circumftance which muft not be
omitted. This-is the refiftance given to the pifton in
its deicent. d he piftons of an engine for drawing wa¬
ter from^ deep mines ra uft defeend again by their owm
weight in order to repeat their ftroke. This muft re¬
quire a preponderance on that end of the working-beam
to which they are attached, and this muft be over¬
come by the moving power during the effective ftroke.
Tt makes, therefore, part of the whole work to be done,
and muft be added to the weight of the column of wa¬
ter which muft be raifed.
1 his is very eafily afeertained. Let the velocity of
the pifton in its defeent be V, the area of the pump-
oarrel A, anu the area of the pifton-valve a. It is
*•'“ 'vh:k the pi!!,,,, defeend, with the velo-
uty V. the water which is difplaced by the pift™ i„ a
.iccom, is (A a) A Ibis muft pafs through the hole
yj.
V is about three feet per fecond, and — is about i -t
r 1 • • ^ *
ieet, which is but a fmall matter.
^een confidering* the fucking-And^ the
p mp alone. but the forcing pump is of more impor-forcing-
tance, and apparently more difficult of inveftigation.— pump.
Here we have to overcome the obftruCtions in long
pipes, with many bends, contractions, and other ob-
1 luCtions. But the coniideration of what relates meyet
ly to the pump is abundantly fimple. In maft cafes
we have only to force the water into an air-veffel, in op-
pofition to the elafticity of the air compreffed in it, and
to lend it thither with a certain velocity, regulated by
the quantity of water djfcharged in a given time. The
e.aiiicity oi the air in the air-veffel propels it along the
Main. We arc not now fpeaking of the force necef-
fary for counterbalancing this preffure of the air in the
air-veffel, ■which is equivalent to all the Jubfequent objlruc-
tionsy but only of the force neceffary for propellin g the
water out of the pump with the proper velocity. °
t We have in a manner determined this already. The
pifton is folid, and the water which it forces has to
pafs through a valve in the lateral pipe, and then to
move 111 the dire&ion of the Main. The change of di-
re&ion requires an addition of force to what is necef-
fary for merely impelling the water through the valve.
Its quantity is not eafily determined by any theory,
and it varies aocording to the abruptnefs of the turn.
It appears from experiment, that when a pipe is bent
to a right angle, without any curvature or rounding- «,
tnc ve ocity is diminilhed about xV* This would aug-
1 merit
fur&p.
'p u M [
mtnt tlie head of water about f Tim may be added
to the contraaion of the valve hole. Let c be it, na-
tnrsl area and whatever Is the contraftion competent
Tot foS, increafe it aud caU the coutmaed area
Then this will require a head of water =
Pump.
2gc
V:
Thu mud be added to the head , neceffary for mere-
lv oivinir the velocity V to the water. Therefore the
' ° vi
whole
is
2£
for this purpofe is
i^; and the power /> neceffary
 ^ /AJ
f/AV
2^
\7
+ i
)■
Ufc of ex-
ytriment1
T p U M
the feats of valves and the perforations of ptftons, &C.
(hould be diminifhed by giving the parts a trumpet-fhape.
In the air-veffels reprefented in fig. 13. this is of
very great confeqnence. The throat O, through which
the water is forced by theexpanfion of the conhned air,
fiiould always be formed in this manner. For it is this
which produces the motion during the returning part
of the ilroke in the pump conftruaed like fig. 13. n I.
and during the whole ftroke in iv 2. Ncgleamg this
feemingly trifling circumltance will dimimih the per¬
formance at lead one-fifth. The conftnia.onof n 1. is
the bell, for it is hardly poflible to make the paffage of
the other fo free from the effeas of contraaion.. 1 he
motion of the water during the returning Ilroke is very
much contorted. ^ 4 , S3
There is one circumllance that we have not taken ^cceiera.
any notice of, viz. the gradual acceleration of the mo-fi ,n of th«
tion of water in pumps. When a force is applied to themononof
pillon, it does not in an mftant communicate all the ve- ^
locity which it acquires. It aas as grav.ty ads on
heavy bodies ; and if the refillances remained the lame,
it would produce, like gravity, an uniformly accelerated
motion. But we have feen that the refillances (winch
are always meafured by the force which juft overcomes
them) increafe as the fquare of the velocity increaies.
They therefore quickly balance the adion of the mo¬
ving power, and the motion becomes uniform, in a
time fo Ihort that we commit no error of any conie-
quence by fuppofing it uniform from the beginning. It
would have prodigioufly embarrafled our mveftigations
to have introduced this circumftance ; and it is a mat¬
ter of mere fpeculative curiofity : for moll of our mo¬
ving powers are unequal in their exertions, and thele
exertions are regulated by other laws. The preflure on
a pifton moved by a crank is as variable as its velocity,
and in moll cafes is nearly in the inyerfe proportion ol
its velocity, as any mechanician will readily difeover.
The only trfe in which we could confider this matter
with any degree of comprehenfibility is that of a ileam-
engine, or of a pifton which forces by means oi a
weight lying on it. In both, the velocity becomes uni¬
form in a very fmafl fradion ot a fecond.. , ?p.
We have been very minute on this fubjed. _ For al' De^n^
though it is the only view of a pump which 18 ^ tary
any importance, it is hardly ever underltood even by on lhis fujj_
profefled engineers. And this is not peculiar to hydrau-jea.
lies, but is feen in all the branches of piadical mecha¬
nics. The elementary knowledge to be met with m
fuch books as are generally perufed by them, goes no
farther than to Hate the forces which arc in equihbno
by the intervention of a machine, or the proportion ot
. 1 * c wrill twn, tnnwn forces
It cannot efcape the obfervation of the reader, that
in all thefe formulas, expreffing the height of the co¬
lumn of water which would produce the velocity V in
the working barrel of the pump^the quantity w ic
multiplies the conftant fador -—p- depends on the
contraded paffages which are in different parts of the
pump, and increafes in the duplicate proportion of the
fum of thofe contradions. It is therefore of the ut-
moft confequence to avoid all fuch, and to make the
Main which leads from the forcing-pump equal to the
working barrel. If it be only of half the diameter, it
has but one-fourth of the area, the velocity m the Mam
is four times greater than that of the pifton, and the
force neceffary for difeharging the fame quantity ot wa¬
ter is 16 times greater. ., , r
It is not, however, poflible to avoid thefe contrac¬
tions altogether, without making the main pipe wider
than the barrel For if only fo wide, with an entry ot
the fame fize, the valve makes a confiderable obitruc-
tion. Untkilful engineers endeavour to obviate this
by making an enlargement in that part of the Main
whicfi contains the valve. .This is feen in fig. 14. ut
the valve L. If this be not done with great judgment,
it will increafe the obftrudions. For if this enlarge¬
ment is full of water, the water muft move in the direc¬
tion of its axis with a diminifhed velocity ; and when it
comes into the main, it muft again be accelerated. In
fhort, any abrupt enlargement which is to be afterwards
contraded, does as much harm as a contradion, unlefs
it be fo fhort that the water in the axis keeps its velo¬
city till it reaches the contradion. Nothing would do
more fervice to an artift, who is not well founded in the
theory of hydrodynamics, than to make a few fimple
and cheap experiments with a veflel like that of fig. 37*
Let the horizontal pipe be about three inches diamc- ^     „     , ,
ter, and made m joints which can be added ^ s 0f amachine which will fet two known forces-
other. Let the joints be about fix inches long, an <- But when this equilibrium is deftroyed
holes from one-fourth to a whole inch in diameter. 1 ^ fuperiority of one of the forces, the machine muft
the veffel with water, and obferve of lts J1” * move . and the only interefling qutilion is, what will
ing three or four inches. Each joint fhould have a im ^ ^ motion? Till thb is anfwered with tome precifion,,
hole in its upper fide to let out the air ; and when the . . . , • r — .* Tumw .-i-i-
water runs out by it, let it be flopped by a peg. lie
will fee that the larger the pipe is in proportion to the
orifices made Hi the partitions, the efflux is more dimi-
nt/led. We believe that no perfon would fufped this
who has not confidered the fubjed minutely.
All angular enlargements, all boxes, into which the
pipes from different working barrels, unite their water
before it gees into a Main, muft therefore be avoided
by an artift who would execute a good machine ; and
the different contractions which arc unavoidable nt
we have learned nothing of any importance. I cw en¬
gineers are able to anfwer this queftion even the
fimpleft cafes ; and they cannot, from any confident
feience, fay what will be the performance or an untried
machine. They guefsat it with a fucccfs proportioned
to the multiplicity of their experience and their o vn
fagacity. Yet this part of mechanics is as fufceptible
of accurate computation as the cafes of equilibrium. -
We therefore thought it our duty to point out the
manner of proceeding fo circumftantially, that every
PUN
Pun
II
Puncheon
flep fliould be plain and eafy, and that con vision OjouW
always accompany our progrefs. This we think it has
been in our power to do, by the very fimple method
of fubftituting a column of water afting by its weight
in lieu of any natural power which we may chance
to employ.
To fuch as wifh to profecute the ftudy of this im¬
portant part of hydraulics in its mod abftrufe parts, we
recommend the perufal of the differtations of Mr Pitot
and Mr Bofiut, in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Paris; alfo the differtations of the Chevalier De la
13orda, 1766 and *767 ; alfo the Hydraulique of the
Chevalier De Buat. We fhall have occafion to confi-
der the motion of the water in the mains of forcing or
lifting pumps which fend the water to a diftancc, in the
article IVATER^Vorks ; where the reader will fee how
fmall is the performance of all hydraulic machines, in
comparifon of what the ufual theories, founded on equili¬
brium only, would make him expedl.
PUN, or Punn, an expreflion where a word has at
once different meanings. The pra&ice of punning is
the miferable refuge of thofe who wifli to pafs for wits,
without having a grain of wit in their compofition. —
James the I. of England delighted in punning; and
the taite of the fovereign was lludied by the courtiers,
and even by the clergy. Hence the fermons of that
age abound with this fpecies of falfe wit. It continu¬
ed to be more or lefs fafhionable till the reign of Queen
Anne, when Addifon, Swift, Pope, and Arbuthhot,
with the other real wits of that claflical age, united
their efforts to banilh punning from polite compolition.
It is ftill admitted fparingly in converfation ; and no one
will deny that a happy pun, when it comes unfought,
contributes to excite mirth in a company. A profef-
purifier, however, who is always pouring forth his
lenfelefs quibbles, as Sancho Panca poured forth his
proverbs, is fuch an intolerable nuifance in fociety, that
we do not wonder at Pope or Swift having written a
pamphlet with the title of God's Revenge aginnjl Pun¬
ning. J
PUNCH, an inftrument of iron or fteel, ufed in
ieyeral arts, for the piercing or damping holes in plates
«t metals, &c. being fo contrived as not only to per¬
forate, but to cut out and take away the piece. The
punch is a principal inflrument of the metal-button ma¬
kers, ihoe-makers, See.
PuN-cn is alfo a name for a fort of compound drink,
much ufed here, and in many parts abroad, particu¬
larly in Jamaica, and feveral other parts of the Weft
indies.
Its ba/is is fpring-water ; which being rendered cool¬
er, bulker, and more acid, with lemon or lime juice,
and fweetened again to the palate with fine fugar, makes
what they call fierbet ; to which a proper quantity of
pint nous liquor, as brandy, rum, or arrack, being add¬
ed, the liquor commences punch.
n NCH1-Of :, Punch in. or Puntlwn, a little
Mock or piece of fteel, on one end whereof Is feme
figure, letter, or mark, engraven either in creux
re kvu, impreflions whereof are taken on metal,
r'e„°! ,maUCr’ it with a hamme on
he end not engraved. There are various kinds of
thefe puncheons ufed in the mechanical arts ; fnch
Serf &T’ ^ ^ of the goldfmiths, cutlers, pew!
f (gO ]
PUN
or
or
lerers, &c.
1 lie Puncheo!b in coining, is a piece of iron Heeled,
whereon the engraver has cut in relievo the fcveral Pancheoa
figures,^ arms, efiigy, infeription, <Scc. that there are II
to be in the matrices, wherewith the fpecies are to Pun(au»'
he maiked. Minters diftinguifh three kinds of pun- t^cn' ,
cheons, according to the three kinds of matrices *
to be made ; that of the effigy, that of the crofs or
aims, and that of the legend or infeription. The
firft includes the whole portrait in relievo ; the fecond
are fmall, fuch only containing a piece of the crofs
oi aims; for inftance, a fleur-de-lis, an harp, a coro¬
net, &c. by the affemblage of all which the entire
matnee is formed. T. he puncheons of the legend only
contain each one letter, and ferve equally for the le¬
gend on the effigy fide and the crofs fide. See the ar¬
ticle Coinage.
• For the puncheons ufed in ftamping the matrices
wherein the types of printing charafters are call, fee
h etter-Fo undery.
. Puncheon is alfo ufed for feveral iron tools, of va¬
rious fizes and figures, ufed by the engravers en creux
on metals. Seal-gravers particularly ufe a great num¬
ber for the feveral pieces of arms, &c. to be en¬
graven, and many ftamp the whole feal from a fingle
puncheon. °
Puncheon, is alfo a common name for all thofe
iron inftruments ufed by ftone-cutters, fculptors, black-
fmiths, .See. for the cutting, inciding, or piercing their
feveral matters.
Thofe of fculptors and ftatuaries ferve for the re¬
pairing of ftatues when taken out of the moulds. The
lockfmiths ufe the greateft variety of puncheons ; fome
for piercing hot, others for piercing cold ; fome flat,
fome fquare, fome round, others oval, each to pierce
holes of its refpe&ive figure in die feveral parts of
locks.
Puncheon, in carpentry, is a piece of timber pla¬
ced upright between two polls, whofe bearing is too
great; ferving, together with them, tofuftain fome large
weights. &
1 his term is alfo ufed for a piece of timber raifed
upnght, under the ridge of a building, wherein the legs »
of a couple, &c. are joii\ted.
Puncheon, is alfo the name of a meafure for li¬
quids. Rum is brought from the colonies in pun¬
cheons, which are large calks containing about 130 gal¬
lons. 06
. PUNCTUATION, in grammar, the art of point-
ing, or of dividing a difeourfe into periods, by points
expreffing the paufes to be made therein.
1 he points ufed are* four, viz. the period, colon,
femi-colon, and comma. See the particular ufe of each
under its proper article, Comma, Colon, Period, •
and Semi-colon.
In the general, we fliall only here obferve, that
the comma is to diftinguilh nouns from nouns, verbs
from verbs, and fuch other parts of a period as are
not neceffarily joined together. —The femi-colon ferves
to fufpend and fuftain the period when too long : 
the colon, to add fome new, fupernumerary reafon,
or confequence, to what is already faidand the pe¬
riod, to clofe the fenfe and conftrutlion, and releafe the
voice.
Pun&uarion is a modern art. The ancients were
entirely unacquainted with the ufe of our commas, co¬
lons, &c. and wrote not only without any diftinftion of
members and periods, but alio without diitin&ion of
word®
'Pun<ftua*
tion.
PUN [67
words: which cultom, Lipf.as obfcrycs, continued till
the hundred and fourth Olympiad ; during which time
the fenfe alone divided the difcourfe.
What within our own knowledge at this day puts
this beyond difpute, is the Alexandrian manufcript,
which is at prefent in the king’s library at the Bntifn
Mufamm. Whoever examines this, will hnd, that the
whole is written continuo duflv, without dihintfion or
words or fentences. How the ancients read their works
written in this manner, it is not eafy to conceive.
After the pra&ice of joining words together cealed,
notes of diftinftion were placed at the end of every
word. In all the editions of the Fnjli Capitohni thele
points occur. The fame are to be feen on the Colum-
la Roftrala. For want of thefe, we find much con-
fufion in the Chronkon Marmortum, and the covenant
between the Smyrnseans and Magnefians, which are
both now at Oxford. In Salmafius’s edition of Dedicatio
Jlatvre rigilU Herodis, the like confufion occurs, where
we find aktpite and ‘Tf. .
Of thefe marks of diftin&ion, the Walcote inlcnp-
tion found near Bath may ferve for a fpecimen .
IVLIUSv VITALISv FABRI
CESISv LEGv XXv Vv V
STIPENDIORETMv &c.
After every woid here, except at the end of a line, we
fee this mark v. There is an infcription in Mount-
faucon, which has a capital letter laid in an horizontal
pofition, by way of interftitial mark, which makes one
apt to think that this way of pointing was fometimes
according to the fancy of the graver.
P. FERRARIVS HERMES
CAECINIAE Hi DIGNAE
CONIVGI H KARRISSIMAE
NVMERIAE H &c.
Flere we obferve after the words a T laid horizontally,
but not after each word, which proves this to be of a
much later age than the former.
Having now confidered that the prefent ufage of
flops was unknown to the ancients, we proceed to af-
fign the time in which this ufeful imprsvement of lan¬
guage began.
As it appears not to have taken place while manu-
fcripts and monumental infcriptions weie the only
known methods to convey knowledge, we mull con¬
clude that it was introduced with the. art. of printing.
The 14th cenlurv, to which we are indebted for this
invention, did not, however, bellow thofe appendages
we call flops : whoever will be at the pafns to examine
the firil printed books, will difcover no Hops of any
kind ; but arbitrary marks here and there, according
to the humour of the printer. In the 15th century,
we obferve their firil appearance. M e find, . in
the books of this age, that they were not all produced at
the fame time ; thofe we meet with there in me, be¬
ing only the comma, the parenthefis, the inlei roga¬
tion, and the full point. To prove this, we need but
look into Bale’s A£ts of Englifb Votaries, black-letter,
printed 1 S5°’ Indeed, in the dedication of this book,
which is to Edward VI. we difcover a colon : but, as
this is the only one of the kind throughout the work,
it is plain this flop was not eftahlifhed at this time,
and fo warily put in by the printer ; or if it was, that
it was not in common ufc. '1 hirty years after this
time, in that fenfible and judicious performance of
£>k Thomas Elyot, entitled ‘The Govet novtp imprinted
! ] PUN
1580, we fee the colon as frequently introduced. as Purnflum
any other flop ; but the femi-colon and the admiration punjca
were Hill wanting, neither of thefe being vifible in _—
this book. In Hackluyt’s voyages, printed 1599,
we fee the firfl inflance of a femi-colon : and, as if the
editors did not fully apprehend the propriety of its ge¬
neral admiffion, it is but fparingly introduced. The
admiration was the lafl flop that was invented ; and
feems to have been added to the reft in a period not fo
far diftant from our own time.
Thus we fee, that thefe notes of diftinftion came
into ufe as learning was gradually advanced and im¬
proved ; one invention indeed, but enlarged by feveral
additions. „ , r n -•
PUNCTUM saliens, in anatomy, the firft rudi¬
ments of the heart in the formation of the foetus, where
a throbbing motion is perceived. This is faid to be
eafily obferved with a microfcope in a brood-egg, where¬
in, after conception, we fee a little fpeck or cloud, in
the middle whereof is a fpot that appears to beat or
leap a confiderable time before the fetus is formed for
hatching. See the article Foetus, and Anatomr,
Punctum ftartS) a pbrafe by which the fchoolmen
vainly attempted to bring within the reach of human
comprehenlion the pofitive eternity of God. Thofe
fubtile reafoners feem to have difeovered that nothing,
which is made up of parts whether continuous or dif-
crete, can be abfolutely infinite, and that therefore eter¬
nity cannot confift of a boundlefs feries of fucccffive
moments. Yet, as if fuch a feries had always exifled
and were commenfurate in duration with the lupreme
Being, they compared his eternity to one of the mo¬
ments which compofe the flux of time arrefted in its
eourfe ; and to this eternal moment they gave the name
of punaum Jlnr.s, becaufe it was fuppofed to Hand Hill,
whilft the reft followed .each other in fuccefiion, all va-
nifhing as foon as they appeared. We need not w.afle
time or room in expofing the abfurdity of this conceit,
as we have elfewhere endeavoured, in the bell manner
that we can, to efeertain the meaning of the words eter¬
nity and infinityy and to fhow that they cannot be pre¬
dicated of time or fpace, of points or moments, whe--
ther flowing or Handing Hill. (See Metaphysics,
Part II. chap. 7. 8. and Part III. chap. 6.)
PUNCTURE, in furgery, any wound made by a
fharp-pointed inftrument.
Punct ure, in farriery. Sec there, § xl. 3.
PUNDITS, or Pendits, learned Bramins devoted
to the ftudy of the Shanfcrit language, and to the ancient
fcience, laws, and religion of Hiudoftan. See Phi¬
losophy, n° 4—12.
PUNICA, the POMEGRANATE TREE*. A genUS of
the monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs
of plantst and in the natural method ranking under
the 36th order, Pomace*. The calyx is quinquefid fu-
perior; there are five petals ; the Iruit is a multiloculai
and polyfperraous apple.
Species. 1. The granatum, or common pomegra¬
nate, rifes with a tree Hem, branching numerouflv all the
way from the bottom, growing 18 or 20 feet high; with
fpear-fhaped, narrow oppofite leaves; and the branches-
terminated by mod beautiful large red flowers, fue-
ceeded by large roundifh fruit as big as an orange-
having a bard rind filled with foft pulp and numerous
feeds. There is a variety with double flowers, remark¬
able
PUR l 672 ] PUR
Punirh- ably beautiful; and one with ftriped fiowere. 2. The
ment lianaj 0r dwarf American pomegranate, rifes with a
p 11 j. fhrubby ftcm branching four or live feet high, with
u''ce narrow fhort leaves and fmall red flowers, fucceeded by
fmall fruit; begins flowering in June, and continues till
O&ober.
Culture. Both thefe fpecies are propagated by lay¬
ers : the young branches are to be chofen for this pur-
pofe, and autumn is the proper time for laying them.
Thofe of the common fort may be trained either as
half or full ftandards, or as dwarfs. But thofe defigned
for walls mull be managed as diredled for peaches.
Ufes. The dried flowers of the double-flowered
pomegranate are poflefled of an aftringent quality; for
which rcafon they are recommended in diarrhoeas, dy-
fenteries, &c. where aftringent medicines are proper.
The rind of the fruit is alfo a ftroag aftringent, and as
fuch is occafionally made ufe of.
PUNISHMENT, in law, the penalty which a per-
fon incurs on the commiffion of a crime. See the ar¬
ticle Crime and Punl/hment.
The ingenuity of men has been much exerted to
torment each other; but the following are the punifh-
ments that have been ufually adopted in the different
countries of the world. The capital punilhments have
been beheading, crucifixion, burning, roafting, drown¬
ing, fealping, hanging by the neck, the arm, or the leg,
ftarving, fawing, expofing to wild beafts, rending afun-
dcr by horfes drawing oppofite ways, burying alive,
fhooting, blowing from the mouth of a cannon, com-
pulfory deprivation of Deep, rolling in a barrel ftuck
with nails pointed inwards, poifoning, prefling flowly
to death by a weight laid on the breaft, calling head¬
long from a rock, tearing out the bowels, pulling to
pieces with red-hot pincers, the rack, the wheel, im¬
paling, fleaing alive, &c. &c.
The punilhments Ihort of death have been, fine, pil¬
lory, imprifonment, compulfory labour at the mines,
galleys, highways, or corredlion-houfe ; whipping, ba-
ilonading, mutilation by catting away the ears, the
nofe, the tongue, the breafts of women, the foot, the
hand; fqueezing the marrow from the bones with ferews
or wedges, caftration, putting out the eyes, banilhment,
running the gauntlet, drumming, lhaving off the hair,
burning on the hand or forehead, &c.
PUNNING. See Pun.
PUPIL, in the civil law, a boy or girl not yet ar¬
rived at the age of puberty; i. e. the boy under 14
years, the girl under 12.
Pupil is alfo ufed in univerfities, &c. for a youth
under the education or difeipline of any perfon.
Pupil, in anatomy, a little aperture in the middle
of the uvea and iris of the eye, through which the
rays of light pafs to the cryftalline humour, in order to
be painted on the retina, and caufe vifion. See A-
natomy, p. 765, &c.
PURCELL (Henry), a juftly celebrated mailer of
mufic, began early to diftinguilh himfelf. As his ge¬
nius was original, it wanted but little forming, and he
rofe to the height of his profefiion with more eafe than
others pafs through their rudiments. He was made
organift to W eftminfter abbey in the latter end of the
- reign of Charles II. In that of William, he fet feve-
ral fongs for Dry-den’s Amphytrion and his King Arthur,
iihich were icceived with juft applaufe. His notes in
Ins operas were admirably adapted to his words, and fo pUrchas
echoed to the fenfe, that the founds alone feemed ca- \\
pable of exciting thofe paflions which they never failed Purgation,
to do in conjunction. His mufic was very different
from the Italian. It was entirely Englilh, and perfect¬
ly mafeuline. His principal works have been publilhed
under the title of Orpheus Britanmcus. He died in 1695,
in the 37th year of his agp ; and was interred in Weft-
minilei abbey, where a monument is ereCted to his me¬
mory.
PURCHAS (Samuel), an Englilh divine, famous
for compiling a valuable collection of voyages, was
born in 1577, at Thackfted in Effex. After Undy¬
ing at Cambridge, he obtained the vicarage of Eaft-
wood in his native county ; but leaving that cure to
his brother, he fettled in London, in order to cany on
the great work in which he was engaged. He pub-
lilhed the firft volume in folio in 1613, and the four
laft, 12 years after, under the title of Purchas his Pil¬
grimage, or Relations of the 'world, and the Religions ob-
ferved in all ages and places. Meanwhile he was col¬
lated to the reClory of St Martin’s, Ludgate, in Lon¬
don, and made chaplain to Dr Abbot, archbilhop of
Canterbury. His Pilgrimage, and the learned Hack-
luyt’s Voyages, led the way to all the other colleClions
of that kind, and have been juftly valued and elleemed.
But unhappily, by his pubhfiling, he involved himfelf
in debt: however, he did not die in prifon, as fome
have afferted ; but at his own houfe, about the year
1628.
PURCHASE, in law, the buying or acquiring of
lands, &c. with money, by deed 01 agreement, and not
by defeent or right of inheritance.
Purchase, in the fea-language, is the fame as draEo
in : thus, when they fay, the capftan purchafes a-pace,
they only mean, it draws in the cable a-pace.
PURE, fomething free from any admixture of fo¬
reign or heterogeneous matters.
PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, expreffing ermins,
peans, or any of the furs, when they compofe a bordure
round a coat of arms : thus they fay, He beareth gules,
a bordure, purflew, vairy; meaning, that the bordure is
vairy.
PURGATION, the art of purging, fcouring, Or
purifying a thing, by feparating, or carrying off any
impurities found therein. Thus,
In pharmacy, purgation is the cleanfing of a medicine
by retrenching its fuperfluities. In chemiilry, it is ufed
for the feveral preparations of metals and minerals in¬
tended to clear them of their impurities, more ufually
called purification and refning. See Refining.
In medicine, purgation is an excretory motion arifing
from a quick and orderly contvaClion of the flefiiy fibres
of the ftomach and intellincs, whereby the chyle, cor¬
rupted humours, and excrements lodged therein, are pro¬
truded further and further, and at length quite excluded
the body by ftool. See Materia Medica.
For the menllrual purgation of women, fee Menses.
Purgation, in law, fignifies the clearing a perfon’s
felf of a crime of which he is fufpe6led and accufed be¬
fore a judge. This purgation is either canonical or vul¬
gar. Canonical purgation is preferibed by the canon-
law, and the form thereof in the fpiritual court is ufual¬
ly thus : The perfon fufpetted takes his oath that he is
innocent pf the crime charged againft him; and at the
feme
%
r r m p.
1’late CC C' t'XXV.
r r>rr
pur ' r 673
Ptirirative, {“ame time brfngs fome of his neighbours to make oath
Purgatory. believe he fwears truly. Vulgar purgation
was anciently by fire or water, or elfe by combat, and
was praftifed here till abolifhed by out canons. See
Battel in law. Ordeal, &c.
PURGATIVE or Purging ATedicines, medicaments
which evacuate the impurities of the body by ftool,
called alfo cathartics.
PURGATORY, a place in which the juft, who de-
PUR
reap any benefit from his fin-offering till the refurrec* Purfceatidft
tion. Our Saviour, in St Luke, fpeaks of remifiion in ^
this world and in the world to come; but lurely neither ^
of thefe is purgatory. The world to come is the ftate
after the refurredtion, and the remiflion fpoken of is
the fentence of abfolution to be prbmnmced on thtf
penitent from the feat of general judgment. In the
obfcure verfe referred to in the epiitle to the Coiin-
thians, the apoftle is, by the belt interpreters, thought
Tap i ff mif-
teprefented
and repre-
frtitcd.
part out of this life, are fuppofed to expiate certain of- to fpeak of the difficulty with which Chriftiaus fhounl
’ • 1 * k- • ■ 1 1 - t> u favC(j from the deftruftion of Jerufalcm. Of the
ftate of fouls departed he cannot well be fuppofed to
fpeake, as upon difembodied fpirits fire could make no
impreffion. We Cannot help, therefore, thinking with
the church of England, that “the Romilh dodhine of
purgatory is a fond thing, vainly invented, and ground¬
ed on no warranty of fcripture but we muft confefs at
the fame time, that it appears to us to be a very harmlefr
error, neither hoftile to virtue nor dangerous to fociety.
See Resurrection.
PURIFICATION, in matters of religion, * cere¬
mony which confifts in cleanfing any thing from a fup¬
pofed pollution or defilement.
The Pagans., before they facriSced, ufually bathed
or waftied themfelves in water ; and they were parties
larly careful to waffi their hands, becaufe with thefe
they were to touch the vidlims confecrated to the gods.
It was 'alfo cuftomary to waffi the vefiel with which
they made their libations. The Mahometans alfo ufe
purifications previous to the duty of prayer; which
are alfo of two kinds, either bathing, or only walhing
the face, hands, and feet. The firft is required only
in extraordinary cafes, as after having lain with a wo¬
man, touched a dead hotly, &c. But left fo necef-s
fary a preparation for their devotions ffiould be omit¬
ted, either where water cannot be had, or when it may
be of prejudice to a perfon’s health, they are allowed
in fuch cafes to make ufe of fine fand, or dull inftead
of it; and then they perform this duty by clapping
their open hands on the faud, and paffing them over
the parts, in the fame manner as if they were dipped
in water.
There were alfo many legal purifications among the
Hebrews. When a woman was brought to bed of a
male child, file was efteemed impure for 4') days ; and
when of a female, for 60 : at the end of which time file
carried a lamb to the door of the temple to be offered
for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or turtle far u
fin-offering; and by this ceremony ftie was cleanled or
purified.
PURIM, or The Feast of Lots, a folemn feftival of
the Jews, inftituted in memory o! the deliverance they
received, by means of Mordecat and Eilher, from Har¬
man’s wicked attempt to deftroy them.
PURITAN, a name formerly given in derifion to
the dilfenters from the church of England, on account
of the profeffion to follow the pure word of God, in
oppolition to all traditions and human conftitutions. It
was hkewife given in the primitive church to the No-
vatiart fchifmatics, becaufe they would never admit to
communion my one who from dread of death had apo-
ftatized from the faith.
PURITY, the freedom of any thing from foreign
admixture.
Purity of Style. See Oratory, p. 41!» &c-
PURLIEU, fignifies all that ground near any foreft,
4 which
fences which do not merit eternal damnation. Brough¬
ton has endeavoured to prove, that this notion has been
held by Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, as well as by
Chriftians; and that in the days of the Maccabees the
Jews believed that fin might be expiated by facrifice
after the death of the finner, cannot be queftioned.
Much abufe has been poured upon the church of
Rome for her doctrine of purgatory, and many falfe re-
prefentations have been made of the doftrine itfelf. 1 he
following view of it is taken from a work which is con-
fidered as aftandard by the Britifir Catholics. I. Every
fin, how flight foever, though no more than an idle
word, as it is an offence to God, deferves punifhment
from him, and will be punifhed by him hereafter, if not
cancelled by repentance here. 2. Such fmall fins do
not deferve eternal puniftlment. 3. Few depart this life
fo pure as to be totally exempt from fpots of this na¬
ture, and from every kind of debt due to God’s juftice.
4. Therefore few will efcape without fuffering fome-
thing from his juftice for fuch debts as they have canned
with them out of this world ; according to that rule
of divine juftice, by which he treats every foul hereafter
according to its works, and according to the ftate in
which he finds it in death. From thefe propofitions,
which the Papift confiders as fo many felf-eVident truths,
he infers that there muft be fome third place of punifh-
ment ; for, fince the infinite goodnels of God can ad¬
mit nothing into heaven which is not clean and pure
from all fin both great and fmall ; and his infinite ju-
ftice can permit none to receive the reward of blifs,
who as yet ar e not out of debt, but have Lomethmg in
juftice to fuffer; there muft of neceffity be fome place
or ftate, where fouls, departing this life, pardoned as to
the eternal guilt or pain, yet obnoxious to fome tempo¬
ral penalty, or with the guilt of fome venial faults, are
purged and purified before their admittance into hea¬
ven. And this is what he is taught concerning purga¬
tory. Which, though he knows not where it is, of
what nature the pains are, or how long each foul is de¬
tained there ; yet he believes, that thofe that are in
this place, being the living members of Jefus Chrift, are
relieved by the prayers of their fellow members here bn.
earth, as alio by ahnfe and maffes offered up to God for
their fouls. And as for fuch as have no relations or
friends to pray for them, or give alms, or procure maf-
fes for their relief j they are not negletted by the church,
which makes a general commemoration of all the faith¬
ful departed in every mafs, and in ever; one of the cano¬
nical hours of the divine office.
Such is the Popifh dodtrine of purgatory, which is
built chiefly upm 2 Macc. xii. 43, 44, 45' ; St Matth.
xii. 31, 32 ; and I Cor. iii. 15. By Proteilants the
books of Maccabees are not acknowledged to be in-
fpired fcripture ; but if they were, the texts referred to
would rather prove that there is no fuch place as pur¬
gatory', fince Judas did not exped the fouls departed to
Vol. XV. Part II.
PUR [ 674 1 PUT
Purlins which being made foreft by King Henry II. Richard I.
II and King John, was afterwards by perambulations and
Purulent.^ grants Qf pjenry III. fevered again from the fame, and
made purlieu ; that is to fay, pure and free from the
laws of the foreft.—The word is derived from the French
f>ur “ pure,” and /ieu “ place.”
PURLINS, in building, thofe pieces of timber tha.t
lie acrofs the rafters on the infide, to keep them from
finking in the middle of their length.
By the a<ft of parliament for rebuilding London,
it is provided, that all purlins from 15 feet 6 inches
to 18 feet 6 inches long, be in their fquare 9 inches
and 8 inches ; and all in length from 18 feet 6 inches
to 21 feet 6 inches, be in their fquare 12 inches and
9 inches.
PURPLE, a colour compofed of a mixture of red
and blue. See CoiouR-Making, n° 29. and Dying,
n0 92.
PURPURA, in natural hiftory. See Murex :
where we have given an account of the Tyrian method
of dyir*g purple with a liquid extra&ed from the filh.
It has been affirmed, however, that no fuch method was
ever pra6tifed. “At Tyre (fays Mr Bruce) I en¬
gaged two fifhermen, at the expence of their nets, to
drag in thofe places where they faid ftiell-fifh might be
caught, in hopes to have brought out one of the famous
purple-fifh. I did not fucceed; but in thisl was, I believe,
as lucky as the old fiftiers had ever been. The purple
filh at Tyre Lems to have been only a concealment of
their knowledge of cochineal; as, had they depended
upon the fifti for their dyo* if the whole city of 'Pyre
applied to nothing elfe but fiffiing, they would not have
coloured 20 yards of cloth in a year.”
PURPURE, in heraldry. The colour fo called,
which fignifies purple^ is in engraving reprefented by
diagonal lines, fr©m the left to the right. See Heral¬
dry, p. 441. and Plate CCXXVII. fig. ii. n° 6.
It may ferve to denote an adminiftrator of juftice, a
lawgiver, or a governor equal to a fovereign : and, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
Or, ^ f Riches.
Arg. I Quietnefs.
Gul. t j Politics.
Az. [ 2. j Fidelity.
Ver. ' g Cruelty.
Sab. J l Sadnefs.
PURPUREUS. See Convolvulus, n° 3.
PURRE, or Perkin. See Husbandry, n° 238.
PURSER, an officer aboard a Tnan of war, who
receives her vi&uals from the vi&ualler, fees that it
be well flowed, and keeps an account of what he every
day delivers to the fteward. He alfo keeps a lift of
the (hip’s company, and fets down exa&ly the day of
each man’s admiffion, in order to regulate the quan¬
tity of provifions to be delivered out, and that the
paymafter or treafurer of the navy may iffue out the
deburfements, and pay off the men, according to his
book.
PURSLAIN, in botany. See Portulaca.
PURVIEW, a term ufed by fome lawyers for the
body of an a£l of parliament, or that part which begins
with “ Be it enabled &c.” as contradiftinguifhed from
the preamble.
PURULENT, in medicine, fomething mixed with,
»r partaking of, pus or matter-
PUS, in medicine, a white ofyellowifii matter defign* Pm
ed by nature for the healing and cementing of wounds II
and fores. PuteoliV
The origin and formation of pus is as much un- *
known as that of any other animal fluid. In au in¬
augural differtation publifhed at Edinburgh by Dr
Hendy, the author fuppofes pus to be a fecreted
fluid. It has been thought by many, that pus is ei¬
ther a fediment from ferum when beginning to putre¬
fy, or that it is the fame fluid infpiffated by the heat
of the body. But both thefe opinions are refuted by
fome experiments of our author, which fhow, that pus
is much lefs inclined to putrefaction than ferum, and
the putrefatftion of both is haftened by an addition of
fome of the red part of the blood. Some other expe¬
riments were made in order to tiy whether pus could
be artificially produced. A thin piece of lamb’s flefh,
applied to an ulcer difeharging laudable pus, and cover¬
ed over with lead, did not affume the appearance of
pus, but became fetid, and was much leffened. Serum*
in its inflammatory and in its ordinary Hate, and lymph
in different ftates, were applied to the fame ulcer,
which dill difeharged good pus ; but none of thefe
were converted into pus ; on the contrary, they became
very putrid.
In oppofition to thefe arguments of our author,,
however, it may be alleged, that if pus was a fecreted
fluid, the veffels by which it was fecreted would cer¬
tainly be vifible ; but no fuch thing has ever been ob-
ferved : on the contrary, it is certain that pus cannot
be formed unlefs the air is excluded from the wound-
Thefe difputes, however, are of no great confequence :
but in fome cafes it becomes a matter of real import¬
ance to diflinguifh pus from mucus ; as thus we may
be enabled to know whether a cough is confumptive,
or merely catarrhous. See Mucus. Mr Home, in a
differtation on the properties of pus, in which he avails
himfelf of the experiments of Mr Hunter, as delivered
in his Phyfiological Letlures fays, “ that the charafteriflic
of pus is its being compofed of globules ; and he thinks
that the prefence of globules feems to depend upon the
pus being in a perfetl flate. It differs from the blood
in the colour of the globules ; in their not being fo-
luble in water, which thofe of the blood are ; and from
the fluid in which they fwim being coagulable by a folu-
tion of fal ammoniac, which ferum is not.” Refpedling;
the formation of pus, our author adopts the idea fug-
gefled by Mr Hunter, that the veffels of the part af¬
fume the nature of a gland, and fecrete a fluid which
becomes pus. Mr Home afeertains, by experiment,
that pus, at its formation, is not globular, but a trans¬
parent fluid, of a confiflence, in fome fort, refembling
jelly ; and that the globules are formed while lying up¬
on the furface of the fore j requiring, in fome inflances,
while the influence of the external air is excluded, fifteen
minutes for that purpofe.
PUSTULE, a pimple, or fmall eruption on the fkin
full of pus; fuch as the eruptions of the fmall-pox.
PUT AMINES, (from putamen “ a fhell,”) the
came of the 25th order of Linnaius’s fragments of a
natural method; confiiling of a few genera of plants
allied in habit, whofe flefhy feed-veffels or fruit is fre¬
quently covered with a hard woody fhell. See Bota¬
ny, p. 462.
PUTEOU, (l*ivy, Strabo) : a town of Campaniaj
4
PUT C <>75 ] PUT
PuteMi fo called either from its wells, there being many hot and
li cold fprings thereabouts; or from its flench, putory
tion*16" caufed by fulphureous exhalations, (Vairo, Strabo).
»  It is now called Puzzitnli, and is pleafantly and advan-
Sivinburne's tageou&y fituated for trade. In a very remote age, the
^Travels in Cumean6 made it their arfenal and dockyard ; and to
S*'this naval eftablifhment gave the fublime appellation of
Dkearrhia or jfujl Power.
The Romans were well av/are of the utility of this
port, and took great pains to improve its natural ad¬
vantages. Nothing remains of their works but a line of
piers, built to break the force of a rolling fea: they are
vulgarly called the bridge of Caligula, becaufe that mad¬
man is faid to have marched in triumph from Puzzuoli
to Baia on a bridge ; but his was a bridge of boats.
The ruins of its ancient edifices are widely fpread
along the adjacent hills and fhores. An amphitheatre
ftill exifls entire in mofl of its parts, and the temple of
Serapis offers many curious fubjedts of obfervation ;
half of its buildings are ftill buried under the earth
thrown upon it by volcanical commotions, or accumu¬
lated by the crumblings of the hill; the inclofure is
fquare, environed with buildings for priefts and baths
for votaries ; in the centre remains a circular platform,
with four flights of fteps up to it, vafes for fire, a cen¬
trical altar, rings for vidlims, and other appendages of
facrifice, entire and not difplaced; but the columns that
held its roof have been removed to the new palace of
Caferta (fee Caserta). Behind this round place of
worlhip ftand three pillars without capitals, part of the
pronaos of a large temple; they are of cipolline marble,
and at the middle of their height are full of holes eaten
in them by the file-fifh *.
The prefent city contains near 10,000 inhabitants,
and occupies a fmall peninfula; the cathedral was a pa¬
gan temple, dedicated to the divinities that prefided
over commerce and navigation. E. Long. 14. 40. N.
JLat. 41. 15.
In the neighbourhood of Puteoli are marfy relicks of
antient grandeur, of which none deferves more attention
than the Campanian way paved •with lava, and lined on
each fide with venerable towers, the repofitories of the
dead, which are richly adorned with ftucco in the infide.
This road was made in a moft folid expenfive manner
by order of Domitian, and is frequently the fubjeifl of
encomium in the poems of Statius.
PUTI caraja, in botany, is a genus of Indian
plants, of which the chara&ers, as given by Sir William
Jones in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. ii. p. 351. are
thefe. The calyx is five-cleft, the corolla has five equal
petals, the pericarpium a thorny legumen and two feeds,
the leaves oval and pinnated, and the ftem armed.
“ The feeds (fays the learned Prefident) are very bitter,
and perhaps tonic; fince one of them, bruifed and given
in two dozes, will, as the Hindoos aflert, cure an inter¬
mittent fever.”
* Pie/las
XXzHyluif
JLinn.
PUIORIUS, in zoology. See Mustela.
PUTREFACTION, one of the natural procefles,
direftly oppofite to the life of animals and vegetables,
by which organized bodies are ^iflolved, and reduced
to what may be called their original elements.
Putrefaction differs from-chemical folution ; becaufe,
in the latter, the diftblved bodies are kept in their ftate
of fehition by being combined with a certain agent
from which they cannot eafily be feparated; but in pu.
trefaClion, the agent which diflblves the body appears Putrelic*
not to combine with it in any manner of way, but merely t‘on-
to feparate the parts from each other.—It differs alfo ——Y—""*
from the refolution of bodies by dift illation with violent
fire; becaufe, in diftillation new and permanent com¬
pounds are formed, but by putrefaction every thing
feems to be refolved into fubllances much more Ample
and indeftrudtible than thofe w'hich are the refult of any
chemical procefs.
The bodies moft liable to putrefaftion are thofe of
animals and vegetables, efpecially when full of juices.
Stones, though by the a6tion of the weather they will
moulder into dull, yet feem not to be fubjedt to any
thing like a real putrefaftion, as they are not refolved
into any other fubltance than fand, or fmall dull, which
Jlill preferves its lapideous nature. In like manner, ve¬
getables of any kind, when deprived of their juices by
drying, may be preferved for many ages without being
fubjedled to any thing like a putrefactive procefs. Tire
fame holds good with refpedt to animals ; the parts of
which, by Ample drying, may be preferved in a found
ftate for a much longer time than they could be with¬
out the previous exhalation of their juices.
Putreiadlion is generally allowed to be a kind of fer¬
mentation, orrather to be the laft ftage of that procefs;
which, beginning with the vinous fermentation, goes
on through the acetous, to the ftage of putridity, where
it Hops. It is argued, however, and feemingly not
without a great deal of reafon, that if putrefadlion is a
fermentation, it muft neceffarily be a kind diftindt from
either the vinous or acetous ; fince we frequently obferve
that it takes place where neither the vinous nor the ace¬
tous ftages have gone before; of confequence, it muft be,
in fome cafes at leaft, entirely independent of and uncon-
nedted with them. In feveral other refpedts it differs
fo much from thefe proceffes, that it feems in fome de¬
gree doubtful whether it can with propriety be called a
fermentation or not. Both the vinous and acetous fer¬
mentations are attended with a confiderable degree of
heat: but in the putrefadlion of animal matters efpeci¬
ally, the heat is for the moft part fo fmall, that we can¬
not be certain whether there is any degree of it or not
produced by the procefs. In cafes, indeed,’ where the
quantity of corrupting animal matter is very great, fome
heat may be perceived : and accordingly Dr Monro
tells us, that he was fenfible of heat on thrufting his
hand into the flefh of a dead and corrupting whale.
But the moft remarkable difference between the putre-
fadlive fermentation and that of the vinous and acetous
kinds is, that the end of both thefe procefles is to pro¬
duce a new and permanent compound; but that of the
putrefadlive procefs is not to produce any new form,
but to deftroy, and refolve one which already exifts into
the original principles from which all things feem to pro¬
ceed. Thus, the vinous fermentation produces ardent
fpirits; the acetous, vinegar: but putrefadlion produces
nothing but earth, and fome effluvia, which, the ugh
moft difagreeable, and even poifoaous to the human bo¬
dy, yet, being imbibed by the earth and vegetable crea¬
tion, give life to a new race of beings. It is commonly
fuppoled, indeed, that volatile alkali is a produdlion of
the putrefadlive procefs: but this feems liable to dif-
pute. The vapour of pure volatile alkali is not hurtful
to the human frame, but that of putrefying fubllances is
exceedingly fo; and, excepting in the cafe of urine, the
4 generation
PUT [ 676
PutreFiic- veneration of volatile alkali in putnd fubftances is very
non. equivocal. This fubftance, which produces more alkali
v  t[ian any other, is much lefs oflenlive by its putrid fetor
than others; and all animal fubftances produce a volatile
alkali on being expofed to the aftion of fire, of quick¬
lime, or of alkaline falls. In thefe calcs the volatile al¬
kali is not fuppofed to be produced by the quicklime
or fixed fait, but only to be extricated from a kind of
ammoniacal fait pre-exifting in the animal matters; the
probability is the fame in the other cafe, viz* that vola¬
tile alkali is not produced, but only extricated, from
thefe fubftances by putrefaction.
The only thing in which the putrefadtive fermenta¬
tion agrees" with the other kinds is, that in all the three
there is an extrication of fixed air. In the putrefadfive
procefs, it has been thought that this efeape of the fix¬
ed air deprives the body of its cohefion : and Dr Mac-
bride has written a treatue, in which he endeavours to
prove, that > xed air is the very power of cohefion itfelf,
and that all bodies when deprived of their fixed air en¬
tirely lofe their cohefion. According to this hypothchs,
the caufe of putrefaftion is the efcape of fixed air : but it
is impoffible to give a reafon why fixed air, after having
fo long remained in a body, and preferved its cohefion,
fliould of a hidden begin to fly off without being aCied
upon by fomething clfe. I o a fimilar objection the
hypotheiis of thole is liable, who iuppofe putrefaClion
to he occafioQcd by the tfcape of phlogifton ; for phlo-
giflon is now known to be a chimera; anil though it
were a reality, it would not fly off without iomething
to cany it off, any more than fixed air. Animalcules
have been thought to be the caufe of putrcfa&ion : but
if animal fubftances are covered fo as to exclude the ac-
cefs of flies or other infeCts, no fuch animalcules are to
be difeovered though putrefaCtron has taken place; and
indeed it requires little pi oof to convince us, that ani¬
mals are produced in corrupted bodies only becauie fuch
fubftances prove a proper nidus foi the eggs of the pa¬
rent infeCts.
To underftand the true caufe of putrefaCtion, we
muff take notice of the circumllances in which the pro¬
cefs goes on moft rapidly. Thefe are, heat, a little
moiftiire, and confined air. Extreme cold prevents pu¬
trefaCtion, as well as perftft drynefs ; and a tree circu¬
lation of air carries oft the putrid effluvia ; a ilagnation
«f which feems to be neceffary for carrying on the pro¬
cefs. It teems alfo to hold pretty generally, that pu-
tiefying bodies fwell and become fpeciiically lighter;
for which reafon the carcafes of dead animals, after
having funk in water, rife to the top and float, 'i his
laft phenomenon, as has been obferved under the article
Blood, n° 29. (hows that thefe bodies have received
a certain quantity of an elaftic principle from the air,
which thus fwells them up to fuch a fize. It may be
laid indeed, that this increafe of fize in putrefying bo¬
dies is owing only to the extrication of air within them-
felves: but this amounts to the fame thing ; for the air
which exifts internally in the body of any animal, is
entirely divefted of elafticity while it remains there,
and. only (hows its elaffic properties upon being extri¬
cated. I he elaffic principle which combines with the
air fixed in the animal fubftance, therefore, muft come
from the external atmofphere ; and consequently the
agent in putrefaCtion muff be the elaftic principle of the
0 PUT
But, granting this to be true, it is difficult to fhow
why putrefaCtion fliould not take place in a living body
as well as in a dead one ; feeing the one is as much ex¬
pofed to the aCtion of the air as the other. This dif¬
ficulty, however, is not peculiar to the prefent Lypothe-
fis ; but will eqi -Uy occur whatever we may iuppofe the
caufe of putrefaCtion to be. The difficulty feems to be
a little cleared up by Dr Prieflley, who fhows, that, by
means of relpiration, the body is freed from many nox¬
ious effluvia which would undoubtedly deftroy it ; and
by the retention of which, he thinks, a living body'
would putrefy as foon as a dead one. The way in.
which refpiration prevents the putreiaCtion of the body,
is evidently the fame with that in which the wind pre¬
vents fith or fleih hung up in it from becoming putrid.
The conftant infpiration of the air is like a itieam of
that element continually blown upon the body, and
that not only upon its ftuface, but into it ; by which,
means putrefaCtion is prevented in thofe parts that, are
moft liable to become putrid. On the other hand, the
elaltic principle received from the air by the blood *, • See Bint)
by invigorating the powers of life, quickening the cir-u0''1'
culation, and inefeaiing perfpiration, enables the body
to expel noxious particles from oilier parts of the
body which cannot conveniently be expelled by the
39-
lungs.
This leads us to confider tire reafon why a free ex-
pofure to the air prevents the coming on of putrefac¬
tion, or why the confining of the putrid effluvia Ihould
be fo neceffary to this procefs. Here it wall be proper
to recolleCt, that putrefaCtion is a fimple reiolution off
the body into earth, air, &c. of which it feeras originally
to have been compofed. This refolution is- evidently
performed by an expanfive power feem’ngly fituated in
every particle of the body. In confequence of this
principle, the body firft 1 wells, then burfts, flies oft in
vapour, and its particles fall afunder from each other.
The aCtion of the putrefactive procefs, then, is analo¬
gous to that of fire, fince thefe are the very properties
of hre, and the very effeCts which follow the aCtion of
fire upon any combuftible body. It is therefore exceed-
ingly probable, that the agent in the aT, which we have
all along confidered as the cairfe of putrefaCtion, is no»
other than fire itfelf; that is, the ethereal fluid expanding
itfelf everywhere, as from a centre to a circumference.
The force of the fluid, indeed, is much lefs in putrefac¬
tion than in actual ignition ; and therefore live effeCts
alio take place in a much fmaller degree, and require a.
much longer time : neverthelefe, the fame circumfiances
that are neceffary for keeping up the aCt’.on of fire, are
alfo neceffary for keeping up the putrefactive procefs.
One of thefe is a free accefs of air, yet without too vio¬
lent a blaft ; for as fire cannot bum. without air, neither
can it endure too much of it: thus a candle goes out
if put under a receiver, and the air exhaufted ; and it
will do the fame if we blow violently upon it. In like
manner, putrefaClion requires a certain quantity of air,
much lefs indeed than fire : and as it requires lefs tolup-
port it, fo it can alfo endvire xpuch lefs air than five; for
a ftream of air which would not put out a fire, will ef-
feClually prevent putrefaCtion. The caufe of this in
both is the fame. Fire cannot burn becaufe the vapour
is carried off too faft ; and thus the latent heat, which
ought to fupport the flame is entirely diffipated. In § See the
kUncfphae itfeli, probably the fame with elementary fire, like manner putrefaCtion is as certainly attended with
an
Putrefac¬
tion.
v_.
^ See Pbh-
gif.un.
|j See Ev.j-
for it ion,
o° 3.
* See Me¬
dicine, iP
167.
PUT
an emiffion of azotic gas as fire is with an an emiflion
of flame. Thefe gafes contain a great quantity of la¬
tent heat or of the expaufive principle already men¬
tioned ; and if thefe are carried off with greater rapidity
than the heat of the atmofphere can produce them, the
confequence mud be, that an oppofite principle to that
which pi oduces putrefaction, namely, a principle of cold,
or condenfation, inftead of expaniion, mull take place,
and the body cannot putrefy. That this muff be the
cafe, is evident from the property which all evaporations
. have of producing cold |l ; and it is well known that a
brilk current of air promotes evaporation to a great de¬
gree. Hence alio the reafon is evident why bodies are
preferved uncorrupted by cold ; for thus the action of
the expandve principle is totally overcome and fuipendr
ed, io that none of its effects can be perceived.
Thus we may lee, tliat one real on why an animal
bod'- does not putrefy while alive, is its ventilation, as
we "may call it, by refpiration ; and another is, the
continual aecefiien of uevv particles, lefs difpofed to pu¬
trefy than it ft If, by the food and drink which is con-
llantly taken in. liut if either of theie ways ot pre¬
venting the commencement ot this procefs are omitted,
then putiefadlion will take place as well in a living as
io a dead body. Of the truth of this hill fad we have
innumerable inttances. When air is infeded with the
putrid effluvia of marfhes, and thus the natural effluvia
are not carried off from the human body, but, on the
contrary, fume enter into it which are not na-.. al to it,
the molt putrid difeafes are produced. I he lame thing
happens bom the putrid effluvia of dead bod.es. Ot
this we have a remarkable inftance in the fever which
took place 111 Germany in the war of ^755 • OIlt:
fen of which is faid to have been an infedion of the
air by the vail numbers of people killed in battle, to
which was added a calm in the atmofphere for a long
time ; the putrid effluvia being by this prevented from
flying off*. When Mr Holweil with 145 others were
[ 677 ]
PUT
imprifoned in the black-hole at Calcutta, after pafling T’utrefac*
a night in that difmal habitation, he found himfelf in tl0D f
a high putrid fever. When failors in long voyages
are obliged to feed upon putrid aliments ; when, thro’
ftormy weather, they are much expofed to wet ; in the
one cafe the putrefeent effluvia being kept from flying
off, and in. the other a greater quantity being thrown
into the body than what it naturally contains, the feur-
vy, malignant fevers, &c. make their appearance (a).
Neither can thefe difeales be removed without remo¬
ving every one of the caufes juft now mentioned: for
fis putrid difeafes will be the confequence of confined
air, naftinefs, Sec. though tlie provilions be ever fo
good ; fo, on the other hand, if the provifions be bad,
the bed air, and moil exa6l cleanlinels, nay, the beft:
medicines in the world, will be of no fervice ; as hath
been often obferved in the feurvy.
From thi$ account of the nature, caufe, and method
of preventing putrefadlion by means of a current of
air, we may eaidy fee the reafon why it does not take
place fn fome other cafes alfo. Bodies will not pu¬
trefy in vacuo, becaufe there the atmofphere has not
accefs to impart its elaftic principle j and though in
the vacuum itfeif the pr.nciple we Ipeak of does un¬
doubtedly exift, yet its action there is by far too weak
to decompofe the ftru&ure of an animal body. In ex¬
treme cold, the reafon why putrefaftion does not take
place has been already fliown. If the heat is extreme-
Iv great, the procels of ignition or burning takes place
inftead of putrefaction. If the body is very dry, pu¬
trefaction cannot take place, becaufe the texture is too
firm to be decompofed by the weak aCtion of the da-
itic principle. Putrefaction may alfo be prevented by
the addition of certain fubftances ; but they are all of
them inch as either harden the texture of the body,
and thus render it proof againft the aClion 01 the ela»
flic fluid, or, by dilfolving its texture entirely, bring,
it into a ftate limilar to what it would be brought'
bw
(a) This aeriform fluid, which is exhaled from animal bodies in a Hate of putrefa&ion, adls at certain times-
more powerfully than at others, and is indeed in one ftage of the proccfs infinitely moie noxious ftian any
other elaftic fluid yet difeovered. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for Auguft 1788,-Dr St John, in¬
forms us, that he knew a gentleman who, by flightly touching the inteftines ot a human Inidy beginning to
liberate this corrolive gas,, was affeCted with a violent inflammation, which in a very fhort Ipace ot time ex¬
tended up almoft the entire length cf his arm,, producing an extent!ve ulcer of the molt foul and fnghttul ap¬
pearance, which continued for feveral months, and reduced him to a miferable ftate of emaciation. i he lame
writer mentions a celebrated profeflbr who was attacked with a violent inflammation of the nerves and fauces,
bom which he with difficulty recovered, merely by ftooping for an inftant over a body which was beginning
to give forth this deleterious fluid. Hence he infers, that the fame gas modified or mixed, or united with
others, may be the occafion of the plague, which has fo often threatened to annihilate the human ipecies. It is-
happy, however, for mankind that this particular ftage of putrefaction continues but for a few hours ; and.
What may appear very remarkable, this deftrudive gas is not very difagreeable in fmell,. and has nothing of that
abominable and loatbfome fetor produced by dead bodies in a lefs dangerous ftate of corruption ; but has a certain
fin ell totally peculiar to itfeif, by which it may be inftantly difeovered by any one that ever imclled it before.
This is an objeA very worthy the attention of phyficians : it is both extremely intereftmg, and very httle.
known; but at the fame time it is a ftudy in the higheft degree unpleafant, from the deteftable fmell and na¬
ftinefs which attend the putrefaAion of animal bodies; and a man mull be armed with uncommon philanthropy
and refolution to attempt it. . . .
Dr St John thinks it probable that there is a rapid fixation of the bafis of vital air in dead bodies at a cer¬
tain ftate of putrefaAion, on account of the luminous appearance which they fometimes make, .uid vvhu ex-
ills but for a few hours : but whether this luminous appearance takes place in every body, or whether it pre¬
cedes or follows the exhalations of the conofive gad above-mentioned, he had not, when he-wrote his paper,
been able to difeover.
PUT C 67S ] PUT
Putrafac* by the utmod power of putrefaftlon, fo that the pro.
, tWJn- , cefs cannot then take place. Thus various kinds of
^ ' falts and acids harden the texture of animal fubftances,
and thus are fuccefsfully ufed as antifeptics. The fame
thing may be faid of ardent fpirits; while oils and gums
of various kinds prove antifeptic by a total exclufion
©f air, which is necelfary in fome degree for carrying
on the proeefs of putrefaftion. Many vegetables, by
the allringent qualities they poflefs, harden the texture
of animal fubftances, and thus prove powerfully anti¬
feptic ; while, on the other hand, fixed alkaline falts,
quicklime, and cauftic volatile alkali, though they pre¬
vent putrefaftion, yet they do it by difiblving the fub¬
ftances in fuch a manner that putrefaftion could do no
more though it had exerted its utmoft force. There is
only one other antifeptic fubftance whofe effe&s deferve
to be confidered, and that is fugar. This, tho* neither
acid nor alkaline, is yet one of the moft effectual means
of preventing putrefa&ion : and this feems to be owing
to its great tendency to run into the vinous fermenta¬
tion, which is totally inconfiftent with that of putre-
faftion ; and this tendency is fo great, that it can fcarce
be countera&ed by the tendency of animal fubftances
to putrefy in any circumftances whatever.
Some kinds of air are remarkably antifeptic, though
this fubjeft has not been fo fully inquired into as could
be wifhed. The moft powerful of them in this refpeft
is the nitrous air ; next to it, is fixed air ; but the
powers of the other airs are not fo well known. It
is probable that the antifeptic properties of fixed and
nitrous air, are owing to their quality of extinguifhing
fire, or at leaft that the principle is the fame ; but, till
the nature of thefe two kinds of air are better known,
little can be faid with certainty on the fubje<!ft.
Sir John Pringle has made experiments to determine
the powers of certain fubftances to promote or to pre¬
vent putrefa&ion. From thefe experiments he has
formed the following Table, fhowing the relative anti¬
feptic powers of the faline fubftances mentioned. Ha¬
ving found that two drams of beef put in a phial with
two ounces of water, and placed in a heat equal to 90°
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, became putrid in 14
hours, and that 60 grains of fea-falt preferved a fimilar
mixture of beef and water more than 30 hours, he made
the antifeptic power of the fea-falt a ftandard, to which
he compared the powers of the other falts. The alge¬
braic chara&er -f- fignifies, that the fubftance to which
it is annexed had a greater antifeptic power than is ex-
pieffed by the numbers :
Sea-falt, or the ftandard
Sal-gem -
Vitriolated tartar
Spiritus Mindereri
Soluble tartar - . .
Sal drureticus -
Crude fal ammoniac
Saline mixture
Nitre .
Salt of hartftiorn
Salt of wormwood
Borax . _
Salt of amber . „
Alum _
A7* B* The quantities of fpiritus Mindereri
1 +
2
2
2
2 +
3
3
4*f
4 +
4 +
12
20
30
and of
the faline mixture were fuch, that each of them contain*
ed as much alkaline fait as the other neutral falts.
Myrrh, aloes, afafeetida, and terra Japonica, were found
to have an antifeptic power 30 times greater than the
ftandard. Gum ammoniacum and fagapenum fhowed
little antifeptic power.
Of all refinous fubftances, camphor was found to re¬
fill putrefaftion moft powerfully. Sir John Pringle be¬
lieves that its antifeptic power is 300 times greater than
that of fea-falt,
Chamomile flowers, Virginian fnake-root, pepper,
ginger, faffron, contrayerva root, and galls, were found
to he 1 z times more antifeptic than fea-falt.
Infufions of large quantities of mint, angelica, ground-
ivy, green tea, red-rofes, common wormwood, milliard,
and horfe-radifh, and filfo deco6tions of poppy-heads,
were more antifeptic than fea-falt. •
Deco&ions of wheat, barley, and other farinaceous
grains, checked the putrefadlion by becoming four.
Chalk, and other abforbent powders, accelerated the
putrefa£lion, and refolved meat into a perfedt mucus.
The fame powders prevented an infufion of farinaceous
grains from becoming mucilaginous and four.
One dram of fea-falt was found to preferve two
drams ot frelh beef in two ounces of water, above 30
hours, uncorrupted, in a heat equal to that of the human
body, or above 20 hours longer than meat is preferved
in water without fait: but half a dram of fait did not
preferve ft more than two hours longer than pure wa¬
ter. Twenty-five grains of fait had little or no anti¬
feptic quality. Twenty grains, 15 grains, but efpeci-
ally 10 grains only of fea-falt, were found to accelerate
and heighten the putrefaclion of two drams of flefh.—•
Thefe fmall quantities of fea-falt did alfo foften the flelh
more than pure water.
The fame learned and ingenious phyfician made ex¬
periments to difeover the effe&s of mixing vegetable
with animal matters.
Two drams of raw beef, as much bread, and an
ounce of water, being beat to the confillence of pap,
and expofed to 90° of heat according to Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, began to ferment in a few hours, and
continued in fermentation during two days. When
it began to ferment and fwell, the putrefaction had be¬
gun ; and in a few hours afterwards, the fmell was of-
lenfive. Next day the putrid fmell ceafed, and an acid
tafte and fmell fucceeded. Frelh alimentary vegetables,
as fpinach, afparagus, feurvy-grafs, produced fimilar
effeCts as bread on flelh, but in a weaker degree. Ffom
feveral other experiments he found, that animal fub¬
ftances excite the fermentation of vegetable fubftances,
and that the latter fubilances correCt the putrefcency
of the former. '
By adding faliva to a fimilar mixture of flelh, bread,
and water, the fermentation was retarded, moderated,
but rendered of twice the ufual duration, and the acid
produced at laft was weaker than when no faliva was
ufed.
By adding an oily fubftance to the common mixture
of flelh, bread* and water, a ftronger fermentation was
produced, which could not be moderated by the quan¬
tity ol faliva uted in the former experiment, till fome
fixed alkaline fait was added; which fait was found,
without faliva, to Hop fuddenly very high fermentations.
He did not find that fmall quantities of the following
falts,
Pntref*#*
tion.
P U Z [ 679 ] P Y C
Putrefac- falts, fal ammoniac, nitre, vitriolated tartar, fal diureti-
ti°n cus, fait of hartihorn, fait of wormwood, were feptie, as
FuJulana. ^aU quantities of fea-falt were.
Sugar was found to reliit putreradtion at hrit, as
other falts do, and alfo to check the putrefa&ion after
it had begun by its own fermentative quality, like bread
and other fermentative vegetables.
Lime-water made fome fmall refiftance to putrefac¬
tion.
Port-wine, fmall-beer, infufions of bitter vegetables,
of bark, and the juice of antifcorbutic plants, retarded
the fermentation of mixtures of fleih and bread. But
an unftrained deco&ion of bark coniiderably increafed
that fermentation.
Crabs-eyes accelerated and increafed the fermentation
of a mixture of flefh and bread.
Lime-water neither retarded nor haftened the fer¬
mentation of iuch a mixture : but when the fermenta¬
tion ceafed, the liquor was neither putrid nor acid, but
fmelt agreeably.
Flefh pounded in a mortar was found to ferment
fooner than that which had not been bruifed.
The tough inflammatory cruft of blood was found
to be moft putrefeent; next to which the craflamentum,
or red coagulated mafs ; and laftly the ferum.
Dr Macbride’s experiments confirm many of thofe
above related, efpecially thofe which (how that the fer¬
mentation of vegetable fubftances is increafed by a mix¬
ture of animal or putrefeent matter; that the putre-
fcency of the latter is corrected by the fermentative
quality of the former ; and that the putrefa&ion and
fermentation of mixtures of animal and vegetable fub-
Itances were accelerated by additions of abforbent earths
and of Peruvian bark. He alfo found, that although
unburnt calcareous earths were feptic, quicklime and
lime-water prevented putrefaftion, but that they de-
ftroyed or diffolved the texture of fltfli.
The experiments of the author of the EJfai pour fer-
vir a VHifloire de la Putrefa8iont fhow that metallic
falts, refinous powders, extratts of bark, and opium, are
very powerfully antifeptic, and that falts with earthy
bafes are lefs antifeptic than any other falts.
PUTTOCK-Shrouds. See PuIIocI-Shrouds.
PUTTY, in its popular fenfe, is a kind of pafte
compounded of whiting and lintfeed oil, beaten toge¬
ther to the confiftence of a thick dough.
It is ufed by glaziers for the faftening in the fquares
of glafs in falh-windows, and by painters for flopping
up the crevices and clefts in timber and wainfeots, See.
Putty lometimes alfo denotes the powder of calci¬
ned tin, ufed in poliftiing and giving the laft glofs to
works of iron and fteel.
Terra PUZZULjA-NA, or Pozzolana, is a
greyifh kind of earth ufed in Italy for building under
water. The beft is found about Puteoli, Baia», and
Cumae, in the kingdom of Naples, from the firft of
which places it derives its name. It is a volcanic pro-
duft, compofed of heterogeneous fubftances, thrown
out from the burning mouths of volcanoes in the form
of allies ; fometimes in fuch large quantities, and with
fo great violence, that whole provinces have been co¬
vered with it at a confiderable diftance. In the year
79 of the common era, the cities of Herculaneum,
Pompeia, and Stabia, although at the diftance of many
miles from Vefuvius, were, neverthelefs, buried under
the matters 'of thefe dreadful eruptions; as Bergman Puzzulana
relates in his Treatife of the Volcanic ProduBs. This !1
volcanic earth is of a grey, brown, or blackifh colour; ^y^oftyk*
of a loofe, granular, or dully and rough, porous or ’ *
fpongy texture, refembling a clay hardened by fire,
and then reduced to a grofs powder. It contains va¬
rious heterogeneous fubftances mixed with it. Its fpe-
cific gravity is from 2500 to 2800 ; and it is, in
fome degree, magnetic: it fcarctly effervefees with
acids, though partially folublc in them. It eafily melts
per fe; but its moft diftinguilhing property is, that it
hardens very fuddenly when mixed with 4 of its weight
of lime and water; and forms a cement, which is more
durable in water than any other.
According to Bergman’s Analyfis, 100 parts of it
contain from 55 to 60 of filiceous earth, 20 of argil¬
laceous, five or fix of calcareous, and from 15 to 20
of iron. Its effe&s, however, in cement may perhaps
depend only on the iron which has been reduced into
a particular fubftance by means of fubterraneous fires ;
evident figns of which are obfervable in the places
where it is obtained. If the Hate in Henneberg, or
Kennekulle in the province of Weftergottland, Ihould
happen to get fire, the uppermoft ftratum, which now
confifts of a mixture of iron and different kinds of
rocks, calledin the account given of them, they
might perhaps be changed partly into flag and partly
into terra puzzolana.
It is evidently a martial argillaceous marl, that has
fuffered a moderate heat. Its hardening power arifes
from the dry Hate of the half-baked argillaceous par¬
ticles, which makes them imbibe water very rapidly,
and thus accelerates the deficcation of the calcareous
part ; and alfo from the quantity and femiphlogillicated
ftate of the iron contained in it. It is tound not only
in Italy but in France, in the provinces of Auvergne
and Limoges ; and alfo in England and elfewhere.
PUZZUOLI. See Puteoli.
PYANEPSIA, in antiquity, an Athenian feftival
celebrated on the feventh day of the month Pyanepjion ;
which, according to the generality of critics, was the
fame with our September.
Plutarch refers t;he inllitution of this feaft to The-
feus, who, after the funeral of his father, on this day
paid his vows to Apollo, becaufc the youths who re¬
turned with him fafe from Crete then made their entry
into the city. On this occafion, thefe young men put¬
ting all that was left of their provifions into one kettle,
feafted together on it, and made great rejoicing.
Hence was derived the cuftom of boiling pulfe on this
feftival. The Athenians likewife carried about an olive
branch, bound about with wool, and crowned with all
forts of firft-fruits, to fignify that fcarcity and barren-
nefs were ceafed, finging in procefiion a fong. And
when the folemnity was over, it was ufual to ereft the
olive-branch before their doors, as a prefervative againft
fcarcity and want.
PYCNOSTYLE, in the ancient architecture, is a
building where the columns ftnnd very clofe to each
other; only one diameter and a half of the column be¬
ing allowed for the intercolumniations.
According to Mr Evelyn, the pycnoftyle chiefly be¬
longed to the compofite order, and was ufed in the moft
magniftcent buildings ; as at prelent in the periityle at
St Peter’s at Rome, which confifts of near 300 co¬
lumns i
Pylus.
p y l r 680
PTgsrgtifl lamns ; and in fuch as yet remain of the ancients, among
the ruins of Palmyra.
PYG ARGUS, in ornithology, afpecies of Falco.
PYGMALION, in fabulous hillory, a king of Cy¬
prus, who, being difgufted at the diflblute lives of the
women of his illand, refolved to live in perpetual celi¬
bacy ; but making a llatue of ivory, he fell fo paf-
iionately in love with it, that the high feftival of Ve¬
nus being come, he fell down before the altar of that
goddefs, and befought her to give him a wife like the
llatue he loved. At his return home, he embraced, as
ufual, his ivory form, when he perceived that it became
fenfible by degrees, and was at lall a living maid, who
found herfelf in her lover’s arms the moment (he faw
the light. Venus blefled their union ; and, at the end
of nine months, Ihe wras delivered of a boy, who was
named Paphos.
PYGMY, a perfon not exceeding a cubit in height.
This appellation was given by the ancients to a fabu¬
lous nation inhabiting Thrace; who brought forth young
at five years of age, and were old at eight: thefe were
famous for the bloody war they waged with the cranes.
As to this ftory, and for the natural hiltory of the true
pygmy, fee Si mi a.
PYKAR, a broker in India, inferior to thofe called
da Hals, who tranfatts the bufinefs at firll hand with
the manufailurer, and fometimes carries goods about
for fale.
PYKE, a watchman m India, employed as a guard
at night. Likewife a footman or runner on bufinefs.
They are generally armed with a fpear.
PV LADES, a fon of Strophius, king of Phocis,
by one of the lifters of Agamemnon. He was educa¬
ted together with his coulin Oreftes, with whom he
formed the moll inviolable friendftiip, and whom he
aflifted to revenge the murder of Agamemnon, by af-
fafiinating Clytemntftra and yEgyftlms. He alfo ac¬
companied him in Taurica Cherfonefus ; and for his fer-
vices Oreftes rewarded him, by giving him his lifter
Eledtra in marriage. Pylades had by her two fons,
Medon and Strophius. The friendlhip of Oreftes and
Pylades became proverbial.
PYLORUS, in anatomy, the under orifice of the
ftomach. “See Anatomy, n° 91.
P\ HUS (anc. geog.), a town of Elis ; its ruins to
be feen on the road from Olympia to Elis, (Paufanias);
fituated between the mouths of the Peneus aud Sellees,
near Mount Scollis, (Strabo.) Puiilt by Pylas of Me-
gara, and deft roved by Hercules, (Paufanias.) —An¬
other Pylus in Triphylia, (-Strabo) ; by which the Al-
pheus runs, (Paufanias) ; on the confines of Arcadia,
and not in Arcadia itfelf, (id.)—A third in Meflenia,
(Strabo, Ptolemy); iitUated at the foot of Mount YEga-
leus on the fea coaft, over-againft the iftand Sphagea
or Sphaftei 1a 1 built by Pylas, and fettled by a colony
of Leleges from Megara ; but thence expelled by Ne,
leus and the Pelafgi, and therefore called Nelea, '(Ho¬
mer.) A fandy territory. \ he royal refidence of Ne-
leus, and of Neftor his Ion : the more ancient and more
excellent PyIns; whence the proverb Pylus ante Pylum,
(xAnl ophanes, Plutarch), uled when we want to re-
prels the arrogance and pride of anv one : faid to be
aiterwards called Corjpkafmm. It made a figure in the
Peloponnefian war; for being rebuilt by the Athenians,
vt proved of great benefit to them for the fpaee of 15
] P Y R
years, and of much annoyance to the Lacedemonians, Pyramid,
(Thucydides). All the three Pyli were fubject to Ne- 'maJ
ftor, (Strabo.)
PYRAMID, in geometry, a folid ftanding on a tri¬
angular, fquare, or polygonal bafis, and terminating in
a point at the top ; or, according to Euclid, it is a fo¬
lid figure, confifung of feveral triangles, whefe bafes arc
all in the fame plane, and have one common vertex.
Pyramids are fometimes afed to preferve the memory
of lingular events, and fometimes to tranfmit to pofte-
rity the glory and magnificence of princes. But an
they are efteemed a fymbol of immortality, they arc
moft commonly ufed as funeral monuments and temples
to the gods. Such is that of Ceftius at Rome ; the
pyramids of Dalhur drawn by Pocock; and thofe other
celebrated ones of Egypt, as famous for the enormity
of their fize as their antiquity. Of thefe the largeft are
the pyramids of Gee%a, fo called from a village of that
name on the banks of the Nile, diftant from them about
11 miles. The three which moft; attradf the attention
of travellers ftand near one another on the weft fide of
the river, tdmoft oppofite to Grand Cairo, and not far
from the place where the ancient Memphis Hood. They
were viiited by M. Savary, of whole defeription of
them we ihall here give an abftrad.
He took his journey in the night-time, in order to
get up to the top of the great one by funrife. Having
got within fight of the two great ones, while the full '
moon {hone upon them, he informs us, that they ap¬
peared, at the diftance of three leagues, like two points
of rock crowned by the clouds.
It is in the rich territory which furrounds them that
fable has placed the Elyiian fields. The canals which
interfed them are the Styx and Lethe.
“ 'I he afpeds of the pyramids varied according to
the circuits he made in the plain, and the pofition of
the clouds dffplayed themfclves more and more to view.
At half paft three in the morning we arrived (fays he)
at the foot of the greateft. We left our clothes at the
gate of the palfage which leads to the infide, and de-
feended, carrying each of us a flambeau in his hand.
Towards the bottom you mull creep like ferpents to
get into the interior palfage, which correfponds with
the former. We mounted it on our knees, fupporting
ourfelves with 4mr hands againft the fides. Without
this precaution Ciire runs the rifle of flipping on the in¬
clined plane, where the flight notches are infufficient to
flop the foot, and one might fall to the bottom. To¬
wards the middle we fired a piftol, the frightful noife
of which, repeated in the cavities of this immenfe edi¬
fice, continued a long time, and awakened thouiands of
bats, which flying round us, ftruek againft our hands
and faces, and extmguifhed feveval of our wax candles.
They are much latger than the European bats. Ar¬
rived above, we entered a great hall, the gate of which
is very low. It is an oblong fquare, wholly compofeti
of granite. Seven enormous Hones extend from one
wall to the other, and form the roof. A farcophagus
made of a Angle block of marble lies at one end of it.
It is empty ; and the lid of it has been wrenched off.
Some pieces of earthen vafes lie around it. Under this
beautiful hall is a chamber not fo large, where you find
the entrance to a conduit filled with rubbilh. After
examining theie caves, where daylight never penetrated,
w'e defeended the fame way, taking care not to fall in-
3 to
Q ITARTEiR .
irrjferftt,
P Y R [ 68r ] P Y R
Pyratrid. to a well, which is on the left, and goes to the very
i"—v—— foundations of the pyramid. Pliny makes mention of
this well, and fays it is 26 cubits deep. The internal
air of this edifice never being renewed, is fo hot and
mephitic that one is almoil fuffocated. When we came
out of it, we were dropping with fweat, and pale as
death. After refrefhing ourfelves with the external air,
we loft no time in afcending the pyramid. It is com-
pofed of more than 200 layers of ftone. They overlap
each other in proportion to their elevation, which is
from two to four feet. It is neceffary to climb up all thefe
enormous fteps to reach the top. We undertook it at
the north-eaft angle, which is the leaft damaged. It
took us, however, half an hour with great pains and
many efforts to effeft it.
“ The fun was rifmg, and we enjoyed a pure air,
with a moft delicious coolnefs. After admiring the
profpeft around us, and engraving our names on the
fummit of the pyramid, we defcended cautioufly, for we
had the abyfs before us. A piece of ftone detaching
itfelf under our feet or hands might have fent us to the
bottom.
“ Arrived at the foot of the pyramid, we made the
tour of it, contemplating it with a fort of horror.
When viewed clofe, it feems to be made of mafles of
rocks ; but at a hundred paces diftance, the largenefs
of the ftones is loft in the immenfity of the whole, and
they appear very fmall.
“ To determine its dimenfions is (till a problem. From
the time of Herodotus to our days it has been mea-
fured by a great number of travellers and learned men,
and their different calculations, far from clearing up
doubts, have only increafed the uncertainty. The fol-
* lowing table will ferve a,t leaft to prove how difficult it
is to come at the truth.
Height of the great
Pyramid.
Width of one of
Usjides.
Ancients.
Herodotus - 800
Strabo - 625
Diodorus Siculus 600 and a fraftion.
Pliny 
Moderns.
Le Bruyn - 616
Profper Alpinus 625
Thevenot - 520
Niebuhr - 440
Greaves - 444
French Feet.
800
600
700
708
704
750
682
710
648
Number of layers of Stone which form it.
Greaves - 207 - - layers.
Maillet - 208
Albert Liewenftein 2 60
Pococke - 212
Belon - 250
Thevenot - 208
“ It appears that Meftfs Greaves and Niebuhr have
jirodigioully deceived themfelves in meafuring the per¬
pendicular height of the great pyramid. All the tra¬
vellers allow that it has at leaft 200 layers of ftone.
1 hefe layers are from two to four feet high. Accord-
Vou XV. Part IL
ing to Pocockc, they are from four feet and a half to Pyramid.
four feet Jiigh, being not fo high at the top as at the 
bafe. Profper Alpinus informs us, that the elevation
of the firft layer is five feet, but it diminifhes infen-
iibly in proportion as one mounts. Thevenot men¬
tions 208 fteps of large ftones, the thicknefs of which
makes the height of them about two feet and a half
one with another : He meafured fome of them more
than three feet high. I have meafured feveial of them
which were more than three feet high, and I found
none lefs than two; the leaft height of them we can
take as a medium therefore is two feet and a half,
which, even according to Mr Greaves’s calculation,
who reckons 207 layers, would make 5 17 feet 6 inches
perpendicular height. Mefirs Greaves, Maillet, Theve¬
not, and Pococke, who only differ in the number of the
layers from 207 to 212, all mounted by the north-ealt
angle, as the leaft injured. I followed the fame route,
and counted only 208 fteps. But if we refleft that
the pyramid has been open on the fide next the defert,
that the ftones on that fide have been thrown down,
that the fand which covers them has formed a confider-
able hill, we ftiall not be aftonilhed that Albert Lipw*
enftein, Belon, and Profper Alpinus, who muft have
mounted by the fouth-eaft or fouth-weft angle, which
are lefs expofed to the fands of Lybia, ffiould have
found a greater number of fteps : fo that the calculation
of thefe travellers, agreeing with that of Diodorus Si¬
culus and Strabo, appears to be neareft the true height
of the pyiamid taken at its natural bafe ; whence we .
may conclude with reafon that it is at leaft 600 feet
high. Indeed this is authenticated by a paffage of
Strabo. Thefe are his words: ‘ Towards the middle
of the height of one of the fides is a ftone that may be
raifed up. It (huts an oblique paffage which leads to a
coffin placed in the centre of the pyramid.’ This paf¬
fage, open in our days, and which in the time of Strabo
was towards the middle of one face of the pyramid, is
at prefent only 100 feet from the bafe. So that the
ruins of the covering of the pyramid, and of the ftones
brought from within, buried by the fand, have formed
a hill in this place 200 feet high. Pliny confirms this
opinion. The great fphynx was in his time upwards
of 62 feet above the furface of the ground. Its whole
body is at prefent buried under the fand. Nothing
more appears of it than the neck and head, which are
27 feet high. If even the fphynx, though defended by
the pyramids againft the northerly winds, which bring
torrents of fand from Libya, be covered as high as 38
feet, what an immaftfe quantity muft have been heaped
up to the northward of an edifice whofe bafe is upwards
ot 700 feet long ? It is to this we muft attribute the
prodigious difference between the accounts of the hi-
itorians who have meafured the great pyramid at diftant
periods, and at oppofite angles. Herodotus, who faw
it in the age neareft to its foundation, when its true
bafe was {till uncovered, makes it 800 feet fquare. This
opinion appears very probable. Pliny alfo fays that it
covered the fpace of eight acres.
“ Meffrs Shaw, Thevenot, and the other travellers who
pretend that this pyramid was never finiftied, becaufe it ‘
is open and without coating, are in an error. It is on¬
ly neceffary to obferve the remains of the mortar, with
the fplinters of white marble which are to be found in
4 R many
p Y R [68
Vinrmi. many parts of the fteps, to fee that it has hecti coated.
  v— After reading attentively the defcnption given of it by
the ancients, every doubt vanifhes, and the truth is as
clear as day-light. Herodotus tells us, ‘ The great py¬
ramid was covered with polifhed hones, perfe&ly well
iointed, the fmalleft of which was 30 feet long. It
was built in the form of fteps, on each of which were
placed wooden machines to raife the {tones from one to
another.’ According to Diodorus, ‘ Tire great pyra¬
mid is built of {tones, very difficult of workmanftup,
but of an eternal duration. It is preferved to our days
(towards the middle of the Auguftan age) without be-
uig in the leaft injured. The marble was brought from
the quarries of Arabia.’ I his hiftorian thought that
the w hole building was compofed of {tones, fimilar to
thofe of the coating, which were of very hard marble.
Had there been fome pieces torn off, he would have
perceived under that covering a calcareous {tone rather
{oft. Pliny fays that it ‘ is formed of {tones brought
from the quarries of Arabia. It is not far from the Mi¬
lage of Bufiris (which ftill exifts under the name of
Boujir), where thofe perfons relide who are fo ikiltul as
to climb up to the top.’
“ This paffage {hows that Pliny, deceived by the ap¬
pearance, wTas in the fame error with Diodorus Siculus.
It demonftrates alfo that it was covered : for what dif¬
ficulty would there have been for the inhabitants of Bu¬
firis to fcale a building raifed by fteps? but it wras really
a prodigy for them to get up it when it formed a moun¬
tain, the four inclined planes of w'hich prefented a fur-
face covered with polilhed marble. It is indeed an in-
conteftable fa&, that the great pyramid was coated.. It
is as certain too that it has been {hut, as Strabo gives
us to underhand ; and that by removing a ftone placed
in the middle of one of the fides, one found a paffage
which led to the tomb of the king. But I fhall. leave
Mr Maillet, who vifited it 40 times with all imaginable
attention, the honour of relating the means employed
to open it. I have examined the infide of it in tw'O
different journey's: twice I have mounted it : and I can¬
not help admiring the fagacity with which that author
has developed the mechanifm of that aftonilhing edifice. ’
Our author next proceeds to give a particular de-
feription of the methods by which it is moft probable
that the pyramids were clofed, and the immenfe labour
requifite to open them ; but as this defeription affords
nothing very interefting, we {hall not iniert it. Only
we muft remark, that the final outlet to the workmen
he fuppofes to have been the well at the entrance for¬
merly mentioned. This vrell defeeitds towards the bot¬
tom of the pyramid by a line not quite perpendicular to
the horizon, but flanting a little, in fuch a manner as to
refemble the figure of the Hebrew letter Lamed. About
60 feet from the aperture there is a fquare window in
this paffage, from whence we enter a {mail grotto hewn
out of the mountain ; which in this place is not a fohd
{lone, but a kind of gravel concreted together. The
grotto extends about 15 feet from eaft to weft, where
there is another groove hollowed likewife, but almoft
perpendicular. It is two feet four inches wide by two
and an half in height. It defeends through a fpace of
123 feet, after which we meet with nothing but fand
and {lanes. M. Savary is convinced that the only ufe
of this paffage was to ferve as a retreat for the labour¬
ers who conftrufted the pyramid j and of this he looks
2 ] P Y R
upon the Hope of the conduit, its winding road, Its pyramid.
fmallnefs, and its depth, to be certain proofs. The *
way out of it he fuppofes to have been formed by a paf¬
fage over which hung a row of ftones, which they had
difeovered the fecret of fufpending, and which falling
down into the paffage by the means of fome fpring they
fet in motion, {hut up the entrance for ever, as foon as
the workmen were withdrawn from the pyramid.
It feems to be an unqueftionable fa£l, that this py¬
ramid was a maufoleum of one of the kings of Egypt,
and it is very probable that all the reft anfwered fimilar
purpofes. We do not, however, think that this was
their primary ufe or the original deftgn of their build*
crs. Mr Bryant is of opinion that they were temples
cre&ed in honour of the Deity ; and a very ingenious
writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1794 has
done much to prove that they were altars dedicated to
the fun, the firft and greateil god in every pagan ka-
lendar.
“ Our Engliffi word pyramid (fays he) is direftly
derived from the Latin pyramist and mediately from
the Greek crypa*'?; all denoting the fame mathemati¬
cal figure. The original of the whole feems to be
the Egyptian word pyramoua, which, we are told by
Oriental fcholars, fignifies light, or a ray of light. From
this Coptic vocable the word in Greek, fignifying
fire, is probably defeended ; as the flames of fire affume
that conical or pyramidal form which the folar rays
commonly difplay ; and as it is natural for the mind to
diftinguifii its objects rather by their external qualities,
and thofe obvious and interelling appearances which
they exhibit to the fenfes, than by their conftituent and
infeparable properties.
“ The efficient Egyptians feem to have penetrated very
far into the myfteries of nature ; and although their
fuperftition appears at firft fight to be extremely grofs
and abfurd, yet it is very probable that their deities
were only emblematical perfonages, reprefenting by
fen Able images the grand effefts or prefiding principles
which they fuppofed to exift in the univerfe. Thus
the moon was called I/is, and the fun O/iris; and to
the honour of this laft deity, from whofe vifible influ¬
ence and creative energy all things feem to fpring into
exitlence, it is not improbable that the Egyptians creel¬
ed thofe ftupendous monuments, and dedicated them
to him as temples or altars. It was natural to build
them in that ihape which the rays of the fun difplay
when difeovered to the eye, and which they obferved to
be the fame in terreftrial flame, becaufe this circumftance
was combined in their imaginations with the attribute
which they adored. If they were temples dedicated to
the fun, it feems a natural confequence that they fhould
likewife be places of fepulture for kings and illuilrious
men, as the fpace which they covered would be confider-
ed as confecrated ground. This hypotheiis is common,
and is not contradi&ed by the prefent reafoning. But,
confidering them as altars, and as moft travellers agree
that they were never finiftied, but terminate in a fquare
horizontal furface, it would not be refining too much
to venture an afiertion that, in great and folemn adts of
adoration, the Egyptians conilrudled fires, the flames
of which fliould terminate in the vertex of the pyramid,
and fo complete that emanation ot their deity which
they admired and adored. As far, therefore, as we are
juilified in forming any conclulioa on fo dark a fobject.
P Y R [ 683 1 P Y R
Pj-famid. we may venture to fay, that the Egyptian pyramids
were temples or altars dedicated to the fun, as the ma¬
terial reprefcntative of that invifible power which creates,
governs, and pervades, the whole fyftem of nature.”
This reafoning has great force ; and it certainly re¬
ceives additional ftrength from the undoubted faft, that
the drft ftatues for idolatrous worlhip were eredted on
the tops of mountains, and of a pyramidal or conical
form. (See Polytheism, n° 13 and 21 ) It is like-
wife corroborated by other circumftances difcovered by
the members of the Aiiatic Society. In the fecond vo¬
lume of their tranfadtions we have an account of feveral
large Jlatues of the gods Seeva and Mchedeo, all of a
conical or pyramidal figure ; but it has been fhown in
the article already referred to, that the idolatry of Hin-
doftan was probably of Egyptian original.
It is not known in Europe when the pyramids were
built; but we have reafon to expedf a hiftory of them foon
from Shanfcrit records examined by Mr Wilford lieute¬
nant of engineers. It is as little known at what time, or
from what motive, the great pyramid was opened. Some
think it was done by one of the khalifs about the begin¬
ning of the eighth century, in expedition of finding a
great treafure; but all he met with was the king’s body,
with fome golden idols which had been buried along with
it.— By others it is fuppofed to have been done by the ce¬
lebrated Harun A1 Balakid khalif of Bagdad; but all are
agreed that this pyramid was opened in the time of the
Arabs. The fecond pyramid has likewife been opened;
and an attempt was made not long ago upon the third
by one of the Beys of Cairo: but after removing a
number of Hones at a confiderable expence, he thought
proper to defill from the enterprise.—Mr Bryant is of
opinion that the pyramids, at leaft the three great ones,
are not artificial ilrudtures of Hone and mortar, but fo¬
il'd rocks cut into a pyramidal lhape, and afterwards
cafed with Hone; and to this we find that Mr Bruce
likewife alfents. The reafon given for this opinion is,
that the paflages within it feem rather to anfwer to the
natural cavities and rents in rocks than to the artificial
ones in buildings. The opinion, however, we think fuf-
ficiently confuted by Savary and Maillet: and, as an
acute critic obferves, it is in itfelf as improbable as that
the -caverns inhabited by the Troglodytes were dug by
the hands of man. See Troglodytes.
Gn the call fide of the fecond pyramid is the fphynx,
an enormous mafs of one folid Hone, but lb buried in
the fand that only the top of the back is vifible, which
is 100 feet long. Its head rifes, as we have fecn, 2 7 feet
above the fand; and its face has been disfigured by the
Arabs, who hold all reprefentations of men and living
animals in detellation. Other travellers fay that this
fphynx is a huge milhapen rock, by no means worthy
of the attention which has been bellowed upon it.
In the defert of Saccara there are a great number of
pyramids, which, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, are compofed
of clay. They terminate in what the inhabitants call
a dagiour, or falfe pyramid, about two miles from the
Nile, between Suf and Woodan. This is no other than
a hill cut into the fhape of a pyramid, or naturally fo
formed, for a confiderable height; on the top of which
is a pyramidal building of brick terminating in a point,
and having its bafis fo exa&ly adapted to the top of the
hill, that at a dillance the difference cannot be percei¬
ved ; efpecially as the face of the Hone refembles very
nearly the clay of which the pyramids of the Saccara
are compofed. ^ale*
PYRAMID ALES, in anatomy, one of the muf- ^
cles of the abdomen. See Anatomy, Table of the 1 yrometcr.‘
Mufcles. *
PYRENEAN Mou stains, or Pyrenees, are the
mountains which divide France from Spain, and are the
molt celebrated in Europe, except the Alps. They
reach from the Mediterranean Sea as far as the ocean,
and are about 212 miles in length. They have differ¬
ent names, according to the different places wherein
they Hand. Some think they are as high as the Alps;
but the paffages over them are not fo difficult, what¬
ever fome travellers may think who have not croffed the
fonner.
Banksia PYRIFORMIS, in botany, is a fpecies of
b KsiA,/which fee. It was unknown to Linnaeus; and
Gaertner, who has mentioned it, gives no fpecific cha-
ra£ler of it. It has folitary flowers, ovate downy capfules,
and lance-lhaped entire fmooth leaves. The capfules
larger than in any other known fpecies. See White's
'Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales, p. 221—225.
PYRITES, a genus of inflammable fubHances com¬
pofed of fulphur, which has diffolved or faturated itfelf
with metals. Thus there are many kinds of pyrites ;
as of gold, arfenic, iron, &c. It is alio the principal
ore of fulphur; particularly that called martial pyrites,
copperas-Jlone, or marcafite. This is very common, con¬
taining a quantity of fulphur in proportion to the iron ;
and, when thoroughly inflamed, burns by itfelf. It is
either of a compaft texture, Heel-grained, coarie-grained,
or cryltallifed. In this lalt form, it flioots moRly into
cube and odlohedral figures, though it is met with alfw
in innumerable other forms.
The liver-coloured marcafite has an appearance be¬
tween that of the preceding and the blue copper-ore.
The iron predominates in this kind, fo that it is lefs fit
than the other for extradling fulpjiur from it, or for the
fmelting of copper-ores. It is formed of a compadl tex¬
ture, coarfe-grained, and Heel-grained. See Chemi¬
stry, na6i9 and 654; Mineralogy, p.109; and
Metallurgy, p.429.
PYRMONT, a town of I rippe in Germany, in the
circle of WeRphalia, and capital of a country of the
fame name. It has a caRle, kept by a governor, who is
under the counts of Waldeck. At a fmall diRance
from hence there are mineral waters, which are much
elleemed. The ProteRants have here the free exercife
of their religion. It is feated on the confines of the
duchy of Brunfwick, 40 miles fouth-weft of Hanover.
E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 52. o.
PYROLA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 18th order,
Bicornes. The calyx is quinquepartite ; there are five
petals ; the capfule is quinquelocular, opening at the
angles.
PYROMANCY, a kind of divination by means of
fire. See Divinaton, n° 6.
PYROMETER, an inilrument for meafuring the
expanfion of bodies by heat. See Chemistry, n° 103.
Mufchenbroeck, who was the original inventor of this
machine, has given a table of the expanfion of the dif¬
ferent metals in the fame degree of heat. Having pre¬
pared cylindric rods of iron, Reel, copper, brafs, tin,
4 R 2 and
P Y R
[ 6*4 ]
P Y R
Pymmetcr.and lead, he expofed them firft to a pyrometer with
—v~« one flame in the middle ; then with two flames ; and
fucceflively to one with three, four, and five flames.
But previous to this trial, he took care to cool them
equally, by expofmg them fome time upon the fame
ft one/when it began to freeze, and Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer was at 32 degrees. The effedts of which ex¬
periment are digeited in the following table, where the
degrees of expanflon are marked in parts equal to the
txt'S'S Part an inch«
Expanfion of
By
flame
By two flames
placed clofe
together.
By two flames
2 y inches di-
ftant.
By three flames
placed clofe
together.
By four flames
placed clofe
together.
Iron.
80
1 x7
109
142
211
Steel.
Copper.
85
123
94
168
270
3ID
89
“5
Brafs.
110
220
92
I93
270
310
I4I
275
361
Tin.
*53
219
Lead.
x55
274
263
By five flames, j 230
It is to be obferved of tin, that, it will eafily melt
when heated by two flames placed together. Lead com¬
monly melts with three flames placed together, efpecially
if they burn long. .
From thefe experiments, it appears at firft view that
iron is the leafl rarefied of any of thefe metals, whether
it be heated by one or more flames ; and therefore is moll
proper for making machines or inftruments which we
would have free from any alterations by heat or cold,
as the rods of pendulums for clocks, &c. So hkewife
the meafures of yards ©r feet fhould be made of iron,
that their length may be as nearly as pofiible the fame
fummer and winter.
The expanfion of lead and tin, by only one flame,
is nearly the fame ; that is, almoft double of the ex¬
panfion of iron. It is likewife obfervable, that the
flames placed together, caufe a greater rarefa&ion than
when they have a fenfible interval between them ; iron
in the former cafe, being expanded 117 degrees, and
only IC9 in the latter ; the reafon of which difference
is obvious.
By comparing the expanfions of the fame metal pro¬
duced by one, two, three, or more flames, it appears
that two flames do not caufe double the expanfion of
one, nor three flames three times that expanfion, but
always lefs; and thefe expanfions differ fo much the
more from the ratio of the number of flames as there
are more flames afting at the lame time.
It is alfo obfervable, that metals are not expanded
equally at the time of their melting, but fome more
fome lefs. Thus tin began to run when rarefied 219
degrees ; whereas brafs was expanded 377 degrees, and
yet was far from melting.
Mr Ellicot found, upon a medium, that the expan-Pyrnmetri*.
fion of bars of different metals, as nearly of the fame ——"v" 1 1
dimenfions as pofiible, by the fame degree of heat, were
as follow;
Gold, Silver, Brafs, Copper, Iron, Steel, Lead,
73 \°3 95 89 60 56 149
The great difference between the expanfions of iron and
brafs has been applied with good fuccefs to remedy the
irregularities in pendulums arifing from heat. See Pen¬
dulum.
Mr Graham ufed to meafure the minute alterations,
in length, of metal bars, by advancing the point of a
micrometer-fcrew, till it fenfibly flopped againfl the
end of the bar to be meafured. This ferew, being
fmall and very lightly hung, was capable of agree¬
ment within the three or four-thoufandth part of an
inch. On this general principle Mr Smeaton contrived
his pyrometer, in which the meafures are determined by
the contact of a piece of metal with the point of a mi¬
crometer-fcrew.
The following table (hows how much a foot in length
of each metal grows longer by an increafe of heat, cor-
refponding to 1 8o° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or to
the difference between freezing and boiling water, ex-
preffed in fuch parts of which the unit is equal to the
10,000th part of an inch.
j. White-glafs barometer tube, - 100
2. Martial regulus of antimony, - 130
3. Bliftered fteel, - “ 138
4. Hard fteel, - - 14?
5. Iron, - - - 151
6. Bifmuth, - - - 167
7. Copper hammered, - - 204
8. Copper eight parts, with tin one, - 218
9. Call brafs, - - - 225
10. Brafs fixteen parts, with tin one, - 229
11. Brafs-wire, - - - 232
12. Speculum metal, - - 232
13. Spelter folder, viz. brafs two parts, zinc one, 247
14. Fine pewter,. - - 274
15. Grain tin, - * 298
16. Soft folder, viz. lead two, tin one, .301
17. Zinc eight parts, with tin one, a little ham¬
mered, - * “ 323
18. Lead, - - 344
19. Zinc or fpelter, - - 353
20. Zinc hammered half an inch per foot, 373
We {hall clofe this article with a brief defeription of
a pyrometer lately invented by M. l)e Luc, in conle-
quence of a hint fuggefted to him by Mr Ramfden.
The balls of this inftrument is a re&angular piece of
deal-board two feet and a half long, 15 inches broad,
and one inch and a half thick ; and to this all the
other parts are fixed. This is mounted in the manner
of a table, with four deal legs, each a foot long and an
inch and a half fquare, well fitted near its four angles,
and kept together at the other ends by four firm crofs-
pieces. This fmall table is fufpended by a hook to a
ftand; the board being in a vertical fituation in the di¬
rection of its grain, and bearing its legs forward in iuch
a manner as that the crofs-pieces which join them may
form a frame, placed vertically facing the obferver. This
frame fuftains a microfcope, which is firmly fixed in
another frame that moves in the former by means of
grooves, but with a very confiderabie degree of tight-
nefs :
P Y R [685
Pyrometer, nefs; the fti&ion of which may be increafed by the
Pyropho preffure Gf four fcrews. The inner Hiding frame, which
r ' is likewife of deal, keeps the tube pf the microfcope in
a horizontal pofition, and in great part without the
frame, infomuch that the end which carries the lens is
but little within the fpace between the frame and the
board. This microfcope is conltrudfed in fuch a man¬
ner as that the objeft obferved may be an inch dillant
from the lens; and it has a wire which is lituated in
the focus of the glall'es, in which the objects appear re-
▼erfed. At the top of the apparatus there is a piece of
deal, an inch and a half thick and two inches broad,
laid in a horizontal direction from the board to the top
of the frame. To this piece the rods of the different
fubftances, whofe expanfion by heat is to be meafured,
are fufpended : one end of it Hides into a focket, which
is cut in the thicknefs of the board ; and the other end,
which refts upon the frame, meets there with a ferew,
which makes the piece move backward and forward,
to bring the objefts to the focus of the microfcope.
There is a cork very ftrongly driven through a hole
beared vertically through this piece ; and in another
vertical hole made through the cork, the rods are fix¬
ed at the top ; fo that they hang only, and their dila¬
tation is not counterafted by any preffure. In order to
heat the rods, a cylindrical bottle of thin glafs, about
21 inches high, and four inches in diameter, is placed
in the infide of the machine, upon a Hand indepen¬
dent of the reft of the apparatus. In this bottle the
rods are fufpended at a little lefs than an inch diltauce
from one of the infides, in order to have them near the
nicrofcope. Into this bottle is poured water of dif¬
ferent degrees of heat, which muff be ftirred about, by
moving upwards and downwards, at one of the fides
of the bottle, a little piece of wood, faflened horizon¬
tally at the end of a flick: in this water is hung a
thermometer, the ball of which reaches to the middle
of the height of the rods. During thefe operations
the water nfes to the cork, which thus determines the
length of the heated part; the bottle is covered, to
prevent the water from cooling to® rapid ily at the fur-
face ; and a thin cafe of brafs prevents the vapour
from fixing upon the piece of deal to which the rods
are fixed.
PYROPHORUS, formed of ixvz, Jlrc, and /
bear, in chemiflry, the name ufually given to that fub-
itance called by fome black phofphorus; a chemical pre¬
paration pofleffing the fingular property of kindling
fpontaneoufly when expofed to the air. See Chemis¬
try, n° 1414.
This fubflance was accidentally tufeovered by M.
Homberg, who prepared it of alum and human faeces.
See Phosphorus. It was apprehended, fora confider-
able time after the difeovery, that human faeces were el-
fential to the operation, till the yiungefl fon of the
great Lemeri found that honey, fugar, flour, and in¬
deed any animal or vegetable matter, might be fubfli-
tuted inflead of the human faeces; and fince that time,
id. De Sauvigny has, fhown that moil vitriolic falts may
be fubflituted for the aliim ; having added to the alumi¬
nous pyrophorus of Homberg two other clafles of
ubftances of this kind, viz. the metallic, or thofe made
with the three vitriols of iron, copper, and zinc ; and
the neutral, or thofe compofed of vitriolated tartar and
Glauber’s fab.
J
P Y R
Mr Bewly prepares his pyrophorus in the followim-
manner. “ I fill (fays he) half or three-fourths of the
bowl of a tobacco-pipe with a mixture, confilling of
two parts of alum, previoufly calcined in a red-heat,
and of powdered charcoal and fait of tartar each one
part; prefling the matter down flightly, and filling the
remainder of the bowl with fine fand. " As foon as the
powder becomes hoc, the fand lying over it is put into
a fta^e of ebullition, which generally continues Several
minutes. This appearance feems to proceed partly from
the vitriolic acid in the alum leaving its earth, and ex¬
pelling fixed air from the alkali ; while another part of
it is pofiibly converted into vitriolic acid air. This
phenomenon is fucceeded by the appearance of a blue
fulphureous flame, proceeding from the combination
of the fame acid with what was formerly cafled the phlo-
gijlon of the coa , and which continues about ten minutes
or a quarter of an hour. After it ceafes, no other re¬
markable appearance prefents itfelf. The matter is now
to be kept in a red heat 20 minutes or half an hour ; or
it may continue there two hours longer, if the opera¬
tor pleafes, without any injury to the pyrophorus. The
pipe being taken out of the fire, the matter is knocked
out of it as foon as it becomes cool, and generally pretty
foon afterwards takes fire fpontaneouflv.”
In another experiment, having added fucccfiively
various and increaling quantities of fixed alkali to the
fait heated as above, till the vitriolic acid contained in
the mixture might be con/idered merely as an evane-
feent quantity, a pyrophorus was Hill produced on
calcining it with charcoal as before. He alfo mixed
equal parts of fait of tartar and vegetable or animal
coal, or fometimes three parts of the former with two
of the latter, and calcined them in the ufual manner:
and this compofition, on being expofed to the air, ge¬
nerally kindled in half a minute or a minute; though,
as it contained no fulphur, it did not burn with fo
much vivacity as the vitriolic pyrophori. This, which
Mr Bewly calls the alkaline pyrophorus, differs in no
circumilance from M. De Sauvigny’s neutral pyropho¬
ri, except in its not containing that principle to which
he aferibes their accenflon. However, left it might
be fufpefted that the fait of tartar which he employ¬
ed might accidentally contain vitriolated tartar, or vi¬
triolic acid, he repeated the experiment with tartar
calcined by himfell, as well as with nitre fixed or al-
kahl'ed by deflagration with charcoal, and with iron
filings; and in all thefe cafes with the fame refult.
By diveifliying in a like manner M. De Sauvigny’s ex¬
periments on the metallic pyrophori, Mr Bewly found
that none of the three vitriols, heated with charcoal
alone, in Ins ufual method, could produce a pyropho-
rus. And thus he found that the addition of an alka¬
line fait to the coiripofition, which was a part of M. De
Sauyigny’s procefs, was eflential to its fuccefs.
Treating in the ufual manner equal parts of calcined
green vitriol and charcoal, the powder, which contain¬
ed no fulphur nor hepar fulphuris, did not acquire any
of the properties of a pyrophorus. The vitriolic acid
feemed to have been entirely difiipated, having na
bale to detain it, when diflodged from the metallic
earth. T, he charcoal and calx of iron left in this pro¬
cefs were calcined again, together with fome fait of
tartar : and a pyrophorus was produced, which exhi¬
bited indications of its containing a fcarce perceptible
6 1 poitioa!
Pyropho¬
rus.'
p Y R [ 686 ] P Y R
Pyrr ho, portion of hepar fulphurls. Thirty grains of crocus
1,us- niartis aftringens were calcined with i 5 grains of char-
coal, and the fame quantity of fait of tartar ; and the
mixture burnt fpontaneoufty, though it contained no
hepar fulphuris or vitriolic acid. Having by thefe
experiments evinced that metallic pyrophori may be
prepared without vitriolic acid, Mr Bewly proceeded
to form an aluminous pyrophorus of the fame kind.
For this purpofe he procured the earth of alum by a
long and violent calcination 5 and examining a part of
it, he found, by the ufual tells, that it neither con¬
tained any fulphur, hepar fulphuris, nor alum unde¬
compounded. This he confidered as perfe&ly pure,
though he afterwards found that it contained a fmall
quantity of vitriolated tartar; and yet it repeatedly
furniihed a pyrophorus, as a<5live as when alum itfelf
is employed. From thefe and fimilar experiments, he
infers, that the feveral kinds of pyrophori are not kind¬
led by moilture, attiadded by the vitriolic acid, as M.
De Sauvigny ha* maintained : and his conclulion is far¬
ther confirmed by feme experiments of Dr Prieftley ;
from -which it appears, that they are kindled in dry, ni¬
trous, and what he calls dephlogillicated air.
M. Prouft, cited by Mr Bewly, deferibes a variety
of new pyrophori, which neither contain vitriolic acid,
aor feem likely to owe their accenlion to the attrac¬
tion of humidity from the air. Thefe principally con-
fill of a coaly matter fimply divided by metallic or other
earths ; fuch are the fediment left on the filter in pre¬
paring Goulard’s extradl, various combinations of tar¬
tar or its acid, or the acetous acid, with metals, calca¬
reous earth, &c.
Mr Bewly, having evinced the infufficiency of M.
De Sauvigny’s theory, and difeovered that the pyro¬
phori are not kindled by moiilure, attracted (merely)
by the vitriolic acid, dire&ed his attention to the ni¬
trous acid, which Dr Prieftley has Ihown to be a confti-
tuent part of atmofpherical air, as the probable agent in
the production of this phenomenon. The ftrong affi¬
nity which this acid has with phlogifton, and the heat,
and even flame, which it is known to produce with
certain inflammable matters, manifefted that it was
equal to the effeCt ; and having excluded the vitriolic
acid from having any eflential concern in this opera¬
tion, he fuggefts, either that the pyrophorus is kind¬
led by moiilure attracted by fome of the other ingre¬
dients which compofe it; or that it has the power of
decompounding atmofpherical air, by fuddcnly attract¬
ing its nitrous acid, and thereby generating a heat
fufficient to kindle the phlogiltic matter contained in
it. This idea appeared plaulible, when he farther con¬
fidered that Dr Prieftley produced the pureft refpi-
rable air with this fame acid combined with other prin¬
ciples ; and that this as well as common air is diminilh-
ed, and probably in part decompounded, in a variety of
phlogiftic procefles. This ingenious writer concludes,
upon the whole, from the experiments he hath made,
that the pyrophorus feems to owe its Angular property
to its being a combination of earth, or alkali with phlo¬
gifton ; the vitriolic acid, when prefent, only occaliou-
ally increafing or diminifhing the effeCt, according
to circumftances. In the procefs of calcination, the
earth or alkaline principle is not merely mixed, but
aClually, though loofely, combined with the phlo¬
giftic principle of the coal- fo that the pyrophorus,
confidering it in its moil Ample ftate, is only a perfeCt- Pyropho-
ly dry phlogifticated alkali or earth. On thefe data, tus.
the phenomena may be explained in the two following -T—^
methods; with reipeCt particularly to the influence ef
moifture ^nd heat upon the pyrophorus. Suppoflng ei¬
ther the alkaline or earthy principle to have a greater
affinity to water than to the phlogifton with which ei¬
ther of them is united, they may, on being expofed to
a moift atmofphere, attraCl the humidity, and thereby
fet the phlogiftic principle at liberty ; which may, in
its turn, attraCl, and be ignited by, the fiippofed aerial
acid; its llrong affinity to which is well known:—or, if
this hypothefis be rejeCled, the inflammable matter may
be kindled, merely in confeqtience of the heat produced
by the combination of the alkali, &c. with moifture.
Mr Keir gives the following defeription of a procefs
for preparing a new pyrophorus which he has lately dif¬
eovered : “ I Ailed about Ave-Axths of the contents of
a copper cylindrical box, which had a lid Atted to it,
and which was three inches in diameter and two inches
in depth, with faw-duft, which I preffed down ; and I
laid upon the faw-duft as much well-wafhed plumbum
corneum as entirely Ailed the box, which I then covered
with its lid. I placed the box on the coals of a cham-
ber-Are, fo that its bottom only ffiould be in contaCl with
the fuel, and I kept it on the Are till no more vapour
feemed to iffiie at the joining of the lid. I then re¬
moved it from the Are ; and while it was hot, I clofed
up the joining of the lid with fealing-wax, by which
means the external air was excluded. After it had flood
in the cold about ten hours, I opened the box ; and the
corneous lead, which was very white before the opera¬
tion, was now rendered black by the vapour which had
arifen from the faw-duft, and which was obliged to pafs
through the lead before it could efcape. This, black
metallic mafs was no fooner expofed to the air, than ig¬
nited fparks appeared, which fpread more and more,
while the lead was feen to revive in the form of minute
globules, and the part which did not revive was changed
into a yellow powder, or calx of lead. It is to be ob-
ferved, that before I opened the box, I placed it at the
Ade of the Are, in order to melt the fealing.wax, to en¬
able me to feparate the lid. It is poffible that this fmall
degree of heat may be neceflary, or conducive, to the
accenfion. I ought alfo to acquaint you, that the pre¬
paration of this pyrophorus requires nicer attention
than that of any which I am acquainted with. For a
fmall excefs of heat will revive the lead, which will fpoil
the experiment. Alfo, if any air be admitted through
the joints of the veffels employed, the kindling property
will be prevented by the abforption of the air ; which
in this cafe is generally too gradual to produce inflam¬
mation. The metallic fubllance in this flate of impreg¬
nation with inflammable matter, although not a pyro¬
phorus, is an exceeding quick tinder. For when touch*
ed, however flightly, by an ignited body, it will in-
flantly kindle, and the Are will fpread over the whole
piece* reviving the lead wherever it goes, and exhi¬
biting a very beautiful example of metallic redutlion,
not unlike the familiar experiment of reviving the lead
of a wafer containing minium at the flame of a candle ;
but with this difference, that the Are in the wafer re¬
quires to bo kept up by flame; whereas in this metallic
tinder it i'preads and creeps fpontaneoufly along without
flame over the mafs.
PYROTECHNY;
[ 68; ]
PYROTECHNYj
Ingredients g ^ HE art of fire, or a fclence which teaches the ma-
and
Compofi-
tions.
T
nagement and application of fire in feveral ope¬
rations. See Fire, Furnace, Chemistry, Distil¬
lation, Metallurgy, See.
But the term is more particularly ufed to denote
the doftrine of artificial fire-works and fire-arms,
teaching the ftrufture and ufe, I. Of thofe ufed in war,
the attacking of fortifications, Sic. for which fee the
articles Fusee, Gun, Gunnery, Gunpowder, Mine,
&c.; and, 2. Of thofe made for amufement’s fake,
as rockets, ftars, ferpents. See. the preparation and
eonftruCtion of which fall to be explained in the pre-
fent article.
Sect. I. Of Ingredients and Comp oft tions.
I. Saltpetre.
Captain Saltpetre being the principal ingredient in fire-
* l an^ a volatile body, by reafon of its aqueous and
fire-xvorks aer^ Part3> ls eafily rarefied by fire; but not fo foon
when foul and grofs as when purified from its crude
and earthy parts, which greatly retard its velocity:
therefore, when any quantity of fire-works are to be
made, it fhould be examined ’r for if it is not well clean-
fed, and of a good fort, your works w ill not have their
proper effedt ; neither will it agree with the Handing
proportions of compofitions. Therefore,
To rejine it, put into a copper, or any other veffel,
loo lb. of rough nitre with 14 gallons of clean water ;
kt it boil gently half an hour, and as it boils take off
the feum ; then ffir it, and before it fettles put it into
your filtering bags, which mutt be hung on a rack,
with glazed earthen pans under them, in which mult
be Hicks laid acrofs for the cryffals to adhere to : it
muff Hand in the pans two or three days to Ihoot; then
take out the cryffals, and let them dry. The water that
remains in the pans boil again an hour, and ftrain it
into the pans as before, and the faltpetre will be quite’
clear and tranfparent ; if not,- it wants more refining ;
to do which proceed as ufual, till it is well cleanfed of
all its earthy pans.
N. B. Thofe who do not choofe to procure their
faltpetre by the above method, may buy it ready done,
which for fire-works in general will do.
To pulverfe Saltpetre. Take a copper kettle, whofe
bottom muff be fpherical, and put into it 14 lb. of re¬
fined faltpetre, with 2 quarts or 5 pints of clean wa¬
ter: then put the kettle on a flow fire ; and when the
ialtpetre is diffolved, if any impurities arife, fkim them
off, and keep conffantly ffirring with two large fpatu-
las, till all the water exhales ; and when done enough,
>t will ••ppear like white land, and as fine as flour ; but
if it fhould boil too faff, take the kettle off the fire,
and fet it on fome wet fand, which will prevent the
nitre from flicking to the kettle. When you have pul-
verifed a quantity of faltpetre, be careful to keep it in
a dry place.
To extrad Saltpetre from damaged Gunpowder.—
Have fome filtering bags, hung on a rack, with glazed
earthen pans under them, in the fame manner as thofe
for refining faltpetre; then take any quantity of da-Ingredients
maged powder, and put it into a copper, with as much ^ and
clean water as will cover it : when it begins to boil,
take off the feum ; and after it has boiled a few minutes, 1 °n ' j
ftir it up : then take it out of the copper with a final]
hand-kettle for that purpofe, and put fome into each
bag, beginning at one end of the rack, fo that by tli6
time you have got to the laft bag, the firft will be ready
for more. Continue thus till all the bags are full: then
take the liquor out of the pans ; which boil and filter,
as before, two or three times, till the water run quite
clear, which you muff let Hand in the pan fomc time,
and the faltpetre will appear at top. To get the falt¬
petre entirely out of the powder, take the water from
that already extradled, to which add fome frelh and the
dregs of the powder that remain in the bags, and put
them in a veffel, to Hand as long as you pleafe: and
when you want to extradl the nitre, you muff proceed
with this mixture as with the powder at firft, by which
means you will draw out all the faltpetrej but this pro-
cels muff be boiled longer than the tirff.
2. Sulphur, or Brimjtone. 2
Sulphur is one of the principal ingredients in gun¬
powder, and almoft in all compolitions of fire-works ;
and therefore great care muff be taken of its being
good, and brought to the higheft perfeftion. To -
know when fulphur is good, you are to obferve that it
is of a high yellow ; and if, when held in one’s hand,
it crackles and bounces, it is a lign that it is frelh and
good r but as die method of reducing brimftone to a
powder is very troublefome, it is better to buy the
Hour ready made, which is done in large quantities,
and in great perfe&ion; though when a grand collec¬
tion of fire-works are to be made, the ftrongeft and heft
fulphur is the lump brimftone ground in the manner di-
redled in art. 8.
3. Charcoal.
Charcoal is a prefervative by which the faltpetre
and the brimftone are made into gunpowder, by pre¬
venting the fulphur from fuffocating the ftrong and*
windy exhalation of the nitre. Charcoal for fire-works
mull always be foft and well burnt, which may be-
bought ready done.
4. Gunpowder.
See Gunpowder in the order of the alphabet. To
grind or meal it, is dire&edin art. 8.
5. Camphor.
This may be had in the {hops ; and is of two kinds,
differing in regard to the degree of their purity, and
diftinguifhed by the name of rough and ref tied. Re¬
fined camphor mull bc'chofen of a perfedlly clean white'
colour, very bright and pellucid, «f the fame find] and'
tafte with the rough; but more acrid and pungent. It
is fo volatile, that merchants ufualiy inclofe it in lintfeed,>
that the vifeofity of that grain may keep its particles
together.
6. Benjamin.
This is a refin found of different forts ; and diftin¬
guifhed by their colours, viz. yellow, grey, and brown;'
but the bell is that which is eafy to break, and full of
5 white
f>8 8
F Y R O T
Ingredients white fpots. It is one of the ingredients in odoriferous
and fire-works, when redirced to a fine flourj; which may be
U d006 by putting into a deep and narrow earthen pot
», ^ or 4 oz. oi benjamin grofsly pounded ; cover the pot
with paper, which tie very clofe round the edge ; then
fet the pot on a flow fire, and once in an horn take off
the paper, and you will find fom'e flour fticking to it,
whiph return again in the pot; this you muff continue
till the flour appears white and fine. There is alfo an
oil of benjamin, which is fometimes drawn from the
xlregs of the flour; it affords a very good feent, and
may be ufed in wet compofitions.
7. Spur-fire.
This fire is the moft beautiful and curious of any
yet known ; and was invented by the Chinefe, but now
is in greater perfeftion in England than in China. As
it requires great trouble to make it to perfection, it
will be neceflary that beginners flrould have full inftruc-
tions ; therefore care fhould be taken that all the in¬
gredients are of the beft, that the lamp-black is not
damp and clodded, that the faltpetre and brimltone are
thoroughly refined. This compofrtion is generally
rammed in 1 or 2 oz. cafes about 5 or 6 inches long,
but not drove very hard ; and the cafes mull have their
concave flroke (truck very imooth, and the choak or
vent not quite fo large as tlve ufual proportion : this
charge, when driven and kept a few months, will be
much better than when rammed; and will not fpoil, if
kept dry, in many years.
As the beauty of this compofition cannot be feen at
fo great a diflance as brilliant fire, it has a better ef-
fe£t in a room than in the open air, and may be fired
in a chamber without any danger : it is of fo innocent a
nature, that, though with an improper phrafe, it
may be called a cold fire; and fo extraordinary is the
fire produced from this compofition, that, if well made,
* the fparks will not burn a handkerchief when held in
the midft of them ; you may hold them in your hand
while burning, with as much fafety as a candle ; and
if you put your hand within a foot of the mouth of
the cafe, you will feel the fparks like drops of rain.—
When any of thefe fpur-fires are fired fingly, they are.
called artificial flower-pots ; but fome of them placed
round a tranfparent pyramid of paper, and fired in a
large room, make a very pretty appearance.
The compolkion confifts of faltpetre 4 lb. 8 oz.
fulphur 2 lb. and lamp-black 1 lb. 8 oz. ; or, falt¬
petre 1 lb. fulphur 4 lb. and lamp-black 4 quarts.—
This compofition is very difficult to mix. The faltpetre
and brimltone mult be firlt fifted together, and then
put into a marble mortar, and the lamp-black with
them, which you work down by degrees with a wo Aden
peltle, till all the ingredients appear of one colour,
which will be fomething greyilh, but very near black :
then drive a little into a cafe for trial, and lire it in a
dark place; and if the fparks, which are called flarsy
or pinks, come out in clullers, and afterwards fpread
well without any other fparks, it is a fign of its being
good, otherwife not; for if any drofly fparks appear,
and the liars not full, it is then not mixed enough ; but
if the pinks are very fmall, and foon break, it is a fign
that you have rubbed it too much.
1 his mixture, when rubbed too much, will be too
fierce, and hardly Ihow any liars; and, on the con-
ttary, when npt mixed enough, will be too weak, and
E C H N Y. Sea. r.
throw out an obfeure fmoke, and lumps of drofs, with-Injire-hents
out any liars. The reafon of this charge being called and •
the fpur-fire, is becaufe the fparks it yields have a great
refemblance to the rowel of a four, from whence it takes /
its name.
8. To meal Gunpowder, Brimflone, and Charcoal.
There have been many methods ufed to grind thefe
ingredients to a powder for fire-works, fuch as large
mortars and pelfles made of ebony and other hard
wood, and horizontal mills with brafs barrels : but
none have proved fo effe&ual and fpeedy as the laft in¬
vention, that of the mealing-table, reprefented in fig. 1.
made of elm, with a rim round its edge 4 or 5 inches ,
high; and at the narrow end A, is a Aider that runsCC<'''XX'1*
in a groove, and forms part of the rim : fo that when
you have taken out of the table as much powder as you
can with the copper Ihovel (fig. 2.) fweep all clean out
at the Aider A. When you are going to meaj a quan¬
tity of powder, obferve not to put too much in the
table at once ; but when you have put in a good pro¬
portion, take the muller (fig. 3.) and rub it till all the
grains are broke : then fearce it in a lawn fieve that
has a receiver and top to it ; and that which does not
pafs through the fieve, return again to the table, and
grind it till you have brought it all fine enough to go
through the fieve. Brimltone and charcoal are ground
in the fame manner, only the muller mull be "made of
ebony ; for thefe ingredients being harder than pow¬
der, would Hick in the grain of elm, and be difficult
to grind. As brimftone is apt to flick and clod to the
table, it will be bell to keep one for that purpofe, by
which means you will always have your brimflone clean
and well ground.
2d 8. To make Wheels and other Works incomhuflible.
It being neceflary, when your works are new, to
paint them of fome dark colour; therefore, if, inflead
of which, you make ufe of the following compofition,
it will give them a good colour, and in a great mea-
fure prevent their taking fire fo foon as if painted.
Take brick-dull, coal-afhes, and iron filings, of each
an equal quantity, and mix them with a double fize,
made hot. With this walh over your works, and when
dry wafh them over again ; this will preferve the wood
greatly againll fire. Let the brick-dull and allies be
beat to a fine powder.
9. To prepare Cafl-iron for Gerhes, white Fountains, ami
Chinefe Fire.
Call iron being of fo hard a nature as not to be
cut by a file, we are obliged to reduce it into grains,
though fomewhat difficult to perform ; but if we con-
fider what beautiful fparks this fort of iron yields, no
pains fhould be fpared to granulate fuch an eflential
material: to do which, get at an iron-foundery fome
thin pieces of iron, fuch as generally run over the
mould at the time of calling: then have a fquarc
block made of call iron, and an iron fquare hammer
about four lb. weight; then, having covered the floor
with cloth or fomething to catch the beatings, lay
the thin pieces of iron on the block, and beat them
with the hammer till reduced into fmall grains ; which
afterwards fearce with a very fine fievc, to feparate the
fine duft, which is fometimes ufed in fmall cafes of
brilliant fire, inflead of fleel dull ; and when you have
got out all the duft, fift what remains with a fieve a
little larger, and fo on with fieves of different fixes,
tfli
Sea. r, P Y R O T
l gredients till tlit* iron paffes through about the bignefs of fmall
a,ld bird-fhot : your iron thus beat and fifted, put each
Compofi- £ort jnt0 woo(jen boxes or oiled paper, to keep it from
, t10^s' l ulling. When you ufe it, obferve the difference of
its fize, in proportion to the cafes for which the charge
is intended ; for the coarfe fort is only deligned for
very large gerbes of 6 or 8 lb.
lO. Charges for Sky-rockets, &C.
Rockets of four ounces. Mealed powder i lb. 4 oz.
faltpetre 4 oz. and charcoal 2 oz.
Rockets of eight ounces. I. Mealed powder I lb.
faltpetre 4 oz. brimftone 3 oz. and charcoal oz*
If. Meal-powder lb. and charcoal 4^ oz.
Rockets of one pound. Meal-powder 2 lb. faltpetre
8 oz. brimilone 4 oz. charcoal 2 oz. and Heel-filings
1 t oz.
Sky-rockets in general. I. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone
1 lb. and charcoal lb. II. Saltpetre 4 lb. brim-
flone il lb. charcoal 1 lb. 12 oz. and meal-powder
2 oz.
LargeJky-rociets. Saltpetre 4 lb. meal-powder 1 lb.
and brimftone 1 lb.
Rockets of a middling ftze. I. Saltpetre 8 lb. ful-
phur 3 lb. meal-powder 3 lb. II. Saltpetre 3 lb.
fulphur 2 lb. meal-powder 1 lb. charcoal 1 lb.
l 1. For Rocket Stars.
White Stars. Meal-powder 4 oz. faltpetre 12 oz.
fulphur vivum 6 oz. oil of fpike 2 oz. and camphor
5 oz.
BlueJlars. Meal-powder 8 oz. faltpetre 4, fulphur
2, fpirit of wane 2, and oil of fpike 2.
Coloured or variegatedJlars. Meal-powder 8 drams,
rochpetre 4 oz. fulphur vivum 2, and camphor 2.
Brilliant Jlars. Saltpetre 3k oz. fulphur if-, and
meal-powder |, worked up with fpirits of wine only.
Common Jlars. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4 oz. an¬
timony 4|, ifinglafs 4-, camphor and fpirit of
wine
Tailed Jlars. Meal-powder 3 oz. brimftone 2, falt¬
petre 1, and charcoal (coarfely ground) 4.
Drove fars. I. Saltpetre 3 lb. fulphur I lb. brafs
dull 12 oz. antimony 3. II. Saltpetre 1 lb. antimony
4 oz. and fulphur 8.
Fixed pointed Jlars. Saltpetre 8 \ oz. fulphur 2, an¬
timony I oz. 10 dr.
Star’s of a fine colour. Sulphur 1 oz. meal-powder
t, faltpetre 1, camphor 4 dr. oil of turpentine 4 dr.
12. Rains.
Gold rain for Jky-rockets. 1. Saltpetre I lb. meal-
powder 4 oz. fulphur 4, brafs-duft 1, faw-duft 2f,
and glafs-duft 6 dr. II. Meal-powder 12 oz. falt¬
petre 2, charcoal 4. III. Saltpetre 8 oz. brimftone
2, glafs-duft 1, antimony brafs-duft |, and faw-duft
12 dr.
Silver rain. I. Saltpetre 4 oz. fulphur, meal-pow¬
der, and antimony, of each 2 oz. fal prunella f-oz.
•II. Saltpetre f- lb. brimftone 2 oz. and charcoal 4.
III. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone lb. antimony 6 oz.
IV. Saltpetre 4 oz. brimftone 1, powder 2, and fteel-
duft ^ oz.
13. Water Rockets.
I. Meal-powder 6 lb. faltpetre 4, brimftone 3, char¬
coal 5. II. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4f- oz. charcoal
6. III. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4 oz. charcoal 12.
IV. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone if- lb. charcoal 1 lb. 12
Vol. XV. Part II.
E C H N Y. 689
oz. V. Brimftone 2 lb. faitpetre 4 lb. and meal-IngTe<h<;nt»
powder 4. VI. Saltpetre 1 lb. meal-powder 4 oz. „ anc* r
brimftone 8-4, charcoal 2. VII. Meal-powder 1 lb.
faltpetre 3, brimftone 1 ; fea-coal 1 oz. charcoal 84, ——^ ■.»
faw-duft fteel-duft 4, and coarfe charcoal 4 oz*
VIII. Meal-powder 14 lb. faltpetre 3, fulphur i{,
charcoal 12 oz. faw-duft 2.
Sinking charge for 'water-rock etc. Meal-powder 8 oz.
charcoal 4 oz*
14. Of Wheels.
Wheel-cafes from two ounces to four pounds. I. Meal-
powder 2 lb. faltpetre 4 oz. iron-filings 7. II. Meal-
powder 2 lb. faltpetre 12 oz. fulphur 4, ftecl-duft 3.
III. Meal-powder 4 lb. faltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 8 oz.
charcoal 44. IV. Meal-powder 8 oz. faltpetre 4, faw-
duft 14, fea-coal 4. V. Meal-powder 1 lb. 4 oz.
brimftone 4 oz. 10 dr. faltpetre 8 oz. glafs-duft 2{.
VI. Meal-powder 12 oz. charcoal 1, faw-duft 4* VII.
Saltpetre 1 lb. 9 oz. brimftone 4 oz. charcoal 44.
VIII. Meal-powder 2 lb. faltpetre 1, brimftone 4» and
fea-coal. 2 oz. IX. Saltpetre 2 lb. brimftone 1, meal-
powder 4, and glafs-duft 4 oz. X. Meal-powder 1 lb.
faltpetre 2 oz. and fteel-duft 34. XL Meal-powder 2
lb. and fteel-duft 21 oz. with 24 of the fine dull or
beat iron. XII. Saltpetre 2 lb. 13 oz. brimilone 8
oz. and charcoal.
Slow fire for wheels. I Saltpetre 4 oz. brimftone 2,
and meal-powder ij. II. Saltpetre 4 oz. brimftone I,
and antimony 1 oz . 6 dr. III. Saltpetre 4402. brim¬
ftone 1 oz. and mealed powder 14*
Dead fire for wheels. I. Saltpetre oz. brimftone 4»
lapis-calaminaris 4> and antimony 2 dr.
15. Standing or fixed Cafes.
I. Meal-powder 4 lb. faltpetre 2, brimftone and
charcoal 1. II. Meal-powder 2 lb. faltpetre x, and
fteel-duft 8 oz. III. Meal-powder 1 lb. 4 oz. and
charcoal 4 oz. IV. Meal-powder 1 lb. and fteel-duil
4 oz. V. Meal-powder 24 lb. brimftone 4 oz. and
fea-coal 6. VI. Meal-powder 3 lb. charcoal 3 oz. and
faw-duft 14.
16. Sun Cafes.
I. Meal-powder 84 lb. faltpetre r lb. 2 oz. fteel-
duft 2 lb. 10 oz. brimHone 4. II. Meal-powder 3 lb.
faltpetre 6 oz. and fteel-duft 74*
17. R brilliant Fire.
Meal-powder 11 lb. faltpetre 1, brimftone 4 oz-. fteel-
duft 14 lb.
18. Gerbes.
Meal-powder 6 lb. and beat-iron 2 lb. i4*
19. Chinefe Fire.
Saltpetre 1 2 oz. meal-powder 2 lb. brimftoue 1 lb.
2 oz. and beat iron 12 oz.
20. Tourbillons.
Charge for four-ounce Tourbitlons. Meal-powder 2 lb.
4 oz. and charcoal 44 oz.
Eight-dunce Tourbillons. Meal-powder 2 lb. and
charcoal 4^ oz.
Large Tourbillons. Meal-powder 2 lb. faltpetre I,
brimftone 8 oz. and beat iron 8.
N. 13. Tourbillons may be made very large, and
of different coloured fires : only you are to obferve,
that the larger they are, the weaker muft be the
charge ; and, on the contrary, the fmalkr, the ftronger
their charge.
4 S
21. WqUT
69o P Y R O T
Ingredients 2 1. IVot.’r Balloons,
„ 1411(1I. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone 2, meal-powder 2, an-
^ ns tiinony 4 oz. faw-duft ^j, and glafs-dud 1II. Salt-
w. petre 9 lb. briinRone 3 lb. meal-powder 6 lb. rofin
12 oz. and antimony 8 oz..
2 ? • Water Squibs,
I. Meal-powder 1 lb. and charcoal I lb. II. Meal-
powder 1 lb. and charcoal 9 oz.
2^. Ports or Serpents.
I Meal-powder 1 lb. and charcoal 1 oz. II. Meal-
powder 9 oz. charcoal 1 oz.
24. Port-fires.
' For firing rockets. See. I. Saltpetre 12 oz. brim-
ftone 4 cz. and meal-powder 2 oz. II. Saltpetre 8 oz.
brimRone 4 oz. and meal-powder 2 oz. III. Salt¬
petre x lb 2 oz meal-powder lb. and brimRone
ic oz. This compofition mud be moHened with one
gill of linfeed oil IV. Meal-powder 6 oz. faltpetre
2 lb. 2 oz. and brimilone 10 oz-. V. Saltpetre 1 lb.
40Z. meal-powder 4 oz. brim Hone if oz. faw-duft 8 oz.
VI. Saltpetre 8 oz. brimRone 2 oz. and meal-powder
2 oz.
For illuminations. Saltpetre I lb. brimftone 8 oz.
and meal-powder 6 oz.
25. Cones or Jpiral Wheels.
Saltpetre lb. brimRone 6 oz. meal-powder 14 oz.
and glafs-duR \ 4 oz.
26. Crowns or Globes.
Saltpetre 6 oz. brimRone 2 lb. antimony 4 oz. and
camphor 2 oz. ^
27. Air Balloon Fuzes.
I. Saltpetre 1 lb. 10 oz. brimRone 8 oz. and meal-
powder i lb. 6 oz. II. Saltpetre ix lb. brimRone
8 oz. and meal-powder 1 lb. 8 oz.
28. Serfents for Pots des Brins.
Meal-powder 1 lb. 8 oz. faltpetre 12 oz. and char-
, coal 2 oz.
2Q. F^ire Pumps.
I. Saltpetre 5 lb. brimRone r lb. meal-powder 11 lb.
and glafs-duR 1 lb. II. Saltpetre 5 lb. 8 oz. brim
ilone 2 lb. meal-powder 1 lb. 8 oz. and glafs-duR 1 lb.
8 oz.
30. A flow white Flame.
1. Saltpetre 2 lb. brimRone 3 lb. antimony I lb. II.
Saltpetre 34 lb. fulphur 2t lb. meal powder 1 lb. anti¬
mony 4 lb. glafs-duR 4 oz. brafs-duR 1 oz.
N. B. Thefe compofitions, driven 1 j inch in a I oz.
cafe, will burn one minute, which is much longer time
than an equal quantity of any compofxtion yet known
will laR.
31. Amber Lights.
Meal-powder 9 oz. amber 3 oz. This charge may
be drove in fmall cafes, for illuminations.
32. Lights of another Kind.
Saltpetre 3 lb. brimRone 1 lb. meal-powder 1 lb. an¬
timony 1 Of oz. All thefe muR be mixed with the oil
of fpike.
33. A red Fire.
Meal-powder 3 lb. charcoal 12 oz. and faw-du l 8 oz.
34. A common Fire.
Saltpetre 3 lb. charcoal 10 oz. and brimRcne 2 oz.
35* Vo make an artificial flarthqu kc.
Mix the following ingredients to a paRe with water,
and then bury it in the ground, and in a few hours the
E C H N Y. Sea. I.
earth will break and open in fevcral places. The com Ingredients
pofition : fulphur 4 lb. and Reel-daR 4 lb. and
36. Compofltions for Stars of different Colours. Compofi.
I. Meal-powder 402. faltpetre 2 oz. brimRone 2 oz. tlou‘>' J
Reel-duR x4 oz. and camphor, white amber, antimony,
and mercury-fublimate, of each 4 o^. II. Roche-
petre 10 oz. brimRone, charcoal, antimony, meal-
powder, and camphor, of each \ oz. moiRened with
oil of turpentine. Thefe compoiitions are made into
Rars, by being worked to a paRe with aqua vitse, in
which has been diflblved feme gum-tragacanth ; and
after you have rolled them in powder, make a holo
through the middle of each, and Rring them on quick-
match, leaving about 2 inches between each. III. Salt¬
petre 8 oz. brim one 2 oz. yellow amber 1 oz. anti*
mony 1 oz. and powder 3 oz. IV. Brimflone 2\ oz.
fa'tpetre 6 oz- olibanum or frankincenfe in drops 4
oz. ; maRick, and mercury-fublimate, of each 4 oz.
meal-powder 5 oz. white amber, yellow amber, and
camphor, of each 1 oz. antimony and orpiment 4 07.
each. V. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimRone 1 lb. and meal-
powder 8 oz. moiRened with petrolio-oil. VI. Pow¬
der -i- lb. brimRone and faltpetre, of each 4 oz. VII.
Saltpetre 4 oz. brimRone 2 oz. and meal-powder 1 oz-
Stars that arry tails of [parks. I. Brimflone 6 oz-
antimony crude 2 oz. faltpetre 4 oz. and rofin 4 oz.
II. Saltpetre, rofin, and charcoal, of each 2 oz. brim¬
Rone 1 oz. and pitch 1 oz.
Thefe compofitions are fometimes melted in an ear¬
then pan, and mixed with chopped cotton-match, before
they are rolled into Rars ; but will do as well if wetted,
and worked up in the ufual manner.
Stars that yield fame [parks. I. Camphoi 2 oz. falt¬
petre I oz. meal-powder 1 oz. II. Saltpetre 1 oz..
ditto melted \ oz. and camphor 2 cz. When you
would make Rars of either of thefe compofitions, you
muR wet them with gum-water, or fpirit of wine, ia
which has been difiblved fome gum-arabic, or gum-
tragacanth, that the whole may have the confiRence of
a pretty thick liquid ; having thus done, take I oz. of
lint, and Rir it about in the compofition till it becomes
dry enough to roll into Rars.
Stars of a yellow fit colour. Take 4 oz. of gum-
tragacanth or gum-arabic, pounded and fifted through
a fine fieve, camphor difiblved in brandy 2 oz. falt¬
petre 1 lb. fulphur 4 lb. coarfe powder of glafs 4 oz.
white amber 11 oz. orpiment 2 oz, Being well in-
cprporated, make them into Rars after the common
method.
Stars of another kind. Take I lb. of camphor, and
melt it in a pint of fpirit of wine over a flow fire ; then
add to it i lb. of gum-arabic that has been diflblved 4
with this liquor mix 1 lb. of faltpetre, 6 oz. of
fulphur, and <; oz. of meal-powder; and after you ,
have Rirred them well together, roll them into Rars
proportionable to the rockets for which you intend
them.
37. Colours produced by the different Compofitions.
As variety of fires adds greatly to a colleftion of
works, it is neceflary that every artifi fliould know the
different effeft of each ingredient. For which reafon,
we fhall here explain the colours they proiiice of
themfelves; and likewife how to make them retain the
fame when mixed with other bodies; as for example,
fulphur
Sea. r. P Y R O T
Ingredients fulpKur gives a blue, camphor a white or pale colour,
and faltpetre a clear white-yellow, amber a colour inclining
Compofi- yePow, fal-ammoniac a green, antimony a reddiih, ro-
. tlons' fin a copper colour, and 0 eek-pitch a kind of bronze,
or between red and yellow. ^11 thefe ingredients are
fuch as fhow themfelves in a e, viz.
White jiame. Saltpetre, fulphur, meal-powder, and
camphor ; the faltpetre mud be the chief part
Blue fame. Meal-powder, faltpetre, and fulphur
vivum; fulphur mull be the chief: Or meal-powder,
faltpetre, brimftone, fph it of wine, and oil of fpike ; but
let the powder be the principal part.
Flame inclining to reel. Saltpetre, fulphur, antimony,
and Greek-pitch ; faltpetre the chief.
By the above method may be made various colours
of fire, as the pradlitioner pleafes ; for, by making a
few trials, he may caufe any ingredient to be predo¬
minant in colour.
38. Ingredients that Jhow in Sparks when rammed in
thoaked Cafes.
The fet colours of fire produced by fparks are di¬
vided into 4 forts, viz. the black, white,_ grey, and
red. The black charges are compofed of 2 ingredients,
which are meal-powder and charcoal ; the white of 3,
viz. faltpetre, fulphur, and charcoal; the grey of 4,
viz. meal-powder, faltpetre, brimftone, and charcoal;
and the red of 3, viz. meal-powder, charcoal, and faw-
-duft.
There are, befides thefe four regular or fet charges,
two others, which are diftinguifhed by the names df
compound and brilliant charges ; the compound being
made of many ingredients, fuch as meal-powder, falt¬
petre, brimftone, charcoal, faw-duft, fea*coal, antimo¬
ny, glafs duft, brafs duft, fteel filings, call iron, tan¬
ner’s duft, &c. or any thing that will yield fparks ; all
which muft be managed with diferetion. 1 he brilli¬
ant fires are cornpofed of meal-powder, faltpetre, brim-
flone, and fteel deft ; or with meal-powder and fteel
filings only.
39. Cotton Quicl-matchy
Is generally made of fuch cotton as is put in can¬
dles, of feveral lizes, from I to 6 threads thick, ac¬
cording to the pipe it is defigned for ; which pipe mull
be large enough for the match, when made, to be pufh-
ed in eafily without breaking it. Having doubled the
cotton into as many threads as you think proper, coil
it very lightly into a flat-bottomed copper or earthen
pan; "then put in the faltpetre and the liquor, and
boil them about 20 minutes ; after which coil it again
Plate into another pan, as in fig. 4. and pour on it what liquor
-ccccx»vxii. remajns. ^en pUt Jn forne meal-powder, and preis it
down with your hands till it is quite wet ; afterwards
place the pan before the wooden frame (^g- S’) which
muft be fufpended by a point in the centre of each
end ; and place yourfelf before the pan, tying the upper
end of the cotton to the end of one of the lides of the
frame.
When every thing is ready, you muft have one to
turn the frame round, while you let the cotton pafs
through your hands, holding it very lightly, and at
the fame time keeping your hands full of the wet
powder; but if the powder fhould be too wet to Hick
to the cotton, put more in the pan, fo as to keep a
continual fupply till the match is all wound up ; you
■may wind it as clofe on the frame as you pleafe, fo that
E C H N Y. 69t
it do not flick together; when the frame is full, Of Moulds,
take it off the points, and fift diy meal-powder on
both fides the match, till it appear quite dry : in wtn-men’tS)
ter the match will be a fortnight before it is fit for ■—v
ufe ; when it is thoroughly dry, cut it along the out¬
ride of one of the fides of the frame, and tie it up in
fkins for ufe.
N. B. The match muft be wound tight on the
frames.
Fhc ingredients for the match, are, cotton 1 lb. 12 oz»
faltpetre I lb. fpirit of wine 2 quarts, water 3 quarts,
ifinglafs 3 gills, and meal-powder 10 lb. To diflblvc
4 oz. of ifinglafs, take 3 pints of water.
2d 39. Touch-paper for capping of Serpents, Crackers, &C.
Diffolve, in fpirits of wine or vinegar, a little falt¬
petre ; then take feme purple or blue paper, and wet
it with this liquor, and when diy it will be fit for ufe ;
when you pafte this paper on any of your works, take
care that the pafte does not touch that part which is
to burn. The method of ufing this paper is by cut¬
ting it into flips, long enough to go once round the
mouth of a ferpent, cracker, &c. When you pafte on
thefe flips, leave a little above the mouth of the cafe
not palled; then prime the cafe with meal-powder, and
twill the paper to a point.
Sect. II. Of Moulds, Cafes, Mixture, Inflru-
ments, £tc.
42. Rocket moulds.
As the performance of rockets depends much on
their moulds, it is requifite to give a definition of them
and their proportions : They are made and proportion¬
ed by the diameter of their orifice, which are divided
into = parts. Fig. 6. reprefents a mould made by
its diameter AB : Its height from C to H is 6 diame¬
ters and 2 thirds; from D to E is the height of the
foot, which is 1 diameter and 2 thirds ; F the choak
or cylinder, whofe height is j diameter and i-3d ; it
mull be made out of the fame piece as the foot, and
fit tight in the mould; G an iron pin that goes through
the cylinder to keep the foot fall ; H the nipple,
which is 4 a diameter high, and z-jds thick, and of
the fame piece of metal as the former I, whofe height
is 3 * diameters, and at the bottom is i-^d of the dia¬
meter thick, and from thence tapering to i-6th of the
diameter. The bell way to fix the piercer in the cylin¬
der, is to make that part below the nipple long enough
to go quite through the foot, and rivet at bottom.
Fig. 7. is a former or roller for the cafes, whofe length
from the handle is 74- diameters, and its diameter
2-3ds of the bore. Fig. 8. the end of the former,
which is of the fame thicknefs, and 1 diameter and
2-3ds long ; the fmall part, which fits into the hole in
the end of the roller when the cafe is pinching, is i-6th
and 4 of the mould’s diameter thick. Fig. 9. the iiift
drift, which muft be 6 diameters from the handle ; and
this, as well as all other rammers, mull be a little thin¬
ner than the former, to prevent the facking of the pa¬
per when you ere driving in tire charge. In the end
of this rammer is a hole to fit 6ver the piercer; the
line K marked on this is 2 diameters and i*3d from
the handle ; fo that, when you are filling the rocket,
this line appears at top of the cafe : you muft then take
the 2d rammer (fig. jo.) which from the handle is 4
4 S 2 diameters,
692 - P Y R O T
Of Vlaiilf!*,diameters, and the hole for the piercer is It diameter
^Ono’ Fig* it* is the fhort and folid drift which you
aitr;t-JI&cU ui"e w^ien you have filled the cafe as high as the top of
—y—— the piercer.
Rammers mull have a collar of brafs at the bottom,
to keep the wood from fpreading or fplitting, and the
fame proportion mull be given to all moulds, from i oz.
to 6 lb. We mentioned nothing concerning the handles
of the rammers ; however, if their diameter be equal
to the bore of the mould, and t diameters long, it will
be a very good proportion : but the fhorter you can
ufe them, the better ; for the longer the drift, the lefs
will be the prelfure on the compolition by the blow gi¬
ven with the mallet.
JJimevjions for Rocket Moulds^ if the Rockets are rammed
folid.
Weight
of rock¬
ets.
Length of the Interior diameter
lb.
6
4
i
o 8
c 4
O 2
O I
o 4
6 drams
4 drams
moulds without
their feet.
Inches.
34>7
38>6
J3»35
12,25
10,125
7>75
6.2
4»9
3 >9
3*5
2.2
of the moulds.
Inches.
3*5
2,9
2>I
L7
I>333»
H25
0,9
o,7
°>55
°»5
°>3
&c.
Height of
the nipples.
Inches.
i,4
1,0
0,85
oj6
o,45
o,35
0*25
0,225
0.2
i he diameter of the nipple mull always be equal to
that of the former.
I he thicknefs of the moulds is omitted, being very
immaterial, provided tlrey are fubilantial and llrong.
Our author advifes thofe who make rockets for pri¬
vate amufement, not to ram them folid; for it requires
a very Ikilful hand, and an expenfive apparatus for
boring them, which will be Ihown hereafter. Driving
of rockets folid is the moll expeditious method, but
not fo certain as ramming them over a piercer.
41. Moulds for IVheel-cafes or Serpents.
Fig. 12. reprefents a mould, in which the cafes are
drove folid; L the nipple (a), with a point (b) at top,
which, when the cafe is filling, ferves to Hop the
neck, and prevent the compofition from falling out,
which without this point it would do ; and, in confe-
quence, the air would get into the vacancy in the
charge, and at the time of firing caufe the cafe to
burll. Thefe fort of moulds are made of any length
or diameter, according as the cafes are required ; but
the diameter of the rollers mull be equal to half the
bore, and the rammers made quite folid.
4'* To roll Rocket and other Cafes.
Sky-rocket cafes are to be made 64 of their exte¬
rior diameter long; and all other cafes that are to be
E C H N Y. Sea. IT.
filled, in .moulds mull be as long as the moulds, within of Mou! ;S(
half its interior diameter. Cafes, Mix.
Rocket cafes, from the fmallell to 4 or 6 lb. are ture,
generally made of die llrongdl fort of cartridge pa-mfcnt*’ &Cj;
per, and rolled dry ; but the large fort are made of
palled paheboard. As it is very difficult to roll the
ends of the cafes quite even, the bell way will be to
keep a pattern of the paper for the different forts of
cafes; which pattern fhoald be fomewhat longer than
the cafe it is defigned for, and on it marked the num¬
ber of flieets required, which will prevent any paper
being cut to wafte. Having cut your papers of a pro¬
per fize, and the laft Iheet for each cafe with a dope at
one end, fo that when the cafes are rolled it may form
a fpiral line round the outfide, and that this dope may
always be the fame, let the pattern be fo cut for a
guide. Before you begin to roll, fold down one end of
the firfl fheet, fo far that the fold will go 2 or 3 times
round the former : then, on the double edge, lay the
farmer with its handle off the table ; and when you
have rolled on the paper within 2 or 3 turns, lay
the next Iheet on that part which is loofe, and roll it
all on.
Having thus done, you mull have a fmooth board,
about 20 inches long, and equal in breadth to the
length of the cafe. In the middle of this board mull
be a handle placed lengthwife. Under this board lay
your cafe, and let one end of the board lie on the
table ; then prefs hard on it, and pulh it forwards,
which will roll the paper very tight: do this three or four
times before you roll on any more paper. This mufl
be repeated ever)’ other Iheet of paper, till the cafe is
thick enough; hut if the rolling board be drawn back¬
wards, it will loofen the paper: you are to obferve, when
you roll on the lall Iheet, that the point of the Hope
be placed at the fjiiall end of the roller. Having rolled
your cafe to fit the mould, pulh in the fmall end of the
former F, about 1 diameter from the end of the cafe,
and put in the end-piece within a little diflance of
the former; then give the pinching cord one turn
round the cafe, between the former and the end-piece;
at firll pull eafy, and keep moving the cafe, which
will make the neck fmooth, and without large wrinkles.
When the cafes are hard to choak, let each Iheet of
paper (except the firfl and lall, in that part where the
neck is formed) be a little moillened with water : im¬
mediately after you have llruck the concave ftroke,
bind the neck of the cafe round with fmall twine, which
mull not be tied in a knot, but failened with two or
three hitches.
Having thus pinched and tied the cafe fo as not to
give way, put it into the mould without its foot, and
with a mallet drive the former hard on the end-piece,
which will force the neck clofe and fmooth. This done,
cut the cafe to its proper length, allowing from the
neck to the edge of the mouth half a diameter, which
is equal to the height of the nipple ; then take out
the former, and drive the cafe over the piercer with
the long rammer, and the vent will be of a proper fize.
Wheel-cafes mull be drove on a nipple with a point to,
< clofe
Tllc :MPP‘e.an<^ cylinders to bear the fame proportion as thofe for rockets.
. round bit of brafs, equal in length to the neck of the cafe, and flat at the top.
Sea. n. p Y R O T
of Motifs clofe tlie neck, aiid make the vent of the fi/e required;
Cafes, Mix-which, in moll cafes, Is generally k of their interior
tore, lnftru-(jjameter> jt j‘3 vcry often dilBcult, when the cafes
inentb, r0]]e(j} to draw the roller out, you may make a
hole through the handle, and put in it a fmall iron pin,
by which you may eafdy turn the former round and
pull it out. Fig. 17. fhows the method of pinching
cafes ; P a treddle, which, when pveffed hard with the
foot, will draw the cord tight, and force the neck as
clofe as you pieafe ; ()^a frnall wheel or pulley, with a
groove round it for the cord to run in.
Cafes are commonly rolled wet, for wheels and fix¬
ed pieces ; and when they are required to contain a
great length of charge, the method of making thofe
cafes is thus: Your paper mull be cut as ufual, only
the laft Pnect muft not be cut with a Hope : having
vour paper ready, palle each Iheet on one fide ; then
fold down the firll Iheet as before directed : but be
careful that the palle do not touch the upper part of
the fold; for if the roller be wetted, it will tear the
paper in drawing it out. In palling the lall fheet, ob-
ferve not to wet the lull turn or two in that part where
it is to be pinched; for if that part be damp, the pinch¬
ing cord will Hick to it, and tear the paper; therefore,
when you choak thofe cafes, roll a bit of dry paper
once round the cafe, before you put on the pinching
cord ; but this hit of paper muft be taken off after the
cafe is choaked. The rolling board, and all other me¬
thods, according to the former direftions for the rolling
and pinching of cafes, muft be rued to thefe as well as
all other cafes.
43. 7k> mahe ’Toutli!Ion Cafes.
Thofe fort of cafes are generally made about 8 dia¬
meters long ; but if very large, 7 will be fufficient :
tourbillons will anfwer very well from 4 oz. to 2 lb.
but when larger there is no certainty. The cafes are
bell rolled wet with pafte, and the laft fheet muft have
a ftraight edge, fo that the cafe may be all of a thick-
nefs : when you have rolled your cafes after the man¬
ner of wheel-cafes, pinch them at one end quite clofe ;
tl en with the rammer drive the ends down flat, and
afterwards ram in about i-3d of a diameter of dried
clay. The diameter of the former for thefe cafes muft
be the fame as for fky-rockets.
N. B. Tourbillons are to be rammed in moulds
without a nipple, or in a mould without its foot.
44. Balloon Cafes, or Paper Shell}.
Firft, you muft have an oval former turned of
fmooth wood ; then pafte a quantity of brown or car¬
tridge paper, and let it lie till the pafte has quite
foaked through ; this done, rub the former with foap
or greafe, to prevent the paper from {ticking to it;
then lay the paper on in fmall flips, till you liave made
it 1-3d of the thicknefs of the {hell intended. Having
thus done, fet it to dry ; and when dry, cut it round
the middle, and the two halves will eafily come off: but
obferve, when yon cut, to leave about 1 inch not cut,
which will make the halves join much better than if
quite feparated. When you have feme ready to join,
place the halves even together, pafte a flip of paper
round the opening to hold them together, and let that
dry ; then lay on paper all over as before, everywhere
equal, excepting that end which goes downwards in
the mortar, which may be a little thicker than the
left; for that part which receives the blow from the
E C H N Y. 69.?
powder in the chamber of the mortar confcquently re-Of Moulds,
quires the greatell ftrength. When the (hell is thorough-
ly dry, burn a round vent at top, with fquare iron,men’ti ^
large enough for the fuze : this method will do for bal- ~v >
loons from 4 inches z-jths, to 8 inches diameter; but
if they are larger, or required to be thrown a great
height, let the ilrll {hell be turned of elm, inftead of
being made of paper.
For a balloon of 4 inches 2-5ths, let the former b?
3 inches i-8th diameter, and 51 inches long. For a
balloon of 5 J inches, the diameter of the former muft be
4 inches, and 8 inches long. For a balloon of 8 inches,
let the diameter oi the former be 5inchesand i5-l6ths,
and 11 inches y-Bths long. For a 10-inch balloon, let
the former be 7 inches 3-i6tlis diameter, and 14? inch¬
es long. The thicknefs of a fliell for a balloon of 4
inches 2*5ths, mull be i inch. For a balloon of 5^
inches, let the thicknefs of the paper be j-Bths of an
inch. For an 8-inch balloon, 7-Sths of an inch. And
fora ID-inch balloon, let the ftieli be 1 inch l-8tb
thick.
Shells that are defigned for ftars only, may be made
quite round, and the thinner they are at the opening,
the better; for if they are too ftrong, the ftars are
apt to break at the buriting of the fticli: when you are
making the fhell, make ide of a pair of calibres, or a
round gage, fo that you may not lay the paper thick¬
er in one place than another ; and alfo to know when
the (hell is of a proper thicknefs. Balloons muft al¬
ways be made to go eafy into the mortars.
Cafes for illumination Porl-fres. Thefe muft be made
very thin of paper, and rolled on formers, from 2 to
5-8ths of an inch diameter, and from 2 to 6 inches
long ; they are pinched clofe at one end, and left open
at the other. When you fill them, put in but a little
compofition at a time, and ram it in lightly, fo as not
to break the cafe: 3 or 4 rounds of paper, with
the laft round palled, will be ftrong enough for thefe
cafes.
Cafes and tnou'ds for common Portfires. Common port¬
fires are intended purpofely to fire the works, their
fire being very flow, and the heat of the flame fo in-
tenfe, that, if applied to rockets, leaders, &c. it will fire
them immediately. Port-fires may be made of any length,
but are feldom made more than 21 inches long: the
interior diameter of port-fire moulds fhould be io-i6th& -
of an inch, and the diameter of the former 4 an inch.
The cafes muft be rolled wet with pafte, and one end.
pinched, or folded down. The moulds ftiould be made
of brafs, and to take in two pieces lengthwife; when the
cafe is in the two fides, they are held together by brafs
rings, or hoops, which are made to fit over the out-
fide. The bore of the mould mull not be made quite
through, fo that there will be no occafion for a foot.
Thofe port-fires, when ufed, aie held in copper foc-
kets, fixed on the end of a long flick : thefe fockets
are made like purt-crayons, only with a ferew inftead
of a ring.
45. Of mixing the Compof lions.
The performance of the principal part of fire-works
depends much on the compofitious being well mixed ;
therefore great care muft be taken in this part of the
work, particularly for the compofition for fky-rockets.
Wheu you have 4 or 5 pounds of ingredients to mix,
which is a fulficient quantity at a time (for a larger
proportion
694 P Y R O T
Of iVTouM?,proportion will not Jo fo well), firft put the different
mre S[nftru* I'nffre^ient:3 together ; then work them about with your
mentsVcThands, till you think they arc pretty well incorporated:
*«*——v^—- after which put them into a lawn fieve with a receiver
and top to it; and if, after it is fifted, any remains that
will not pafs through the fieve, grind it again till fine
enough ; and if it be twice lifted, it will not be amifs ;
but the compofitions for wheels and common works are
not fo material, nor need be fo tine. But in all fixed
works, from which the fire is to play regular, the in¬
gredient mull be very fine, and great care taken in
mixing them well together ; and obferve, that in all
compofitions wherein are Heel or iron filings, the hands
mull not touch ; nor will any works which have iron
or Heel in their charge keep long in damp weather, un-
lefs properly prepared, according to the following di¬
rections.
46. To preferve Steel or Iron filings
It fometimes may happen, that fire-works may be
required to be kept a long time, or fent abroad ; nei¬
ther of which could be done with brilliant fires, if
made with filings unprepared ; for this reafon, that the
•faltpetre being of a damp nature, it caufes the iron to
ruft ; the confequence of which is, that when the
works are fired, there will appear but very few bril¬
liant fparks, but inftead of them a number of red and
drofly fparks 5 and befides, the charge will be fo
much weakened, that if this wns to happen to wheels,
the fire wall hardly be flrong enough to force them
round. But to prevent fuch accidents, prepare your
filings thus : Melt in a glazed earthen pan fome brim-
(lone over a flow fire, and when melted throw in fome
filings; which keep ftirring about till they are cover¬
ed with brimfione : this you muft do while it is on
the fire ; then take it off, and flir it very quick till
i:old, when you mull roll it on a board with a wooden
roller, till you have broke it as fine as corn powder ;
after which fift from it as much of the brimftone as
you can. There is another method of preparing fi¬
lings, fo as to keep 2 or 3 months in winter; this may
be done by rubbing them between the ftrongeft fort of
brown paper, which before has been moiitened with
lintfecd oiL
N. B. If the brimfione fhould take fire, you may
put it out, by covering the pan clofe at top : it is not
of much fignification what quantity of brimftone you
ufe, fo that there is enough to give each grain of iron
a coat; but as much as will cover the bottom of a
pan of about 1 foot diameter, will do for 5 or 6 pound
of filings, or call-iron for gerbes.
47. To drive or ram Sly-roclrfs, See.
Rockets drove over a piercer muft not have fo
much compofition put in them at a time as when
■drove folid ; for the piercer, taking up great part of
the bore of the cafe, would caufe the rammer to rife
too high ; fo that the preffure of it would not be fo
great on the compofition, nor would it be drove every¬
where equal. To prevent this, obferve the follow,
mg rule : That for thofe rockets which are rammed
over a piercer, let the ladle (c) hold as much compofi-
E C H N Y. Sea. II.
tion as, when drove, will raife the drift x the interior Moulds,
diameter ol the cafe, and for thofe drove fohj to con-f a^'- ^11C-
tain as much as will raife it 4- the exterior diameter °f
the cafe : ladles are generally made to go eafy in the -)
cafe, and the length of the fcoop about 1 {- of its own
diameter. •
The change of rockets mull always be drove 1 dia¬
meter above the piercer, and on it mull be rammed
1-3d of a diameter of clay; through the middle of
which bore a ftnall hole to the compolition, thatr when
the charge is burnt to the top, it may communicate its
fire, through the hole, to the liars in the head. Great
care muft be taken to ftrike with the mallet, and with
an equal force, the fame number of ftrokes to each ladle-
full of charge; otherwife the rockets will not rife with
an uniform motion, nor will the compolition burn equal
and regular: for which reafon they cannot carry a pro¬
per tail; for it will break before the rocket has got half
way up, inftead of reaching from the ground to the top,
where the rocket breaks and difperfes the liars, rains,
or whatever is contained in the head. When you
are ramming, keep the drift conftantly turning or
moving ; and when you ufe the hollow rammers, knock
out ot them the compofition now and then, or the
piercer will fplit them. To a rocket of 4 oz. give
to each ladle-full of charge 16 llrokes; to a rocket of
1 lb. 28 ; to a 2-pounder, 36; to a 4-pounder, 42;
and to a 6-poimder, 56.: but rockets of a larger fort
cannot be drove well by hand, but muft be rammed
with a machine made in the fame manner as thofe for
driving piles.
The method of ramming of wheel-cafes, or any other
fort, in which the charge is drove folid, is much the
fame as Iky-rockets; for the fame proportion may be
obferved in the ladle, and the fame number of ftrokes
given, according to their diameters, all cafes being di-
ftinguifhed by their diameters. In this manner, a cafe,
whofe bore is equal to a rocket of 4 oz. is called a
4-oz, cafe, and that which is equal to an 8-oz rocket
an 8-oz. cafe, and fo on, according to the different
rockets.
Having taught the method of ramming cafes in
moulds, we lhall here fay fomething concerning thofe
filled without moulds; which method, for ilrong palled
cafes, will do extremely well, and fave the expence of
making fo many moulds. The reader muft here ob¬
ferve, when he fills any fort of cafes, to place the mould
on a perpendicular block of wood, and not on any place
that is hollow ; for we have found by experience, that
when cafes were rammed on driving benches, which
were formerly ufed, the works frequently mifca'rried,
on account of the hollow refiftance of the benches,
which oft jarred and loofened the charge in the cafes ;
but this accident never happens when the driving blocks
are ufed (d).
When cafes are to be filled without moulds, pro¬
ceed thus. Have fome nipples made of brafs or iron,
of feveral forts and fiz.s, in proportion to the cafes,
and to ferew or fix in the top of the driving block $
when you have fixed in a nipple, make, at about 1-^
inch
(c) A copper fcoop with a wooden handle.
(d) A piece cf hard wood in the form of an anvil block.
Sea.n. P Y R O T
Of M loir's incli from it, a fquare hole in the block, 6 inches deep
Cafo, M«-an(j j inch diameter; then have a piece of wood, 6 inch-
ture’ !n&U cs longer than the cafe intended to be filled, and 2 inches
roents, £,uare . on one fide of it cut a groove almoll the length
of the cafe, whofe breadth and depth mull be fufficient
to cover near 4 the cafe ; then cut the other end to fit
a the hole in the block, but take care to cut it fo that
the groove may be of a proper diftance from the nipple;
this half mould being made and fixed tight in the block,
cut, in another piece of wood nearly of the fame length
as the cafe, a groove of the fame dimenfions as that in
the fixed piece ; then put the cafe on the nipple, and
with a cord tie it and the 2 half-moulds together, and
your cafe will be ready for filling.
The dimenfions of the above-deferibeu half-moulds
are proportionable for cafes of 8 ounces; but notice
mull be taken, that they dilfer in fize in proportion to
the cafes.
Note, The clay, mentioned in this article, mull be
prepared after this manner : Get fome clay, in which
there is no ftones nor fand, and bake it in an oven till
quite dry ; then take it out and beat it to a powder, and
afterwards fift it through a common hair-fieve, and it
will be fit for ufe.
48. Proportion of Mallets.
The beft wood for mallets is dry beech. If a perfon
ufes a mallet of a moderate fize, in proportion to the
rocket, according to his judgment, and if the rocket fuc-
ceeds, he may depend on the reft, by ufing the fame mal¬
let ; yet it will be neceffary that cafes of different forts be
drove with mallets of difterent fizes.
The following proportion of the mallets for rockets
©f any fize, from 1 oz. to 6 lb. may be obferved ; but
as rockets are feldom made lefs than 1 oz. or larger
than 6 lb. we (hall leave the management of them to
the curious ; but all cafes under 1 oz. may be rammed
with an oz. rocket mallet. Your mallets will ftrike
more folid, by having their handles turned out of the
fame piece as the head, and made in a cylindrical form.
L.et their dimenfions be worked by the diameters of the
rockets : for example ; let the thicknefs of the head be
3 diameters, and its length 4, and the length of the
handle 5 diameters, whofe thicknefs muft be in propor¬
tion to the hand.
49. Proportion of Sky-rochets, and manner of heading
them.
Fig. 13. reprefents a rocket complete without its
flick, whofe length from the neck is 5 diameters i-6th :
the cafes fhould always be cutHo this length after they
are filled. M is the head, which is 2 diameters high,
and 1 diameter i-6th \ in breadth ; N the cone or cap,
whofe perpendicular height mnft be I diameter i-3d.
Fig. 14. the collar to which the head is fixed : this is
turned out of deal or any light wood, and its exterior
diameter muft be equal to the interior diameter of the
head ; 1 -6th will be fufficient for its thicknefs, and
round the outfide edge muft be a groove ; the interior
diameter of the collar muft not be quite fo wide as the
exterior diameter of the rocket: when this is to be
glued on the rocket, you muft cut two or three rounds of
paper off the cafe, which will make a fhoulder for it to
reft upon. Fig. 15.3 former for the head : two or three
rounds of paper well pafted will be enough for the
head, which, when rolled, put the collar on that part
©f the former marked O, which muft fit the infide of
1 lure.Inftru-
make the caps, mcn’ts> &c#
diameter to ———■ s
E C H N Y. 695
it; then, with the pinching cord pinch the bottom of Of Moulds,
the head into the groove, and tie it with fmall twine. Ca^es:^?*x*
Fig. 16. a former for the cone. To
cut your paper in round pieces, equal in
twice the length of the cone you intend to make ; which
pieces being cut into halves, will make two caps each,
without wafting any paper ; having formed the caps,
pafte over each of them a thin white paper, which muft
be a little longer than the cone, fo as to projedl about
4 an inch below the bottom : this projection of paper,
being notched and palled, ferves to fallen the cap to
the head.
When you load the heads of your rockets, with liars,
rains, ferpeuts, crackers, fcrolls, or any thing clfe, ac¬
cording to your fancy, remember always to put 1 ladle-
full of meal-powder into each head, which will be enough
to burft the head, and difperfe the liars, or whateverjt
contains : when the heads are loaded with any fort of
cafes, let their mouths be placed downwards ; and after
the heads are filled, pafte on the top of them a piece
of paper, before you put on the caps As the fize'
of the liars often differ, it would be needlefs to give an
cxadl number for each rocket; but this rule may be
obferved, that the heads may be nearly filled with what¬
ever they are loaded.
50. Decorations for Sky-rockets.
Sky-rockets bearing the pre-eminence of all fire¬
works, it will not be improper to treat of their various
kinds of decorations, which are direfted according to
fancy. Some are headed with liars of different forts,
fuch as tailed, brilliant, white, blue, and yellow liars,
&c.; fome with gold and filver rain ; others with fer-
pents, crackers, firefcrolls, marrons ; and feme with
fmall rockets, and many other devices, as the maker
pleafes.
Dimenfions and poife of Rocket-Jlicks.
Weight
of the
rocket
L.
Length of
the flick.
F. in.
Thicknefo
at top.
Inches.
J4
12
9
8
6
5
4
3
2
t
o
10
4
2
6
3
1
6
4
10'
M
1,25
1,125
0,725
°»5
0,3750
°>3
0,25
0,125
0,1
Breadth
at top.
Square at
bottom.
Inches. Inches.
1,85
1,40
1,
0,80
0,70
°>55
°»45
°>35
0,20
0,15
o,7f
0,625
0,525
o,375
0,25
o,35
0,15
0,10
0,16
o,5
Poife from
the point of
the cone.
F.
in.
4
3
2
2
1
1
1
11
8
5
*>5
9>
9,
1,
10,5
8,5
3*
o,
O,
0,5
The laft column on the right, in the above table,
expreffes the diftance from the top of the cone, where
the Hick, when' tied on, Ihould balance the rocket,
fo as to Hand in an equilibrium on one’s finger or
the edge^of a knife. The beft wood for the fticks is
dry deal, made thus. When you have cut and planed
the Hicks according to the dimenfions given in the
table, cut, on one of the flat fides at the top, a groove
the length of the rocket, and as broad as the Hick will
allow ; then, on the oppofite flat fide, cut two notches
for the cord, which ties on the rocket, to lie in; one
of thefe notches muft. be near the top of the ftick,
8 and
00 P Y R O T
of Moulds,and the other facing the neck of the rockets; the
Cafes between thefe notches may eafily be known,
&c 'for the top of the flick fhould always touch the head
  ^ If of the rocket. When your rockets and flicks are
ready, lay the rockets in the grooves in the flicks,
and "tie them on. Thofe who, merely for curiofity,
may choofe to make rockets of different lizes, from
thofe expreffed ia the table of dimeniions, may find
the length of their flicks, by making them for rockets,
from 4 oz. to i lb. 60 diameters of the rocket long ;
and for rockets above i lb. 50 or 52 diameters will be
a good length ; their thicknefs at top may be about
4 a diameter, and their breadth a very little more;
their fquare at bottom is generally equal to 4 the thick¬
nefs at top. But although the dimenfions of the
flicks he very nicely obferved, you mufl depend only
on their balance ; for, without a proper counterpoife,
your rockets, inftead of mounting perpendicularly, will
take an oblique direction, and fall to the ground before
they are burnt out.
9 i. Boring Roclets which have been driven folid.
Fig. 18. represents the plan of an apparatus, or
lathe, for boring of rockets. A the large wheel,
which turns tho fmall one B, that works the rammer
C : thefe rammers are of different fizes according to
the rockets ; they mufl be of the fame diameter as the
top of the bore intended, and continue that thicknefs
a little longer than the depth of the bore required,
and their points mufl be like that of an augre : the
thick end of each rammer mufl be made fquare, and
all of the fame fize, fo as to fit into one focket, where¬
in they are faflened by a ferew D. E the guide
for the rammer, which is made to move backwards
and forwards: fo that, after you have marked the
rammer 34 diameters of the rocket from the point,
let the guide, allowing for the thicknefs of the fronts
-of the rocket boxes, and the neck and mouth of the
rocket; fo that when the front of the large box is
clofe to the guide, the rammer may not go too far up
the charge. F, boxes for holding the rockets, which
are made fo as to fit one in another; their fides mull
be equal in thicknefs to the difference of the diame¬
ters of the rockets, and their interior diameters equal
t*o the exterior diameters of the rockets. To prevent
the rocket’s turning round while boring, a piece of
wood mufl be placed againll the end of the box in the in*
fide, and prefled againll the tail of the rocket; this
will alfo hinder the rammer from forcing the rocket
backwards. G, a rocket in the box. H, a box that
flides under the rocket-boxes to receive the borings for
the rockets, which fall through holes made on purpofe
in the boxes ; thefe holes mufl be jull under the mouth
of the rocket, one in each box, and all to correfpond
with each other. '
Fig. 19. is a front view of the large rocket-box.
I, an iron plate, in which are holes of different fizes,
through which the rammer paffes: this plate is fa¬
flened with a ferevv in the ce »» e, fo that when you
change the rammer, you turn the plate round, but
always let the hole you are going to ufe be at the
bottom : the fronts of the other boxes mufl have holes
?n them to correfpond with thofe in the plate. K,
the lower part of the large box ; which is made to fit
the infide of the lathe, that all the boxes may move
Quite fleadv.
ture, Inftru-
merits &c.
E C H N Y. Sea.ir.
Fig. 2C. is a perfpe£live view of the lathe. L, the Of Moulds,
guide for the rammer, which is fet by the ferew at Oafes, Mix-
bottom.
Fig. 21. A view' of the front of the guide facing the
rammer. M, an iron plate, of the fame dimenfions
as that on the front of the box, and placed in the fame
direction, and alfo to turn on a ferew in the c*ntre.
N, the rocket-box which Hides backwards and for¬
wards : when you have fixed a rocket in the box,
pulh it forwards againfl the rammer ; and when you
think the fcoop of the rammer is full, draw the box
back, and knock out the compofition : this you mull
do till the rocket is bored, or it will be in danger
of taking fire ; and if you bore in a hurry, wet the
end of the rammer now and then with oil to keep
it cool.
Having bored a number of rockets, you mull have
taps of different forts according to the rockets. Thefe
taps are a little longer than the bore : but when you ufe
them, mark them 3 i diameters from the point, allowing
for the thicknefs of the rocket’s neck ; then, holding
the rocket in one hand, you tap it with the other. One
of thefe taps is reprefented by fig. 22. They are made
in the fame proportion as the fixed piercers, and arc
hollowed their whole length.
52. Hand Machine ufed jor boring of Rocheti injlead of
a Lathe,
Thefe fort of machines anfwer very well, though
not fo expeditious as the lathes. But they are not fo ex-
penfive to make, and they may be worked by one man ;
whereas the lathe will require three.. Fig. 23. repre-
fents the machine. O, the rocket boxes, which are
to be fixed, aiid not to Aide as thofe in the lathe. . pQ-
are guides for the rammers, that are made Aide to¬
gether, as the rammer moves forward : the rammers for
thefe forts of machines mufl be made of a proper length,
allowing for the thicknefs of the front of the boxes, and
the length of the mouth and neck of the cafe ; on the
fquare end of thefe rammers mull be a round flioulder
of iron, to turn againll the outfide of the'guide by
which means the guides are forced forwards. R, the
Hock which turns the rammer, and while turning mull
be preffed towards the rocket by the body of the man
who works it; all the rammers are to be made to fit
one Hock.
To make large Gerbes.
Fig. 1. reprefents a wooden former; fig. a.agerbe Plate
complete, with Its foot or Hand. The cales for gerbes ccccxxlx.
are made very ilrong, on account of the ftrength of the
compofition ; which, when fired, comes out with great
velocity : therefore, to prevent their burlling, the paper
ftrould be palled, and the cafes made as thick at the top
as at the bottom. They Ihould alfo have very long
necks, for this reafon ; firll, that the particles of iron
will have more time to be heated, by meeting with
greater refiilance in getting out, than with a fiiort
neck, which would be burnt too wide before the
charge be confumed, and fpoil the effe£l: fecondly,
that with long necks the Hars will be thrown to a great
height, and will not fall before they are fpent, or
fpread too much ; but, when made to perfection, will
rife and fpread in inch a manner as to form exaftly a
wheat-Areal. ..
In the ramming of gerbes, there will be no need of
a mould, the cafes being iufficiently ftrong to fupport
7 themfelves.
SeiUI. P Y R O T
Of Moulds, themfelves. But you are to be careful, before you be-
Cal'es, Mix- ^jn to ram> ]iave a piece of wood made to fit in the
ftTuments 1,eck ? for if thIs be not done’ the comPoi'ltion w111
&C ’ fall into the neck, and leave a vacancy in the cafe,
—V“which will caufe the cafe to burft fo foon as the
fire arrives at the vacancy. You muft likewife obferve,
that the firfl ladle of charge, or fecond, if you think
proper, be of fome weak compofition. When the cafe
is filled, take out the piece of wood, and fill the neck
with fome flow charge. Gerbes are generally made
about 6 diameters long, from the bottom to the top
of the neck ; their bore muff be i-5th narrower at top
than at bottom. The neck S is i-6th diameter and ^
long. T, a wooden foot or hand, on which the gerbe
is fixed. This may be made with a choak or cylinder
4 or 5 inches long to fit the infide of the cafe, or with
a hole in it to put in the gerbe ; both thefe methods
will anfwer the fame. Gerbes produce a moft bril¬
liant fire, and are very beautiful wheu a number of
them are fixed in the front of a building or a colle&ion
of fireworks.
N. B. Gerbes are made by their diameters, and their
cafes at bottom ^ thick. The method of finding the
interior diameter of a gerbe is thus : Suppofing you
would have the exterior diameter of the cafe, when made,
to be 5 inches, then, by taking 2-4ths for the fides of
the cafe, there will remain 24- inches for the bore, which
will be a very good fize. Thefe fort of gerbes fhould
be rammed very hard.
54. Small Gerbesy or white Fountains,
May be made of 4 oz. 8 oz. or 1 lb. cafes, pafted and
made very itrong, of what length you pleafe : but,
before you fill them, drive in clay one diameter of their
orifice high; and when you have filled a cafe, bore
a vent through the centre of the clay to the com¬
pofition : the common proportion will do for the vent,
which mull be primed with a flow charge. Thefe
fort of cafes, without the clay, may be filled with Chi-
nefe fire.
piate 55. To make Pajleloatd and Paper Mortars.
ccccxxix Fig. 3. reprefents a former, and fig. 4. an elm foot,
for the mortar. Fig. 5. reprefents a mortar complete :
thefe mortars are bell when made with pafteboard, well
palled before you begin ; or, inftead of palte, you
may ufe glue. For a coehorn mortar, which is 4 in¬
ches 2-5ths diameter, roll the palleboard on the former
l-6th of its diameter thick; and, when dry, cut one
end fmooth and even ; then nail and glue it on the up¬
per part of the foot: when done, cut off the pafte¬
board at top, allowing for the length of the mortar 24-
diameters from the mouth of the powder-chamber;
then bind the mortar round with a ftrong cord wetted
with glue. U, the bottom part of the foot 1 diame¬
ter 2-3ds broad, and 1 diameter high; and that part
which goes into the mortar is 2*3ds of its diameter
high. W, is a copper chamber for powder, mad& in
a conical form ; and is [-3d of the diameter wide, i4-
of its own diameter long. In the centre of the bot¬
tom of this chamber, make a fmall hole a little way
down the foot; this hole muft be met by another of
the fame fize, made in the fide of the foot, as is Ihown
in the figure. If thele holes are made true, and a cop¬
per pipe fitted into both, the mortar when loaded will
prime itfelf; for the powder will naturally fall to the
bottom of the firft hole ; then by putting a bit of
Vol. XV. Part II.
E C H N Y.
697
quick-match in the fide hole, your mortar will be ready Mr-bal
to be fired. I ion*, &u.
Mortars of 54> eight and ten inches diameter, may
be made of paper or pafteboard, by the above me¬
thod, and in the fame proportion ; but if larger, it
will be beft to have them made of brafs. N. B. The
copper chamber muft have a fmall rim round its
edge with holes in it, for ferews to make it fall in the
foot.
Sect. III. To load /4ir-balloons, with the number
of Stars, Serpents, Snakes, Rain-falls, (sc. in
Shells of each nature.
56. Mortars to throw Aigrettes, fjY.
When you fill your fhells, you muft firft put in the
ferpents, rains, ftars, &c. or whatever they are com-
pofed of; then the blowing powder ; but the fhells
muft. not be quite filled. All thofe things muft be put
in at the fuze hole ; but marrons being too large to go
in at the fuze hole, muft be put in before the infide
fhell be joined. When the fhells are loaded, glue and
drive in the fuzes very tight. For a coehorn balloon,
let the diameter of the fuze hole be ^-ths of an inch ;
for a royal balloon, which is near 54 inches diameter,
make the fuze hole I inch ^th diameter ; for an 8-inch
balloon, 1 inch -|-ths ; and for a 10-inch balloon, 1
inch 4rths.
Air-balloons are divided into 4 forts; viz. firft, illu¬
minated balloons ; fecond, balloons of ferpents ; third,
balloons of reports, marrons, and crackers ; and fourth,
compound balloons. The number and quantities of each
article for the different fhells are as follow.
Coehorn balloon illuminated. OZ.
Meall j f - - - 14
Corn 1 Pow^er I o'
.Powder for the mortar - - 2
Length of the fuze compofition, ^ths of an inch;
1 oz. drove or rolled ftars, as many as will nearly fill
the fhell.
Coehorn balloon of ferpents. oz.
Corn} P°wdcr { \ I1
Powder for the mortar - ■ - - 2 4
Length of the fuze compofition lyth8 an inch :
half-ounce cafes drove 3 diameters, and bounced 3 dia¬
meters, and half-ounce cafes drove 2 diameters and
bounced 4, of each an equal quantity, and as many of
them as will fit in eafily placed head to tail.
Coehorn balloons oj crackers and reports. oz.
Con!} P°Wder { . * / of
Powder for the mortar - - - 2
Length of the fuze compofition ^ths of an inch. Re¬
ports 4, and crackers of 6 bounces as many as will fill
the fhell.
Compound coehorn balloons. oz. dr.
Cora} P°wder { - ' . ' . ’ o A
Powder for the mortar - - 2 4
Length of the fuze compofition 14ths of an inch :
4 ounce cafes drove 34 diameters and bounced 2, 16 ;
4- ounce cafes drove 4 diameters and not bounced 10 ;
blue ftrung ftars, 10; rolled ftars, as many as will com¬
plete tiic balloon.
4 T
Royal
698
Air-bal¬
loons, &C.
oz. dr.
i o
i 8
3 8
ounce-
oz.
i
i
3
dr.
8
4
o
oz. dr.
i 5
- i 6
3 12
inch : 4 ounce
: 2 ounce cafes
p Y R O T
Royal balloons illuminated. oz. dr.
Com}p°wder{ O”
Powder for the mortar - - 3 °
Length of the fuze compofition iyths of an inch j
2 ounce ft rung ftars, 34; rolled ftars, as many as the
fhell will contain, allowing room for the fuze.
Royal balloons of ferpents.
Con!] P°WdCr {
Powder for the mortar # -
Length of the fuze compofition 1 inch :
cafes drove and 4 diameters, and bounced 2, of each
an equal quantity, fufficient to load the (hell.
Royal balloons with crackers and marrons.
Meall , V
Corn jP°wderi
Powder for firing the mortar - -
Length of the fuze compofition 44^® ^ inch j
reports J 2, and completed with crackers of 8 bounces.
Compound royal balloons.
Co?!] Powder { -
Powder for the mortar
Length of the fuze compofition 1
cafes drove and bounced 2 diameters, 8
filled -fths of an inch with liar eompofition, and bounced
a diameters, 8 ; filver rain-falls, 10 ; 2 ounce tailed
liars, 16; rolled brilliant ftars, 30. If thiVlhould not
be fufficient to load the {hell, you may complete it with
gold rain-falls.
Eight-inch balloons illuminated. oz. dr.
MeaH , f - - 28
Corn j IX,wJer 1 - - « 4
Powder for the mortar - - 9 0
Length of the fuze compofition 1 inch |th: 2 ounce
drove ftars, 48 ; 2 ounce cafes drove with liar compo¬
fition -|ths of an inch, and bounced 3 diameters, 1 2 ;
and the balloon completed with 2 ounce drove brilliant
liars.
Eight-inch balloons of ferpents. oz. dr.
Meal 1 1 $ ~ ~ 20
CondP0wderl - - 20
Powder for the mortar - - 9 8
Length of the fuze compofition I inch -r^ths : 2 oz.
cafes drove l4 diameter and bounced 2, and 1 ounce
cafes drove 2 diameters and bounced 2-L of each an equal
quantity fufficient for the fiiell.
TV. B. The ftar-compofition drove in bounced cafes
inuft be managed thus : Firft, the cafes mull be pinch¬
ed clofe at one end, then the corn-powder put in for a
report, and the cafe pinched again clofe to the powder,
only leaving a fmall vent for the liar compofition, which
is drove at top, to communicate to the powder at the
bounce end.
Compound eight-inch balloons. oz. dr.
Meall , f - - 28
Corn 1 powder . . 1I2
Powder for the mortar - - 9 4
Length of the fuze compofition -gth 4 ounce cafes
drove with liar compofition yths of an inch, and boun¬
ced 3 diameters, 16 ; 2 ounce tailed ftars, 16; 2 ounce
drove brilliant ftars, 12 ; filver rain-falls, 20; 1 ounce
drove blue ftars, 20 ; and 1 ounce cafes drove and boun-
'<ct'd 2 diameters, as many as will fill the ftiell.
E C H
1 ] powder j
N Y.
Another of eight inches.
Sea. Ill,
OZ. dr. Air-bal-
2 g loons, &c.
r 12
9 4
crackers
oz. dr.
3 o
3 2
13 o
Meal
Corn
Powder for the mortar
Length of the fuze compofition I inch ^th
of 6 reports, 1 o ; gold rains, 14; 2 ounce cafes drove
with liar compofition |ths of an inch, and bounced 2
diameters, 16; 2 ounce tailed ftars, 16; 2 ounce drove
brilliant ftars, 12 ; filver rains, 10 ; 1 ounce drove blue
ftars, 20 ; and I oz. cafes drove with a brilliant charge
2 diameters and bounced 3, as many as the {hell will
hold.
A compound ten-inch balloon. oz. dr.
Con!]?0"'11" { . ‘ ' d |
Powder for the mortar - - 128
Length of the fuze compofition an inch :
1 ounce cafes drove and bounced 3 diameters, 16.
Crackers of 8 reports, 1254 ounce cafes drove £ inch
with ftar-compolition, and bounced 2 diameters, 14 ; >
2 ounce cafes drove with brilliant fire diameter, and
bounced 2 diameters, 16: 2 ounce drov'e brilliant ftars,
30 : 2 ounce drove blue ftars, 3; gold rains, 20; filver
rains, 20. After all thefe are put in, fill the remain-'-
der of the cafe with tailed and rolled ftars. '
Ten-inch balloons of three chdrves.
MeaH , f
Corn J P°wdtr {
Powder for the mortar
Length of the fuze compofition 1 inch. The {hell
muft be loaded with 2 ounce cafes, drove with flar com¬
pofition ^th of an inch, and on that 1 diameter of gold
fire, then bounced 3 diameters ; or with 2 ounce cafes
firft filled I diameter with gold fire, then ^th of an inch
with ftar compofition, and on that i^th diameter of
brilliant fire. Thefe cafes muft be well lecured at top
of the charge, left they ftiould take fire at both ends ;
hut their necks muft be larger than the common pro¬
portion.
57. To make Balloon Fusees.
Fuzes for air-balloons are fometimes turned out of
dry beech, with a cup at top to hold the quick-match,
as you fee in fig. 5. but if made with palled paper,
they will do as well: the diameter of the former for
fuzes for coehorn balloons muft be 4 an inch j for a
royal fuze, ^ths of an inch ; for an 8-inch fuze, ^ths of
an inch ; and for a 10-inch fuze, -^ths of an inch. Ha¬
ving rolled your cafes, pinch and tie them almoft clofe
at one end ; then drive them down, and let them dry.
Before you begin to fill them, mark on the outfide of
the cafe the length of the charge required, allowing for
the thicknefs of the bottom ; and when you have ram¬
med in the compofition, take two pieces of quick-match
about 6 inches long, and lay one end of each on the
charge, and then a little meal-powder, which ram down
hard; the loofe ends of the match double up into the
top of the fuze, and cover it with a paper cap to keep
it dry. When you put the ftiells in the mortars, un¬
cap the fuzes, and pull out the loofe ends of the match,
and let them hang on the fides of the balloons. The
ufe of the match is, to receive the fire from the pow¬
der in the chamber of the mortar, in order to light the
fuze: the fhell being put in the mortar with the fuze
uppermoft, and exadlly in the centre, fprinkle over it a
little meal-powder, and it will be ready to be fired.
Fuzes
Stain. r Y R O T
Air-bal- Fuzea made of wood mull be longer than tbofe of pa-
ijons, &c. per> an(| 11(it bored quite through, but left fwlid about
i_ an at bottom; and when you ufe them, law
them off to a proper length, meafuring the charge from
the cup at top.
58. Tourbillons.
Having filled fome cafes within about i t diameter,
drive in a ladleful of clay ; then pinch their ends clofe,
and drive them down with a mallet. When done, find
the centre of gravity of each cafe ; where you nail and
tie a Hick, which fliould be i an inch broad at the
middle, and run a little narfower to the ends: thefe
Hicks muH have their ends turned upwards, fo that the
.cafes rriay turn horizontally on their centres: at the
oppofite Tides of the cafes, at each end, bore a hole
clofe to the clay with a gimblet, the fize of the neck
of a common cafe of the fame nature ; from thefe holes
draw a line round the cafe, and at the under pail of
the cafe boie a hole with the fame gimblet, within x
diameter of each line towards the centre; then from
one hole to the other draw a right line. This line di¬
vide into three equal parts ; and at X and Y (fig. 6.)
bore a hole ; then from thefe holes to the other two
lead a quick-match, over which paHe a thin paper.
Fig. 7. reprefents atourbillon as it fhould lie to be fired,
with a leader from one fide-hole A to the other B.
When you fire tom billons, lay them on a fmooth table,
with their Hicks downwards, and burn the leader thro’
the middle with a port-fire. They Ihould fpin three or
four feconds on the table before they rife, which is about
the time the compofition will be burning from the lide-
holes to thofe at bottom.
To tourbillons may be fixed reports in this manner:
In the centre of the cafe at top make a fmall hole, and
in the middle of the report make another ; then place
them together, and tie oh the report, and with a iingle
paper fecure it from fire; this done, your tourbillon is
completed. By this method you may fix on tourbil¬
lons fmall cones of Hars, rains, &c. but be careful not
to load them too much. One-eighth of an inch will
be enough for the thicknefs of the Hicks, and their
length equal to that of the cafes.
59. To make Mortars to throw Aigrettes, and to load and
Jire them.
Mortars to throw aigrettes are generally made of
paHeboard, of the fame thicknefs as balloon mortars,
and 2^ diameters long in the inhde from the top of the
foot: the foot muH be made of elm without a chamber,
but flat at top, and in the fame proportion as thofe for
balloon mortars; thefe mortars muH alfo be bound
round with a cord as before-mentioned: fometimes 8
or 9 of thefe mortars, of about three or four inches di¬
ameter, are bound all together, foasto appear but one:
but when they are made for this purpofe, the bottom
of the foot muH be of the fame diameter as the mortars,
and only ^ diameter high. Your mortars being bound
well together, fix them on a heavy folid block of wood.
To load thefe mortars, firH put on the infide bottom of
each a piece of paper, and on it fpread 1-^ oz. of meal
and corn powder mixed; then tie your ferpents up in
parcels with quick-match, and put them in the mortar
with their mouths downwards ; but take care the par¬
cels do not fit too tight in the mortars, and that all the
ferpents have been well primed with powder wetted
with ipirit of wine. On the top of the ferpents in
E C H N Y. 699
each mortar lay fome paper or tow } then carry a lead- A.?r-bjd-
er trom one mortar to the other all round, and then *00ns> ,
from all the outfide mortars into that in the middle : ~v
thefe leaders muH be put between the cafes and the
fides of the mortar, down to the powder at bottom : in
the centre of the middle mortar fix a fire-pump, or bril¬
liant fountain, which muH be open at bottom, and long
enough to projedl out of the mouth of the mortar;
then pafie paper on the tops of all the mortars.
Mortars thus prepared are called a nefl of ferpents, as
reprefented by fig. 8. When you would fire thefe mor¬
tars, light the fire-pump C, which when confumed will
communicate to all the mortars at once by means of
the leaders. For mortars of 6, 8, or 10 inches diame¬
ter, the lerpents fliould be made in 1 and 2 ounce cafes
6 or 7 inches long, and fired by a leader brought out
of the mouth of the mortar, and turned down the out¬
fide, and the end of it covered with paper, to prevent
the fparks of the other works from fetting it on fire.
For a fix-inch mortar, let the quantity of powder for
firing be 2 oz. ; for an 8-inch, 2^ oz. ; and for a 10-
inch, 3£ oz. Care mufi be taken in thefe, as well as
fmall mortars, not to put the ferpents in too tight, for
fear of buriting the mortars. Thefe mortars may be
loaded with Hars, crackers, &c.
If the mortars, when loaded, are fent to any diHance,
or liable to be much moved, the firing powder fliould
be fecured from getting amongH the ferpents, which
would endanger the mortars, as well as hurt their per¬
formance. To prevent which, load your mortars thus:
FirH put in the firing powder, and fpread it equally-
about ; then cut a round piece of blue touch-paper,
equal to the exterior diameter of the mortar, and draw
on it a circle equal to the interior diameter of the mor¬
tar, and notch it all round as far as that circle; then
paHe that part which is notched, and put it down the
mortar clofe to the powder, and Hick the paHed edge
to the mortar: this will keep the powder always fmooth
at bottom, fo that it may be moved or carried any--
where without receiving damage. The large Angle
mortars are called pots des aigrettes,
60. Making, loading, and firing, of Pots des Brins.
Thefe are formed of paHeboard, and muH be rolled
pretty thick. They are ufually made 3 or 4 inches di¬
ameter, and 4 diameters long; and pinched with a neck
at one end, like common cafes. A number of thefe are
placed on a plank thus: Having fixed on a plank two
rows of wooden pegs, cut in die bottom of the plank
a groove the whole length under eacli row of pegs;
then, through the centre of each peg, bore a hole down
to the groove at bottom, and on every peg fix and glue
a pot, whofe mouth mutt fit tighten the peg: through
all the holes run a quick-match, one end of which mutt
go into the pot, and the other into the groove, w hich
mutt have a match laid in it from end to end, and co¬
vered with paper, fo that when lighted at one end it may
difeharge the whole almott inilantaneoufly: in all the
pots put about 1 oz. of meal and corn powder ; then
in fome put liars, and others rains, lhakes, ferpents,
crackers, &e. when they are all loaded, paHe paper
over their mouths. Two or three hundred of thefe
pots being fired together make a very pretty fhow, by
affording ib great a variety of fires. Fig. 9. is a range
of pots des brius, with a leader A, by which they arc
fired.
aT z
*
700
Air«ba!'
loous, &c.
P Y R O T
f. i. Pols des Sau~lff‘onsi
Are generally fired out of large mortars without
chambers, the fame as thofe for aigrettes, only fome-
what ftronger. SaucUTons are made of I and 2 ounce
cafes, 5 or 6 inches long, and choaked in the fame man¬
ner as ferpents. Half the number which the mortar
contains muft be drove I * diameter with competition,
and the other half two diameters, fo that when fired
they may give two volleys of reports. But if the mor¬
tars are very ttrong, and will bear a fufficient charge to
throw the fauciffons very high, you may make three
volleys of reports, by dividing the number of cafes in¬
to three parts, and making a difference in the height
of the charge. After they are fAled, pinch and tie them
at top of the charge almolt clofe ; only leaving a fmall
vent to communicate the fire to the upper part of the
cafe, which muft be filled wi h corn-powder very near
the top ; then pinch the end quite clofe, and tie it :
after this is done, bind the cafe very tight with waxed
packthread, from the choak at top of the compoiition
to the end of the cafe ; this will make the cafe very
flrong in that part, and caufe the report to be very
loud. Sauciffons fhould be rolled a little thicker of
paper than the common proportion. When they are
to be put in the mortar, they muft be primed in their
mouths, and fired by a cafe of brilliant fire fixed in their
centre.
The charge for thefe mortars fhould be ^th or -^th
more than for pots des aigrettes of the fame diameter.
Sect. IV. Different kinds of Rocketsy ivith their
appendages and Combinations.
62. W fix one Rocket on the top of another.
When fky-rockets are thus managed, they are catl-
td towering rockets, on Account of their mounting fo
very high. Towering rockets are made after this man¬
ner : Fix on a pound-rocket a head without a collar ;
then take a four ounce rocket, which may be headed or
bounced, and rub the mouth of it with meal powder
wetted with fpirit of wine : when done,, put it in the
head of the large rocket with its mouth downwards ;
but before you put it in, flick a bit of quick-match in
the hole of the clay of the pound-rocket, which match
fhould be long enough to go a little way up the bore
of the fmall rocket, to fire it when the large is burnt
out, the 4 ounce rocket being too fmall to fill the head
of the other, roll round it as much tow as will make it
Hand upright in the centre of the head: the rocket be¬
ing thus fixed, pafle a fingle paper round the opening
of the top of the head of the large rocket. The large
rocket mull have only half a diameter of charge ram¬
med above the piercer; for, if filled to the ufual height,
it would turn before the fmall one takes fire, and en¬
tirely deftroy the intended effeft: when one rocket is
headed with another, there will be no occafion for any
blowing powder; for the force with which it fets off
will be fufficient to difengage it from the head of the
fir ft fired rocket. The flicks for thefe rockets muft
be a little longer than for thofe headed with liars,
xains, &c.
63. Caduceus Rockets,
In rifing, form two fpiral lines, or double, worm, by
tealon of their being placed obliquely, one oppofite
F. C H N Y. Sea. IV.
the other; and their counterpoife in their centre, which Rockets,
caufes them to rife in a vertical direction. Rockets for
this purpofe muft have their ends choaked clofe, with-
out either head or bounce, for a weight at top would
be a great obftru6lion to their mounting; though I have
known them fometimes to be bounced, but then they
did not rife fo high as tliofe that were not; nor do any
caduceus rockets ai’cend fo high as fingle, becaufe of
their ferpentine motion, and likewife the refiflance of
air, which is much greater than two rockets of the fame
iize would meet with if fired fingly.
By 2d fig. 9. you fee the method of fixing thefe rock¬
ets : the flicks for this purpofe muft have all their fides
alike, which fides fhould be equal to the breadth of a
flick proper for a fky-rocket of the fame weight as thofe
you intend to ufe, and to taper downwards as ufual,
long enough to balance them, one length of a rocket
from the crofs flick; which muft be placed from the
large flick 6 diameters of one of the rockets, and its
length 7 diameters ; fo that each rocket, when tied on,
may form with the large flick an angle of 60 degrees.
In tying on the rockets, place their heads on the op¬
pofite fides of the crofs flick, and their ends on the op-
poiite fides of the long flick; then carry a leader from
the mouth of one into that of the other. When thefe
rockets are to be fired, fufpend them between two hooks
or nails, then burn the leader through the middle, and
both will take fire at the fame time. Rockets of 1 lb.
are a good fize for this ufe.
64. Honorary Rockets,
Are the fame as fky-rockets, except that they carry
no head nor report, but are clofed at top, on which is
fixed a cone ; then on the cafe, clofe to the top of the
flick, you tie on a 2 ounce cafe, about 5 or 6 inches
long, filled with a ftrong charge, and pinched clofe at
both ends ; then in the reverfe iides, at each end, bore a
hole in the fame manner as in tourbiHons; from each
hole carry a leader into the top of the rocket. When
the rocket is fired, and arrived to its proper height, it
will give fire to the cafe at top ; which will caufe both
rocket and flick to fpin very fall in their return, and
reprefent a worm of fire defeending to the ground.
There is another method of placing the fmall cafe,
which is by letting the flick rife a little above the top
of the rocket, and tying the cafe to it, fo as to reft on
the rocket: thefe rockets have no cones.
There is alfo a third method by which they are ma¬
naged, which is thus: In the top of a rocket fix a piece
of wood, in which drive a fmall iron fpindle ; then make
a hole in the middle of the fmall cafe, through which
put the fpindle: then fix on the top of it a nut, to
keep the cafe from falling off; when this is done, the
cafe will turn very fall, without the rocket : but this
method does not anfwer fo well as either of the for¬
mer.
Fig. 1 o. is the honorary rocket complete. The heft
fized. rockets for this purpofe are thofe of 1 lb.
65. To di vide the tail of a Sky-rocket fo as to form an
Arch when afeending.
Having fome rockets made, and headed according to
fancy, and tied on their flicks j get fome fheet tin, and
cut it into round pieces about 3 or 4 inches diameter;
then on the flick of each rocket, under the mouth of
the cafe, fix one of thefe pieces of tin 16 inches from
tlie socket’s neck, and fupport it by a wooden bracket,
as . ■
Sea. IV. P Y R O T
Rockets, as flreng as poflible : the ufe of this is,, that when the
*c- rocket is afcending the fire will play with great force
on the tin, which will divide the tail in fuch a manner
that it will form an arch as it mounts, and will have a
verv good effe& when well managed : if there is a fiiort
piece of port-fire, of a ftrong charge, tied to the end of
the ftick, it will make a great addition ; but this mud
be lighted before you fire the rocket.
66. To make J'tverul Skyrockets rife in the fame direc¬
tion, and equally dijlant from each other.
Take fix, or any number of Iky-rockets, of what fize
you pleafe, then cut fome llrong packthread into pieces
of 3 or 4 yards long, and tie each end of thefe pieces
to a rocket in this manner : Having tied one end of
your packthread round the body of one rocket, and
the other end to another, take a fecond piece of pack¬
thread and make one end of it fall to one of the rock¬
ets already tied, and the other end tp a third rocket,
fo that all the rockets, except the two outfide, will be
faftened to two pieces of packthread: the length of
thread from one rocket to the other may be what the
maker pleafes ; but the rockets mull be all of a iize,
and their heads filled with the fame weight of liars,
rains, &c.
Having thus done, fix in the mouth of each rocket
a leader of the fame length ; and when you are going
to fire them, hang them almoll clofe; then tie the ends
of the leaders together, and prime them: this prime
being fired, all the rockets will mount at the fame time,
and divide as far as the llrings will allow ; which di-
vifion they will keep, provided they are all rammed
alike, and well made. They are called by fome chained
rockets.
67. Signal Sky-rockets
Are made of feveral kinds, according to the diffe¬
rent fignals intended to be given ; but in artificial fire-
» -works, two forts are only ufed, which are one with re¬
ports and the other without ; but thofe for the ufe of
the navy and army are headed with liars, ferpents,
£cc.   Rockets which are to be bounced mull have
their cafes made or 2 diameters longer than the com¬
mon proportion ; and after they are filled, drive in a
double quantity of clay, then bounce and pinch them af¬
ter the ufual manner, and fix on each a cap.
Signal Iky-rockets without bounces, are only fley-
rockets clofed and capped: thefe arc very light, there¬
fore do not require fuch heavy Hicks as thofe with load¬
ed heads ; for which reafon you may cut one length of
the rocket off the Hick, or elfe make them thinner.
Signal rockets with reports are fired in fmall flights ;
and often both thefe, and thofe without reports, are
ufed for a lignal to begin firing a collection of works.
68. To fix a Sky-rocket •with its Stick on the top of an¬
other.
Rockets thus managed make a pretty appearance, by
reafon of a frelh tail being feen when the fecond rocket
takes fire, which will mount to a great height. The
method of preparing thefe rockets is thus: Having fill¬
ed a two-povnder, which mull be filled only half a dia¬
meter above the piercer, and its head not more than 10
■or 12 liars ; the Hick of this rocket mull be made a
little thicker than common; and when made, cut it iu
half the flat way, and in each half make a groove, fo
that when the two halves are joined, the hollow made
by the grooves may be large enough tp hold the flick
E c h n Y. 701
of a half-pound rocket; which rocket make and head
as ufual: put the Hick of this rocket into the hollow of c* ^ a
the large one, fo far that the mouth of the rocket may
reH on the head of the two-pounder ; from whofe head
carry a leader into the mouth of the fmall rocket ;
which being done, your rockets will be ready for
firing.
2d 68. To fix two or more Sky-rockets on one Stick.
Two, three, or fix fky-rockets, fixed en one Hick,
and fired together, make a grand and beautiful appear¬
ance ; for the taik of all will feem but as one of an im-
menfe fize, and the breaking of fo many heads at once
will refemble the burlling of an air-balloon. The ma¬
nagement of this device requires a fkilful hand; but
if the following infirudlions be well obferved, even by
thofe who have not made a great progrefs in this art,
there will be no doubt of the rockets having the defined
effeft.
Rockets for this purpofe mufi be made with the
greateH exa&nefs, all rammed by tire fame hand, in the
fame mould, and out of the fame proportion of compo-
lition ; and after they are filled and headed, muH all be
of the fame weight. The Hick mull alfo be well made
(and proportioned) to the following directions : firlt,
fuppoling your rockets to be j- pounders, whofe Hicks
are 6 feet 6 inches long, then if 2, 3, or 6 of thefe are
to be fixed on 1 Hick, let the length of it be 9 feet 9
inches ; then cut the top of it into as many fides as
there are rocketsr, and let the length of each fide be
equal to the length of 1 of the rockets without its head;
and in each fide cut a groove (as ufual).; then from,
the grooves plane it round, down to the bottom,
where its thicknefs muH be equal to half the top ot
the round part. As their thicknefs cannot be exadlly
afeertained, we lhall give a rule which generally anfwers.
for any number of rockets above two : the rule is this;
that the Hick at top muH be thick enough, when
the grooves are cut, for all the rockets to lie, without
prefiing each other, though as near as poflible.
When only’z rockets are to be fixed on one Hick, let
the length of the Hick be the lall given proportion,
but fhaped after the common method, and the breadth
and thicknefs double the ufual dimenfions. The point
of poife muH be in the ufual place (let the number of
rockets be what they will) : if Hicks made by the above
dire&ions fiiould be too heavy, plane them thinner ;
and if too light, make them thicker ; but always make
them of the fame length-
When more than two rockets are tied on one Hick,,
there will be fome danger of their flying up without
the Hick, unlefs the following precaution is taken : For
cafes being placed on all lides, there can be no notches-
for the cord which ties on the rockets to lie in ; there¬
fore, inHead of notches, drive a fmall nail in each fide of
the Hick, between the necks of the cafes : and let the
cord, which goes round their necks, be brought clofe
under the nails ‘r by this means the rockets will be as
fecure as when tied on fingly. Your rockets being thus
fixed, carry a quick-match, without a pipe, from the
mouth of one rocket to the other; this match being
lighted will give fire to all at once.
Though the directions already given may be fuffi-
cient for thefe rockets, we fhall here add an improve¬
ment on a very effential part of this device, which is„
that of hanging the rockets to be fired j for before the*
1 following
702
Rucktsts,
•&c.
P Y R 0 T
following method was hit upon, many cflaya proved un-
fucccfsful. Inllead, therefore, of the old and common
manner of hanging them on nails or hooks, make ufe of
this contrivance : Have a ring made of llrong iron wire,
large enough for the ftick to in as far as the mouths
of the rockets ; then let this ring be fupported by a
fmall iron, at fome diitance from tire poll or Hand to
which it is fixed; then have another ring, fit to receive
and guide the fmall end of the Hick. Rockets thus
fufpended will have nothing to obllrucl their fire ; but
when they are hung on nails or hooks, in fuch a man¬
ner that fome of their mouths are againft or upon a
rail, there can be no certainty of their rifing in a verti¬
cal direction.
69. 7*0 Jlre Shy-rochets ’without Stlchs.
You mull have a Hand, of a block of wood, a foot
diameter, and make the bottom flat, fo that it may
Hand Heady ; in the centre of the top of this block
•draw a circle 2r inches diameter, and divide the cir¬
cumference of it into three equal parts ; then take 3
pieces of thick iron wire, each about 3 feet long, and
drive them into the block, 1 at each point made on
the cucle ; when thefe wires are drove in deep enough
to hold them fall and upright, fo that the diftance
from one to the other is the fame at top as at bottom,
the Hand is complete.
The Hand being thus made, prepare your rockets
thus : Take fome common Iky-rockets, of any fixe,
and head them as you pleafe ; the-i get fome balls of
Jead, and tie to each a fmall wire 2 or feet long, and
the other end of each wire tie to the neck of a rocket.
Thefe balls anfwer the purpofe of Hicks when made of
a proper weight, which is about 2-3ds the weight of
the rocket ; but when they are of a proper fize, they
will balance the rocket in the fame manner as a Hick,
at the ufual point of poife. To fire thefe, hang them,
one at a time, between the tops of the wires^ letting
their heads reil on the point of the wires, and the balls
hang down between them: if the wires Ihould be too
wide for the rockets, prefs them together till they fit ;
and if too dole, force them open ; the wires for this
purpofe mufi be foftened, fo as not to have any fpring,
or they will not keep their pofition when prefled clofe
or opened.
70. Rain-falls ami Stars for Shy-rochets, Double and
Single,
Gold and fdver rain compofitions are drove in cafes
that are pinched quite clofe at one end : if you roll
them dry, 4 or 5 rounds of paper will be firouo-
-enough ; but if they are palled, 3 rounds will do ; and
tne thin fort of cartridge-paper is befi for thofe fmall
cales, wliich in rolling you muH not turn down the in-
hde edge as in other cales, for a double edge would be
too thick for fo fmall a bore. The moulds for rain¬
falls lliould be made of brafs, and turned very fmooth
in the infide ; or the cafes, which are fo very thin,
would tear in coming out; for the charge mufi be
drove in tight; and the better the cafe fits the m«uld,
the more driving it will bear. Thefe moulds have no
nipple, but inilead thereof they are made fiat. As it
would be very tedious and troublefome to lhake the
compofition out of fuCh fmall ladles as are ufed for
,1 htie cafes, it will be neceffary to have a funnel made
ol thin tin, to fit on the top of the cafe, by the help
of whlch *vou ^ them very fait. For fingle rain-
E C H N Y, Seel. IV.
falls for 4 oz. rockets, let the dintneier of the former Rodiets,
be 2-i6ths of an inch, and the length of the cafe 2
inches; for 8 oz. rockets, q-ifiths and 2 diameters '' J
of the rocket long; for 1 lb. rockets, 5M6ths, and 2
diameters ol the rocket long; for 2 lb. rockets, y-ifiths,
and 34 inches long ; for 4'lb. rockets, 6-i6ths, and 4^
inches long; and for 6-pounders, 7-16U1S diameter,
and 5 inches long.
Ot double rain.falls there are two forts. For ex¬
ample, fame appear firfi like a Har, and then as rain ;
and foroe appear firfi as rain, and then like a Har.
When you would have Hars firfi, you muft fill the cafes,
within 4 inch of the top, with ram-compofition, and
the remainder with ttar-compofition ; but when vou
intend the rain fhould be fitfi, drive the cafe 4 an inch
with ftar-compofition, and the reft with rain. By this
method may be made many changes of fire ; for in large
rockets you may make them firfi burn as ftars, then
rain, and again as ftars ; or they mayr firft fhow rain,
then liars, and finifti with a report; but when they are
thus managed, cut open the firft rammed end, after
they are filled and bounced, at which place prime them,
ihe ftar-compolition for this purpofe mufi be a little
fironger than for roli *d liars.
Strung Jlars. Firfi take fome thin paper, and cut
it into pieces of L± inch fquare, or thereabouts; then
on each piece lay as much dry ftar-compofition as you
think the paper will ealily contain ; then twift up the
paper as tight as you can ; when done, rub fome paile
on your hands, and roll the liars between them ; then
fet them to diy : your ftars being thus made, get fome
flax or fine tow, and roll a little of it over each ftar ;
then pafte your hands and roll the liars as before, and
fet them again to dry ; when they are quite dry, with
a piercer make a hole through the middle of each, in¬
to which run a cotton quick-match, long-enough to
hold 10 or 12 ftars at 3 or 4 inches diftance: but any
number of ftars may be ftrung together by joining the
match.
Tailed Jlars. Thefe are called tailed Jlars, becaufe
there are a great number of fparks ifiue from them,
which reprefent a tail like that of a comet. Of thefe
there ate two forts; which are rolled^ and drove : when
rolled, they muft be moiitened with a liquor made of
half a pint of fpirit of wine and half a gill of thin fize,
ot this as much as will wet the compofition enough to
make it roll eafy ; when they are rolled, lift meal-pow¬
der over them, and fet them to dry.
When tailed ftars are drove, the compofition muft
•be moiftened with fpirit of wine only, and not made fo
wet as for rolling : 1 and 2 oz. cafes, rolled _jlry, are
beft for this purpofe ; and when they are filled, unroll
the cafe within 3 or 4 rounds of the charge, and all
that you unroll cut off; then paile down the loofe
edge : 2 or 3 days after the cafes are filled, cut them
in pieces 5 or 6-8ths of an inch in length: then melt
fome wax, and dip one end of each piece into it, fo as
to cover the compofition : the other end muft be rubbed
with meal-powder wetted with ipirit of wine.
DroveJtars. Cafes for drove ftars are rolled with
pafte, but are made very thin of paper. Before you
begin to fill them, damp the compolition with fpirit
of wine that has had fome camphor diffolved in it:
you may ram them indifferently hard, fo that you do
not break or lack the cafe ; to prevent which, they
ihould
Sea. IV. P Y R O T
Rockets, Ihould fit tight in the mould. They are drove in cafes
of feveral fizes, from 8 drams to 4 oz. When they are
filled 4 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of ^ of an inch
king ; if 1 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of 1 inch ; if
2 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of inch long ; and
if 4 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of inch long:
having cut your ftars of a proper fize, prime both ends
with wet meal-powder. Thefe ftars are feldom put in
rockets, they being chiefly intended for air-balloons,
and drove in cafes, to prevent the compofition from
being broke by the force of the blowing powder in
the (hell.
Rolling Jlars are commonly made about the fize
of a mufket-ball; though they are rolled of feveral
fizes, from the bignefs of a piftol-ball to 1 inch dia¬
meter ; and fometimes very fmall, but are then called
/parks. Great care mull be taken in making ftars,
firft, that the feveral ingredients are reduced to a fine
powder ; fecondly, that the compofition is well work¬
ed and mixed. Before you begin to roll, take about
a pound of compolition, and wet it with the following
liquid, enough to make it ftick together and roll eafy;
Spirit of wine 1 quart, in which diflblve of an ounce
of ifinglafs. If a great quantity of compofition be
wetted at once, the fpirit will evaporate, and leave it
dry, before you can roll it into ftars : having rolled
Up one proportion, (hake the ftars in meahpowder,
and fet them to dry, which they will do in 3 or 4
days; but if you (hould want them for immediate ufe,
dry them in an earthen pan over a flow heat, or in an
oven. It is very difficult to make tlie ftars all of
an equal (ize when the compolition is taken up pro-
mifeuoufly with the fingers; but by the following
method they may be made very exaft : When the mix¬
ture is moiftened properly, roll it on a flat fmooth (tone,
and cut it into fquare pieces, making each fquare large
enough for the ftars you intend. There is another
method ufed by fume to make ftars, which is by rol¬
ling the compofition in long pieces, and then cutting
off the ftar, fo that each ftar will be of a cylindrical
form: but this method is not fo good as the for¬
mer ; for, to make the compofition roll this way, it
muft be made very wet, which makes the liars heavy,
as well as weakens them. All ftars muft be kept as
much from air as poffible, otherwife they will grow
weak and bad.
71. Scrolls for Sky-rockets.
Cafes for fcrolls (hould be made 4 or 5 inches in
length, and their interior diameter 3-8ths of an inch :
one end of thefe cafes muft be pinched quite clofe, be¬
fore you begin to fill; and when filled, clofe the other
end : then in the oppofite fides make a fmall hole at
each end, to the compofition, in the fame manner as
in tourbillons ; and prime them with wet meal-powder.
You may put in the head of a rocket as many of
thefe cafes as it will contain : being fired they turn
■very quick in the air, and form a fcroll or fpiral line.
They are generally filled with a ftrong charge, as that
of ferpents or brilliant fire.
72. Swarmers, or /mail Rockets.
Rockets that go under the denomination of fwarm¬
ors, are thofe from 2 oz. downwards. Thefe roc¬
kets are fired fometimes in flights, and in large water¬
works, &c. Swarmers of 1 and 2 oz. are bored, and
made in the fame manner as large rockets, except that,
E C H N Y. 70
when headed, their heads muft be put on without a Rockets,
collar : the number of ilrokes for driving 1 oz. muft be Scc'
8, and for 2 oz. 1 2.
All rockets under 1 oz. are not bored, but muft be
fdled to the ufual height with compofition, which
generally eonfifts of fine meal-powder 4 oz. and char¬
coal or fteel-duft 2 drams : the number of ftrokes for
ramming thefe fmall fwarmers is not material, provided
they are rammed true, and moderately hard. The
necks of unbored rockets mult be in the fame propor¬
tion as in common cafes.
73. Stands for Sky-rockets.
Care muft be taken, in placing the rockets when
they are to be fired, to give them a vertical direction
at their firft fetting out; which may be managed thus:
Have two rails of wood, of any length, fupported as
each end by a perpendicular leg, fo that the rails be
horizontal, and let the diftance from one to the other
be almoft equal to the length of the (licks of the roc¬
kets intended to be fired ; then in the front of the top
rail drive fquare hooks at 8 inches diftance, with their
points turning fidewile, fo that when ’the rockets are
hung on them, the points will be before the (licks
and keep them from falling or being blown off by the
wind : in the front of the rail at bottom muft be ftaples,
drove perpendicular under the hooks at top ; through
thefe ftaples put the fmall ends of the rocket-ftickiv
Rockets are fired by applying a lighted port-fire to their
mouths.
N. B. When (ky-rockets are made to perfection, and
fired, they will (land 2 or 3 feconds on the hook before
tliey rife, and then mount up briflely, with a Heady
motion, carrying a large tail from the ground all the
way up, and juft as they turn break and difperfc the
ftars.
74. Girandole. Chefls for Flights of Rockets.
Thefe are generally compofed of four hd£s, of equal
dimenfions; but may be made of any diameter, acevmd-
ing to the number of rockets deiigned to be fired ; its
height muft be in proportion to the rockets, but muft
always be a little higher than the rockets with their
(licks. When the fides are joined, fix in the top, as
far down the cheft as the length of one of the rockets
with its cap on. In this top, make as many fquare
or round holes to receive the rocket-fticks, as you in¬
tend to have rockets ; but let the diftance between
them be fufficient for the rockets to (land without
touching ene another; then from one hole to another
cut a groove large enough for a quick-match to He in j
the top being thus fixed, put in the bottom, at about
14 foot diftance from the bottom of the cheft ; in this
bottom muft be as many holes as in the top, and all to
correipond ; but thefe holes need not be fo large as
thofe in the top.
To prepare your cheft, you muft lay a quick-match*
in all the grooves, from hole to hole ; then take Come
(ky-rockets, and rub them in the mouth with wet meal-
powder, and put a bit of match up the cavity of each;
which match muft be long enough to hang a little be¬
low the mouth of the rocket. Your rockets and cheft:
being prepared according to the above directions, put
the (licks of the rockets through the holes in the top
and bottom of the cheft, fo that their mouths may reft
on the quick-match in the grooves : by which all the
rockets Will be fired at once ; for by giving lire to. any
2 part.
7o4 P Y R O T
Rockets, pat*t of the match, it will communicate to all the roc*
fcc-   kets in an inftant. As it would be rather troublefome
to direft the Hicks from the top to the proper holes in
the bottom, it will be neceflaty to have a fmall door
in one of the fxdes, which, when opened, you may fee
how to place the flicks. Flights of rockets being fel-
dom fet off at the beginning of any fire-works, they
are in danger of being fired by the fparks from wheels,
&c. therefore, to preferve them, a cover fliould be
made to fit on the cheft, and the door in the fide kept
fhut.
75. Serpents or Snakes for Pots of Aigrettes, fmall Mor¬
tars, Sky-rockets, &c.
Serpents for this ufe are made from 2^ inches to
7 inches long, and their formers from ^-ifiths to 5-8ths
of an inch diameter ; but the diameter of the cafes
muff always be equal to 2 diameters of the former.
They are rolled and choaked like other cafes, and fill¬
ed with compofition from 5-8ths of an inch to 1 r inch
high, according to the fize of the mortars or rockets
they are defigned for ; and the remainder of the cafes
bounced with torn-powder, and afterwards their ends
pinched and tied clofe: before they are ufed, their
mouths muff be primed with wet meal-powder.
76. Leaders, or Pipes of Communication.
The beft paper for leaders is elephant ; which you
cut into long flips 2 or 3 inches broad, fo that they
may go 3 or 4 times round the former, but not more :
when they are very thick, they are too ftrong for the
paper which faftens them to the works, and will fome-
times fly off without leading the fire. The formers for
thefe leaders are made from 2 to 6-l6ths of an inch
diameter; but 4-i6ths is the fize generally made ufe of.
The formers are made of fmooth brafs wire: when you
ufe them, rub them over with greafe, or keep them wet
with pafte, to prevent their llicking to the paper,
which muff be palled all over. In rolling of pipes,
make ufe of a rolling-board, but ufe it lightly: having
rolled a pipe, draw oifc. the former with one hand,
holding the pipe as light as poflible with the other ;
for if rt prefs againll the former, it will Hick and tear
the paper.
N. PC Make your leaders of different lengths, or in
clothing of works you will cut a great many to walle.
Leaders for marron batteries mull be made of flrong
cartridge paper.
77. Crackers.
Cut fome cartridge paper into pieces 31 inches broad,
and one foot long ; one edge of each fold down length-
wife about ^ of an inch broad ; then fold the double
edge down ^ of an inch, and turn the fingle edge back
half over the double fold ; then open it, and lay all
along the channel, which is formed by the folding of
the paper, fome meal-powder; then fold it over and
over till all the paper is doubled up, rubbing it down
every turn ; this done, bend it backwards and forwards,
2y inches, or thereabouts, at a time, as oft as the pa¬
per will allow ; then hold all thefe folds flat and clofe,
and with a fmall pinching cord give one turn round the
middle of the cracker, and pinch it clofe ; then bind it
with a packthread as tight as you can ; then, in the
place where it was pinched, prime one end of it, and
cap it with touch-paper. When thefe crackers are
fired, they will give a report at every turn of the pa¬
per : if you would have a great number of bounces,
E, C H N Y. Sect. IV.
you muff cut the paper longer, or join them after they Rockets,
are made ; but if they are made very long before they &c.
are pinched, you mull have a piece of wood with a 
groove in it, deep enough to let in half the cracker ;
this will hold it llraight while it is pinching. Fig. 12.
reprefents a cracker complete.
78. Single Reports.
Cafes for reports are generally rolled on one and two
oz. formers, and feldom made larger but on particular
occafions; they are made from two to four inches long,
and very thick of paper. Having rolled a cafe, pinch
one end quite clofe, and drive it down: then fill the
cafe with corn-powder, only leaving room to pinch it
at top ; but before you pinch it, put in a piece of pa¬
per at top of the powder. Reports are fired by a vent,
bored in the middle, or at one end, juft as required.
79. Marrons.
Formers for marrons are from 4 of an inch to
diameter. Cut the paper for the cafes twice the diame¬
ter of the former broad, and long enough to go three
times round : when you have rolled a cafe, pafte down
the edge and tie one end clofe ; then with the former
drive it down to take away the wrinkles, and make it
flat at bottom ; then fill the cafe with corn-powder one
diameter and ^ high, and fold down the reft of the cafe
tight on the powder. The marron being thus made,
wax fpme ftrong pack-thread with ftioemakers wrax ;
this thread wind up in a ball, then unwind two or three
yards of it, and that part which is near the ball make
fall to a hook ; then take a marron, and Hand as far
from the hook as the pack-thread wall reach, and wind
it lengthwife round the marron as clofe as you can, till
it will hold no more that way ; then turn it, and wind
the packthread on the ftiort way, then lengthwife
again, and fo on till the paper is all covered ; then make
fall the end of the packthread, and beat down both
ends of the marron to bring it in fliape. The method
of firing marrons is by making a hole at one end with
an awl, and putting in a piece of quick-match ; then
take a piece of ftrong paper, in which wrap up the
marron with two leaders, which mull be put down to
the vent, and the paper tied tight round them with
fmall twine : thefe leaders are bent on each fide, and
their loofe ends tied to other marrons, and are nailed in
the middle to the rail of the Hand, as in fig. 13. The
ufe of winding the packthread in a ball is, that you may
let it out as you want it, according to the quantity the
marron may require ; and that it may not be tied in
knots, which would fpoil the marron.
80. Marron Batteries,
If well managed, will keep time to a march, or a
flow piece of mufic. Marron batteries are made of fe-
veral Hands, with a number of crofs rails for the mar¬
rons ; which are regulated by leaders, by cutting them
of different lengths, and nailing them tight, or loofe,
according to the time of the mufic. In marron batte¬
ries you mull ufe the large and finall marrons, and the
nails for the pipes mull have flat heads.
81. Line Rockets.
Are made and drove as the Iky-rockets, but have
no heads, and the cafes muft be cut clofe to the clay :
they are fometimes made with fix or feven changes, but
in general not more than four or five. The method of
managing thofe rockets is thus : Firft, have a piece of
light wood, the length of one of the rockets, turned
round
Sea. IV. r Y R O T
Rockets round at^out 2^ inches diameter, with a hole through
the middle lengthwife, large enough for the lime to go
cahly through : if you defign four changes, have four
grooves cut in the fwivel, one oppolite the other, to
lay the rockets in.
The mouths of the rockets being rubbed with wet
meal-powder, lay them in the grooves head to tail,
and tie them fail; from the tail of the lirft rocket carry
a leader to the mouth of the fecond, 'and from the fe-
cond to the third, and fo on to as many as there are
on the fwivel, making every leader very fectlre ; but in
fixing thefe pipes, take care that the quick-match does
-not enter the bores of the rockets : the rockets being
fixed on the fwivel and ready to be fired, have a line
roo yards long, flretched and fixed Up tight, at any
height from the ground 5 hut be fine to place it hori¬
zontally : this length ofline willde* for -Ub. rockets; but
if larger, the line mull be longer. Before you put up
the line, put one end of it through the fwivel; and when
you fire the line rocket, let the mouth of that rocket
which you fire fir ft face that end of the line where you
(land ; then the firft rocket will carry the reft to the
<5ther end of the line, and the fecond -will bring them
back; and fo they will run out and in according to the
number of rockets: at each end of the line there mull
be a piece of flat wood for the rocket to ftrike againft,
or its force wall cut the line. Let the line be well foap-
ed, and the hole in the fwivel very fmooth.
82. Different Decorations for Line Rochets.
To line rockets maybe fiked great variety of figures,
fuch as flying dragons, Mercuries, fhips, &c. Or they
may be made to run on the line like a wheel; which is
done in this manner. Have a flat fwivel made very exaif,
and on it tie two rockets obliquely, one on each fide,
which will make it turn round all the way it goes, and
form a circle of fire ; the charge for thefe rockets
fhould be a little weaker than common. If you would
fhow two dragons fighting, get two fwivels made
fquare, and on each tie three rockets together on the
under fide ; then have two flying dragons made of tin,
and fix one of them on the top of each fwivel, fo as to
ftand upright; in the mouth of each dragon put a fmall
«afe of common fire, and another at the end of the
tail; you may put two or three port-fires, of a ftrong
charge, on one fide of their bodies, to (how them. This
done, put them on the line, one at each end ; but let
there be a fwivel in the middle of the line to keep the
dragons from ftriking together: before you fire the
rockets, light the cafes on the dragons ; and if care be
taken in firing both at the fame time, they will meet
in the middle of the line, and feem to t’ght. Then
they will run back and return with great violence ;
which will have a very pleafing efteft. The line for
fhefe rockets muft be very long, or they will ftrike too
bard together.
83. Chinefe Flyers.
Cafes for flyers may be made of different fixes, from
one to eight ounces : they muft be made thick of pa¬
per; and eight interior diameters long; they are rolled
in the fame manner as tourbillons, with a ftraight pall¬
ed edge, and pinched clofe at one end. The method
of filing them is, the cafe being put in a mould, whofc
cylinder, or foot, muft be flat at top without a nipple,
fill it within 4- a diameter of the middle ; then ram in
4 a diameter of clay, on that as much compofition as
Vox. XV. Part JI.
' E C H N Y.
before, on which drive 4 a diameter of clay; then pinch
the cafe clofe, and drive it down flat t after this is done,
bore a hole exaftly through the centre of the clay in
the middle ; then in the oppofite fides, at both ends,
make a vent; and in that fide you intend to fire firft
make a fmall hole to the compofition near the clay in
the middle, from which Carry a quick-match, covered
with a fingle paper, to the vent at the other end ; then,
when the charge is burnt on one fide, it will, by means
of the quick-match, communicate to the charge on the
other (which may be of a different fort). The flyer*
being thus made, put an iron pin, that tnuft he fixed
in the work on wdiich they are to be fired, and oi
which they are to run, through the hole in the middle^
on the end ef this pin muft be a nut to keep the flyer
from running off. If you Would have them turn back
again after they are burnt, make both the vents at the
ends on the fame fide, which will alter its courfe the
contrary way.
84. TaFe Rochets,
Are defigned merely to fhow the truth of driving,
and the judgment of a fire-worker, they having no other
effcdl, when fired, than fpinning round in the fame place
where they begin, till they are burnt out, and fhowing
nothing more than an horizontal circle of fire.
The method of making thefe rockets is—Have a
cone turned out of hard wood inches diameter, and
as much high ; round the bafe of it draw a line ; on
this line fix four fpokes, two inches long each, fo an
to Hand one oppofite the otlier; then fill four nine-inch
one lb cafes with any ftrong compofition, within two
inches of the top: thefe cafes are made like tourbiilons,
and muft be rammed with the greatell exadlncfs.
Your rockets being Idled, fix their open ends on the
Ihort fpokes ; then in the fide of each cafe bore a hole
near the clay; all thefe holes, or Vents, muft be fo made
that the fire of each cafe may a6l the fame way ; from
thefe vents carry leaders to the top of the cone, and
tie them together. When you would fire the rockets,
fet them on a fmooth table, and light the leaders in the
middle, and all the cafes will fire together (fee fig. 14.)
and fpin on the point of the cone.
Thefe rockets may be made to rife like tonrhillons,
by making the cafes fhorter, and boring four holes in
the under fide of each at equal diftances : this being
done, they are Called double tourbillons.
Note, All the vents in the under fide of the cafes
mail be lighted at once; and the (harp point of the cone
cut off, at which place make it fpherieal.
"705
Rockets,
dec.
■■ ■ 1 tj
Plate
ccccxxix.
Bect. V. 0/ IVheels (ind other I Forks.
8 Single Vertical IVheels.
There Afe different forts of vertical wheels; fome
having their fells of a circular form, others of an hexa¬
gon, odlagon, Or decagon form, or any number of fides,
according to the length of the cafes you dt tign for the
wheel: your fpokes being fixed in the nave, nail flips
of tin, with their edges turned up, fo as to form grooves
for the cafes to lie in, from the end of one fpoke to
another; then tie your cafes in the grooves head to tail,
in the fame manner as thofe on the horizontal water¬
wheel, f» that the cafes fucceffively taking fire from one
another, will keep the wheel in an equal rotation. Two
of thefe wheel* are very oft fired together, one on each
3 4 U fide
C"1
c6 P Y R O T
f Wheel*, fide of a building; and both lighted at the fame time,
&c- and all the cafes filled alike, to make them keep time
together ; which they will do if made by the following
dire&ions. In all the cafes of both wheels, except the
firft, on each wheel drive two or three ladles full of flow
fire, in any part of the cafes; but be careful to ram the
fame quantity in each cafe, and in the end of one of
the cafes, on each wheel, you may ram one ladlefull
of dead-fire compofition, which mult be very lightly
drove; you may alfo make many changes of fire by this
method.
Let the hole in the nave of the wheel be lined with
brafs, and made to turn on a fmooth iron fpindle. On
the end of this fpindle let there be a nut, to ferew off
and on ; when you have put the wheel on the fpindle,
ferew on the nut, which will keep the wheel from fly.
ing off. Let the mouth of the firit cafe be a little rai-
fed. See fig. 15. Vertical wheels are made from 10
inches to 3 feet diameter, and the fize of the cafes mult
differ accordingly ; 4-oz. cafes will do for wheels of 14
or 16 inches diameter, which is the proportion gene¬
rally ufed. The bell wood for wheels of all forts is a
light and dry beech.
86. Horizontal Wheels^
Are beft when their fells are made circular; in the
middle of the top of the nave mult be a pintle, turned
out of the fame piece as the nave, two inches long, and
equal in diameter to the bore of one of the cafes of the
wheel: there muft be a hole bored up the centre of the
nave, within half an inclnof the top of the pintle. The
wheel being made, nail at the end of each fpoke (of
which there fliould be fix or eight) a piece of wood, with
a groove cut in it to receive the cafe. Fix thefe pieces
in fuch a manner that half the cafes may incline up¬
wards and half downwards, and that, when they are
tied on, their heads and tails may come very neai to¬
gether ; from the tail of one cafe to the mouth of the
other carry a leader, which fecure with palled paper.
Befides thefe pipes, it will be neceflary to put a little
meal-powder infide the palled'paper, to blow off the
pipe, that there may be no obflrudion to the fire from
the cafes. By means of thefe pipes the cafe will fuc-
cefiively take fire, burning one upwards and the other
downwards. On the pintle fix a cafe of the fame fort
as thofe on the wheel; this cafe mufl be fired by a lead¬
er from the mouth of the lafl cafe on the wheel, w hich
cafe mufl play downwards: inllead of a common cafe
in the middle, you may put a cafe of Chinefe fire, long
enough to burn as long as two or three of the cafes on
the wheel.
Horizontal wheels are oft fired twro at a time, and
made to keep time like vertical wheels, only they are
made without any flow or dead fire; 10 or 12 inches
will be enough for the diameter of wheels with fix
fpokes. Fig. 16. reprefents a wheel on fire, with the
firfl cafe burning.
87. Spiral Wheelsy
Are only double horizontal wheels, and made thus 1
The nave mufl be about 6 inches long, and fomewdiat
thicker than the fingk fort; inilead of the pintle at top,
make a hole for the cafe to be fixed in, and two fets of
fpokes, one fet near the top of the nave, and the other
near the bottom. At the end of each fpoke cut a
groove wherein you tie the cafes, there being no fell;
the fpokes fhould not be more than 34 Indies long from
&c.
E C H N Y. Sea. V.
the nave, fo that the wheel may not be more than 8 or Of Wheels*
9 inches diameter;. the cafes are placed in fuch a man¬
ner, that thofe at top play down, and thofe at bottom
play up, but let the third or fourth cafe play horizon¬
tally. The cafe in the middle may begin with any of
the others you pleafe: 6 fpokes will be enough for each
fet, fo that the wheel may confill of 12 cafes, befides
that on the top : the cafes 6 inches each. >
88. Plural Wheelsy
Are made to turn horizontally, and to confift of three
fets of fpokes, placed 6 at top, 6 at bottom, and 4 in
the middle, which muft he a little fhorter than the reft:
let the diameter of the wheel be 1 o inches ; the cafes
muft be tied on the ends of the fpokes in grooves cut
on purpofe, or in pieces of wood nailed on the ends of
the fpokes, with grooves cut in them as ufual: in cloth¬
ing thefe wheels, make the upper fet of cafes play ob¬
liquely downwards, the bottom fet obliquely upwards,
and the middle fet horizontally. In placing, the leaders,
you muft order it fo that the cafes may burn thus, viz.
firft up, then down, then horizontal, and fo on writh the
reft. But another change may be made, by driving in
the end of the 8th cafe tw'o or three ladlefuls of flow
fire, to burn till the wheel has ilopped its courfe ; then
let the other cafes be fixed the contrary way, which will
make the wheel run back again : for the cafe at top
you may put a fmall gerbe ; and let the cafes on the
fpokes be fliort, and filled with a ftrong brilliant char ge.
89. Illuminated Spiral Wheel.
Firft have a circular horizontal wheel made two feet
diameter, with a hole quite through the nave; then take
three thin pieces of deal, three feet long each, and of
an inch broad each: one end of each of thefe pieces nail
to the fell of the wheel, at an equal diilance from one
another, and the other end nail to a block with a hole
in its bottom, which muft be perpendicular with that
in the block of the wheel, but not fo large. The wheel
being thus made, have a hoop planed down very thin
and flat; then nail one end of it to the fell of tire wheel,
and wind it round the three flicks in a fpiral line from,
the wheel to the block at top: on the top of this block
fix a cafe of Chinefe fire ; on the wheel you may place
any number of cafes, which mull incline downwards*
and burn two at a time. If the wheel ftiould confift of
10 cafes, you may let the illuminations and Chinefe
fire begin with the fecond cafes. The fpindle for this,
wheel muft be a little longer than the cone, and made
very fmooth at top, on which the upper block is to turn,
and the whole weight of the wheel to reft. See fig. 17.
90. Double Spiral Wheel.
For this wheel the block, or nave, muft be as long
as the height of the worms, or fpiral lines, but muft be
made very thin, and as light as poflible. In this block
muft be fixed feveral fpokes, which muft diminifti in
length, from the wheel to the top, fo as not to exceed
the iurface of a cone of the fame height. To the ends
of thefe fpokes nail the worms, which mnft crofs each
other feveral times :. thefe worms clothe with illumina¬
tions, the fame as thofe on the fingle wheels ; but the
horizontal wheel you may clothe as you like. At top
of the worm place a cafe of fpur-fire, or an amber light.
See fig. 18. This figure is ftiown without leaders, to.
prevent a confufion of lines.
91. Balloon Wheels 1
Are made to turn horizontally: they muft be made
2 feet
Sea.V. P Y R o T
qf Wheels, 2 feet diameter, without any fpokes ; and very ftrong,
|. . &c* with any number of fidee. On the top of a wheel range
v and fix in pots, 3 inches diameter and 7 inches high
each, as many of thefe as there arc cafes on the wheel ;
near the bottom of each pot make a fmall vent ; into
each of thefe vents carry a leader from the tail of each
cafe; fome of the pots load with liars, and feme with
ferpents, crackers, &c. As the wheels turn, the pots
will fuccefllvely be fired, and throw into the air a great
variety of fires.
92. Fruiloni Wheels.
• Firft have a nave made 9 inches long and 3 in diame¬
ter : near the bottom of this nave fix 8 fpokes, with a
hole in the end of each, large enough to receive a 2 or
4 ounce cafe : each of thefc fpokes may be 14 inches
long from the block. Near the top of this block fix 8
more of the fame fpokes, exactly over the others, but
not fo long by 2 inches. As this wheel is to run hori¬
zontally, all the cafes in the fpokes mult play obliquely
upwards, and all thofe in the fpokes at bottom ob¬
liquely downwards. This being done, have a fmall ho¬
rizontal wheel made with 8 fpokes, each 5 inches long
from the block: on the top of this wheel place a cafe
of brilliant fire: all the cafes on this wheel mult play in
an oblique direction downwards, and burn 2 at a time,
and thofe on the large wheel 4 at a time ; that is, 2 of
thofe in the top fet of fpokes, and 2 of thofe in the
bottom fet of fpokes.
The 4 firlt cafes on the large wheel, and the 2 firlt
on the fmall, mult be fired at the fame time, and the
brilliant fire at top at the beginning of the lalt cafes.
The cafes of the wheels may be filled with a grey
charge. When thefe wheels are completed, you mult
have a ftrong iron fpindfe, made 4 feet 6 inches long,
and fixed perpendicularly on the top of a Itand : on this
put the large wheel, whofe nave mull have a hole quite
through from the bottom to the top. This hole mull
be large enough to turn eafy round the bottom of the
fpindle, at which place there mult be a Ihoulder, to keep
the wheel from touching the Hand : at the top of the
fpindle put the fmall wheel, and join it to a large one
with a leader, in order that they may be fired both to-
gether.
93. Cafcades of Fire,
Are made of any fize ; but one made according to
Plate the dirnenfions of that fhown in fig. 1. will be large
€cccxxx. enough for 8-oz. cafes. Let the diftance from A to B
be 3 feet; from B to C 2 feet 6 inches; and from CD
2 feet; and let the crofs piece at A he 4 feet long :
then from each end of this piece draw a line to D ;
then make the other crofs pieces fo long as to come
within thofe lines. The top piece D may be of any
length, fo as to hold the cafes, at a little diltance from
each other; all the crofs pieces are fixed horizontally,
and fupported by brackets ; the bottom crofs piece
fhould be about 1 foot 6 inches broad in the middle,
the fecond 1 foot, the third >9 inches, and the top piece
4 inches : the cafes may be made of any length, but
fnuft be filled with a brilliant charge. On the edges of
the crofs pieces muft be n&iled bits of wood, with a
groove cut in each piece, large enough for a cafe to lie
ii>. Thefe bits of wood are fixed fo as to incline
downwards, and that the fire from one tier of cafes may
play over the other. All the cafes being tied fait on,
carry leaders from one to the other ; and let there be a
E C H N Y, 7°7
pipe hung from the mouth of one of the cafes, covered ^
at the end with a lingle paper, which you bum to fire ^ '
the cafcade-
94. The Fire-Tree.
To make a fire-tree, as fhewn by fig. 2. you mud
firlt have a piece of wood 6 feet long, and 3 inches
fquare ; then at E, 9 inches from the top, make a hole
in the front, and in each fide ; or, inltead of holes, you
may fix fhort pegs, to fit the inlide of the cafes. At
F, 9 inches from E, fix 3 more pegs ; at G, 1 foot 9
inches from F, fix 3 pegs; at H, 9 inches from G,
fix 3 pegs ; at I, 9 inches from H, fix 3 pegs, inclining
downwards; but all the other pegs mull incline up¬
wards, that the cafes may have the lame inclination as
you fee in the figure: then at top place a 4-inch mor¬
tar, loaded with liars, rains, or crackers. In the middle
of this mortar place a cafe filled with any fort of charge,
but let it be tired with the other cafes: a brilliant
charge will do for all the cafes ; but the mortar may
be made of any diameter, and the tree of any fize ; and
on it any number of cafes, provided they are placed in
the manner deferibed.
95. Chinefe Fountains.
To make a Chinefe fountain, you mud have a per¬
pendicular piece of wood 7 feet long and 2 \ inches
fquare. Sixteen inches from the top, fix on the front a
crofs-picce 1 inch thick, and 2 \ broad, with the broad
lide up: below this, fix 3 more pieces of the fame
width and thicknefs, at 16 inches from each other:
let the bottom rail be 5 feet long, and the others of
fuch a length as to allow the fire-pumps to Hand in
the middle of the intervals of each other. The pyra¬
mid being thus made, fix in the holes made in the bot¬
tom rail 5 fire-pumps, at equal diltances ; on the 2d
rail, place 4 pumps ; on the 3d, 3 ; on the 4th, 2 ; and
on the top of the poll, 1 5 but place them all to in¬
cline a little forwards, that, when they throw out the
Itars, they may not Itrike againfl the crofs rails. Having
fixed your fire-pumps, clothe them writh leaders, fo that
they may all be fired together. See fig. 3.
96. Of illuminated 'Globes avith horizontal Wheels.
The hoops for thefe globes may be made of wood,
tin, or iron \vire_, about 2 feet diameter. For a fingle
globe take two hoops, and tie them together, one with¬
in the other, at right angles ; thai have a horizon¬
tal wheel made, whofe diameter muft be a little wi¬
der than the globe, and its nave 6 inches long ; on the
top of which the globe is fixed, fo as to Hand 3 or 4
inches from the wheel: on this wheel you may put
any number of cafes, filled with what charge you like;
but let two of them burn at a time : they may be placed
horizontally, or to incline downwards, juft as you
choofe. Now, when the wheel is clothed, fix on the
hoops as many illuminations as will Hand within 24-
inches of each other: thefe you faften on the hoops
with fmall iron binding wire ; and when they are all
on, put on your pipes of communication, which muft
be fo managed as to light them all with the 2d or 3d
cafe on the wheel. The fpindle on which the globe is
to run muft go through the block of the wheel, up to
the infide of the top ef the globe ; where muft be fix¬
ed a bit of brsfs, or iron, with a hole in it to receive
the point of the fpindle, on which the whole weight of
the wheel is to bear, as in fig. 4. which reprefents a
globe on its fpindle. By this method may be made n
4 U a crown,
708
P Y R O T
Of Wheels, crown, which is done by having the hoops bent in the
&c- form of a crown. Sometimes globes and crowns are
ordered fo as to Hand Hill, and the wheel only to turn
round ; but when you would have the globe or crown
to hand {till, and the wheel to run by itfelf, the block
of the wheel muft not be fo long, nor the fpindle any
longer than to juft raife the globe a little above the
wheel; and the wheel cafes and illumination muft be¬
gin together.
97. Dodtcacaron,
So called becauft it nearly reprefents a twelve-ftded
figure, is made thus. Firft have a ball turned out
of fome hard wood, 14 inches diameter : when done,
divide its furface into 14 equal parts, from which bore
holes ix inch diameter, perpendicular to the centre,
Jb that they may all meet in the middle : then let
there be turned in the infide of each hole a female
{crew; and to all the holes but one, muft be made a
round fpoke 5 feet long, with 4 inches of the ferew at
one end to fit the holes; then in the ferew-end of all
the {pokes bore a hole, 5 inches up, which muft be
bored flanting, fo as to come out at one fide, a little
above the ferew ; from which cut a fmall groove along
the fpoke, within 6 inches of the other end, where
you make another hole through to the other fide of the
fpoke. In this end fix a fpindlt, on which put a fmall
wheel of 3 or 4 {Ides, each fide 6 or 7 inches long :
thefe fides muft have groove' cut in them, large enough
tp receive a 2 or 4 oz. cafe. When thefe wheels are
clothed, put them on the fpindles, and at the end of
each fpindle put a nut to keep the wheel from falling
oft. The wheels being thus fixed, carry a pipe from
the mouth of the firft cafe on each wheel, through
the hole in the fide of the fpoke, and from thence along
the groove, and through the other hole, fo as to hang
out at the ferew-end about an inch. The fpokes be¬
ing all prepared in this maimer, you muft have a poft,
©n which you intend to fire the work, with an iron
ferew in the top of it, to fit one of the holes in the
ball: on the ferew fix the ball; then in the top hole
of the ball put a little meal-powder, and fome loofe
quick-match : then ferew in all the fpokes ; and in one
fide of the ball bore a hole, in which put a leader, and
fecure it at the end ; and your wrork will be ready to be
fired. By this leader the powder and match in the
centre is fired, which will light the match at the ends of
the fpokes all at once, whereby all the wheels w ill be
Righted at once. There may be an addition to this
piece, by fixing a fmall globe on each wheel, or one on
the top wheel only. A grey charge will be pi ©per for
the wheel-cafes.
98. The I tw-Tree of brilliant Fire,
Is reprefented by fig. 5. as it appears when burn¬
ing. Firft, let A be an upright piece of wood, 4 feet
long, 2 inches broad, and 1 thick : at top of this
piece, on the fiat fide, fix a hoop *4 inches diame¬
ter ; and round its edge and front place illuminations,
and in the centre a 5-pointed ftar ; then at E, which
is 14 loot from the edge ot the hoop, place 2 cafes of
brilliant fire, one on each fide ; theie caits fliould be
t foot long each: below thefe fix 2 more cafes of the
fame fize, and at luch a diftance, that their mouths
may almoft meet them at top t then clofe to the
ends qf thefe cafes fix 2 more of the {ame cafes ; they
muft ft and parallel to them at E. The cafes being
thus .fixed, clothe them mth leaders; fo that they.
&c.
E H C N Y. Se<3.V.
with the illuminations and ftars at top, may all take fire Of Wheels,
together.
99. Stars with Points for regulated Pieces, See.
Thefe ftars are made of different iizes, according to
the work for which they are intended : they are made
with cafes from 1 oz. to \ lb. but in general with 4 oz.
cafes, 4 or 5 inches long: the cafes mutt be rolled
with pafte, and twice as thick of paper as a rocket
of the fame bore. Having rolled a cafe, pinch one
end of it quite clofe : then drive in t a diameter of
clay ; and when the cafe is dry, fill it with compofi-
lion, 2 or 3 inches to the length of the cafes with
which it is to burn : at top of the charge drive dome
clay ; as the ends eft theie caics are feldom. pinched,
they would be liable to take fire. Having lifted a cafe,
divide the circumference of it at the pinched end clofe
to the clay into 5 equal parts ; then bore 5 holes with
a gimblet, about the fize of the neck of a common.
4-oz, caie, into tfie compolition : from one hole to the
other carry a quick match, and lecure it with paper:
this paper muft be put 011 in the manner of that on the
ends of wheel-cafes, fo that the hollow part, which,
projects from the end of the caie, may ferve to receive
a leader from any other work, to give die to the points
of the ftars. Thefe ftars may be made with any num¬
ber of points.
IOO. Fixed Sun 'with a tranfparent Fare.
To make a fun of the beft fort, there fliould be two.
rows ofcales, as in fig. 6. which will (how a double glo»
ry, and make the rays ftrpng and full. The frame, or
fun-wheel, muft be made thus : Have a circular flat
nave made very Itrong, iz inches diameter: to this fix
6 ftrong flat fpokes, A,B,C,D,E,F. On the front of
thefe fix a circular fell, 5 feet diameter; witlun which
fix another fell, the length of one of tire fun-cafes leiV
in diameter; within this fix a 3d fell, whole diameter
muft be lefs than the 2d by the length of 1 cafe and
l-3d. The wheel being made, divide the fells into fo
many equal paits as you would have cafes (which may
be done from 24 to 44) : at each divifion fix a flat iron
ftaple ; thel'e ftaplcs muft be made to fit the cafes, to.
hold them taft on the wheel ; let the ftaples be fo pla¬
ced, that one row of cafes may lie in the middle oi the
intervals of the other.
In the centre of the block of the fun drive a fpindle,
on which put a fmall hexagon wheel, whole cafes
muft be filled with the lame charge as the cales of the
inn : two cafes of this wheel muft burn at a time, and
begin with them on the fells. Having fixed on all the
cafes, carry pipes of communication hom one to the
other, as you ke in the figure, and from one fide of
the kin to the wheel in the middle, and irom thence
to the other fide of the fun. Theie leaders will hold
the wheel fteady while the fun is fixing up, and will,
alio be a fure method ot lighting both caies of the
wheel together. A iun thus made is called a brilliant
fun, becaufe the wood work is entirely covered with
lire from the wheel in the middle, io that there appears
nothing but {'parks oi brilliant lire t but it you would
have a traniparent face in the centre, you muft have
one made oi patlel oard of any fize. ’i lk method of
making a face is, by cutting out-the eyes, note, and
mouth, lor the fparks of the wheel to appear through >.
but inftead of this face, you may have one painted on
oiled paper, or Perlian lilk, itramed tight on a hoop ;
which
Sea.v; P Y R O T
Of Wheels, vrilicb hoop mull be fupported by 3 or 4 piaces of
wire at 6 inches diftance from the wheel in the centre,
""v— f0 that the light of it may illuminate the face. By this
method you may have, in the front of a fun, Vivat
Rex, cut in pafteboard, or Apollo painted on filk ; but,
for a fmall collection, a fun with a fmgle glory, and a
wheel in front, will be moft fuitable. Half-pound
eafes, filled 10 inches with compolition, will be a good
hze for a fun of 5 feet diameter ; but, if larger, the
cafes mud be greater in proportion,
lot. Three Vertical IVheels illuminated^ •which turn on
their o'wn Ntnvci upon a horizontal Table.
A plan of this is fhown by fig. 7. Let D be a
deal table 3 feet in diameter : this table mull be t>x-
ed horizontally on the top of a poll; on this poll
muft be a perpendicular iron fpmdle, which mull come
through the centre of the table : then let A,B,C, be
3 fpokes joined to a triangular flat piece of wood, in
the middle of which make a hole to fit eafily over the
fpindle : let be pieces of wood, 4 or 5 inches
long each, and 2 inches fquare, fixed on the under
Tides of the fpokes ; in thefe pieces make holes length-
wife to receive the thin part of the blocks of the
wheels, which, when in, are prevented from coming
out by a fmall iron pin being run through the end of
each. K, L, M, are 3 vertical oCtagon wheels, tS
inches diameter each : the blocks of thefe wheels mull
be long enough lor 3 or 4 inches to reft on the table ;
round which part drive a number of fharp points of
wire, which muft not projeCl out of the blocks more
than 1-16th of an inch: the ufe of thefe points is,
tl at, when the blocks run round, they will flick in
the table, and help the wheels forward : if the naves
are made of ftrong wood, one inch will be enough
for the diameter of the thin part, which fhould be
made to turn eafy in the holes in the pieces E, F, G.
On the front of the wheels make 4 or 5 circles of
flrong wire, or flat hoops, and tie on them as many
illuminations as they will hold at 2 inches from each
other : inllead of circles, you may make fpiral lines,
clothed with illuminations, at the fame diftance from
each other as thole on the hoops. When illuminations
are fixed on a fpiral line in the front of a wheel, they
muft be placed a little on the flant, the contrary way
that the wheel runs : the cafes for thefe wheels may be
filled wkh any coloured charge, but muft burn only one
at a time.
The wheels being thus prepared, you muft have a
globe, crown, or fpiral wheel, to put on the fpindle in
the middle of the table : this fpindle fhould be juft long
enough to raife the wheel of the globe, crown, or fpi-
*al wheel, fo high that its fire may play over the 3
vertical wheels: by this means their hies will not be
confuted, nor will the wheels receive any damage from
the fire of each other. In clothing this work, let the
leaders be fo managed, that all the w heels may light to¬
gether, and the illuminations after 2 cafes of each wheel
are burned.
IO?. Illuminated Chandelier,
Illuminated works are much admired by the Italians,
and indeed are a great addition to a eolledlion of works:
in a grand exhibition an illuminated piece fhould be
fired after every two or three wheels, or fixed pieces of
common and brilliant fires ; and Ibewiie illuminated
works may be made cheap, quick, and tafy.
E C H N Y. 709
To make an illuminated chandelier, you muft firfl Of Wheel**
have one made of thin wood (fee fig. 8.) The chan- gcc" ,
delier being made, bore in the front of the branches,
and in the body, and alfo in the crown at top, as many
holes for illuminations as they will contain at 3 inches
diftance from each other : in thefe holes put illumina¬
tions filled with white, blue, or brilliant charge. Ha¬
ving fixed in the port-fires, clothe them with leaders,
fo that the chandelier and crown may light together.
The fmall circles on this figure reprefent the mouths
of the illuminations, which mull projedl ftraight from
the front.
103. Illuminated 7~ew Tree.
Firft have a tree made of wood, fuch as is fhown by
fig. 9 The middle piece or flcm, on which the branch¬
es are fixed, muft be 8 feet 6 inches high : at the bot¬
tom of this piece dnnv a line, at right nngles, 2 feet 6
inches long at each fide ; then from L, which is 1 foot
6 inches from the bottom, draw a line on each fide to
C and D : thefe lines will give the length of the twro
firft branches* Then put on the two top blanches pa¬
rallel to them at bottom: let the length of each of thefe
branches be \ foot from the Him : from the ends of
thefe two branches draw a line to C and D : then fix
on 5 more branches at an equal diftance from each
other, and their length will be determined by the lines
AC and ED. When the branches are fixed, place il¬
luminating portfires on the top of each, as many as you
choofc : behind the top of the ftem fallen a gerbe or
white fountain, which mail be fired at the beginning of
the illuminations on the tree.
JOq. Flatnir.g Stars •with brilliant Wheels.
To make a flaming ftar, you muft firft have made a
circular piece of ftrong wood about 1 inch thick and 2
feet diameter : round this block fix 8 points, 2 feet 6
inches long each; 4 of thefe points muft be ftraight and 4
flaming : thefe points being j lined on very itrong, and
even with the furface of tire block, nail tin or pafte¬
board on their edges, from the block to the end of
each, where they muft be joined : this tin muft projedl
in front 8 inches, and be joined where they meet at the
block ; round the front of the block li* 4 pieces of
thick iron wire, 8 inches long each, equally diftant from
each other : this being done, cut a piece of pafteboard
round, 2 feet diameter, and draw on it a ftar, as may be
feen in lig. 10. Cut out this ftar, and on the back of
it pafte oiled paper; then paint each point half red and
half yellow, lengthwife ; but the body of the ftar muft:
be left open, wherein muft run a brilliant wheel, made
thus: Have a light block turned 9 inches long : at
each end of it fix 6 fpokesat the end of each ipoke
put a 2 ounce cafe of brilliant fire : the length of thefe
cafes muft be in proportion to the wheel, and the dia¬
meter of the wheel when the cafes are on muft be a
little lefs than the diameter of the body of the fmall ftar:
the cafes on the fpokes in front muft have their mouths
incline outwards, and thole on the infide fpokes muft be
placed fo as to form a vertical circle of fire. When you
place your leaders, carry the firft pipe from the tail of
1 of the cafes in front to the mouth of 1 of the infide
cafes, and from the tail of that to another in front, and
fo on to all the cafes. Your wheel being made, put it
on a fpindle, in the centre of the ftar; this fpindle muft.
have a {boulder at bottom, to keep the wheel at a little
diftauce from the block* This wheel mull be kept oa
the
7T0 P Y R 0 T
Of Wheels the fplndle by a nut at the end; having fixed on the
wheel, fallen the tranfparent liar to the 4. pieces of wire!
when you fire it, you will only fee a common horizon¬
tal wheel ; but when the firll cafe is burnt out, it will
fire one of the vertical cafes, which will fhow the tranf¬
parent liar, and fill the large flames and points with
fire ; then it will again appear like a cpmmon wheel,
and fo on for 12 changes.
105. PrnjeSed regulated Piece of nine Mutations.
A regulated piece, if well executed, is as curious as
any in fire-works: it confills o! fixed and moveable
pieces on one fpindle, reprefentjng various figures,
which take fire fuccefiively one from another, without
any* afliftance after lighting the firll mutation. See
fig. II.
I. Names of the mutations, with the colour of fire
and fize of the cafe belonging to each.
F rjt mutation is a hexagon vertical wheel, illumina¬
ted in front with fmall portfires tied on the ipokes ;
this wheel mull be clothed with 2 ounce cafes, filled
with black charge ; the length of thefe cafes is deter¬
mined by the fize of the wheel, but mull burn fingly.
Second mutation is a fixed piece, called a golden gloryy
by reafon of the cafes being filled with fpur-fire. 1 he
cafes mull Hand perpendicular to the block on which
they are fixed, fo that, when burning, they may repre-
fent a glory of fire. This mutation is generally com-
pofed of 5 or 7 two ounce cafes.
Third mutation is moveable ; and is only an oftagon
vertical wheel, clothed with 4 ounce cafes, filled rVith
brilliant charge : 2 of thefe cales mull burn at a time.
In this wheel you may make changes of Hre.
Fourth mutation, is a fixed fun of brilliant fire, con-
filling of 12 four ounce cafes : the necks of thefe cafes
mull be a little larger than thofe of 4 ounce wheel-
cafes. In this mutation may be made a change of fire,
by filling the cafes half with brilliant charge, and half
with grey.
Fifth mutation, is a fixed piece, called the porcupine*s
quills. This piece confills of 1 2 fpokes, Handing per¬
pendicular to the block in which they are fixed ; oa
each' of thefe fpokes, near the end, muH be placed a
4 ounce cafe of brilliant fire. All thefe cafes mufi in¬
cline either to the right or left, fo that they may all
play one way.
Sixth mutation, is a Handing piece, called the crofs fire.
This mutation confifls of 8 fpokes fixed in a block ;
near the end of each of thofe fpokes muH be tied two
4 ounce cafes of white charge, one acrofs the other, fo
that the fires from the cafes on one fpoke may interfefl
the fire from the cafes on the other.
Seventh mutatien, is a fixed wheel, with 2 circular
fells, on which are placed 16 eight-ounce cafes of bril¬
liant fire, in the form of a Har. This piece is called a
fixed far of wi/d-fre.
Ejghth mutation. This is a beautiful piece, called a
Irilliant far-picce. It confifis of 6 fpokes, which are
ilrerigthened by 2 fells of a hexagon form, at fome di-
Hance from each other: at the end of each fpoke, in
the front, is fixed a brilliant Har of 5 points ; and on
each fide of every Har is placed a 4 ounce cafe of black
or grey charge ; thefe cafes muH be placed with their
mduths fidewife, fo that their fires may crofs each
other.
E C H N Y. Sefl.V.
Ninth mutation, is a wl eebplece* This is compofed ^ Wheels,
of 6 long fpokes, with a hexagon vertical wheel at tke
end of each ; thefe wheels run on fpindles in the front
of the fpokes ; all the wheels are lighted together; 2
ounce cafes will do for thefe wheels, and may be filled
with any coloured charge.
II. Proportions of the mutations, with the method
of conveying the fire from one to the other, and the
diHance they Hand one from the other on the fpindle.
Firf Mutation, muH be a hexagon vertical wheel,
14 inches diameter; on one fide of the block, whofe
diameter is inches, is fixed a tin barrel A (fee
fig. 11. n° 1.) This barrel xrmfi be a little lefs in dia¬
meter than the nave ; let the length of the barrel and
block be 6 inches. Having fixed the cafes on the
wheel, carry a leader from the tail of the laif cafe in¬
to the tin barrel through a hole made on purpofe,
2 inches from the block ; at the end of this leaded
let there be about 1 inch or 2 of loofe matqh ; but
take care to fecure well the hole wherein the pipe is
put, to prevent any fparks falling in, which would
light the fecond mutation before its time, and eonfufc
the whole. $
Second mutation is thus made. Have a nave turned
21- inches diameter, and 3 long; then let 4- an inch of
that end which faces the fidl wheel be turned fo as t<fc
fit eafy into the tin barrel of the rirH mutation, which
muil turn round it without touclung. On the other end
of the block fix a tin barrel B, n 2. This barrel muff
be 6 inches long, and only half an inch of it to fit on
the block. Round the nave fix 5 fpokes. It inch long-
each ; the diameter of the fpokes mufi be equal to a
2 oz. former. On thefe fpokes put five 7-inch 2-oz. cafes
of fpur-fire, and carry leaders from the mouth of one
to the other, that they may all light together. Then
from the mouth of one of the cafes carry a leader through
a hole bored flantwife in the nave, from between the
fpokes, to the front of the block near the fpindle hole :
the end of this" leader mull projefk out of the hole in¬
to the barrel of the firfi mutation, fo that when the
pipe which comes from the end of the lait cafe on the
firfi wheel flalhes, it may take fire, and light the 2d
mutation. To communicate the fire to the 3d muta¬
tion, bore a hole near the bottom of one of the 5 cates
to the compofition, and from thence carry a leader in¬
to a hole made in the middle o! the barrel B : this hole
mufi be covered with pafied paper.
Third mutation, may be “Vither an oAagon or he¬
xagon wheel, 20 inches diameter; let the nave be 3^
inches diameter, and 34- in length; >4: inch oi the
front of the nave mull be made to fit in the bar¬
rel B. On the other end of the block fix a tin barrel
C, n° 3. This barrel mufi be 64 inches in length, one
inch of which mull fit over the block. I he caies of
this wheel mull burn 2 at a time ; and from the
mouths of the 2 firft calcs carry a leader, through
holes in the nave, into the barrel of the fecond muta¬
tion, after the ufual manner: but belides thefe leaders
let a pipe go acrofs the wheel from one firft caie
to the other ; then from the tail of one of the lall
cafes carry a pipe into a hole in the middle of the
barrel C : at the end of this pipe let there be fome loofe
quick-match X
i'ourth and fifth mutations. Thefe may be deferibed
' under
Sea. v. P Y R O T
Q{ Wheels, under one head, as their naves are made one piece,
,Scc- which from E to F is 14 inches ; E, a block 4 inches
. ’"Y"""* diameter, with 10 or 12 (hurt fpukes, on which are
fixed 11 inph 8-oz. cafes ; let the front of this block
be made to fit eafy in the barrel C, and clothe the cafes
fo that they may all light together; and let a pipe be
carried through a hole in the block into the barrel C,
in order to receive the fire from the leader bronght
from the lafl cafe on the wheel. G is the nave of the
5th mutation, whofe diameter muftbe 4I inches : in this
nave fix 10 or 12 fpokes, G foot in length each ; thefe
fpokes mull Hand 7 inches difiant from the fpokes of
the, 4th mutation ; and at the end of each fpoke tie a
4-oz. cafe, as n° 5. All thefe cafes are to be lighted
together, by a leader brought from the end of one of
the cafes on n0 4. Let F and FI be of the fame piece
of wood as E and G, but as much thinner as poifible,
to make the work light.
Sixth and feventh mutations. The blocks of thefe
2 mutations are turned out of one piece of wood, whofe
length from F to P is 15 inches. L, a block 5 inches
diameter, in which are fixed 8 fpokes, each 2 feet
4 inches long ; at the end of each fpoke tie two 4-oz.
cafes, as n 6. All thefe cafes mult be fired at the
fame time, by a pipe brought from the end of one of
the cafes on the 5th mutation. Let the dittance be¬
tween the fpokes at L, and thofe in the 5th mutation,
be 7 inches. M, the nave of the 7th mutation, whole
diameter mull be 5 \ inches : in this nave fix 8 fpokes,
and on the front of them 2 circular fells, one of 4 feet
8 inches diameter, and one of 3 feet 11 diameter ; on
thefe fells tie 16 8-oz. or pound cafes, as in n° 7. and
carry leaders from one to the other, fo that they may
be all fired together. This mutation mull be fired by
a leader brought from the tail of one of the cafes on the
6th mutation.
Eighth and ninth mutations. The blocks of thefe
may be turned out of one piece, whofe length from P
to D mull be 12 inches. O, the block of the 8th mu¬
tation, which mull be 6 inches diameter ; and in it mull
be fixed 6 fpokes, each 3 feet in length, ftrengthened
by an hexagon fell within 3 or 4 inches of the ends of
the fpokes; clofe to the end of each fpoke, in the
front, fix a five-pointed brilliant liar ; then 7 incites
below each liar tie two 10-inch 8 oz. cafes, fo that
the upper ends of the cafes may rell on the fells, and
their ends on the fpokes. Each of thefe cafes mull be
placed parallel to the oppoiite fell (fee nw 8.) NNN,
&c. are the cafes, and kkk, See. the liars.
The 9th mutation is thus made. Let D be a block
7 inches diameter. In this block mull be ferewed 6
fpokes, 6 feet long each, with holes and grooves for
leaders, as thofe in the dodecaedron ; at the end of
each fpoke, in the front, fix a fpindle for a hexagon
vertical wheel, 10 inches diameter, as in n° 9. When
thefe wheels are on, carry a leader from each into the
block, fo that they may all meet ; then lead a pipe
from the end of one of the cafes of the 8th mutation,
through a hole bored in the block D, to meet the
leaders from the vertical wheels, fo that they may all be
fired together.
The fpindles for larger pieces are required to be
made very llrong, and as exa& as poflible : for a piece
of 9 mutations, let the fpindle be at the large end 1
inch diameter, and continue that thicknefs as far as the
E C H N Y,
711
7th mutation ; and thenge to the eth, let its diameter Of Whte),
1 * ^ * /~ . . ' . ... _ v. . '
be | of an inch ; from the 5th to the 4th, 5-8ths of
an inch ; from the 4th to the 2d, \ inch ; and from
the 2d to the end, 3-8ths of an inch. At the fmall
end mull be a nut to keep on the fixll wheel, and at
the thick, end mull he a large nut, as fhown by the fi¬
gure; fo that the ferew part of the fpIndie-being put
through a poll, and a nut ferewed on tight, the fpindle
will be held fall and Heady : but you are to obferve,
that that part of the fpindle on which the moveable
pieces are to run, be made long enough for the wheels
to run eafy without llicking ; the fixed pieces being
made on different blocks, the leaders mull be joined,
after they are fixed on the fpindie. The bell method
of preventing the fixed mutations from moving on the
fpindle, is to make that part of the Ipindle which goes
through .them fquare ; but as it would be difficult
to make fquare holes through fuch long blocks as
are fometimes required, it will be bell to make them
thus: Bore a hole a little larger than the diaifteter of
the fpindle; and at each end of the block, over the
hole, fallen a piece of brafs with a fquare hole in it to
fit the fpindle.
106. To make an Horizontal Wheel change to a Vertical
Wheel with a Sun in front.
7 he fudden change of this piece is very plealing ;
and gives great furpiile to thofe who are not acquaint¬
ed with the contrivance. A wheel for this purpofe
Ihould t|e about three feet diameter, and its fell circu¬
lar ; on which tie 1 6 half-pound cafes filled with bril¬
liant charge: two of thefe cafes mull burn at a time;
and on each end of the nave mull be a tin barrel of
the fame conllru&ion as thofe on the regulated piece.
The wheel being completed, prepare, the poll or iland
thus : Firll have a Hand made of any height, about
three or four inches fquare ; then faw off from the top
a piece two feet long; this piece join again at the
place where it was cut, with a hinge on one fide, fo
that it may lift up and down in the front of the Hand ;
then hx on the top of the bottom-part of the Hand, on
each fide, a bracket ; which brackets mull projedl at
right angles with the Hand, one foot from the front, for
the Ihort piece to rcH on. Thefe brackets mufi be pla¬
ced a little above the joint of the poll, fo that when
the upper Hand falls, it may lie between them at right
angles with the bottom Hand; which may be done by
fixing a piece of wood, one foot long, between the
brackets, and even with the top of the bottom Hand ;
then, as the brackets rife above the bottom Hand, they
will form a channel for the Ihort poH to lie in, and keep
it Heady without draining the hinge. On the fide of
the Ihort poll, oppofite the hinge, nail a piece of wood,
of fuch a length, that, when the poll is perpendicular,
it may reach about 1F feet down the long poll ; to
which being tied, it will hold the Ihort Hand upright.
» he Hand being thus prepared, in the top of it fix a
fpindle 10 inches long : on this fpindle put the wheel •
then fix on a brilliant fun with a lingle glory ; the dia¬
meter of this fun mull be 6 inches lefs than that of the
wheel. When you fire this piece, light ihe wheel 8rfi,
and let it run horizontally till four cafes are confumed:
then from the end of the fourth cale carry a leader-
into the tin barrel that turns over the end of the Hand:
this leader mull be met by another brought through
the top of the poll, from a cafe filled with a Hrong
4 p ori¬
fice.'
,;Ii P Y R O T
Of Wheels, port-fire charge, and tied to the bottom poft, with its
mouth facing the packthread which holds up the
ftand ; fo that when this cafe is lighted, it will burn
the packthread, and let the wheel fall forward, by
which means it will become vertical: then from the
laft cafe of the wheel, carry a leader into the barrel next
the fun, which will begin as foon as the wheel is burnt
out.
107. Grand Volute illuminated ■with a projected Wheel in
front.
Firft have two hoops made of flrong iron wire, one
of 6 feet diameter, and one of 4 feet z inches ; thefe
hoops muft be joined to fcrolls A, A, A, See. as in
Pla»e fJ(?- j. Thefe fcrolls muft he made of the fame fort
bceexxxu o|.- vv|re as the hoops ; on thefe fcrolls tie, with iron¬
binding wire, as many illuminating port-fires as they
will hold, at two inches diftance; clothe thefe port-iires
with leaders, fo that they may all take fire together.—
Then let C be a circular wheel of four fpokes, 3 feet 6
inches diameter; and on its fell tie as many4-oz. cafes,
head to tail, as will complete the circle, only allowing
a fnfficient diftance between the cafes, that the lire may
pafs free; which may he done by cutting the upper part
cf the end ©f each cafe a little (helving : on each fpoke
fix a 4-oz. cafe, about three inches from the fell of the
wheel: thefe cafes are to burn one at a time, and the firit
of them to begin with thofe on the fell, of which four
are to burn at a time; fo that the wheel will laft no long¬
er than ^ of the cafes on the fell, which in number
fhould be 16 or 20, On the front of the wheel form a
fplral line with ftrong wire, on which tie port-fires,
placing them on a flant, with their mouths to face the
Jame way as the cafes on the wheel: all thefe port-fires
mufl be fired with the fecond cafes of wheel. Let
I>, D, D, &o. be fpokes of wood, all made to ferew
into a block in the centre ; each of theie fpokes may
be in length about 4 feet 6 inches ; in the top of each
fix a fpindle, and on each fpindle put a fpiral wheel of
b fpokes, fuch as E, E, E, See. The blocks of thefe
wheels muft have a hole at top for the centre cafes,
and the fpindle muft have nuts ferewed on their ends;
which nuts fhould fit in the holes at top of the blocks,
fb that all the wheels mult be put on before you fix in
the centre cafes : as feme of thefe wheels, by reafon of
their iituation, will not bear on the nut, it will be ne-
ceffary to have ffnooth (boulders made on the fpindles
for the blocks to run on. The cafes of thefe wheels are
to burn double ; and the method of firing them, is by
carrying a leader from each down the fpokes into the
block in the centre, as in the dodecaedron, but the
centre cafe of each wheel muft begin with the two. laft
cafes as ufual. It is to be obferved, that the large cir¬
cular wfiieel in front nvuft have a tin barrel on its block,
into which a pipe muft be carried from one of the fe¬
cond cafes on the wheel ; this pipe being met by ano¬
ther from the large Idock, in which the 8 fpokes are
ferewed, will re all the fpiral wheels and the illumi¬
nating port-fires at the fame time. The cafes of the
projected wheel may be filled with a white charge, and
thofe of the fpiral wheels with a grey.
i 08. Moon and Seven Stars.
Let fig. 2. be a fmooth circular board 6 .fect dia¬
meter: out of the middle of .it cut a circular piece 12
or 14 inches diameter; and over the vacancy put white
Perlian filk, on which paint a moon’s face : then let
E C H N Y. Sea. V.
I, T, I, Sec. be ftars, each 4 or 5 indies diameter, cut Of Wheel?,
out with five points, and covered with oiled (ilk : on ^ ^
the front of the large circular board draw a 7-pointed
ftar, as large as the circle wilt allow ; then on the lines
which form this ftar, bore holes, wherein fix pointed
ftars. When this cafe is to be fired, it muft be fixed
upon the front of a poft, on a fpindle, with a wheel of
brilliant fire behind the face of the moon : fo that,
while the wheel burns, the moon and ftars will appear
tranfparent : and when the wheel has burnt out, they
will difappear, and the large ftar in front, which is form¬
ed of pointed ftars, will begin, being lighted by a pipe
of communication from the laft cafe of the vertical
wheel, behind the moon ; this pipe muft be managed in
the fame manner as thofe in regulated pieces.
I oq. Double Cone-Wheel illuminated*
This piece is reprefented by fig. 3. Let A be a
ftrong decagon wheel, 2 feet 6 inches diameter ; then
on each fide of it fix a cone B and G : thefe cones are
to conlift of a number of hoops, fupported by 3 or 4
pieces of wood, in the manner of the Ipiral wheels. Let
the height of each cone be 3 feet 6 inches; and on all
the hoops tie port-fires horizontally, with their mouthu
outwards, and clothe the wheel with 8-oz. cafes, all to
play horizontally, two at a time: the cones may be fi¬
red with the firft or fecond cafes. The fpindle for this
piece muft go through both the cones, and rife three
feet above the point of the cone at top ; fo that its
length will be 10 feet 4 inches from the top of the poft
H, in which it is fixed, allowing four inches for the
thicknefs of the block of the wheel. The whole weight
of the wheel and cones muft bear on a (boulder in the
fpindle, on which the block of the wheel muft turn.—
Near the top of the fpindle muft be a hole in the front,
into which ferew a fmall fpindle, after the cones are on:
then on this fmall fpindle fix a fun D, compofed of (ix-
teen 9-inch 4-oz. cafes of brilliant fire ; which cafes muft
not be placed on a fell, but only (tuck into a block of
6 inches diameter : then in the front of this fun muft be
a circular vertical wheel, 16 inches diameter; on the
front of this wheel form with iron-wire a fpiral line,
and clothe it with illuminations after the ufual method.
As this wheel is not to be fired till the cones are burnt
out, the method of firing it is thus : Let the hole in the
block, at the top of the uppermoft cone, be a little lar¬
ger than the fpindle which paftes through it. Then,
from the firll cafe of the vertical wheel before the
fun, carry a leader down the fide of the fpindle to
the top of the block of the horizontal wheel, on which
muft be a tin barrel: then this leader being met by
another brought from the end of the laft cafe of the
horizontal wheel, will give fire to the vertical wheel
io foon as the cones are extinguifhed : but the fun
D muft not be fired till the vertical wheel is quite
burnt out.
1 ro. Fire-pumps.
Cafes for fire-pumps are made as thofe for tom-bil¬
lons ; only they are patted, inftead of being rolled dry.
Having railed and dried your cafes, fill them : (irft put
in a little meal-powder, and then a ftar; on which ram
liu-htly a ladle or two of compofition, then a little meal-
powder, and on that a (tar, then again compofition ;
and fo on till you have filled the cafe. Stars for fire-
pumps (hould not be round; but mud be made either
1'quarc, or flat and circular, with a hole through the
middle:
sta.v. p y a o t
Wheels,&c. mi4dlc : the quantity of powder for throwing the ftars
'muft incrtafe as you come near the top of the cafe ;
for, if much powder be put at the bottom, it will burft
the cafe. The ftars muft differ in fize in this manner :
Let the ftar which you put in firft be about £ lefsthan
the bore of the cafe ; but let the next ftar be a little lar¬
ger, and the third ftar a little larger than the fecond,
and fo oa : let them increafe in diameter till within two
of the top of the cafe, which two muft fit in tight.
As the loading of fire-pumps is fomewhat difficult,
it will be neceffary to make two or three trials before
you depend on their performance : when you fill a
number of pumps, take care not to put in each an
equal quantity of charge be^een the ftars, fo that when
they are fired, they may not throw up too many ftars
together. Cafes for fire-pumps fhould be made very
ftrong, and rolled on 4 or 8 oz. formers, 10 or 12 inches
long each.
ITT. Vertical Scroll Wheel.
This wheel may be made of any diameter, but muft.
Ccccxxxr be conftru&ed as in fig. 4. to do which proceed thus:
’ Have a block made of a moderate fize, in which fix
four flat fpokes, and on them fix a flat circular fell of
w'ood ; round the front of this fell place port-fires ; then
on the front of the fpokes form a fcroll, either with a
hoop or ftrong iron wire ; on this fcroll tie cafes of
brilliant fire, in proportion to the wffieel, head to tail,
as in the figure. When you fire this wheel, light the
firft cafe near the fell ; then, as the cafes fire fucceffive-
ly, you will fee the circle of fire gradually diminifh :
but whether the illuminations on the fell begin with the
fcroll or not, is immaterial, that being left entirely to
the maker.
N. B. This wheel may be put in the front of a re¬
gulated piece, or fired by itfelf, oceafionally.
l l 2. Pin-Wheels.
Firft roll fome paper pipes, about 14 inches long
each ; thefe pipes muft not be made thick of paper,
two or three rounds of elephant paper being fufficicnt.
When your pipes are thoroughly dried, you muft have
a tin tube 12 inches long, to fit eafy into the pipes;
at one end of this tube fix a fmall conical cup, which
cone is called a funnel i then bend one end of one of
the pipes, and put the funnel in at the other as far as
it will reach, and fill the cup with compofition : then
draw out the funnel by a little at a time, ftiaking it up
and down, and it will fill’the pipe as it comes out. Ha¬
ving filled fome pipes, harve fome fmall blocks made
about one inch diameter and half an inch thick : round
one of thefe blocks wind and pafte a pipe, and to the
end of this pipe join another ; which muft be done by
twifting the end of one pipe to a point, and putting it
into the end of the other with a little pafte : in this
manner join four or five pipes, winding them one upon
the other fo as to form a fpiral line. Having wound on
your pipes, pafte two flips of paper acrofs them to hold
them together : befldes thefe flips of paper, the pipes
muft be pafted together.
. There is another method of making thefe wheels,
•viz. by winding on the pipes without pafte, and flick¬
ing them together with fealing-wax at every half turn ;
io that when they are fired, the end will fall loofe every
time the fire paftes the wax, by which means the circle
ol hre will be confiderably increafed. The formers for
tfiefe pipes are made from if to 4-16ths of an inch
VOL. XV. Tart II.
E C H N Y.
diameter; and the compofition
Meal-powder 8 oz. faltpetre
among thefe ingredients may
filings or the dull of call iron :  v   Iltv,ulo
be very dry, and not made too fine, or it will flick in
tne funnel. I hefe wheels may be fired on a large pin,
and held in the hand with fafety.
. 7r3
for them is as follows: D fFe.-ene
2 oz. and fulphur 1 : P eces of
be mixed a little lleel-^ e'works'
this compofition fhould *
113. Fire-globes.
There are two forts of fire-globes ; one with pro¬
jected cafes ; the other with the cafes concealed, thus :
Have a globe made of wood, of any diameter you
choofe, and divide the furface of it into 14 equal parts,
and at each divifion bore a hole perpendicular to the
centre: thefe holes muft be in proportion to the cafes
intended to be ufed : in every hole except one, put a
cafe filled with brilliant, or any other charge, and let
the mouths of the cafes be even with the furface of the
globe ; then cut in the globe a groove, from the mouth
of one cafe to the other, for leaders, which muft be
carried from cafe to cafe, fo that they may all be fired
together; this done, cover the globe with a Angle pa¬
per, and paint it. Thefe globes may be ufed to orna¬
ment a building.
^ Fire-globes with proje&ed cafes are made thus:
Your globe being made with 14 holes bored in it as
ufual, fix in every hole except one, a cafe, and let each
cafe proje& from the globe two-thirds of its length ;
then clothe all the cafes with leaders, fo that they may
all take fire at the fame time. Fire-globes are fup-
ported by a pintle, made to fit the hole m which there
is no cafe.
114. To thread and join Leaders > and place them on dif¬
ferent Works.
Joining and placing leaders is a very eflential pail
cf fire-works, as it is or. the leaders that the perform¬
ance of all complex works depends; for which rcafon
the method of conduClir.g pipes of communication {hall
be here explained in as plain a manner as poffible. Your
works being ready to be clothed, proceed thus: Cut your
pipes of a fufficient length to reach from one cafe to the
other ; then put in the quick-match, which muft always
lie made to go in very eafy : when the match is in, cut
it off within about an inch of the eijd of the pipe, and
let it projeCt as much at the other end ; then fallen
the pipe to the mouth of each cafe with a pin, and put
the loofe ends of the match into the mouths of the cafes,
with a little meal-powder : this done to all the cafes,
pafte over the mouth of each two or three bits of paper.
The preceding method is ufed for large cafes, and the
following for fmall, and for illuminations : Firft thread
a long pipe ; then lay it on the tops of the cafes, and
cut a bit of the under fide, over the mouth of each cafe,
fo that the match may appear : then pin the pipe to
every other cafe ; hut before you put on the pipes, put
a little meal-powder in the mouth of each cafe. If the
cafes thus clothed are port-fires on illuminated works,
cover the mouth of each cafe with a Angle paper ; but
if they are choaked cafes, fituated fo that a number of
fparks from other works may fall on them before they
are fired, fecure them with three or four papers, which
muft be pafted on very frnooth, that there may be no
creafes for the fparks to lodge in, which often fttftre to
the works before their time. Avoid as much as pof¬
fible placing the leaders too near, or one acrofs the other
fo as to touch, as it may happen that the flafh of one
4 X will
P Y R O T
Different will fire the other ; therefore if your works (hould be fo
Pieces of formed that the leaders mull crofs or touch, be lure to
Fire.works,make them very ftrong, and fecure at the joints, and at
every opening. . . , . a ,
When a great length of pipe is required, it mult, be
made by joining feveral pipes in this manner : Having
put on one length of match as many pipes as it will
hold, pafte paper over every joint; but, if a ftill greater
length is required, more pipes mull be joined, by cut-
ting about an inch off one fide of each pipe near the end,
and laying the quick-match together, and tying them
fall with fmall twine ; after which, cover the joining
with palled paper.
115. Placing Fire-works to be exhibited.
Nothing adds more to the appearance of fire-works
than the placing them properly ; though the manner of
placing them chiefly depends on the judgment of the
maker. The following are the rules generally obfer-
ved, whether the works are to be fired on a building or
* oh Hands: If they are a double fet, place one wheel of
a fort on each fide of the building ; and next to each of
them, towards the centre, place a fixed piece, then
wheels, and fo on ; leaving a fufficient dillance between
them for the fire to play from one without burning the
other. Having fixed fome of your works thus in front,
place the reft behind them, in the centre of their inter¬
vals : The largeft piece, which is generally a regulated
or tranfparent piece, mull be placed in the centre of the
building, and behind it a fun, which mull always Hand
above all the other works : A little before the build¬
ing, or Hands, place your large gerbes ; and at the back
of the works fix your marron batteries, pots des aigrettes,
pots des brins, pots des faucijfons, air-balloons, and flights
of rockets : The rocket Hands may be fixed behind,
or anywhere elfe, fo as not to be in the way of the
works. t
Single colle&ions are fired on Hands; which Hands
are made in the fame manner as theodolite Hands,
only the top part mull be long or Ikort occalionally :
thefe Hands may be fixed up very foon without much
trouble.
116. Order of Firing.
Two fignal
Six Iky C rockets
Two honorary f
Four caduceus J
Two ^ fplral^ ^ wheels iHuminaled
j C tranfparent ftars
A line rocket of five changes
Four tourbillons
f horizontal wheels
j air balloons illuminated
^ Chinefe fountains
regulating pieces of four mutations each
^ pots des aigrettes
Three large gerbes
A flight of rockets
17. 7 rp . 5 balloon wheels
18. S "° ( cafcades of brilliant fire
39. Twelve flcy-rockets
20. ? -pwo C illuminated yew trees
21. ) \ air-balloons of ferpents, and
22. Four tourbiUons
E C H N Y.
f Fruiloni wheels
Sea. V,
Different
J.
2.
3-
4*
5-
6.
7-
8.
9-
10.
11.
32.
13-
34.
15-
16.
Two
J
compound
24. } wo "^illuminated globes with horizontal wheels
25. One pot des fauciffons
26. Two plural wheels
27. Marron battery
28. Two chandeliers illuminated
29. Range of pots des brins
30. Twelve (ky-rockets
31. Two yew-trees of fire
32. Neil of ferpents
33. Two double cones illuminated
34. Regulating piece of feven mutations, viz,
1. Vertical wheel illuminated
2. Golden glory
3. Oftagon vertical wheel
4. Porcupine’s quills
5. Crofs fires
6. Star-piece with brilliant rays
7. Six vertical wheels
35. Brilliant fun
36. Large flight of rockets.
When water-works are to be exhibited, divide them
into feveral fets, and fire one fet after every fifth or
fixth change of land and air-works. Obferve this rule
in firing a double fet of works : Always begin with fky-
rockets, then two moveable pieces, then two fixed pie¬
ces, and fo on ; ending with a large flight of rockets,
or a marron battery : if a iingle colledlion, fire a fixed
piece after every wheel or two, and now and then fome
air and water-works.
117. Fountain of Sky-rockets.
Fig. 5. reprefents a fountain of 30 rockets. Let cc£gxJ
A be a perpendicular poll, 16 feet high from the
ground, and 4 inches fquare. Let the rail, or crofs
piece C, be 1 foot 6 inches long, 3 inches broad,
and 1 thick. The rail D, at bottom, mult be 6 feet
long, 1 foot broad, and 1 inch thick, b and G are
the two fides which ferve to fupply the rails F), E,
H, I, C : thefe fides are I foot broad at bottom, and
cut in the front with a regular flope, to 3 inches at top;
but their back edges mull be parallel with the front ol
the pots A. The breadth of the rails E, H, I, will be
determined by the breadth of the fides: all the rails-
muft be fixed at 2 feet diftance from each other, and at
right angles with the pots. Haring placed the rails
thus, bore in the bottom rail 10 holes, at equal diftances,
large enough to receive the Hick of a one-pound rock*
et: in the back edge of this rail cut a groove from one
end to the other, fit to contain a quick-match ; then
cut a groove in the top of the rail, from .the edge of
each hole, into the groove in the back : in the fame
manner cut in the fecond rail, E„8 holes and grooves ;
in the third rail, H, 6 holes and grooves ; in the fourth
rail, I, 4 holes and grooves ; and in the top rail, 2
holes and grooves. B, a rail with holes in it to guide
the ends of the rocket-fticks: this rail muft be fixed 6
feet from the rail 1>. The fountain frame being thus
made, prepare your rockets thus: Tie round the mouth
of each a piece of thin paper, large enough to go twice
round, and to project about if inch from the mouth of
the rocket, which muft be rubbed with w.et meal-pow¬
der ; in the mouth of each rocket put a leader, which
fecure well with the paper that projects from the mouth
of the cafe: thefe leaders muft be carried into the grooves
m
Sert.V. P Y R O T
Different in the back of the rails, in which lay a quick-match
Pieces of from one en(i to the other, and cover it with parted
Fire-workf.Daper , mufl. ma(ie in the rail D, to receive the
L * ends of the fticks of the rockets in the rail E, and fo
on to the fourth rail ; fo that the fticks of the rockets
at top will go through all the rails. The rockets being
fo prepared, fix a gerbe, or white flower-pot, on each
rail, before the port, with their mouths inclining a little
forwards : thefe gerbes mull be lighted all at once. Be¬
hind or before each gerbe, fix a cafe of brilliant or flow
Are : thefe cafes mull be filled fo that they may burn
out one after the other, to regulate the fountain; which
may be done by carrying a leader from the end of each
flow or brilliant fire, into the groove in the back of each
rail. Different fixed rockets may be ufed in thefe foun¬
tains : but it will be bell to fill the hAds of the rockets
on each rail with different forts of things, in this man¬
ner ; thofe at top with crackers, the next with rains,
the third with ferpents, the fourth with tailed liars, and
the laft flight with common or brilliant liars.
11 8. Palm Tree.
This piece, though made of common fires, and of a
fimple conftrudlion, has a veiy pleafing eff'eft ; owing
p, ^ to the fires interfering fo often, that they refemble
Ccccxxxi, the branches of trees. Let A (fig. 6.) be a perpen¬
dicular port, of any thicknefs, fo that it is fufficiently
ftrong to hold the cafes ; let the dillance from B to C
be 2 feet 6 inches, and C to D 2 feet 6 inches, and
let the length of each crefs piece be 2 feet; on each
end of each fix a five-pointed liar : then fix, on pegs
made on purpofe, 12-inch half-pound cafes of brilliant
fire, as in the figure. All the cafes and liars mull be
fired at once. This piece Ihould be fixed high from
the ground.
119. Illuminated Pyramid, with Jlrcbimedian Screws, a
Globe, and vertical Sun,
May be of any fize. One made according to the di-
menfions of fig. 7. will be a good proportion, whofe
height is 21 feet ; from C to D, 6 feet ; from E to F,
y feet: the fpace between the rails mull be 6 inches,
and the rails as thin as poflible: in all the rails Hick
port-fires at four inches dillance. The Archimedian
ferews, G, K, are nothing more than double fpiral
wheels, wfith the cafes placed on their wheels horizon¬
tally inltead of obliquely. The vertical fun, I, need
not con fill of more than 12 rays, to form a Angle glory.
The globe at top mull be made in proportion to the
pyramid ; which being prepared according to the pre¬
ceding directions, place your leaders fo that all the illu¬
minating port-fires, ferews, globe, and fun, may take
fire together. The pyramid mull be fupported by the
two fides, and by a fupport brought from a pole, which
mull be placed two feet from the back of the pyramid,
that the wheels may run free.
120. Rofe-piece and Sun.
A rofe-piece may be ufed for a mutation of a regu¬
lated piece, or fired by itfelf: it makes the bell ap¬
pearance when made large ; if its exterior diameter be
6 feet, it will be a good fize. Fig. 8. Ihows the man¬
ner it appears in before it is fired. Let the exterior
fell be made of wood, and fupported by 4 wooden
fpokes : all the other parts, on which the illuminations
are fixed, mull be made of ftrong iron wire : on the
exterior fell place as many half-pound cafes of brilliant
charge as you think proper, but the more the better ;
E C H N T. 715
for the nearer the cafes are placed, the ftronger wfill be Different
the rays of the fun : the illuminations Ihould be placed
within 3 inches of each other: they mull all be fired 1 ' ^'
together, and burn fome time before the fun is lighted;
which may be done by carrying a leader from the mid¬
dle of one of the illuminations, to the mouth of one of
the fun cafes.
12 1. Tranfparent Stars with illuminated Rays.
Fig. 9. reprefents an illuminated ftar. Let the piare
diameter from A to B be 2 feet, and from C to Ccccxxxr,
D 7 feet. Firft make a ftrong circular back or body
of the ftar, 2 feet diameter, to which you fix the il¬
luminated rays : in the centre of the front of the
body fix a fpindle, on which put a double triangular
wheel, 6 inches diameter, clothed with 2 ounce cv.fes of
brilliant charge : the cafes on this wheel mull bum but
one at a time. Round the edge of the body nail a
hoop made of thin wood or tin : this hoop muft pro-
je£t in front 6 or 7 inches : in this hoop cut 3 or 4
holes to let out the fmoke from the wheel. The ftar
and garter may be cut out of ftrong pafteboard or tin,
made in this manner : Cut a round piece of pafteboard
or tin, 2 feet diameter, on which draw a ftar, and cut
it out; then over the vacancy pafte Perfian filk ; paint
the letters yellow; 4 of the rays yellow, and 4 red;
the crofs in the middle may be painted half red and half
yellow, or yellow and blue. This tranfparent ftar mult
be faftened to the wooden hoop by a ferew, to take
off and on; the illuminated rays are made of thin wood,
with tin fpekets fixed on their fides within 4 inches
of each other ; in thefe fockcts flick illuminating port¬
fires ; behind the point of each ray fix a half-pound cafe
of grey, black, or Chinefe fire.
N. R. The illuminated rays to be lighted at the
fame time as the triangular wheel, or after it is burnt
out ; which may be done by a tin barrel being fixed to
the wheel, after the manner of thofe in the regulated
pieces. Into this barrel carry a leader from the illu¬
minated rays, througli the back of the ftar ; which
leader muft. be met by another, brought from the tail
of the laft cafe on the wheel.
12 2. Tranfparent Table Star illuminated.
Fig. 1. reprefents a table ftar, whofe diameter, from
E to F, is 12 feet ; and Lorn E to I, 4 feet. This0
proportion, obferved on each fide, will make the centre
frame 4 feet fquare : in this fquare fix a tranfparent
ftar, as in the figure. This ftar may be painted blue,
and its rays made as thofe of the flaming ilars deferibed
before. The wheel for this ftar may be compofed of
different coloured fires, with a charge or two of flow
fire ; the wheels a, a, a, a, may be clothed with any
number of cafes, fo that the ftar-wheel confift of the
fame : the illuminating port-fires, which muft be placed
very near each other on the frames, muft be fo managed
as to burn as long as the wheels, and lighted at the
fame time.
123. The regulated illuminated Spiral Piece, with a pro¬
jected Star-wheel illuminated.
This piece is reprefented by fig. 2. and is thus made.
Have a block made 8 inches diameter ; in this block
ferew 6 iron fpokes, which muft ferve for fpindles for
the fpiral wheels: thefe wheels are made as ufual, each
iF foot diameter, and 3 feet in height : the fpindles
muft be long enough to keep the wheels 4 or 5 inches
from one another : at the end of each fpindle muft be a
4X2 ferew-
7i6. P Y R O T
j'Jiff. rent fcrew-nut, on which the wheels that hang downwards
Pieces of wjjj run . an(j on t}ie fpindles which Hand upwards muft
ire-a or es ^ fhoulder, for the blocks of the whecll to run on.
The projected liar-wheel mull turn on the fame
fpindle on which the largo block is fixed ; this fpindle
muft be long enough to allow the liar-wheel to project
a little before the Ipiral wheels : the exterior diameter
of the ftar-wheel muft be 3 feet 5. On this wheel fix
3 circles of iron wire, and on them port-fires ; on the
block place a tranfparent liar, or a large 5-pointed bril¬
liant ftar. The cafes on this wheel may burn 4 at once,
as it will contain near twice the number of one of the
fpiral wheels: the cafes on the fpiral wheels muft be
placed parallel to their fells, and burn two at a time.
\2$. A Figure-piece illuminated 'withJive-pointed Stars.
The conllrudlion of this piece is very eafy, as fhowu
Plate by fig* 3- whofe diameter from B to C is 8 feet, and
. ccccxxxji. from D to F 2 feet: the vertical wheel in the centre
muft be 1 foot diameter, and confiit of 6 four-ounce
cafes of different coloured charge, which cafes muft
burn double : on the frames fix 5 pointed brilliant or
blue ftars, rammed 4 inches with compofition : let the
fpace between each ftar be 8 inches; at each point fix
a gerbe, or cafe of Chinefe fire. When to be fired,
let the gerbe, ftars, and wheel, be lighted at the fame
time.
125. The Star-wheel illuminated.
This beautiful piece is fhown by fig. 4. Its exte¬
rior fell is made of wood, 3 feet C, or 4 feet diameter ;
within this fell, form with iron wire 3 circles, one Lefs
than the other, fo that the diameter of the leaf! may be
about 10 inches: place the port-fires on thefe fells with
their mouths inclining outwards, and the port-fires on the
points of the ftar with their mouths projedling in front:
let the exterior fell be clothed with 4 ounce cafes of
grey charge;, thefe cafes muft burn 4 at a time, and.
be lighted at-the fame time as the illuminations.
1 26. Pyramid of Flower-pots.
rig. 5. reprefents this curious piece, which muft be
made thus. Let the diftance from A to B be 6 feet ;
and from one rail to the other, 2 :: on the bottom rail
fix 5 paper mortars, each 34 inches diameter; thefe
mortars load with ferpents, crackers, ftars, &c.
In the centre of each mortar fix a cafe of fpur-fire :
on the fecond rail fix 4 mortars, fo as to Hand exa&ly
in the middle of the intervals of them on the bottom
rail; on the third rail place 3 mortars ; on the fourth,
2 ; and on the top of the polls, 1 : the bottom rail
muft be 6 feet long: all the mortars muft incline a
little forwards, that they may eafily difeharge ; and ihe
fpur-fires rammed Ixadtly alike, that the mortars may
all be fired at the fame time. Having prepared your
pyramid according to the preceding dire&ions, carry
pipes of communication'from one fpur-fire to the other.
127. The illumimated Regulating Piece.
Fig. 6. reprefents one half of this piece. A, A*
A, A, are flat, w'ooden fpokes, each 5 feet long: at the
end of each place a vertical wheel, 10 inches diame¬
ter, clothed with 6 four-ounce cafes of brilliant fire :
thefe cafes muft. burn but 1 at a time ; on two of the
fpokes of each wheel place 2 port-fires, which muft be
lighted with the firft cafe of the wheel; on each fpoke
A, A, &c. behind the wheels, place 6 cafes of the
fame fize with thofe on the wheels: thefe cafes muft be
tied acrofs the fpokes with their mouths all one way;
E C H N Y. Sea.V
and be made to take fire fuccefiively one after the Different
other, fo that they may afiift the whole pieces to turn J’hces of
round. ffire-work*.1
The diameter of the large wheel muft be 2 4 feet ; and
its fell made of wood, which muft be fixed to the large-
fpokes: on this wheel place 24 cafes of the fame fort
with thofe on tHe fmall wheels; thefe cafes muft burn 4
at a time : in this wheel make 3 circles with iron wire,
and on them place illuminating port-fires, as in the fi¬
gure : the ftar-points on the large fpokes may be made
of thin afli-hoops; the diameter of thefe points clofe
to the centre-wheel muft be 11 inches: on thefe
points place port-fires, at 3 inches diftance one from*
the other.
Fig. 7. reprefents the blocks of this piece. The
diameters of thtffe blocks, at A and B, muft be ‘S’
inches; and C and D, 4t inches : the length of each-
of thefe blocks muft be 6 inches: at the fmall ends of
thefe blocks fix an iron wheel 5 inches diameter, which-
wheels muft have teeth, to turn the wheel E : this
wheel is fixed on a fmall fpindle ferewed into the large
fpindle, which goes through , the two blocks, and on
which they run.
Suppofing fig. 6. to be onthe block A, in fig. 7. and/
to turn to the right, and another piece of the fame
conftrudlion on the block. B, with its fires placed fo as
to turn it to the left; you will find them move very
true and fall, by the help of the 3 . iron wheels, which
ferve to regulate their motions, as well as to afiiit
them in turning : let the iron circles in the front of the
great wheels be of different diameters, fo that when-
fired there may appear 6 circles. When this piece is
fired, all the wheels and illuminations muft be lighted
at one time..
Sect. VI. Aquatic Fire-works.
Works that fport in the water are mvich efteemed
by moft admirers of fire-works, particularly water-roc¬
kets ; and as they feem of a very extraordinary nature
to thofe who are unacquainted with this art, they me¬
rit a particular explanation.
128. IVater-rocletSf
May be made from 4 oz. to 2 lb. If larger, they are
too heavy ; fo that it will be difficult to make them keep-
above water without a cork float, which muft be tied
to tire neck of the cafe; but the rockets will not dive
fo well with as without floats.
Cafes for thefe are made in the fame manner and>"
proportion as flcy-rockets, only a little thicker of pa¬
per. When you fill thofe which are drove folid, put
in firil 1 ladlcful of flow fire, then 2 of the proper
charge, and on that 1 or 2 ladles of finking charge*
then the proper charge, then the finking charge again*
and fo on, till you have filled the cade within 3 dia¬
meters-; then drive on the compofition 1 ladleful of
clay ; through which make a ftnall hole to the charge ;
then fill the cafe, within | a diameter, with cornw
powder, on which turn down 2. or 3 rounds of the
cafe in the infide ; then pinch and tie the end very-
tight ; having filled your rockets (according to the
above directions), dip their ends in melted rofmorfeal-
ing wax, or elfe fecure them well with greafe. Whea
you fire thofe rockets, throw in 6 or 8 at a time; but,
if you would have them ail iink; or fwim, at the fame
time,
Sea. VI.
Aquatic time, you muft drive them with an equal quantity of
Fire-works. COmpofition, and fire them all together.
I2^- To make Pipes of Communication, 'which may be ufed
under Water.
Pipes for this purpofe muft be a little thicker of pa¬
per than thofe for land. Having rolled a fufficient num¬
ber of pipes, and kept them till dry, walh them over
with drying oil,, and fet them to dry; but when you
oil them, leave about I £ inch at each end dry, for joints :
if they were oiled all over, when you come to join them,
the pafte would not ftick where the paper is greafy :
after the leaders are joined, and the pafte dry, oil the
joints. Thefe pipes will lie many hours under water,
without receiving any damage.
130. Horizontal Wheels for the Water.
Firft get a large wooden bowl without a handle ;
then have an oftagon wheel made of a flat board
18 inches diameter, fo that the length of each fide will
be near 7 inches : in all the fides cut a groove for the
cafes to lie in. This wheel being made, nail it on
the top of the bowl ; then take 4-eight oz. cafes, filled
with a proper charge, each about 6 inches in length. ,
Now, to clothe the wheel with thefe cafes, get fome
whitifh-brown paper, and cut it into flips 4 or 5
inches broad and 7 or 8 long : thefe flips being palled
all over on one fide, take one of the cales, and roll one
of the flips of paper about It inch on its end, fo that
there will remain about 2.4 inches of the paper hollow
from the end of the cafe : this cafe tie on one of the
Tides of the wheel, near tire corners of which muft be
holes bored, through which you put the packthread
to tie the cafes 1 having tied on the firft cafe at the
neck and end, put a little meal-powder in the hollow
paper; then pafte a flip of paper on the end of another
cafe, the head of which put into the hollow paper on
the firft, allowing a fufficient diftance from the tail
of one to the head of the other for the palled paper
to bend without tearing : the fecond cafe tie on as you
did the firft: and fo on with the reft, except the lail,
which muft be clofed at the" end, unlefs it is to com¬
municate to any thing on the top ot the wheel, fuch
as fire-pumps or brilliant fives, fixed in holes cut in the
wheel, and fired by the laft or fecond cafe, as the fan¬
cy direfts: 6, 8, or any number, may be placed on the
top of the wheel, provided they be not too heavy for
the bowl.
Before you tie on the cafes, cut the upper part of all
their ends, except the laft, a little (helving, that the fire
from one may play over the other, without being ol>
ftru£ted*by the- cafe. Wheel-cafes have no clay drove m
their ends, nor pinched, but are. always lett open, on.y
the laft:, or thofe which are not to lead iue, which nuilt
be well fecured.
131. Water Mines.
For thefe mines you muft have a bowl with a wheel
on it, made in the fame manner as the water-wheel;
only in its middle there muft be a hole, of the. lame di¬
ameter you defign-to have the mine.. Thefe mines are
tin pots, with ftrong bottoms, and a little more than 2
diameters in length : your mine mull be fixed in the
hole in the wheel, with its bottom refting on.the bowl;
then loaded with ferpents, crackers, liars, (mail water-
rockets, &c. in the fame manner as pots of aigrettes ;
but in their centre fix a cafe of Chinefc fire, or a finall
P Y R O' T E C H 'N Y.
717
gerbe, which muft be lighted at the beginning of the Aquatic
laft cafe on the wheel. Thefe wheels are to be clothed ■1 e r V J.
-as ufual.
132. Fire-globes far the Water.
Bowls for water-globes muft be very large, and the
wheels on them of a decagon form: on each fide of
which nail a piece of wood 4 inches long; and on the
outfide of each piece cut a groove, wide enough to re¬
ceive about t °1 the thieknefs of a 4-oz. cafe: thefe
pieces of w'ood muft be nailed in the middle of each face
of the w heel, and fixed in an oblique diredlion, fo that
the fire from the cafes may incline upwards: the wheel
being thus prepared, tie in each groove a 4-oz. cafe,
filled with a grey charge ; then carry a leader from the
tail of one cafe to the mouth of the other.
Globes for thefe wheels are cmade of 2 tin hoops,
with their edges outwrards, fixed one within the other,
at right angles. The diameter ot thefe hoops muft be
fomewhat lefs than that of the wheel. Having made a
globe, drive in the centre of a wheel an iron fpindle,
which muft Hand perpendicular, and its length 4 or 6
, inches more than the diameter of the globe.
This fpindle ferves for an axis, on which the globe
is fixed, which, w-hen done, muft (land ^ ox C inches
from the wheel: round one fide of each fioop muft be
foldered little bits of tin, 2i inches diftance from each
other; which pieces muft be 2 inches in length each,
and only faftened at one end, the other ends being Icil
loofe, to turn round the froall port-fires, and hold.them
on : thefe port-fires muft be made of fuch a length as
will laft out the cafes on the wheel. You are to obferve,
that there- need not be any port-fires at the bottom of
the globe within 4 inches of the fpindle ; for, if there ^
were, they w'ould have no effe&, but only burn the
wheel: all the port-fires muft be placed perpendicular
from the centre of the globe, with their mouths out¬
wards ; and muft all be clothed with leaders, fo as all to
take fire with the fecond cafe of the wheel; which cafes
muft burn two at a time, one oppofite the other. When
two cafes of a wheel begin together, two will end toge¬
ther ; therefore the two oppofite end cafes rauft have
their ends pinched-and fecured from fire. The method
of firing fuch wheels is, by carrying a leader from the
mouth of one of the firft cafes to that of the other;
which leader being burnt through the middle, will give
fire to both at the fame time.
133. Odoriferous Water Balloons.
Thefe balloons are made in the fame manner as air-
balloons, but very thin of paper, and in diameter 1 ^
inch, with a vent of £ inch diameter. The (hells being ' ' %
made, and quite dry, fill them with any of the follow¬
ing compofitions, w-hich muft be rammed in tight: thele
balloons muft be fired at the veut, and put into.a bowl of
water. Odoriferous works are generally fired in rooms.
Compoftion I. Saltpetre 2 oz. flour of fulphur 1 oz.
camphor T oz* yellow amber d °7-* charcoal-duft ^ oz.
flour of benjamin or alia odorata * oz. all pow-deied
very fine and well mixed.
II. Saltpetre 12 oz. meal-powder 3 oz. frankincenfe
I oz. myrrh \ oz. camphor \ oz. charcoal 3 oz. all
moiftened with the oil of fpike.
III. Saltpetre 2 oz. fulphur i oz. antimony i oz.
amber i oz. cedar rafpings $ oz. all mixed with the oil
of rofes and a few drops of bergamot.
IV-
7.8 P Y R O T
Aquatic iv. Saltpetre 4 oz. fulphur 1 oz. faw-duft of juni-
Firc-works. per x oz> faw.duft of cyprel's I oz. camphor oz. myrrh
2 drams, dried rofemary \ oz. cortex elaterii i oz. all
moiftened a little with the oil of rofes.
N* B. Water rockets may he made with any of the
above compofitions, with a little alteration, to make
them weaker or ftronger, according to the fize of the
cafes.
134. Water Balloons.
Having made fome thin paper (hells, of what diame¬
ter you pleafe, fill fome with the compofition for water
balloons, and fome after this manner r Having made
the vent of the fhells pretty large, fill them almoft full
with water rockets, matrons, fquibs, &c. Then put in
fome blowing powder, fufficient to burlt the Ihells; and
afterwards fix in the vent a water-rocket, long enough
to reach the bottom of the fliell, and its neck to pro¬
ject a little out of the vent; this rocket muft be open
at the end, to fire the powder in the fhell, which will
burll the flicll, and difperfe the fmall rockets, &c. in the
water. When you have well fecured the large rocket
in the vent of the (hell, take a cork float with a hole
in its middle, which fit over the head of the rocket, and
fallen it to the flieil: this float muft be large enough
to keep the balloon above water.
135. Water Squibs
Are generally made of i-oz. ferpent cafes feven or
eight inches long, filled two thirds with charge, and
the remainder bounced. The common method of firing
them is this : lake a water-wheel, with a tin mortar
in its centre, which load with fquibs after the ufual me¬
thod ; but the powder in the mortar muft be no more
than will juft throw the fquibs out eafily into the wa¬
ter : you may place the cafes on the wheel either ob¬
liquely or horizontally ; and on the top of the wheel,
round the mortar, fix fix cafes of brilliant fire perpen¬
dicular to the w’heel: thefe cafes muft be fired at the
beginning of the laft cafe of the wdieel, and the mor-
-tar at the conclufion of the fame.
i$6. A Sea-fight with fmall Ships, and to prepare a Fire-
Jhipfor it.
Having procured four or five fmall fhips, of two or
three feet in length, (or as many as you deflgn to fight),
make a number of fmall reports, which are to ferve for
guns. Of thefe range as many as you pleafe on each
fide of the upper decks ; then at the head and ftern of
each (hip fix a twro-ounce cafe, eight inches long, filled
with a flow port-fire receipt ; but take care to place it
in fuch a manner that the fire may fall in the water,
and not burn the rigging : in thefe cafes bore holes at
unequal diftances from one another, but make as many
in each cafe as half the number of reports, fo that one
cafe may fire the guns on one fide, and the other thofe
on the oppofite. The method of firing the guns is,
by carrying a leader from the holes in the cafes to the
reports on the decks; you muft make thefe leaders
very fmall, and be careful in calculating the burning of
the flow-fire in the regulating cafes, that more than two
guns be not fired at a time. When you would have a
broadfide given, let a leader be carried to a cracker,
placed on the outfide of the Ihip ; which cracker muft
be tied loofe, or the reports will be too flow: in all
the (hips put artificial guns at the port-holes.
Having filled and bored holes in two port-fires for
regulating the guns in one ftiip, make all the reft ex-
E C II N Y. Setf.Vf.
a£lly the fame; then, when you begin the engagement, Aquatic
light one (hip firft, and fet it a failing, and fo on with Firc-worky
the reft, fending them out fingly, which will make them *
fire regularly, at different times, without confufion; for
the time between the firing of each gun will be equal
to that of lighting the flow fires.
The fire-lhip may be of any fize; and need not be
very good, for it is always loft in the action. To pre¬
pare a (hip for this purpofe, make a port-fire equal in
fize with thofe in the other (hips, and place it at the
ftern ; in every port place a large port-fire, filled with
a very ftrong compofition, and painted in imitation of
a gun, and let them all be fired at once by a leader
from the flow fire, within two or three diameters of its
bottom ; all along both (ides, on the top of the upper
deck, lay ftar-compofition. about half an inch thick
and one broad, which muft be wetted with thin fize,
then primed with meal-powder, and fecured from fire
by palling paper over it; in the place where you lay
this compofition, drive fome little tacks with flat heads,
to hold it faft to the deck : this muft be fired juft after
the (ham guns, and when burning will (how a flame all
round the (hip : at the head take up the decks, and
put in a tin mortar loaded with crackers, which mor¬
tar muft be fired by a pipe from the end of the flow
fire ; the firing of this mortar will fink the (hip, and
make a pretty conclufion. The regulating port-fire
of this (hip muft be lighted at the fame time with the
firft fighting (hip.
Having prepared all the (hips for fighting, we (hall
next proceed with the management of them when ©n
the water. At one end of the pond, juft under the fur-
face of the water, fix two running blocks, at what di-
ftance you choofe the (hips fhould fight; and at the
other end of the pond, oppofite to each of thefe blocks,
under the water, fix a double block ; then on the land,
by each of the double blocks, place two fmall wind-
laffes; round one of them turn one end of a fmall cord,
and the other end put through one of the blocks; then
carry it through the Angle one at the oppofite end of
the pond, and bring it back through the double block
again, and round the other windlafs: to this cord, near
the double block, tie as many fmall firings as half the
number of the (hips, at what diftance you think pro¬
per ; but thefe firings muft not be more than two feet
each : make faft the loofe end of each to a (hip, juft
under her bow-fprk ; but if tied to the keel, or too
near the water, it will overfet the (hip. Half the (hips
being thus prepared, near the other double block fix
two more windlaffes, to which faften a cord, and to it
tie the other half of the (hips as before : when you fire
the (hips, pull in the cord with one of the windlaffes,
to get all the (hips together; and when you have fet
fire to the firft, turn that windlafs which draws them
out, and fo on with the reft, till they are all out in the
middle of the pond ; then, by turning the other wind¬
lafs, you will draw them back again; by which method
you may make them change fides, and tack about
backwards and forwards at pleafure. For the fire-lhip,
fix the blocks and windlaffes between the others; fo that
when (he fails out, (he will be between the other (hips:
you muft not let this (hip advance till the guns at her
ports take fire.
J37. To fire Shy-rochets under Water,
You muft have (lands made as ufual, only the rails
muft
Seft.VI. PYUOTECHNY.
Aquatic muft be placed flat inftead of edgewife, and have holes
fire-works. jn t^iem for rocket-fticks to go through; for if the)
719
‘in them for the rocket-fticks to go through; for if they
were hung upon hooks, the motion of the water would
throw them off: the ftands being made, if the pond is
deep enough, fink them at the fides fo deep, that,
when the rockets are in, their heads may juft appear
above the furface of the water; to the mouth of each
rocket fix a leader, which put through the hole with
the ftick; then a little above the water muft be a board,
fupported by the ftand, and placed along one fide of
the rockets ; then the ends of the leaders are turned up
through holes made in tin’s board, exa&ly oppofite the
rockets. By this means you may fire them fingly or
all at once. Rockets may be fired by this method in
the middle of a pond, by a Neptune, a fwan, a water¬
wheel, or any thing elfe you choofe.
1 38. To reprefent Neptune in his Chariot.
To do this to perfe&ion, you muft have a Neptune
(made of wood, or baflcet work) as big as life,
fixed on a float large enough to bear his weight ; ort
which muft be two horfes heads and necks, fo as to
feem fwimming, as fhown by fig. 11. For the wheels
of the chariot, there muft be two vertical wheels of
black fire, and on Neptune’s head a horizontal wheel
of brilliant fire, with all its cafes, to play upwards.
When this wheel is made, cover it with paper or pafte-
board, cut and painted like Neptune’s coronet; then
let the trident be made without prongs, but inftead of
them, fix three cafes of a weak grey charge, and on
each horfe’s head put an eight ounce cafe of brilliant
fire, and on the mouth of each fix a fhort cafe, of the
fame diameter, filled with the white-flame receipt,
enough to laft out all the cafes on the wheels : thefe
fhort cafes muft be open at bottom, that they may
light the brilliant fires; for the horfes eyes put fmall
port-fires, and in each noftril put a fmall cafe filled
half with grey charge, and the reft wuth port-fire com-
pofition.
If Neptune is to give fire to any building on the
water ; at his firft fetting out, the wheels of the chariot,
and that on his head, with the white flames on the
horfes heads, and the port-fires in their eyes and no-
ftrils, muft all be lighted at once ; then from the bot¬
tom of the white flames carry a leader to the trident.
As Neptune is to advance by the help of a block and
cord, you muft manage it fo as not to let him turn
about, till the brilliant fires on the horfes and the tri¬
dent begin ; for it is by the ;fire from the horfes^(which
plays almoft upright) that the building, or work, is
lighted; which muft be thus prepared. From the
mouth of the cafe which is to be firft fired, hang fome
loofe quick-match to receive the fire from the horfes.
When Neptune is only to be fhown by himfelf, with¬
out fetting fire to any other works, let the white flames
on tire horfes be very ihort, and not to laft longer than
one cafe of each wheel, and let two cafes of each wheel Aquatic
, . Fire-works,
burn at a time.
139. Swans and Ducks in I fater.
If you would have the fwans or ducks difeharge
rockets into the water, they muft be made hollow, and
of paper, and filled with fmall water rockets, with fome
blowing powder to throw them out: but if this is not
done, they may be made of wood, which will laft many
times. Having made and painted fome fwans, fix them
on floats: then in the places where their eyes fhould
be, bore holes two inches deep, inclining downwards,
and wide enough to receive a fmall port-fire ; the port¬
fire cafes for this purpofe muft be made of brafs, two
inches long, and filled with a flow bright charge. In
the middle of one of thefe cafes make a little hole ;
then put the port-fire in the eye-hole of the fwan, lea¬
ving about half an inch to projedf out; and in the other
eye put another port-fire, with a hole made in it: then
in the neck of the fwan, within two inches of one of
the eyes, bore a hole flantwife, to meet that in the port¬
fire ; in this hole put a leader, and carry it to a water-
rocket, that muft be fixed under the tail with its mouth
upwards. On the top of the head place two i-oz.
cafes, four inches long each, drove with brilliant fire ;
one of thefe cafes muft incline fonvards, and the other
backwards : thefe muft be lighted at the fame time as
the water-rocket; to do which, bore a hole between them
in the top of the fwan’s head, down t» the hole in the
port-fire, to which carry a leader : if the fwan is filled
with rockets, they muft be fired by a pipe from the end
of the water-rocket under the tail. When you fet
the fwan a fwimming, light the two eyes.
140. Water Fire-fountains.
To make a fire-fountain, you muft firft have a float
made of wood, three feet diameter ; then in the middle
fix a round perpendicular poll, four feet high, and two
inches diameter; round this poll fix three circular
wheels made of thin wood, without any fpokes. The
largeft of thefe wheels muft be placed within two or
three inches of the float, and muft be nearly of the fame
diameter. The fecond wheel muft be 2 feet 2 inches
diameter, and fixed at two feet diftance from the firft.
The third w-heel muft be 1 foot 4 inches diameter, and
fixed within fix inches of the top of the poll: the
wheels being fixed, take 18 four or eight oz. cafes of
brilliant fire, and place them round the firft wheel with
their mouths outwards, and inclining downwards ; on
the fecond wheel place 13 cafes of the fame, and in the
fame manner as thofe on the firft ; on the third, place 8
more of thefe cafes, in the fame manner as before, and
on the top of the poft fix a gerbe ; then clothe all the
cafes with leaders, lo that both they and the gerbe may
take fire at the fame time. Before you fire this work,
try it in the water to fee if the float is properly made,
fo as to keep the fountain upright.
P Y R
PYROTICS, in medicine, cauftics, or remedies
either adlually or potentially hot; and which accord¬
ingly will burti the flefli, and raife an efehar. See Cau¬
sticity.
PYRRHICHA, in antiquity, a kind of exercife on
P Y R
horfeback, or a feigned combat, for the exercife of the
cavalry.
It was thus called from its inventor Pyrrhichiis, or
Pyrrhus of Cydonia, who firft taught the Cretans to
march in meafure and cadence to battle, and to ob-
6 £ur>e
•pvr'K:-
chius
II
Pyrus.
C 7
-Otlicrs derive
20
p y r
ferv< the pace of the Pyrrhic foot,
the name from Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles, who mlh-
tuted this exercife at the obfeqiues of his father.
Ariftotle fays, that it was Achilles himfelf who mvent-
The Romans alfo called it Indus TrojantiSy “ the Tio-
jan Kame and Aulus Gellius, derurjus.— It is doubt-
lefs this cxercife that we fee reprefented on medals by
two cavaliers in front running with lancets, and tne
word decurfw in the exergum.
PYRRHICHIUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry,
a foot confiding of two fyllables, both Ihort; —as,
Deus. Among the ancients this loot is alfo called/>f-
riambus ; hy ot\\zrs begemona. .
PYRRHO, a Greek philofopher, born at Elis in
Peloponnefus, flourifhcd about 300 C. C. He w-asthe
difciple of Anaxarchus, wdiom he accompanied as far
as India, where he converfed writh the Brachmans and
Gymnofophifts. He had made painting his profefilon
before he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of philofohpy.
He eilablifhed a fed whofe fundamental principle was,
That there is nothing true or falfe, right or wrong,
'honed or difhoned, jud or unjud ; or that there is no
'ftandard of any thing beyond law or cudom, and that
uncertainty and* doubt belong to ever thing. Prom
this continual feeking after truth and never finding it,
the feft obtained the name of Sceptics or Pyrrhonwns
from the founder, who is faid to have aaed upon his
own principles, and to have carried his feepticifm to fueh
a ridiculous extreme, that his friends were obliged to
accompany him wherever he went, that he might not
be run over by carriages, or fall down precipices. If
this was true, it was "not without reafon that he was
ranked among thofe whofe intelkas were didurbed by
intenfe dudy. But it is treated by a modern writer
as a mere calumny invented by the dogmatids; and we
are drongly inclined to be of his opinion, (fee Scep¬
tics.) Pyrrho died about the 90th year of his age,
when his memory wTas honoured with a datue at A-
thens, and a monument erected to him in his own
.•country. ,
PYRRHUS, the name of two kings of Epirus.
See that article.
PYRUS, the pear-tree : A genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the icoiandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
36th order, Pomace*. The calyx is quinquefid; there
are'five petals ; the fruit is an apple, inferior, quinque-
locular, and polyfpermous. Po this genus Linnams
lias joined the apple and quince; but, on account of
the remarkable difference between the fruits, the lad
is treated under the article Cydonia. The other
fpecies are,
I. The communis, or common pear-tree, rifes with
an upright large trunk, branching 30 or 40 feet high,
in fome widely around, in others more eredlly, and
forming a .conical head ; oval, lanceolated, ferrated
leaves, and corymbous cinders of white flowers from
the tides of the branches, fucceeded by large fruit ex¬
tended at the bale. Under this fpecies are compre¬
hended almod endlefs varieties, all bearing the above
de -prion. They bear their flowers and fruit upon
fpu: s, arifing from the fides of .the branches from two
or three years old and upwards ; the fame branches
and fpurs continuing fruitful for a great number of
] P Y R
years. The different varieties fumifh fruit for ufe from
the beginning of July till the months of May and June,
next year ; which, according to their times of ripening
may be divided into three claffes, fummer-pears, au¬
tumn-pears, and winter-pears. The fummer-pears ri¬
pen in different forts from the beginning of July un¬
til the middle or end of September, and are generally
fit to eat from the tree, or at leaf! do not keep a week
or two before they rot. The autumn pears come to
their perfection in O&ober, November, and Decem¬
ber ; fome ripening nearly on the tree in October and
the beginning of November, others requiring to lie
fome time in the fruitery, while fome w'ill keep two
months: but all the wunter-pears, though they attain
their full growtli on the tree by the end of October
and in November, yet they do not acquire perfeftion
for eating till from the end of November to April and
May. Thofe of each clafs have different properties ;
fome being melting, others breaking, fome mealy, and
fome hard and auftere, fit only for kitchen ufes. As
many of the fineft forts were firil obtained from France,
they are frill continued in moil catalogues by French
Pynis.
names.
2. The malus, or common apple-tree, grows 20 or
30 feet high, having oval ferrated leaves, and feffik
umbels of whitifli red flowers, fucceeded by large,
roundifh, and oblong fruit, concave at the bafe. The
apple is compofed of four diftinA parts, viz. the piU,
the parenchyma, the branchery, and the core. The
pill or (kin is only a dilatation of the outermoft fkiu
or rind of the bark of the branch on which it grew.
The parenchyma or pulp, as tender and delicious as it is
found, is only a dilatation, or, as Dr Grew calls it,
a/welth or faperbience of the inner part of the bark of
the branch. This appears not only from the vifible
continuation of the bark from the one through the pe¬
dicle or flalk to the other, but alfo from the ftru&ure
common to both. The branchery or veflels are only
ramifications of the woody part of the branch, fent
throughout all the parts of the parenchyma, the greater
branches being made to communicate with each other
by inolculations of the lefs. The apple core is origi¬
nally from the pith of the branch ; the fap of which
finding room enough in the parenchyma through which
to diffufe itfelf, quits the pith, which by this means
hardens into core. The varieties of this fpecies are
amazingly great with refpeft to the differences of the
fruit. The botanills contend, that the wilding, or
crab-apple of the woods and hedges, is the original kind,
and from the feeds of which the cultivated apple was
firil obtained. The varieties of this lall no doubt are
multiplied to fome hundreds in different places, having
been all firil accidentally obtained from the feed or ker¬
nels of the fruit, and the approved forts continued and
increafed by grafting upon crabs or any kind of apple-
Itocks: but although the number of varieties is very
confiderable, there are not above 40 or 50 forts retain¬
ed in the nurferymens catalogue. Thefe varieties arrive
at full growth in fucceffive order from July to the
end of O&ober, improve in perfection after being ga¬
thered ; and feveral of the winter kinds, in particular,
keep good for many months, even till the arrival of ap¬
ples next fummer.
Among thefe various kinds of apples fome are ufed
for the defTert, forae for the kitchen, and fome for cy-
c der-
Plate (Vocmill
PKC'IIN^
</<>
VriiOTM'irNY.
Plato CCCC-VUX.
Prate ci‘C'C'XV
rKrHXY
fnmaejiUtaD
\ '// il
t\ \'
\ r r 1
!Y
FYBOTJUrU'SI
CCCCXXXll
rYROTECHNY
—-■■■■
P Y T
-Pvrus,
Pythago¬
ras.
cler-ifiakmg. Thofe ulcd for the defTert are the follow¬
ing, placed as they fucceffively ripen after one another:
The white juncating, the margaret apple, the fummer
pearmam, the fummer queening, the embroidered apple,
the golden rennet, the fummer white calville, the fummer
red calville, the lilver pippen, the aromatic pippen, la
reinette grifeja haute bonte, the royal rufletting, Wheel¬
er s ruflet, Sharp’s ruffet, the fpine apple, the golden
pippen, the nonpareil, the l’apt or pomme (Papi. Thofe
for the kitchen ufe, in the order of their ripeninff. are
• T’Vw. r.  ,, r,
r 72! ]
P Y T
ras.
to f x the birth of Pythagoras in the 4th year of the Pythagc-
52d Olympiad. Of the arguments of thefe learned
writers, Le Clerc has given a fummary in the Bibliotbeque
Choifee, tom.x. p. 81. &c. and from a review of the whole,
it would appear that he was not born earlier than the
qth year of the 43d Olympiad, nor later than the 4th
»year of the y2d ; but in w'hat particular year of that
period his birth took place, cannot with any degree of
ceitainty be afccrtained. It is generally believed that
he was born in the ifland of Samos, and that he flourifh-
r rpL ji* Aiiciuu. kjl sjcuiiuaj ciiiu. Liiciu lie nounin*
thele : 1 he codling, the fummer marygold, the fummer ed about 500 years before Chrift, in the time of Tarquin
peal main, the PJoiland ninnpn- flip D   tt*. r . 1 jt r «
red pearmain, the Holland pippen, the Kentilh pippen,
the courpendu, Loan’s pearmain, the French trennet,
the French pippen, the royal ruflet, the monftrous ren¬
net, the winter pearmain, the pome ’viohttey Spencer’s
pippen, the ftqne pippen, and the oaken pippen. Thofe
molt elleemed for cyder are, the Devonlhire royal wild¬
ing, the redftreak apple, the whitfour, the Herefordlhire
under-leaf, and the John apple, or deux annest everlalting
hanger, and gennet moyle.
1 he juice of apples is a menftnium for iron. A fo-
lution of iron in the juice of the apples called golden
rennets, evaporated to a thick confiftence, proves an ele-
gant chalybeate, which keeps well.
, ^ ^ie kelt method of preferving apples for winter ufe,
is to let them hang upon the trees until there is danger
of froft, to gather them in dry weather, and then to lay
them in large heaps to fweat for a month or fix weeks.
They ought then to be carefully looked over, all which
have the leaft appearance of decay taken out, the found
fruit wiped dry, and packed up in large oil jars, which
have been thoroughly fealded and dry, and then flopped
clofe to exclude the air. If this plan is duly obferved,
the fruit will keep a long time found, and their flefh re¬
main plump; whereas, when expofed to the air, their
fkins will flirivel, and their pulp foften.
3. The coronaria, or fweet-feented crab of Virginia,
grows 12 or 15 feet high, having angular, ferrated
leaves, pedunculated umbels of whitifli-red, fweet-feent¬
ed flowers, fucceeded by fmall round crabs, remarkably
four and auftere. There is one variety, called the ever¬
green Virginian crab tree.
Culture. All the varieties of the pear-tree are hardy*
and will fucceed in any common foil of a garden or
orchard. They are propagated by grafting and budding
Upon any kind of pear-flocks; alfo occafionally upon
quince-flocks, and fometimes upon white-thorn flocks ;
but pear-flocks are greatly preferable to all others for
general ufe.—All kinds of apples are propagated in the
fame manner ; ufing apple*ftocks inftead of pear-flocks.
They wall fucceed in any common foil of a garden or
orchard, and in any free fituation except in a low and
very moil! foil, in which they are apt to canker, and
very foon go off. In a friable loam they are generally
very fuccefsful.
. PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated philofopher of an¬
tiquity, refpedting the time and place of whole birth
« the learned are much divided. Eratofthenes aflerts,
Plalarh. ^^ ln t:^lt Olympiad *, when he was very young,
Cbron, of ^ was a v,<Aor at the Olympic games. Hence l3r
Pythagoras. Bentley t determines the date of his birth to be the 4th
' Tivo Df year of the 43d Olympiad; whilfl Lloyd t, who denies
'it age If1 *1 m* the Olympic vidfor was the fame perfon with the
‘h ter,,,, philofopher, places it about the 3d year of the 48th O-
w fytba- lympiad- Mr Dodwell § differs from both, and wifhes
Vot. XV. Fart II.
the laft king of Rome *. His father Mnefarchus, who * 7',/A
is thought by fome to have been a lapidary, and by
1 have a n.-jn lib. iv.
* An. ante
Chr. 5S8.
> M'rt.
others a merchant of Tyre, appears to have been a man
of fomc diftin&ion, and to have beftowed upon his fon Cap‘ 1‘
the beft education.
Jamblicus f relates a number of wonderful ftories re- f r;t Py.
fpedhng Pythagoras’s defeent from Jupiter, his birth, ii. I’
and early life ; and reprefents him even in his youth as
a prodigy of wifdom and manly ferioufnefs. But moll
of thefe idle tales confute themielves, afford nothing of
importance to be depended upon, and only prove^the
credulity, careleffnefs, and prejudice of their author. Of
his childhood and early education we know nothin!!-, ex¬
cept that he was firft inftrufted in his own country by
Creophilus, and afterwards in Scyrus by Pherecydes
(fee Pher ecydes). According to the cuftom of the
times he was made acquainted with poetry and mufic ;
eloquence and altronomy became his private ftudies*
and in gymnaftic exercifes he often bore the palm for
ftrength and dexterity. He firft diftinguiflied himfelf
in Greece at the Olympic games, where, befide gaining
the prize, he is find to have excited the higheft admira¬
tion by the elegance and dignity of his perfon, and the
brilliancy of his underitanding.
Soon after his appearance at thefe games Pythagoras
commenced his travels in queft of knowledge. He firft
vilited Egypt, where, through the intereft of Polycrates
tyrant ol Samos, he obtained the patronage of Amafis
king °f Fgypt> by whofe influence, combined with his
own afliduity, patience, and perfeverance, he at length
gained the confidence of the priefts; from whom he
learned their facred myfteries, theology, and the whole
lyftem of fymboheal learning. In Egypt, too, he be¬
came acquainted with geometry and the true folar
fyftem ; and, before he left that country, made him¬
felf mafter of all the learning for which it was fo famed
among the nations of antiquity.
Fie afterwards vifited Perfia and Chaldea, where
from the Magi he learnt divination, the interpreting
of dreams, and aftronomy. He is likewiie laid to
liaye travelled into India, to have converfed with the
Gymnofophifls, and to have acquired from them a
knowledge of the philofophy and literature of the eaft ;
and fuch was his ardour in the purfuit of fcience, that
in queft of it, we are told by Cicero *, he crofled many * p. Flnl^
feas, and travelled on foot through many barbarous na-Jw/, Hb Tv.
lions. §
, After Pythagoras had fpent many years in gathering
information on every fubjed, efpecially refpe&ing the
nature of the gods, the rites of religion, and the immor¬
tality of the human foul, he returned to his native ifland,
and attempted to make his knowledge ufeful by inftitu-
ting a fchool for the inftrudion of his countrymen.
Failing of fuccefs in this laudable undertaking, he
4 Y repaired
Pythigo-
ras.
[ 712 P Y T
repaired to Delos, where he pretended to receive ders; exoteric}, or profelytes of the gate ; and intnn- I'r^o-
mord dogmas from the prieftefs of Apollo. He alfo feci or perfeEti, profelytes of the covenant. He adds,
vifited Crete, where he was initiated into the moll it is highly probable, that Pythagoras himfelf had
been a- profelyte of the gate, if not of the covenant.
V Y T
was initiated into the moll
facred myileries of Greece. He went likevvife to Sparta
and Elis, and again affifted at the Olympic games;
where in the public affembly he was fainted with the
title of fophifi or wife tnnti, which he declined for one
more humble. See PuiLOtoGY, n’ 1. and Philoso¬
phy n° 1. ....
He returned to Samos ennehed with mythological
learning and myllerious rites, and again inllituted a
fchool.. His myfterious fymbols and oracular precepts
made this attempt more fuccefsful than the former had
been ; but meeting with fome oppofition, or being de-
tefted in fome pious frauds, he fuddenly left Samos,
retired to Magna Grecia, and fettled at Crotona.
Here he founded the Italic fe£l (fee Philosophy
n° 20.) ; and his mental and perfonal accomplilhments,
the fame of his diftant travels, and his Olympic crown,
foon procured him numerous pupils. His bold and
manly eloquence and graceful delivery attrafted the
jhoil diffolute, and produced a remarkable change in
the morals of the people of Crotona. His influence
was incVeafed by the regularity of his own example,
a*. .
Gale endeavours to prove that Pythagoras borrowed
his philofophy from that of the Jews ; to this end
producing the authorities of many of the fathers and
ancient authors, and even pointing out the tracks and
footlleps of Mofes in feveral parts of Pythagoras’s
doctrine. But we believe the learned author was mil¬
led by the Chriftian Platoniils.
The authority of Pythagoras among his pupils was
fo great, that it was even deemed a crime to difpute
his word; and their arguments were coniidered as in¬
fallibly convincing, if they could enforce them by add¬
ing, that “the mailer faid fo;” an expreflion which af¬
terwards became proverbial in jurare in verba magijirt.
This influence over his fchool was foon extended to the
world, and even his pupils themfelves divided the ap-
plaufe and approbation of the people with their mailer;
and the rulers and legiflators of all the principal towns
of Greece, Sicily, and Italy, boafted of being the dif-
ciples of Pythagoras. To give more weight to his
exhortations, as fome writers mention, Pythagoras re-
and its conformity to his precepts. He punftually at- tired into a fubterraneous cave, where his mother feat
tended the temples of the gods, and paid his devotions him intelligence of every thing which happened during
"his abfence. After a certain number of months he
again re-appeared on the earth with a grim and ghallly
countenance, and declared in the aflembly of the people
that he was returned from hell. From fimilar exag¬
gerations it has been aflerted that he appeared at the
Olympic games with a golden thigh, and that he could
write in letters of blood whatever he pleafed on a look-
at an early hour ; he lived upon the purell and moil
innocent food, clothed himfelf like the priefts of E-
gypt, and by his continual purifications and regular
offerings appeared .to be fuperior in fanftity to the reft
of mankind. He endeavoured to afluage the paflions
of his fcholars with verfes and numbers, and made a
practice of compoflng his own mind every morning,
by playing on his harp, and finging along with it the ing-glafs ; and that by letting it oppofite to the moon,
paeans of Thales. To avoid the temptations of eafe when full, all the characters which were on the glafs
and the feduftions of idlenefs, bodily exercifes alfo made
a confiderable part of his difeipline.
At Crotona he had a public fchool for the general
benefit of the people, in which he taught them their
became legible on the mooVs dife. They alfo relate,
that by fome magical words he tamed a bear, flopped
the flight of an eagle, and appeared on the fame day
and at the fame inilant in the cities of Crotona and
duty, praifing virtue and condemning vice ; and parti- Metapontum, See.
cularly iriftrufling them in the duties of focial life.
Befide this, he had a college in his own houfe, which
he denominated *onio£tov. in which there were two clafles
of ftudents, viz. r*QTtp%u, who were alfo called aufcul-
tantes and ‘o-uTipixoi. The former of thefe were proba¬
tioners, and were kept under a long examen. A li-
lence of five years was impofed upon them ; which A-
puleius thinks was intended to teach them modefty
and attention; but Clemens Alexandrinus thinks it
was for the purpofe of abltratting their minds from
fenfible objects, and inuring them to the pure con¬
templation of the Deity. The latter clafs of fcholavs
were called gennini, perfedi, mathematici, and, by way of
eminence, Pythagoreans. They alone were admitted
to the knowledge of the arcana and depths of Pytha-
goric difeipline, and were taught the ufe of ciphers
and hieroglyphic writings.
Clemens obferves, that thefe orders corrcfponded
very exactly to thofe among the Hebrews: for in the
Ichools of the prophets there were two clafles, viz.
the fons of the prophets, who were the fcholars, and
the doctors or mailers, who were alfo called perfeEli ;
and among the Levites, the novices or tyros, who had
their quinquennial exercifes, by way of preparation.
Laftly, even among the profelytes there were two or-
At length his Angular doftrines, and perhaps his
ftrenueufly aflerting the rights of the people againlt
their tyrannical governors, excited a fpirit of jealoufy,
and railed a powerful party againlt him ; which foon
became fo outrageous as to oblige him to fly for his
life. His friends fled to Rhegium ; and he himfelf, al¬
ter being refufed protection by the Eocrians, fled to
Metapontum, where he was obliged to take refuge in
the temple of the mufes, and where it is laid he died
of hunger about 497 years before Chrift. Refpefting
the time, place, and manner of his death, however,
there are various opinions, and many think it uncertain
when, where, or in what manner, he ended his days.
After his death his followers paid the fame refpeCl to
him as was paid to the immortal gods; they erefted
ftatues in honour of him, converted, his houfe at Cro¬
tona into a temple of Ceres, appealed to him as a deity,
and fwore by his name.
Pythagoras married Theano of Crotona, or, accord¬
ing to others, of Crete, by whom he had two fons, Te-
lauges and Mnefarchus, who, after his death, to»k care
of his fchool. He is faid alfo to have had a daughter
called Dnmo.
Whether he left any writings behind him is difputed*
It feems probable, however, that he left none, and that
fuch
P Y T [7;
Fv liV'o- fuel 1 as went under his name were written by Come of
ras bis followers. The golden verfes which Hierocles illu-
flrated with a commentary, have been aferibed to Epi*
charmus or Empedocles, and contain a brief fummary
of his popular doctrine*. From this circumftance, and
from the myderious fecrecy with which he taught, our
information concerning his doftrine and philofophy is
very uncertain, and cannot always be depended on.
The purpofe of philofophy, according to the fyftem
of Pythagoras, is to free the mind from incumbrances,
imd to raife it to the contemplation of immutable truth
and the knowledge of divine and fpiritual objects. To
bring the mind to this Hate of perfection is a work of
fome difficulty, and requires a variety of intermediate
iteps. Mathematical fcience was with him the firft
itep to wifdom, becaufe it inures the mind to contem¬
plation, and takes a middle courfe between corporeal
and incorporeal beings. The whole fcience he divided
into two parts, nun ben and magnitude; and each of thefe
he fubdividecl into two others, the former into arithme¬
tic and rnvjjCf and the latter into magnitude at reji and in
motion ; the fonner of which comprehends geonutryy and
fhe latter nflronomy. Arithmetic he conlidered as the
nobleft fcience, and an acquaintance with numbers as
the higheft good. He confidered numbers as the princi¬
ples of every thing; and divided them into fcientific and
intelligible. Scientific number is the production of the
powers involved in unity, and its return to the fame ;
number is not infinite, but is tire fource of that infinite
divifibility into equal parts which is the property of all
bodies. Intelligible .numbers are thofe which exiiled
in the divine mind before all things. They are the mo¬
del or archetype of the w#rld, and the caufe of the ef-
fence of beings. Of the Monad, E)uad, Triad, Tetrad,
.and Decad, various explanations have been given by
various authors ; but nothing certain or important is
known of them. In all probability, numbers were ufed
by Pythagoras as fymbolical reprefentations of the firit
.principles and forms of nature, and efpecially of thofe
eternal and immutable effences which Plato denominated
ideas ; and in this cafe the Monad was the fimple root
from which he conceived numbers to proceed, and as
fuch, analogous to the fimple effence of deity ; from
whence, according to his fyllem, the various properties
of nature proceed.
Mufic followed numbers, and was ufeful in raifing
the mind above the dominion of tke paflions. Pytha¬
goras confidered it as a fcience to be reduced to mathe¬
matical principles and proportions, and is faid to have
difeovered the mufical chords from the circumftance of
i’everal men fuccefiively ftriking with hammers a piece
* hiflvry of heated iron upon an anvil. This ftory Dr Bufney*
Mujic, diferedits ; but allows, from the uniform teftimony of
v<,L i. writers ancient and modern, that he invented the bar-
*,,^r mcwzVtf/fflMon or monochord, (fee Monochord.) The
mufic of the fpliejes, of which every one has heard, was
a moll fanciful dottrine of Pythagoras. It was pro¬
duced, he imagined, by the planets ftriking on the ether
through which in their motion they palled; and he con¬
fidered their mufical proportions as exa£t, and their har¬
mony perfedl.
Pythagoras, as we have already feen, learned geome¬
try in Egypt ; but by inveftigating many new theorems,
and by digefting its principles, he reduced it to a more
regular fcience* A geometrical point, which he defines
3 1 P Y T
to be a monad, or unity with pofiticti, he faj s cctrfc- Py ha#»~
fponds to unity in arithmetic, a line to two, a fuperfi- ^ ‘ .j
cies to three, and a foil'd to four. He difeovered fe-
veral of the propofitior.s of Euclid ; and on dilcovering
the 47th of book 1 ft, he is faid to have offered a heca¬
tomb to the gods; hut as he was averfe to animal facri-
fices, this affiertion is fureiy falfe. His great progrefs
in aftronomical (cicnce has been mentioned elfewherc. See
Astronomy, n° 11,22; and Philosophy, n" 15, 16.
Wifdom, according to PytlHigoras, is eonverfant
with thole objects which are naturally immutable, eter¬
nal, and incorruptible ; and its end is to affimilate the hu¬
man mind to the divine, and to qualify us to join the
affemhly of the gods. Adlive and moral philofophy
preferibes rules and precepts for the condudl ol life, and
leads us to the pradlice of public and private virtue.—
On thefe heads many of his precepts were excellent, and
fome of them were whimfical and ufelefs. Theoreti¬
cal philofophy treats of nature and its origin, and is,
according to Pythagoras, the higheft objccl of ftudy.
It included all the profound myllerics which he taught,
of which hut little is now known. God he confiders
as the univerfal mind, diffufed through all things, and
the felf-moving principle of all things (wwro^jr.c-^cf re*
iravricj, aiKl pf whom every human foul is a portion *. * Cicero di
It is very probable, that he conceived of the Deity as ^ Sine&. § ir.
fubtle fire, eternal, adtive, and intelligent; which is not
iuconfillent with the idea of incorporeality, as the an¬
cients underlfood that term. This Deity was primarily
combined with the chaotic mafs of pafiivc matter, but
he had the power of fepatating himfelf, and fince the
reparation he has remained dillindl. The learned Cud-
worth contends, that Pythagoras maintained a trinity
of hypoftafes in the divine nature, fnnilar to the Pla¬
tonic triad (fee Platonism). We cannot fay that
his arguments appear to have much force; hut we think
the couclufion which he wifhes to eftablifh extremely pro¬
bable, as Plato certainly drew his dodtrine from fome of
the countries which Pythagoras had vifited before him.
Subordinate to the Deity there were in the Pytha¬
gorean creed three orders of intelligences, gods, demons,
and heroes, of different degrees of excellence and digni¬
ty. Thefe, together with the human foul, were confi¬
dered as emanations from the Deity, the particles of
fubtle ether affuming a groffer clothing the farther they
receded horn the fountain. Hierocles defines a hero
to be a rational mind united with a luminous body.
God himfelf was reprefented under the notion of mo¬
nad, and the fubordinate intelligences as numbers de¬
rived from and included in unity. Man is confidered
as confifting of an elementary nature and a divine or
rational foul. His foul, a felf-moving principle, is com-
pofed of twro parts; the rational, feated in the brain; and
the irrational, including the paflions, in the heart. In
both thefe refpedls he participates with the brutes,
whom the temperament of their body, &c. allows not
to aft rationally. The fenfltive foul perifttes; the other
affumes an ethereal vehicle, and palfes to the regions of
the dead, till fent back to the earth to inhabit font**
other body, brutal or human. See Metempsychosis.
It was unqueftionably tills notion which led Pythago¬
ras and his followers to deny themfelves the ufe of fleih,
and to be fo peculiarly merciful to animals of every' de*
feription. Some authors, however, fay, that flefh and
beans, the ufe of which he alfo forbad, were prohibited*
4 Y 2 bccaufe
P Y T [ 7H 1 . P Y T
Pytlia^fO. becaufe he fuppofed them to have been produced from
ras. the fame putrified matter, from which, at the creation
1 0f the world, man was formed.
Of the fymbols of Pythagoras little is known. They
have been religioudy concealed ; and though they have
awakened much curiolity, and occafiontd many ingeni¬
ous conje£lures, they ftill appear to us dark and tri¬
fling. As a fpecimen we give the following : “ Adore
the.found of the whifpering wind.• Stir not the fire
with a fword. Turn afide from an edged tool. Pafs
not over a balance. Setting out on a journey, turn not
back, for the furies will return with you. Breed no¬
thing that hath crooked talons. Receive not a fwal-
]ow into your houfe. Look not in a mirror by the
light of a candle. At a facrifice pair not your nails.
Eat not the heart or brain. Talte not that which hath
fallen from the table. Break not bread. Sleep not at
noon. When it thunders touch the earth. Pluck not
a crown. Roall not that which has been boiled. Sail
not on the ground. Plant not a palm. Breed a cock,
but do not facrifice it, for it is facred to the fun and
moon. Plant mallows in thy garden, but eat them not.
Abftain from beans.”
The following precepts are more important : “ Dif-
courfe not of Pythagorean doftrines without light.
Above all things^govern your tongue. Engrave not
the image of God in a ring. Quit not your Ration
without the command of your general. Remember
that the paths of virtue and of vice refemble the letter
■j-Sat. III. Y. To this fymbol Perfius refersf, when he fays,
Et tibl qua Sam'ios Jtchrxit liter a ramort
Surgentem dtxtro monjlravit limite collem.
There has the Samian Y’s inftru&ive make
Pointed the road thy doubtful foot fhould take ;
There warn’d thy raw and yet unpra&is’d youth,
To tread the rifmg right-hand path of truth.
The fcantinefs and uncertainty of our information
refpeding Pythagoras, renders a regular and complete
account of his life and do&rines impoflible. A mo-
\ Ancient dern author £ of profound erudition, pronounces him
JMctapby- to have been unqvcjiionably the wifeft man that ever li-
«/'"• ved, if his matters the Egyptian priefts mutt not be ex¬
cepted. This is faying a great deal too much ; but
that he was one of the moll diftingniflred philofophers
of antiquity, or, as Cicero expreffes it, vir praflanti
fapientuit appears very evident ; and his moral charac- Tytha’a-
ter has never been impeached. The myfterious air J
which he threw over his do&xines, and the apparent
inanity of fome of his fymbols, have indeed fubjedted
him to the charge of impotturc, and perhaps the charge
is not wholly groundlets : but when we confider the
age in which he lived, and the nature of the people
with whom he had to deal, who would in all probabi¬
lity have refitted more open innovations, even this will
not appear fo blameable as at firtt fight we are apt to
think it; and it is worthy of notice, that the worft do¬
ries of this kind have come down to us in a very que- ,
ftbnable fiiape, and with much probability appear to
be falfe.
PYTHAGOREANS, a fedl of ancient philofo¬
phers, fo called from being the followers of Pythago¬
ras. See the preceding article.
PYTHIA, the prieftefs of Apollo at Delphi, by
whom he delivered oracles. She was fo called from
Pythius, a name of that god, which is faid to have been
given him-on account of his vidlory over the ferpent
Python.
The Pythia was at firft required to be a young girl,
but in later times fhe was a woman of 50 years of age.
The firft and moll famous Pythia was Phemonoe. O-
racles were at firft delivered by her in hexameter verfe.
All the pythias were to be pure virgins, and all of them
delivered their oracles with great enthufiafnr and violent
agitations. See Oracle and Delphi.
PYTHIAN games, in Grecian antiquity, fports
inftitiited near Delphos in honour of Apollo, on ac¬
count of his Haying the ferpent Python. See Apol¬
lo.—Yhefe games, at their firft inftitution, were ce¬
lebrated only once in nine years ; but afterwards every
fifth year, from the number of the Parnafllan nymphs
who came to congratulate Apollo, and to make him
prefents on his vi&ory. The vi&or was crowned with
garlands,
PYTHON, in fabulous hiftory, a monilrous ferpent,
produced by the earth after Deucalion’s deluge. Juno
being exafperated at Latona, who was beloved by Jupi¬
ter, commanded this ferpent to deftroy her ; but flying
from the purfuit of the monfter, (he efcaped to Delos,
where ftie was delivered of Diana and Apollo; the latter
of whom at length deftroyed Python with his arrows,
in memory of which victory the Pythian games were in-
ftituted. See Apollo.
Q, or <7, the 16th letter and 12th confonant of
Jour alphabet; but is not to be found either in
the Greek, old Latin, or Saxon alphabets; and in¬
deed fome would entirely exclude it, pretending that
k ought to be ufed wherever this occurs. However, as
it is formed in the voice in a different manner, it is un¬
doubtedly a diftinft letter : for, in exprefiing this found,
the cheeks are contra died, and the lips, particularly the
under one, are put into a canular form, for the paffage
of the breath.
The q is never founded alone, but in conjundlion
with u, as in quality^ qucjlion, quite, quote, &c. and ne¬
ver ends any Englifir word.
As a numeral, Q^Jlands for 500 j and with a daflt
over it, thus Qj for 500,000.
Ufed as an abbreviature, q fignifies quantity^ or quan*
S turn*
A «n 67 5 -— *•""•“ — •
grave i Hi/}, very beautiful Brafilian bird, called alfo yacaunth, and
■2^/. porphyrlo Americanus. It is of a fine blackiih purple
colour, variegated with white ; its beak is white while
young,* but becomes red as it grow'S older, and has a
naked fpace at its balls, refembling in feme fort the
coot ; its legs are of a yellowilh green ; it lives about
the waters, and feeds' on filh, yet is a very well tailed
bird. It imitates the crowing of a comtnon cock, and
makes its mulic early in the morning.
QUACK, among phyficians, the fame with empiric.
See the article Empiric.
QUAD I, (Tacitus); a people of Germany, fituated
to the fouth-eall of the mountains of Bohemia, on the
banks of the Danube, and extending as far as the river
Marus, or March, running by Moravia, which country
they occupied.
QUADRAGESIMA, a denomination given to lent,
from its confilling of 40 days. See Lent.
QUADRANGLE, in geometry, the fame with a
quadrilateral figure, or one confilling of four tides and
four angles.
QUADRANS, the quarter or fourth part of any
thing, particularly the as, or pound.
Quadrans, in Englilh money, the fourth part of a
penny. Before the reign of Edward I. the fmallell
coin was a (lerllngt or penny, marked with a crofs ;
by the guidance of which a penny might be cut into
halves for a halfpenny, or into quarters or four parts
for farthings ; till, to avoid the fraud of unequal cut¬
tings, that king coined halfpence and farthings in di-
Hindl round pieces.
QUADRANT, in geometry, the arch of a circle,
containing 90°, or the fourth part of the entire peri¬
phery.
Q_ U A l 715
turn. Thus, among phyficians, y. M is quantum ph-
cct, i. e. “ as much as you pleafe” of a thing ; and
q. f. is quantum fufficti, i. e. “ as much as is necef-
fary.” Q^E. D. among mathematicians, is quod erat
drmonflrandum, i. e. “ which was to be demonllrated
and Q;_E. F. is quod erat faciendum, i. e. “ which was
to be done.” Q^D. among grammarians, is quafi dic¬
tum, i. e. “ as if it were faid or, “ as who Ihould
fay.” In the notes of the ancients, QJlands for Qu'm-
tin, or Shiintius; Q^ B. V. for quod b»ne -oertat ;
Q. S. S. S. for quefupra fcr'ipla funt ; Q_LM. for §>u:n-
tus Mutius, or quomodo; Quint, for Qu/nlilim ; and
Quxf. for q weft or.
QUAB, in ichthyology, the name of a Rufiian fifii,
which is faid to be at firil a tadpole, then a frog, and
at la 11 a filh. Dr Mounfey, who made many inquiries
concerning thefe pretended changes, confiders them
all as fabulous. He had opportunity of feeing the
filh itfelf, and found that they fpawned like other fi(Ties,
and grew in fize, without any appearances to juftify the
repoit. He adds, that they delight in very clear wa¬
ter, in rivers with fandy or llony bottoms, and are ne¬
ver found in Handing lakes, or in rivers pafiing through
marfhy or mofiy grounds, where frogs choofe moll to
be.
QUABES, are a free people of Africa, inhabiting
the fouthern banks of the river Sell os, and between that
and Sierra Leona. They are under the protection of
the emperor of Manow.
QUACHA, or quagga. See Equus, n° 5.
QUACHILTO, in ornithology, is the name of a
1 TU A •
Sometimes nlfo the fpace or area, included between
this arch and two radii drawn from the centre to each ' *
extremity thereof, is called a quadrant, or, more pro¬
perly, a quadrantal/pace, as being a quarter of an en¬
tire circle.
Quadrant, alfo denotes a mathematical infirument
of great ufe in allronomy and navigation, for taking
the altitudes of the fun and liars, as alfo for taking
angles in furveying, &c.
This inftrument is varioufiy contrived, and fumilhed
with different apparatus, according to the various ufes
it is intended for ; but they all have this in common,
that they confill of a quarter of a circle, whofe limb is
divided into 90°. Some have a plummet fufpended
from the centre, and are furnilhed with fights to look
through.
The principal and moll ufeful quadrants are the com¬
mon furveying quadrant,allronomical quadrant, Adams s
quadrant, Cole s quadrant, Gunter’s quadrant, Hadley’s
quadrant, horodidlical quadrant, Sutton’s or Collins’s
quadrant, and the finical quadrant, &c. Of each of which
in order.
1. The common furveying quadrant, is made of brafs, ^
wood, or any other folid fubitancc ; the limb of which
is divided into 90°, and each of thefe farther divided
into as many equal parts as the fpace will allow, either
diagonally or otherwife. On one of the femidiameters
are fitted two moveable fights ; and to the centre is
fometimes alfo fixed a label, or moveable index, bearing
two other fights ; but in lieu of thefe lail fights there
is fometimes fitted a telefcope : alfo from the centre
there is hung a thread with a plummet; and on the
under fide or face of the inftrument is fitted a ball and
focket, by means of which it may be put into any po-
fition. The general ufe of it is for taking angles in a
vertical plane, comprehended under right lines going
from the centre of the inftrument, one of which is ho¬
rizontal, and the other is dire&ed to fome vifible point.
But befides the parts already deferibed, there is fre¬
quently added on the face, near the centre, a kind ol
compartment, called the quadrat, or geometrical fquare.
See Quadrat.
This quadrant may be ufed in different fituations :
for obferving heights or depths, its plane muft be dil-
pofed perpendicularly to the horizon ; but to take ho¬
rizontal diftances, its plane is difpofed parallel thereto.
Again, heights and diftances may be taken two ways,
viz. by means of the fixed fights and plummet, or by
the label : As to which, and the manner of meafuring
angles, fee Geometry, p. 674, &c.
2. The aftronomical quadrant is a large one, ufually
made of brafs, or wooden bars faced with iron plates ;
having its limb nicely divided, either diagonally or
otherwife, into degrees, minutes, and feconds ; and tur-
nifiied with two telefcopes, one fixed on the fide of the
quadrant, and the other moveable about the centre, by
means of the ferew. There are alfo dented wheels
which ferve to dired the inilrument to any objcdl or
phenomenon.—The ufe of this curious inftrument, in
taking obfervations of the fun, planets, and fixed liars,
is obvious; for being turned horizontally upon its axis,
by means of the telefcope, till the objed is feen through
the moveable telefcope, then the degrees, &c. cut by
the index give the altitude required. See Astronomy,
P* 587>
3. Colc’a
■f^adrant.
CL V A C 7
3. Cole’s quadrant is a very ufeful inftrumtnt invent-
_ ed by Mr Benjamin Cole. It confifta of 6 parts, viz.
cc t.x'xvii t}ie ftafFAB (lig. I.) ; the quadrantal arch DE ; three-
vanes A, B, C ; and the vernier EG. The Haft is a
bar of wood about two feet long, an inch and a quarter
broad, and of a fufiicient thicknefs to prevent it from
bending or warping. The quadrantal arch is alfo of
wood ; and is divided into degrees, and third-parts
of a degree, to a radius of about’nine inches ; to its ex¬
tremities are fitted two radii, which meet in the centre
of the quadrant by a pin, round which it eafily moves.
The fight-vane A is a thin piece of brais, almoll two
inches in height and one broad, placed perpendicularly
on the end of the Half A, by the help of two ferews
palling through its foot. T hrough the middle of this
vane is drilled a fmall hole, through which the coinci¬
dence or meeting of the horizon and folar fpot is to be
viewed. The horizon vane B is about an inch broad,
and two inches and a half high, having a Hit cut thro’
it of near an inch long and a quarter of an inch broad ;
this vane is fixed in the centre-pin of the inllrument, in
k perpendicular pofition, by the help of two ferews puf¬
fing through its foot, whereby its pofition with refpedt
to the fight-vane is always the fame, their angles of in¬
clination being equal to 45 degrees. The (hade-vane
C is compofed of two brafs plates. The one, which
ferves as an arm, is about four inches and a half long,
and three quarters of an inch broad, being pinned at
one end to the upper limb of the quadrant by a ferew,
about which it has a fmall motion ; the other end lies
in the arch, and the lower edge of the arm is diredied
to the middle of the centre-pin ; the other plate, which
is properly the vane, is about two inches long, being
fixed perpendicularly to the other plate, at about half
an inch diftance from that end next the arch ; this vane
may be ufed either by its (hade or by the folar fpot
call by a convex lens placed therein. And, becauie
the wood-work is often apt to warp or twill, therefore
ibis vane may be redtified by the help of a ferew, fo
that the warping of the inllrument may occafion no er¬
ror in the obfervation, which is performed in the fol¬
lowing manner : Set the line G on the vernier againft
a degree on the upper limb «f the quadrant, and turn
the ferew on the backfide of the limb forward or back¬
ward, till the hole in the fight-vane, the centre of the
glafs, and the funk fpot in the horizon-vane, lie in a
right line. '
To find the fun’s altitude by this inllrument: Turn
your back to the fun, holding the inftrument by the
llaff with your right hand, fo that it he in a vertical
plane pafling through the fun ; apply your eye to the
fight-vane, looking through that and the horizon-vane
till you fee the horizon ; with the left hand Hide the
quadrantal arch upwards, until the folar fpot or (hade,
call by the ftiade-vane, lull diredtly on the fpot or flit
in the horizon-vane ; then will that part of the qua¬
drantal arch, which is raifed above G or S (according
as the obfervation refpedled either the folar fpot or
(hade) fhow the altitude of the fun at that time. But if
the meridian altitude be required, the obfervation mult
be continued ; and as the fun approaches the meridian,
the fea will appear through the horizon-vane, and then
is the obfervation finilhed ; and the degrees and mi¬
nutes, counted as before, will give the fun’s meridian
jC ] CL U A
altitude : or the degrees counted from the lower limb Q*»a4r#n»,
upwards will give the zenith-diftance. v--—y—
4. Adams’s quadrant dilfers only from Cole’s qua¬
drant in having an horizontal vane, with the upper
part of the limb lengthened ; io that the glals, which
calls the fol ir fpot on the horizon-vane, is at the lame
diltance from the horizon-vane as the fight-vane at the
end of the index.
5. Gunter’s quadrant, fo called from its inventor Ed¬
mund Gunter, belides the ufual apparatus of other
quadrants, has a llereographical piojedlion of the
fphere on the plane of the equinoctial. It has dlfo
a kalendar of the months, next to the divifiona af the
limb.
UJe of Gunter's quadrant* 1. To find the fun’s me¬
ridian altitude for any given day, or the day of the
month for any given meridian altitude. Lay the thread
to the day oi the month in the fcale next the limb; and
the degree it cuts in the limb is the fun’s meridian al¬
titude. Thus tiie thread, being laid on the 15th of
May, cuts 30, the altitude fought; and, con t ran-
ly, the thread, being fet to the meridian altitude, (hows
the day of the month. 2. Tqfind the hour of the day.
Having put the head, which Hides ou the thread, to
the fun’s place in the ecliptic, obferve the fun’s alti¬
tude by the quadrant; then, it the thread be laid over
the fame in the limb, the bead will fall upon the hour
required. Thus fuppofe on the 10th of April, the
fun being then in the beginning of Taurus, I obferve
the fun’s altitude by the quadrant to be 361; l place
the bead to the beginning of Taurus in the ecliptic,
and lay the thread over 36° of the limb ; and find the
bead to fall on the hour-line marked 3 and 9 ; accord¬
ingly the hour is either 9 in the morning or 3 in the
afternoon. Again, laying the head on the hour given,
having firlt reClified or put it to the fun’s place, the
degree cut by the thread on the limb gives the altitude.
Note, the head may be retlified otherwile, by bringing
the thread to the day of the month, and the head to
the hour-line of 12. 3. To find the inn’s declination
from his place given, and contrail wife. Set the bead
to the Inn’s place in the ecliptic, move the thread to
the line of declination, and the head will cut the
degree of declination required. Contrarily, the bead
being adjulled to a given declination, and the thread
moved to the ecliptic, the head will cut the fun’s place.
4. The fun’s place being given, to find his right afeen-
fion, or contrarily. Lay the thread on the fun’s place
in the ecliptic, and the degree it cuts on the limb is the
right afeenfion fought. Contrarily, laying the thread
on the right afeenfion, it cuts the fun’s place in the
ecliptic. 5. The fun’s altitude being given, to find his
azimuth, and contrariwile. Redlify the bead for the
time, as in the lecond article, and obferve the fun’s al¬
titude : bring the thread to the complement of that al¬
titude ; thus the bead will give the azimuth fought,
among the azimuth lines. 6. To find the hour of the
night from fome of the five liars laid down on the qua¬
drant. ( 1.) Put the bead to the liar you would ob-
ferve, and rind how many hours it is oft' the meridian,
by article 2. (2.) Then, from the right afeenfion of
the liar, fubtracl the fun’s right afeenfion converted in¬
to hours, and mark the difference; which difference,
added to the obierved hour of the liar from the meri-
7 dian.
QUA [ 727 ] U A
Chiadrant. dian, (hows how many hours the fun is gone from the zontal circle beneath its axis, and then gives the refrac-
 meridian, which is the hour of the night. Suppofe on tions independent of the menfuration of t.me.
the i eth of May the fun is in the 4th degree of Ge- 6. Hadley’s quadrant is an milrument ol vaft utility
mini, I fet the bead to Ar&urus; and, obfervytg his al¬
titude, find him to be in the weft about 5 2° high, and
the bead to fall on the hour-line of 2 in the afternoon ;
then will the hour be 11 hours 50 minutes paft noon,
or to minutes fliort of midnight: tor 62 , the fun s
tight afcenfion, converted into time, makes 4 hours 8
minutes; which, fubtra&ed from 13 hours 58 mi¬
nutes, the right afcenfion of Ardturus, the remainder
will be 9 hours 50 minutes ; which added to 2 hours,
the obferved diftance of Ardlurus from the meridian,
(hows the hour of the night to be 1J hours 5 O mi¬
nutes.
The mural quadrant has already been defcribed under
the article Astronomy, 0^497. It is a moft important
jnftrument, and has of late been much improved by Mr
Ramfden, who has diftinguifhed himlelf by the accu¬
racy* of his divifions, and by the manner in which he fi-
nifiies the planes by working them in a vertical pofi-
tion. He places the plumb-line behind the inftrument,
that there may be no neceflity for removing it when we
take an obfeivation near the zenith. His manner of
fufpending the glafs, and that of throwing light on the
objedt-glafs and qn the divifions at the fame time, are
new, and improvements that deferve to be noticed.
Thofe of eight feet, which he has made for the obfer-
vatories of Padua and Vilna, have been examined by Dr
Malkelyne; and the greateft error does not exceed two
feconds and a half. That of the fame fize for the^ ob-
fervatory of Milan is in a very advanced ftate. The
mural quadrant, of fix feet, at Blenheim, is a moft ad¬
mirable inftrument. It is fixed to four pillars, which
turn on two pivots, fo that it may be put to the north
and to the fouth in one minute. It was for this inftru-
ment Mr Ramfden invented a method of rectifying the
arc of 90 degrees, on which an able aftronomer had
darted fome difficulties; but by means of an horizontal
line and a plumb-line, forming a kind of crofs, without
touching the circle, he ftiowed him that there was not
an error of a fingle fecond in the 90 degrees ; and that
the difterence was occafioned by a mural quadrant of
Bird, in which the arc of 90 degrees was too great by
feveral feconds, and which had never been rectified by
fo nice a method as that of Mr Ramfden.
But the quadrant is not the inftrument which Hands
higheft in Mr Ramfden’s opinion ; it is the complete
circle : and he has demonftrated to M. de la Lande,
that the former muftbe laid afide, if we would arrive at
the utmoft exaCtnefs of which an obfervation is capable.
His principle reafons are: 1. The leaft variation in the
centre is perceived by the two diametrically oppofite
points. 2. The circle being worked on the turn, the
furface is always of the greateft accuracy, which it is
impoffible to obtain in the quadrant. 3. We may al¬
ways have two meafures of the fame arc, which will
ferve for the verification of each other. 4. I he firft
point of the divifion may* be verified every day with the
utmoft facility. 5. The dilatation ot the metal is uni¬
form, and cannot produce any error. 6. This inftru¬
ment is a meridian glafs at the fame time. 7. It alfo
becomes a moveable azimuth circle by adding an hori-
both in navigation and pradlical aftronomy*. It derives
its name from Mr Hadley*, who firft publifhed an ac¬
count of it, though the firft thought originated with
the celebrated Dr Hooke, and was completed by Sir
Ilaac Newton (fee Astronomy, n° 32. and alfo n 17.
and 22.) The utility of this quadrant arifes from the
accuracy and precifion with which it enables us to de¬
termine the latitude and longitude; and to it is naviga¬
tion much indebted for the very great and rapid advances
it has made of late years. It is eafy to manage, and of
extenfive ufe, requiring no peculiar fteadineis of hand,
nor any fuch fixed bafis as is neccflary to other aftro-
nomieal inftruments. It is ufed as an inftrument for
taking angles in maiitime furvey ing, and with equal fa¬
cility at the maft head as upon the deck, by which its
fphere of obfervation is much extended ; for fuppofing
many* iflands to be vifible from the maft head, and only
one from deck, no ufcful obfervation can be made by
any other inftrument. But by this, angles may he ta¬
ken at the maft head from the one vifible object with
great exaftnefs; and further, taking angles from
heights, as hills, or a (hip mart’s head, is almoft the
only way of exa&ly deferibing the figure and extent of
fhoals.
It has been obje&ed to the ufe of tins inftniment
for furveying, that it does not meafure the horizontal
angles, by which alone a plan can be laid down. J'his
objeftion, however true in theory, may be reduc.ed in
practice by a little caution ; and Mr Adams has given
very good directions for doing fo.
Notwithftanding, however, the manifeil fuperiority
of this inftrument over thofe that were in ufe at the
time of its publication, it was many years before the
Tailors could be perfuaded to adopt it, and lay afide
their imperfeCt and inaccurate inftruments; fo great is
the difficulty to remove prejudice, and emancipate the
mind from the fiavery of opinion. No inftrument has
undergone, fince the original invention, more changes
than the quadrant of Hadley ; of the various altera¬
tions, many had no better foundation than the caprice
of the makers, who by thefe attempts have often ren¬
dered the inftrument more complicated in conffruftion,
and more difficult in ufe, than it was in its original ftate.
It is an effential property of this iuftrument, derived
from the laws of reflcCfion, that halt degrees on the arch
anfwer to whole ones in the angles meafured: hence an
oClant, or the eighth part of a circle, or 45 degrees on
the arch, ferves to meafure 90 degrees; and fextants
will meafure an angular diftance of 120 degrees, tho*
the arch of the inftrument is no more than 6 degrees.
It is from this property that foreigners term that in-
ftrument an ocl inty which we ufually call a quadrantt
and which in effeCf it is. This property reduces in¬
deed conliderably the bulk of the inftrument : but at
the fame time it calls for the utmoft accuracy in the
divifions, as every Viror on die arch is doubled in the
obfervation.
Another effential, and indeed an invaluable, proper¬
ty of this inftrument, whereby it is rendered peculiarly
advantageous in marine obfcrvations,is,that it is not liable
to
Q_ U A
Qpdrart. to be difturbed by the (hip’s motion ; Tor provided
the mariner can lee diftinftly the two objects in the field
of his inflrument, no motion nor vacillation of the (hip
will injure his obfervation.
Thirdly, the errors to which it is liable are eafily dif-
covered and readily rectified, while the application and
ufe of it is facile and plain.
To find whether the two furfaces of any one of the
refledh'ng glaffes be parallel, apply your eye at one end
of it, and obferve the image of fome objedf refledled
very obliquely from it ; if that image appears fingle,
and well-defined about the edges, it is a proof that the
furfaces are parallel; on the contrary, if the edge of
the reflefted images appear milled, as if it threw a
(hadow from it, or feparated like two edges, it is a
proof that the two furfaces of the glafs are inclined to
each other : if the image in the fpeculum, particularly
if that image be the fun, be viewed through a fmall te-
lefcope, the examination will be more perfedl.
To find whether the furface of a refledting glafs
be plane. Choofe two diftant objefts, nearly on a level
with each other: hold the inftrument in an horizontal
polition, view the left hand objedl diredlly through the
tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs, and move the in¬
dex till the refledled image of the other is feen below it
in the filvered part; make the two images unite juft
at the line of feparation, then turn the inftrument round
(lowly on its own plane, fo as to make the united images
move along the line of feparation of the horizon-glafs.
11 the images continue united without receding from
each other, or varying their refpedtive pofition, the re-
fledling furface is a good plane.
To find if the two furfaccs of a red or darkening
glafs are parallel and perfedly plane. This muft be
done by means of the fun when it is near the meridian,
in the following manner : hold the fextant vertically,
and diredt the fight to fome objedl in the horizon, or
between you and the Iky, under the fun ; turn down
the red glafs and move the index till the refieded imasre
ol the fun is in contad with the objed feen diredly :
fix then the index, and turn the red glafs round in its
fquare frame ; view the fun’s image and objed imme¬
diately, and if the fun’s image is neither railed nor de-
prefled, but continues in contad with the objed be¬
low, as before, then the furfaces of the darkening glafs
are true.
For a more particular defcription of Hadley’s qua¬
drant, and the mode pf uling it, fee Navigation,
Book II. Chap. I.
This inftrument has undergone feveral improvements
fxnce its firft invention, and among thefe improvers muft
be ranked Mr Ramfden. He found that the elfential
parts of the quadrant had not a fufficient degree of fo-
lidity ; the fridion at the centre was too great, and
in general the alidada might be moved feveral minutes
without any change in the pofition of the mirror ; the
divifions were commonly very inaccurate, and Mr Ramf¬
den found that Abbe de la Caille did not exceed the
truth in eftimating at five minutes the error to which
an obferver was liable in taking the diftailce between
the moon and a ftar; an error capable of producing a
mi'lake of 50 leagues in the longitude. On this ac¬
count Mr Ramfden changed the principle of conltruc-
Q, U A
tion of the centre, and made the inflrument in fuch a Quadrant,
manner as never to give an error of more than half a ——v"""4
minute ; and he has now brought them to fuch a de¬
gree of perfedion as to warrant it not more than fix
feconds in a quadrant of fifteen inches. Since the time
of having improved them, Mr Ramfden has conftruded
an immenfe number ; and in feveral which have been
carried to the Fall Indies and America, the deficiency
has been found no greater at their return than it had-
been determined by examinations before their being ta¬
ken out. Mr Ramfden has made them from 15 inches
to an inch and a half, in the latter of which the minutes
are eafily diftinguilhable ; but he prefers for general ule
thofe of 10 inches, as being more eafily handled than
the greater, and at the fame time capable of equal ac¬
curacy. See Sextant.
A great improvement was alfo made in the con-
ftrudion of this quadrant by Mr Peter Dollond, fa¬
mous for his invention of achromatic telefcopes. The
glafles of the quadrants Ihould be perfed planes, and
have their furfaces perfedly parallel to one another. By
a pradice of feveral years, Mr Dollond found out me¬
thods of grinding them of this form to great exad-
nefs ; but the advantage which ftiould have arifen from
the goodnefs of the glafles was often defeated by the
index-glafs being bent by the frame which contains it.
To prevent this, Mr Dollond contrived the frame fo
that the glafs lies on three points, and the part that
prefles on the front of the glafs has alfo three points op-
pofite to the former. Theie points are made to confine
the glafs by three ferews at the back, ading diredl)r
oppoiite to the points between which the glais is pla¬
ced. The principal improvements, however, are in the
methods of adjuiting the glades, particularly for the
back-obfervation. The method formerly pradifed for
adjufting that part of the inftrument by means of the
oppofite horizons at fea, was attended with fo many
difficulties that it was fcarce ever ufed : for fo little de¬
pendence could be placed on the obfervations taken
this way, that the beft Hadley’s fextants made for the
purpofe of obferving the diftances of the moon from the
fun or fixed ftars have been always made without the
horizon-glafs for the back-obfervation ; for want of
which, many valuable obfervations of the fun and moon
have been loft, when their diilance exceeded 120 de¬
grees. To make the adjuftment of the back-obferva¬
tion eafy and exad, he applied an index to the back
horizon-glafs, by which, it may be moved in a parallel
pofition to the index-glafs, in order to give it the two ad-
jullments in the fame manner as the fore-horizon-glafs
is adjufted. Then, by moving the index to which the
back-horizon-glafs is fixed exactly 90 degrees (which
is known by the divifions made for that purpofe), the
glafs will thereby be fet at right angles to the index-
glafs, and will be properly adjlifted for ufe; and the
obfervations may' be made with the fame accuracy by
this as by the fore-obfervation. To adjuft the horizon-
glafles in the perpendicular pofition to the plane of the
inftrument, he contrived to move each of them by a
fingle ferew, which goes through the frame of the qua¬
drant, and is turned by means of a milled head at the
back ; which may be done by the obferver while he is
looking at the object. To thefe improvements alfo
he
r 7*8 ]
Q_ U A [ 7-2
Quadrant, he added a method invented by Mr Mafkelyne, of pla-
    cing darkening-glaffes behind the horizon-glalies. 'I’heie,
which ferve for darkening the objeft feen by diredt
vilion, in adjlifting the inftrument by the fun or moon,
he placed in fuch a manner as to be turned behind the
fore horizon-glafs, or behind the back horizon-glafs :
there are thi’ee of thefe glaffcs of different degrees of
tlarknefs. _ -
We have been the more particular in our defcription
and ufe of Hadley’s quadrant, as it is undoubtedly the
heft hitherto invented.
7. Horodi&ical quadrant, a pretty commodious in-
ftrument, fo called from its ufe in telling the hour of
Pla»e the day.—Its conftrudf ion is this : From the centre of
ccccxxvn.the quadrant, C, fig. 3. whofe limb AB is divided into
90°, deferibe feven concentric circles at intervals at
pleafure ; and to thefe add the figns of the zodiac, in
the order reprefented in the figure. Then applying a
ruler to the centre C and the limb AB, mark upon
the fcveral parallels the degrees correfponding to the
altitude of the fun when therein, for the given hours ;
conneft the points belonging to the fame hour with a
curve line, to which add the number of the hour. To
the radius C A fit a couple of fights, and to the centre
of the quadrant C tie a thread with a plummet, and
upon the thread a bead to Aide. If now the thread be
brought to the parallel wherein the fun is, and the qua¬
drant direfted to the fun, till a vifual ray pafs through
the fights, the bead will fhow the hour ; for the plum¬
met, in this fitu Vion, cuts all the parallels in the de¬
grees correfponding to the fun’s altitude. Since the
bead is in the parallel which the fun deferibes, and
through the degrees of altitude to which the fun is ele¬
vated every hour there pafs hour-lines, the bead muft
fhow the prefent hour. Some reprefent the hour-lines
by arches of circles, or even by ftraight lines, and that
» without any fenfible error.
8. Sutton’s or Collins’s quadrant (fig. 4.) is a fte-
reographic proje&ion of one quarter of the fphere be¬
tween the tropics, upon the plane of the ecliptic, the
eye being in its north-pole : it is fitted to the latitude
of London. The lines running from the right hand
to the left are parallels of altitude ; and thofe crofting
them are azimuths. The leffer of the two circles,
bounding the proje&ion, is one fourth of the tropic of
Capricorn ; the greater is ane fourth of that of Cancer.
The two ecliptics are drawn from a point on the left
edge of the quadrant, with the charafters of tl>2 figns
upon them ; and the two horizons are drawn from the
fame point. The limb is divided both into degrees and
time; and, by having the fun’s altitude, the hour of
the day may be found here to a minute. The qua-
drantal arches next the centre contain the kalendar of
months ; and under them, in another arch, is the fun’s
declination. On the proje&ion are placed feveral ot
the moft noted fixed ftars between the tropics; and the
next below the projection is the quadrant and line of
lhadows.—To find th£ time of the fun’s rifing or fet-
ting, his amplitude, his azimuth, hour of the day, &c.
by this quadrant 1 lay the thread over the day and the
month, and bring the bead to the proper ecliptic, ei¬
ther of fummer or winter, according to the feafon,
which is called reSifying; then, moving the thread,
bring the bead to the horizon, in which cafe the thread
will cut the limb in the time of the fun’s rifieg or fet-
Vol. XV. Part II.
9 1
U A
ting before or after fix ; and at the fame time the bead Qna -r
will cut the horizon in the degrees of the fun’s ampli-
tude.—Again, obferving the fun’s altitude with the
quadrant, and fuppofing it found 45° on the fifth of
May, lay the thread over the fifth of May, bring the
bead to the fummer ecliptic, and carry it to the pa¬
rallel of altitude 45° ; in which cafe the thread will
cut the limb at 550 15', and the hour will be feen
among the hour-lines to be either 41' paft nice in the
morning, or 19' paft two in the afternoon. — Laltly,
the bead among the azimuths fliows the fun’s diftancr
from the fouth 50*' 41'. But note, that if the fun’s al¬
titude be lefs than what it is at fix o’clock, the opera¬
tion muft be perfonned among thofe parallels above the
upper horizon ; the bead being reCtited to the winter
ecliptic.
9. Sinical quadrant (fig. 5.) confifts of feveral con¬
centric quadrantal arches, divided into eight equal paits
by radii, with parallel right lines crofting each other
at right angles. Now any one of the arches, as BG,
may reprefent a quadrant of any great circle of the
fphere, but is chiefly ufed for the horizon or mcridiau
If then BC he taken for a quadrant of the horizon,
-either of the fides, as AB, may reprefent the meridian;
and the other fide, AC, will reprefent a parallel, or line
of eaft and weft : and all the other lines, parallel to AB,
will be alfo meridians; and all thofe parallel to AC,
eaft and weft lines, or parallels.—Again, the eight fpa-
ces into which the arches are divided by the radii, repie-
fent the eight points of the compafs in a quarter of the
horizon; each containing ii° 15'* The arch BC is
likewife divided into 90 , and each degree fubdivided
into 1 2', diagonal-wife. To the centre is fixed a thread,
which, being laid over any degree of the quadrant, ferve*
to divide the horizon.
If the finical quadrant be taken for a fourth part
of the meridian, one fide thereof, AB, may be taken
for the common radius of the meridian and equator ;
and then the other, AC, will be half the axis of the
world. The degrees of the circumference, BC, will
reprefent degrees of latitude ; and the parallels to the
fide AB, aifumed from every point of latitude to the
axis AC, will be radii of the parallels of latitude, as
likewife the fine complement of thofe latitudes.
Suppofe, then, it be required to find the degees of
longitude contained in 83 of the lefler leagues in the
parallel of 48^; lay the thread over 48° of latitude on
the circumference, and count thence the 83 leagues on
AB, beginning at A ; this will terminate in H, allow¬
ing every fmall interval four leagues. Then tracing out
the parallel HE, from the point H to the thread; the
part AE of the thread ftiows that 125 greater or equi-
nottial leagues make 6° 15'; and therefore that the 83
lefl’er leagues AH, which make thedifterence of longitude
of the courfe, and are equal to the radius ot the parallel
HE, make 6° 1 5' of the faid parallel.
If the (hip fails an oblique courfe, fuch courfe, be-
fides the north and fouth greater leagues, gives lefler
leagues eafterly and wefterly, to be reduced to de¬
grees of longitude ot the equator. But thefe leagues
being made neither on the parallel of departure, nor
on that of arrival, but in all the intermediate ones, we
mutt find a mean proportional parallel between them.
To find this, we have on the inftrument a fcale of crofs
latitudes. Suppofe then it were required to find a
4 Z mean
Quadrant mean
' II
Quadrat.
QUA r
parallel between the parallels of 40° and 600 ;
with your compares take the middle between the 40th
and 60th degree on this fcale: the middle, point will
terminate again ft the 51ft degree, which is the mean
parallel required.
The principal ufe of the finical quadrant is to form
triangles upon, fimilar to thofe made by a fhip s way
with the meridians and parallels; the lides of which
triangles are meafured by the equal intervals between
the concentric quadrants and the lines N and S, T and
W : and every fifth line and arch is made deeper than
the reft. Now, fuppofe a {hip to have failed 1 <?o leagues
north-eaft, one fourth north, which is the third point,
and makes an angle of 330 44' with the north part ol
the meridian : here are given the courfe and diltance
failed, by which a triangle may be formed on the in-
ftrument fimilar to that made by the {hip’s courfe ; and
hence the unknown parts of the triangle may be found.
Thus, fuppoiing the centre A to reprefent the place
of departure ; count, by means of the concentric circles
along the point the fhip failed on, viz. AD, 150
leagues: then in the triangle AED, fimilar to that of
the {hip’s courfe, find AE ~ difference of latitude, and
DE = difference of longitude, which mull be reduced
according to the parallel of latitude come to.
10. Gunner’s quadrant (fig. 6.), fometimes called
gunner's fquare, is that ufed for elevating and pointing
cannon, mortars,. &c. and confifts of two branches ei¬
ther of brafs or wood, between which is a quadrantal
arch divided into 90 degrees, beginning from the Ihorter
branch, and fumiftied with a thread and jilummet, as
reprefented in the figure. The ufe of the gunner’s
quadrant is extremely eafy ; for if the longeft branch
be placed in the mouth of the piece, and it be elevated till
the plummet cut the degree neceffary to hit a propo-
fed objeft, the thing is done. Sometimes on one of
the furfaces of the long branch are noted the divifion
of diameters and weights of iron bullets, as alfo the
bores of pieces.
Quadrant of Altitude, is an appendage of the arti¬
ficial globe, confifting of a lamina, or flip of brafs, the
length of a quadrant of one of the great circles ot the
globe, and graduated. At the end, where the divi¬
fion terminates, is a nut rivetted on, and furniftied with
a ferew, by means whereof the inftrument is fitted on
the meridian, and moveable round upon the rivet to all
points of the horizon. Its ufe is to ferve as a fcale
in meafuring of altitudes, amplitudes, azimuths, &c.
See Astronomy, n0 379, &c.
QUADRANTAL, in antiquity, the name of a
veffel in ufe among the Romans for the meafuring of
liquids. It was at firft called amphora ; and afterwards
quadrantal, from its form, which was fquare every way
like a die. Its capacity was 80 librae, or pounds of
water, which made 48 fextaries, two urnae, or eight
congii.
QUADRAT, a mathematical inftrument, called alfo
a Geometrical Square, and Line of Shadows : it is fre¬
quently an additional member on the face of the com¬
mon quadrant, as alfo on thofe of Gunter’s and Sutton’s
quadrants. See Geometry, p. 672. and PlateCCXVIE
%• I —S’
Quadrat, in printing, a piece of metal ufed to fill
up the void {paces between words, &c. There are qua-
Quidriga.
7,-SO 1 QUA
drats of diflerent fizes; as m-quadrats, n-quadrats, &c. Quadratic
which are refpettively of the dimenfions of thefe letters,
only lower, that they may not receive the ink.
QUADRATIC equations, in algebra, thofe
wherein the unknown quantity is of two dimenfions, or
raifed to the fecond power. See Algebra.
QUADRATRIX, in geometry, a mechanical line,
by means whereof we can find right lines equal to the
circumference of circles, or other curves, and their fe-
veral parts.
QUADRATURE, in geometry, denotes the fqua-
ring, or reducing a figure to a fquare. Thus, the find¬
ing of a fquare, which fhall contain juft as much fur-
face or area as a circle, an ellipiis, a triangle, &c. is
the quadrature of a circle, ellipfis, &c. The quadra¬
ture, efpecially among the ancient mathematicians, was
a great poftulatum. The quadrature of rectilineal
figures is eafily found, for it is merely the finding their
areas or furfaces i. e. their fquares ; for the fquares of
equal areas are eafily found by only extracting the roots
of the areas thus found. See Geometry, Part II.
chap. 3. The quadrature of curvilinear fpaces is of
more difficult inveftigation; and in this refpedt extremely
little was done by the ancients, except the finding the
quadrature of the parabola by Archimedes. In 1657,
Sir Paul Neil, Lord Brouncklr, and Sir Chriftopher
Wren, geometrically demonftrated the equality of fome
curvilinear fpaces to reCtilinear fpaces ; and foon after
the like was proved both at home and abroad of other
curves, and it was afterwards brought under an analy¬
tical calculus ; the firft fpecimen of which was given
to the public in 1688 by Mercator, in a demonftration
of Lord Brouncker’s quadrature of the hyperbola, by
Dr Wallis’s reduftion -iff a fraction into an infinite fe-
ries by divifion. Sir Ifaac Newton, however, had be¬
fore difeovered a method of attaining the quantity of all
quadruple curves analytically by his fluxions before
1668. It is difputed between Sir Chriftopher Wren
and Mr Huygens which of them firft difeovered the
quadrature of any determinate cycloidal fpace. Mr Leib¬
nitz afterwards found that of another fpace; and in 1669
Bernoulli difeovered the quadrature of an infinity of cy¬
cloidal fpaces both fegmeqts and fe&ors, &c. See Geo¬
metry, Part II. chap. 3. prop. 33.; and Fluxions,
P- 314-
Quadrature, in aftronomy, that afpeCl of the moon
when Ihe is 900 diftant from the fun ; or when {he is
in a middle point of her orbit, between the points of
coniunCtion and oppofition, namely, in the firft and
njunCtion
third quarters. See Astronomy, n° 32°>
QUADRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to fe^
veral mufcles on account of their fquare figure. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
QUADREL, in building, a kind of artificial ftone,
fo called from its being perfeftly fquare. The quadrels
are made of a chalky earth, &c. and dried in the {hade
for two years. Thefe were formerly in great requell
among the Italian architects.
QUADRIGA, in antiquity, a car or chariot drawn
by four horfes. On the reveries of medals, we fre¬
quently fee the emperor or Victory in a quadriga, hold¬
ing the reins of the horfes; whence thefe coins are,
among the curious, called nummi quadrigati, and vitto-
riaft.
s Qua-
Quadrille.
Q. U A [73
QiiadrUate* QtTADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure
r,*,’ vvhoi'e perimeter conlifts of four fides and four angles ;
whence it is alfo called a quadrangular figure.
QUADRILLE, a little troop or company of cava¬
liers, pompoufly drcfled, and mounted for the perform¬
ance of caroufals, jlifts, tournaments, runnings at the
ring, and other gallant divertifements.
Quadrille, a game played by four pcrfons, with
40 cards; which are the remains of a pack, after the
four tens, nines, and eights - are difcarded ; thefe are
dealt three and three, and one round four, to the
right hand player; and the trump is made by him that
plays with or without calling, by naming fpades, clubs,
diamonds, or hearts, and the fuit named is trumps. If
the perfon who names the trump ftiould miftake, and
fay fpades inftead of clubs, or if he name two fuits, the
trft named is the trump.
In this game the order of the cards, according to their
natural value, is as follows: of hearts and diamonds, king)
queen, knave,ace, deuce, three, four,five,fix./eveni in all 10;
of fpades and clubs, king, queen, knave,/even, fix, five, four,
three, deuce; in all 9. The reafon why the ace of fpades
and ace of clubs are not mentioned, is, becaufe they are
always trumps, in whatever fuit that is played. The
ace of fpades being always the firft, and the ace of
clubs the third trump} for the cards ranked accord¬
ing to their value when trumps Hand in the following
order.
Hearts and diamonds spadill, or the ace offpades ;
manill, the fiventh of the two red fuits ; basto, the
ace of clubs ; ponto, the ace of hearts and diamonds ;
king, queen, knave, deuce, three, four, five, fix ; in all
12. Spades and clubs, spadill the ace of fpades,
manill the deuce of fpades and clubs, basto the ace
of clubs ; king, queen, knave, feven, fix, five, four, three;
in all 11. It is here to be obferved, that the card
which is manill and the fecond trump, is always the low-
eft in its fuit when not trumps; and that the ace of hearts
or diamonds, which when trump is above the king, is
below the knave when not trump.
There are three matadores; fpadill, manill, and ba-
fto ; the privilege of which is, that when the player
has no other trumps but them, and trumps are led, he
is not obliged to play them, but may play what card
he thinks proper, provided, however, that the trump
led is of an inferior rank ; but if fpadill fhould be led,
he that has manill or bafto only, is obliged to play it;
it is the fame of manill bafto, with refpedt to the fu-
perior matadore always forcing the infenor. Though
there are properly but three matadores, neverthelefs,
all thofe trumps which follow the three firft without
interruption, are likewife called matadores; but the
three firft only enjoy the privilege above mentioned.
Each perfon is to play as he judges moft convenient
for his own game. He is not to encourage his friend
to play ; but each perfon ought to know what to do
when it is his turn to play. The ftakes confift of feven
equal mils or contrats, as they are fometimcs called,
comprifing the ten counters and fillies, which are given
to each player. A mil is equal to ten fifli, and each
1 ] Q_ U A
fifti to ten counters: the value of the fifh is according
to the players agreement, as alio the number of tours,
which are generally fixed at ten, and marked by turn¬
ing the corners of a card.
If the cards fhould happen not to be dealt right, or
that there Ihould be two cards of the lame lort, as
two deuces of fpades, for example, there mull be a
new deal ; provided it is difcovercd before the cards
are all played. The cards mull likevvife be dealt over
again in cafe a card is turned in dealing, as it might
be of prejudice to him who Ihould have it ; and of
courfe if there fhould be ieveral cards turned. There
is no penalty for dealing wrong, he who does fo mull
only deal again.
When each player has got his ten cards, he that is
on the right hand of the dealer, after examining his
game, and finding his hand fit to play, alks if they
play ; or if he has not a good hand, he paftes, and fo
the fecond, third, and fourth. AH the four may p*.fs ;
but he that has fpadill, after having fliown or named-
it, is obliged to play by caUing a king. Whether
the deal is played in this manner, or that one ot
the players has alked leave, nobody chooling to play
without caUing, the eldeft hand mull begin the play,
firft naming his fuit, and the king which he calls ; he
who wins the trick plays another card, and fo of the
reft till the game is finifhed. The tricks then are
counted; and if the ombre, that is, he w-ho Hands the
game, has, together with Jiim who is the king called,
fix tricks, they have won and are paid the game, the
confolation, and the matadores, if they have them, and
divide what is upon the game, and the beafts if there
are any. But if they make only five tricks, it is a
remife, and they are beafted, what goes upon the
game, paying to the other players the confolatiou
and the matadores. If the tricks are equally divi¬
ded betwixt them, they are likewife beafted; and
if they make only four tricks between them, it is a re-
mife; if they make lefs they lofe codiU (a), and in
that cafe they pay to their adverfaries what they Ihould
have received if they had won ; that is, the game, the
confolation, and the matadores, if they have them, and
are beafted what is upon the game : they who win co¬
dill, divide the ftakes. The beaft, and every thing elfe
that is paid, is paid equally betwixt the two lofers ;
one half by him that calls, and the other half by him
that is called, as well in cafe of codill as a remife ;
unlefs the ombre does not make three tricks, in which
cafe he that is called is not only exempted from pay¬
ing half the beaft, but alfo the game, the confolation,
and the matadorcs if there are any, which the ombre
in that cafe pays alone ; and as well in cafe of a codill
as a remife. This is done in order to oblige players
not to playgames that are unreafonable. There is, ne¬
verthelefs, one cafe in which if the ombre makes only
one trick, he is not beafted alone, and that is, when
not having a good hand he pafies, and all the other
players have palled likewife ; he having fpadill is obliged
to play. Here it would be unjuft to oblige him to make
three or four tricks; in this cafe, therefore, he that is
4 Z 2 called
(a) Codill is when thefe who defend the pool make more tricks than they who Hand the game; which is
called winning the codill.
O U A L 732 3 u A
Uc calkU pays one half of the lofmgs. For which reafon
he that has fpadill with a bad hand, fhould pafs, that
jf he is afterwards obliged to play by calling a king
(which is called forced fpadill), he may not be bealled
alone. He that has once paffed cannot be admitted
to play; and he that has afleed leave cannot refine to
play, unlefs any one fhould offer to play without call-
inff- . r r
He that has four kings, may call a queen to one of
his kings, except that which is trump. He that wants
one or more kings, may call one ot thofe kings ; but
in that cafe, he muff make fix tricks alone, and confc-
quently he wins or lofes alone. The king of that fuit
in which he plavg cannot be called. No one fhould
play out of his turn, although hr is not beafted for fo
doing. If he who is not the eideil hand has the king
called, and plays ipadill, manill, or hallo, or even the
king called in order to fhoiv that he is the friend, ha¬
ving other kings that he fears the ombre fhonld trump,
he is not to be allowed to go for the vole ; he is even
beaffed, if it appears to be done w'ith that intent. It
is not permitted to firow a hand though codill may al¬
ready be won; that it may be feen whether the ombre
is beaffed alone. If the ombre or his friend ftiows
their cards before they have made fix tricks, thinking
that they have made them, and there appears a pofii-
bility of preventing their making them, the other play¬
ers can oblige them to play their cards as they think
proper.
A player need only name his fuit when he plays,
without calling a king. He who plays without calling
muff make fix tricks alone to win ; for all the other
players are united againlt him, and they are to do what
they can to prevent his winning. He who plays with¬
out calling, is admitted to play in preference to him
who would play with calling ; however, if he that has
afked leave will play without calling, he has the pre¬
ference of the other who would force him. Thefe
are the two methods of play without calling that are
called forced.
As he who plays without calling does not divide the
winnings with any perfon, he confequently, when he
lofes, pays all by himfelf; if he lofes by remife he is
beaffed, and pays each of the other players the confo-
lation, the /unr appelhr (which is commonly, but im¬
properly, called the fatu prendre), and the matadores
if there are any ; if he lofes coddl lie is likewife beaffed,
and pays to each player what he would have received
from each if he had win. They who win codill di¬
vide what there is ; and if there are any counters re¬
maining, they belong to him of the three who fhall
have fpadill or the higheft trump the next deal. It is
the fame with regard to him who calls one of his own
kings, he wins alone or lofes alone as in the other cafe,
except the fans appeller, which he does not pay if he
lofes, or receive it he wins, although he plays alone.
If he plays fans appeller, though he may have a
lure game, he is obliged to name his fuit; which if he
negle&s to do, and ftiows his cards, and fays “ I play
fans appellerin that cafe either of the other players
can oblige him to play in what fuit he pleafes, although
he fhould not have one trump in that fuit.
He who has afked leave is not permitted to play fans
appeller, unlefs he is forced ; in which cafe, as was
faid before, he has the preference of the other that QuacHlt*.
forces him. y——^
A player is not obliged to trump when he has none
of the fuit led, nor play a higher card in that fuit if
he lias it, being at his option although he is the laft
player, and the trick fhould belong to the ombre ; but
he is obliged to play in the fuit led if he can, other-
wife he renounces. If he feparates a card from his game
and fliows it, he is obliged to play it, if by not doing
it the game may be prejudiced, or if it can give any
intelligence to his fiiend *, but efpecially if it fhould be
a matadore.—He that plays fans appeller, or by calling
himfelf, is not fubject to this law. He may turn the
tricks made by the other players, and count what has
been played as often as it is his turn to play, but not
other wife. If inffead of turning a player’s tricks, he
turns arid fees his game, or fhows it to the other play¬
ers, he is beaffed, together with him whofe cards he
turned ; and each of them muff pay one half of the
beaft.
It any one renounces, he is beafted as often as he
Iras renounced and it is detedled; but a renounce is nor.
made till the trick is turned. If the renounce is dif-
coverd before the deal is fuhihed, and has been detri¬
mental to the game, the cards muff be taken up again,
and the game replayed from that trick where the re¬
nounce was made ; but if the cards are all played, the
beaft is ftill made, and the cards muff not be replayed;
except there fhould be feveral renounces in the fame
deal: then they are to be played again, unlefs the cards
fhould be mixed. If feveral beafts are made in the
fame deal, they all go together, unlefs it is otherwife
agreed at the beginning of the party ; and when there
are feveral beafts, the gveateft always goes firft.
A great advantage accrues from being eldeft hand at
quadrille, which often renders it very difagreeable to
the reft of the players, being obliged to pafs with a
good hand unlefs they choofe to play alone ; and when
it happens that the eldtft hand having afleed leave, the
fecond player has three matadores, fevcral trumps in
back, and all fmall cards, he cannot then even play
alone ; and having no chance of being called, he muff
pafs with this good hand. On account of which, this
method has been thought expedient to remedy this de-
fed! of the game ; each player having an opportunity
of availing himfelf of the goodnefs of his game, by
adding to the ufual method of playing the game that
of the mediateur, and the favourite fuit.
The firft thing to be obferved is that of drawing for
places, which is done in this manner : One of the play¬
ers takes four cards ; a king, a queen, a knave, and an
ace ; each player draws one of thefe cards ; and com¬
monly he who comes in laft, draws firft. The perfon
who draws the king fits where he pleafes, the queen
at his right hand, the knave next the queen, and the
ace on the left of the king. The king draws the fa¬
vourite fuit. The number of cards and perfons is the
fame at this game as the other, and is played in the
fame manrter.
The favourite fuit is determined by drawing a card
ost of the pack, and is of the fame fuit, during the .
whole party, of the card fo drawn.
A king is the mediateur, which is demanded of the
others by one of the players, who has a hand he ex-
Q, U A [7
q a Iri'tc to make five tricks of; and through the afliilancc
H of this king he can pl^y alone and make fix tricks.
Qu^- Xn return for the king received, lie gives what card
’**n/ he thinks proper with a fifli; but muft give two iifh if
it is in the favourite fuit. He who allcs by calling in
the favourite fuit, has the preference to him who
aflcs by calling in any other ; he who afics with the
mediateur, has the preference to him who alks by
calling In the favourite fuit, and by playing alone
is obliged to make fix tricks to win. He who alks
with the medialeur in the favourite fuit, has the pre¬
ference to him who alks with the mediateur in any other
fuit, and is obliged to play alone, and to make fix tricks.
If fans prendre is played in any other fuit than the
favourite, he who plays it has the preference to him
who a lies only, or with the mediattur, or even.be who
plays in the favourite fuit with the mediateur ; and
the fans prendre in the favourite fuit has the preference
to all other players whatever.
The only difference between this method of playing
the game and the other is, that when one ot the play¬
ers demands the mediateur he is obliged to play alone,
and to make fix tricks, as if he played fans prendre.
In this cafe lie fhould judge from the llrength of his
hand, whether the aid of the king will enable him to
play alone or not.
With the mediateur and without the favourite fuit it
is played in this manner. The game is marked and play¬
ed the fame as in common, except that a rifh extraoi-
dinary is given to him who plays the mediateur, and
to him who plays fans prendre ; that is, he who wins
the mediateur receives 13 counters from each; and if
he lofes by^remife he pays 12 to each ; and 13k by
codill. The winner of fims prendre receives 17 coun¬
ters from each ; and if by remile he lofes, he pays 16
to each, and 17 if by codill.
The vole with the mediateur receives one fifh only,
as at common quadrille. The beafts are alfo the fame
as the common game. The laft game is generally
played double, and is called pmlans ; but for thofe who
choofe to play a higher game, they may play the double
colour, which is called the ‘Turi, and is double of the
favourite, fuit. There is alfo a higher game than this
called the auode, which is paying whatever is agreed to
him who happens to hold the two aces in his hand.
We have omitted many things refpefting the mode
of marking the game, and playing the vyle, becaufe
thefe are different in different cafes, and are to be learn¬
ed only by pra&ice. The game itfelf is a very infe¬
rior one ; but he who wrfhes to know more of it, may
confult Hoyle’s games improved by James Beaufort, Eiq;
from which we have, with very little alteration, taken
this article.
QUADRUPEDS, in zoology; thofe animals which
have four limbs or legs proceeding from the trunk of
their body. See Zoology ; in which article notice
will be taken of the method of preferving fpecimens
of thefe and other animals.
QUAESTOR, fee Qukstor.
QUAGGA, or Quacha. See Equus, n° 5.
QUAIL, in zoology. See Tetrao.
Quails are to be taken by means of the call during
their whole wooing time, which lafts from April to
Auguft. The proper times for ufing the call ate at
fun-rifing, at nine o’clock in the morning, at three in
13 1 U A
the afternoon, ard at fun-fet; for thefe aie the natural
times of the quail’s calling, i he notes ot the cock ^ ^
and hen quail are very different; and.the fportfman who
expels to fucceed in the taking them muft be expert
in both : for when the cock calls, the anfwer is to be
made in the hen’s note ; and when the hen cads, the
anfwer is to be made in the cock’s. By this means
they will come up to the perfon, fo that he may, witn
great cafe, throw the net over them and take them. If
a cock-quail be iingle, on hearing the hen s note fie
will immediately come ; but it lie have a hen already
with him, he will not forfake her. Sometimes, though
only one quail anfwers to the call, there will three or
four come up ; and then it is belt to Lave patience, and
not run to take up the firft, but flay till they are all
entangled, as they will foon be. _
The quail is a neat cleanly bird, and will not run
much into dirty or wet places ; m dewy mornings,
they will often fly inftead of running to the call; and
in this cafe, it is bell to let them go over the net, it
it fo happens that they fiy higher than its top ; and the
fportfman then changing fides, and calling again, the
bird will come back, and then will probably be taken
in the net.
The calls are to be made of a fmall leather purle,
about two fingers wide, and four fingers long, and
made in the fhape of a pear ‘r this is to be fluffed hair-
full of horfe-hair, and at the end of it is to be placed a
fmall whiftle, made of the hone of a rabbit’s leg, or
fome other fuch bone • this is to be about two inches .
long, and the end formed like a flageolet, with a little
fuft^ w'ax. This is to be the end faftened into the
purfe ; the other is to be clofed up with the fame wax,
only that a hole is to be opened with a pin, to make
it give a diflinft and clear found. 'Bo make this
found, it is to be held full in the palm of the hand,
with one of the fingers placed over the top of the wax ;
then the purfe is to be preffed, and the finger is to
fhake over the middle of it, to modulate the found it
gives into a fort of fhake. 1 his is the moft ufetul
call; for it imitates the note of the hen-quail, and fel-
dom fails to bring a cock to the net if there be one near
the place.
The call that imitates the note of the cock, and is
ufed to bring the hen to him, is to be about four inches
long, and above an inch thick ; it is to be made of a
piece of wire turned round and curled, and covered
with leather ; and one end of it muft be clofed up with
a piece of fiat w$od, about the middle of which there
muft be a fmall thread or ftrap of leather, and at the
other end is to be placed the fame fort of pipe, made
of bone, as is ufed in the other call. The noife is made
by opening and clofmg the fpiral, and gives the fame
found that the cock does when he gives the hen a fignal
that he is near her.
QUAKERS, a religious focicty, which took its rife
in England about the middle of the laft century, and
rapidly found its way into other countries in Europe,
and into the Englifh fettlements in North America.—
The members of this fociety,we believe, called themfelves
at firft feekerty from their feeking the truth ; but after
the fociety was formed, they aflumed the appellation
of friends. The name of quakers was given to them
by their enemies; and though an epithet of reproach,
feems to be ftamped upon them indelibly. 1 heir foun-
CL U A
^Quaker* J0r generally believed to have been George Fox, an
V*“ v illiterate fhoemaker (fee George Fox), but this opi¬
nion has been lately controverted. An ingenious wri-
jSec Month, ter J having found, or fancied, a fimilarity of fentiments
Hev. Sept, among the ancient Druids and modern Quakers, feerns
ari.5. t0 think that Fox muft have been nothing more than a
tool employed by certain deilts to pave the way for
their fyftem of natural religion, by allegorizing the di-
itinguifhing articles of the Chriftian faith.
, It muft be 'Confefled, for experience will not allow it
to be denied, that extremes in religion are very apt to
beget each other ; and if the deifts alluded to reafoned
from this fatft, they could not have pitched upon a tool
fitter for their purpofe than George Fox. From his
works ftill extant, he appears to have been one of the
moft extravagant and abfurd enthufiafts that ever lived,
and to have fancied himfelf, in his apoftolic chara&er,
fomething infinitely fuperior to man. In a book called
Neivs coming out of the North (p. 15.) he fays of himfelf,
“ I am the Door that ever was, the fame Chiift yefterday,
to-day, and for everAnd in the introdu&ion to his
Battle-door for Teachers and Profejfors, he fays, “ All
languages are to me no more than dull, who was be¬
fore languages were.” But one of the moft extraordi¬
nary and blafphemous things that he ever wrote, is an
anfwer to the Proteftor, who had required him to pro-
mife not to dilturb his government as then eftablifhed.
It is as follows :
, “ I who am of the world called G: F doth deny
the carrying or drawing any carnal fword againft any,
or againft thee O: C: or any man, in the prefence of
the Lord I declare it, God is my witnefs, by whom I
am moved to give this forth for the truth’s fake, from
him whom the world calls G: Fox, who is the fan of God,
who is fent to ftand a witnefs againft all violence and
againft the works of darknefs, and to turn the people
from darknefs to light, and to bring them from the oc>
cafion of the war and from the occafion of the magi-
itrates fword, which is a terror to the evil doer, which
ads contrary to the light of the Lord Jefus Chrifl;
which is a praife to them that do well; which is a pre-
tedion to them that do well, and not the evil ; and
fuch foldiers as are put in place no falfe accufers muft
be, no violence muft do, but be content with their
wages : and that magiftrate bears not the fword in vain,
trom under the occafion of that fword do I feek to bring
people : my weapons are not carnal but fpiritual, and
my kingdom is not of this world; therefore with carnal
v/eapon I do not fight, but am from thofe things dead,
from him who is not of this world, called of the world
by the name of G: F: and this I am ready to feal with
my blood ; this I am moved to give forth for the truth’s
fake, who a witnefs ftands againft all unrighteoufnefs,
and all ungodlinefs, who a fufferer is for the righteous
feed’s fake, waiting for the redemption of it, who a
crown that is mortal feeks not, for that fadeth away ;
[ 734 1
Q U A
but in the light dwells which comprehends that crown,
which light is the condemnation of all fuch, in which
light I witnefs the crown that is immortal, which fades
not away from him who to all your fouls is a friend,
for eftablifhing of righteoufnefs, and clearing the land
of evil doers, and a witnefs againft all the wicked in¬
ventions of man, and murderer’s plots, which anfwer
fit all be with the light in all your confidences, which
makes no covenant with death ; to which light in you
all I fpeak, and am clear, G: F: who a new name hath,
which the world knows not.” (a).
"J'heQuakers, however, did not longentruft the defence
of their principles to fuch fenfelefs enthufiafts as George
Fox: They were joined by a number of learned, ingeni¬
ous, and pious men, who new-modelled their creed ; and
though they did not bring it to what is generally deem¬
ed the Chriftian ftandard, they fo reformed it as that
its tenets do not ftiock common 'fenfe, nor the duties
preferibed fcandalize a man of piety. The chief of
thefe reformers were George Keith, the celebrated
Penn, and our countryman Barclay. Keith was indeed
excommunicated for the liberties which he took with
the great apoftle ; but we have not a doubt but his wri¬
tings contributed to the moderation of Penn, and to
the elegant and mafterly apology of Barclay. From
that apology we feledled the fummary of their opinions
which was given in the former edition of this work ;
but they have lately publifhed fuch a fummary them-
felves, of which the reader will be pleafed with the fol¬
lowing abftraA :
They tell us, that about the beginning of the
17th century, a number of men, diftatisfied with all
the modes of religious worlhip then known in the
world, withdrew from the communion of every vi-
fible church to feek the Lord in retirement. Among
thefe was their honourable elder George Fox, who
being quickened by the immediate touches of di¬
vine love, could not fatisfy his apprehenfions of du¬
ty to God without directing the people where to
find the like confolation and inftruftion. In the courfe
of his travels, he met with many feeking perfons in cir-
cumftances fimilar to his own, and thefe readily recei¬
ved his teftimony. They then give us a fhort account
of their fufferings and different fettlements ; and with a
degree of candour which does them infinite credit, they
vindicate Charles II. from the charatter of a perfe-
cutor; acknowledging, that though they fuffered much
during his reign, he gave as little countenance as he
could to the leverities of the legiflature. They even
tell us, that he exerted his influence to refeue their
friends from the unprovoked and cruel perfecutions of
the New England fanatics; and they fpeak with be¬
coming gratitude of the different a&s paffed in their fa¬
vour during the reigns of William and Mary, and
George I. They then proceed to give us the following
account of their dodtrine :
“ We
.({0 e have tranferibed this letter from the theological works of Mr Leflie, where it is preferved in its
O'iginal form. I he Quakers, after the death of their apoftle, expunged from their edition of it the words
m Inch,we have printed in Italics ; afhamed, as we hope, of the blafphemy imputed to them: but that Mr
Lt hie s copy is authentic, is thus attefted by two of the friends, who faw Fox deliver it to the protestor’s
ttioL nger: “ W c are witnefles of fhis teftimony, whofe names in the flefli are, Tho. Aldam.
Rob. Craven
Quaker*.
 ,—
CL U A.
Quakers. «< We a^ree with other profeflbrs of the Chriftian name,
hi the belief in one eternal God, the Creator and Pre-
ferver of the univerfe ; and in Jefus Chrill his Son, the
Mefliali, and Mediator of the new covenant (Heb. xii.
24).
“ When we fpeak of the gracious difplay of the love
of God to mankind, irr- the miraculous conception,
birth, life, miracles, death, refurreftion, and afcenfion
of our Saviour, wc prefer the ufe of fuch terms as we
find in Scripture ; and, contented with that knowledge
•which divine wifdom hath feen meet to reveal, we at¬
tempt not to explain thofe myfteries which remain un¬
der the veil ; neverthelefs, we acknowledge and affert
the divinity of Chrift, who is the wifdom and power
of God unto falvation (1 Cor. i. 24).
“ To Chrill alone we give the title of the Word of
God (John i. 1.) and not to the Scriptures; although
we highly elleem thefe iacred writings, in fubordination
to the Spirit (2 Pet. i. 21.), from which they were gi¬
ven forth ; and wc hold, with the apollle Paul, that
they are able to make wife unto falvation, through
faith which is in Chrift Jefus (2 Tim. hi. 15).
“ We reverence thofe molt excellent precepts which
are recorded in Scripture to have been delivered by our
great Lord, and we firmly believe that they are practi¬
cable, and binding on every Chriftian ; and that in the
life to come every man will be rewarded according to
his works (Mat. xvi. 27). And farther, it is our be¬
lief, that, in order to enable mankind to put in praCtice
thefe facred precepts, many of which are contradictory
to the unregenerate will of man (John i. 9.), every man
coming into the world is endued with a meafure of the
light, grace, or good Spirit of Chrift ; by which, as it
is attended to, he is enabled to diftinguilh good from
evil, and to correCt the diforderly paftions and corrupt
propenfities of his nature, which mere reafon is alto¬
gether infufficient to overcome. For ail that belongs
to man is fallible, within the reach of temptation ; but
this divine grace, which comes by Him who hath over¬
come the world (John xvi. 33.) is, to thofe who hum¬
bly and fincerely feek it, an all-fufficient and preterit
help in time of need. By this the fnares of the enemy
are detefted, his allurements avoided, and deliverance is
experienced through faith in its effectual operation ;
whereby the foul is tranftated out of the kingdom of
darknefs, and from under the power of Satan, into the
marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of God.
“ Being thus perfuaded that man, without the Spirit
of Chrift inwardly revealed, can do nothing to the glo¬
ry of God, or to effect his own falvation ; we think this
influence efpecially neceffary to the performance of the
higheft aCt of which the human mind is capable, even
the worftrip of the Father of lights and of fpirits, in
fpirit and in truth ; therefore we confider as obftruc-
tions to pure worfhip, all forms which divert the at¬
tention of the mind from the fecret influence of this
unCtion from the Holy One (1 John ii. 20, 27). Yet,
although true worihip is not confined to time and place,
we think it incumbent on Chriftians to meet often to¬
gether (Heb. x. 25.) in teftimony of their dependence
on the heavenly Father, and for a renewal of their fpi-
ritual ftrength : neverthclefs, in the performance of wor-
fhip, we dare not depend, for our acceptance with Him,
on a formal repetition of the words and experiences of
others ; but we believe it to be cmr duty to ceafe from
9- U A.
the a&ivity of the imagination, and to wait in fdence Quaker*
to have a true fight of our condition beftowed upon us: * ll-
believing even a Angle figh (Rom. viii. 26.) arifing
from fuch a fenfe of our infirmities, and of the need we
have of divine help, to be more acceptable to God,
than any performances, however ipecious, which origi¬
nate in the will of man.
“ From what has been faid refpeCting worfhip, it fol¬
lows, that the miniftry we approve mull have its ori¬
gin from the fame fource : for that which is needful for
a man’s own direftion, and for his acceptance with God
(Jer. xxiii. 30, to 32.) muft be eminently fo to enable
him to be helpful to others. Accordingly, we believe
the renewed afliftance of the light and power of Chrift
to be indifpenfably neceffary for all true miniftry ; and
that this holy influence is not at our command, or to
be procured by ftudy, but is the free gift of God to his
chofen and devoted fervants.—From hence arifes our
teftimony againft preaching for hire, and in contradic¬
tion to Chrift’s pofitive command, “ Freely ye have
received, freely give (Mat. x. 8.) and hence ourcon-
feientious refufal to fupport fuch miniftry by tithes or
other means.
“ As we dare not encourage any miniftry but that
which we believe to fpring from the influence of the
Holy Spirit, fo neither dare we attempt to reftrain this
influence to perfons of any condition in life, or to the
male fex alone; but, as male and female aie one in
Chrift, we allow fuch of the female fex as we believe
to be endued with a right qualification for the mini¬
ftry, to exercife their gifts for the general edification/
of the church : and this liberty we efteem to be a pecu¬
liar mark of the gofpel difpenfation, as foretold by the
prophet Joel (Joel ii. 28, 29.), and noticed by the
apoftle Peter (Aifts ii. 16, 17).
“ There are two ceremonies in ufe amongft moft pro-
feffors of the Chriftian name ; Water-baptifm, and
what is termed the Lord’s Supper. The firft of thefe
is generally elleemed the effenti: 1 means of initiation in-*
to the church of Chrift ; and the latter of maintaining
communion with him. But as vve have been convinced,
that nothing fhort of his redeeming power, inwardly
revealed, can fet the foul free from the thraldom of
fiu, by this power alone we believe falvatioo to be ef-
fe£led. We hold that as there is one Lord and one
faith (Eph. iv. 7.), fo his baptifin is one in nature and
operation ; that nothing fhort of it can make us living
members of his myftical body ; and that the baptifm
with water, admintftered by his fore-runner John, be¬
longed, as the latter confefled, to an inferior and deerta-
fing difpenfation (John iii. 30).
“ With refpeft to the other rite, we believe that com¬
munion between Chrift and his church is not maintain¬
ed by that nor any other external performance, but only
by a real participation of his divine nature (2 Pet. i. 4.)
through faith ; that this is the flipper alluded to in the
Revelation (Rev. iii. 20.), “ Behold I Hand at the door
and knock, if any man hear my voice, and open the
door, I will come in to him, and will flip with him, and
he with me and that where the fubftancc is attained,
it is unneceffary to attend to the ihadow, which doth,
not confer grace, and concerning which opinions fo dif¬
ferent, and animofities fo violent, have arifen.
‘‘ Now, as we thus believe that the grace of God,.
which comes by Jefus Chrift, h alone fufikient tor ;<J-
vaUoi,,
r 735 1
Q U A
Qj-ia^ers. vation, wc can neither admit that it is conferred on a
L” v few only, whilft others are left without it; nor, thus af-
ferting its univerfality, can we limit its operation to a
partial cleanfing of the foul from fin, even in this life.
We entertain worthier notions both of the power and
goodnefs of our heavenly Father, and believe that he
doth vouchfafe to affiil the obedient to experience a to¬
tal furrender of the natural will to the guidance of his
pure unerring Spirit; through whofe renewed affiftance
they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto holinefs, and
to hand perfeft in their prefent rank (Mat. v. 48.; Eph.
iv. 13. ; Col. iv. 12.)
“ There are not many of our tenets more'generally
known than our teltimony againft oaths and againft
war. With refpe£t to the former of thefe, we abide
literally by Chrill’s poiitive injun&ion, delivered in his
* See Oath, feimon on the mount, “Swear not at all” (Mat.v.34)*.
From the fame facred colleftion of the mod excellent
precepts of moral and religious duty, from the example of
our Loulhimfelf (Mat. ch. v. 39, 44, &c. ch. xxvi. 52,
53. ; Luke xxii. 51. ; John xviii. 11.), and from the
correfpondent convictions of his Spirit in our hearts,
we are confirmed in the belie! that wars and fightings
are, in their origin and effeCts, utterly repugnant to the
Gofpel, which ftill breathes peace and good-will to men.
We alfo are clearly of the judgment, that if the bene¬
volence of the Gofpel were generally prevalent in the
minds of men, it would effectually prevent them from
oppreffing, much more from enfiaving, their brethren,
(of whatever colour or complexion), for whom, as for
themfelves, Chriit died ; and would even influence their
conduCt in their treatment of the brute creation, which
would no longer groan the viCtims of their avarice, and
of their falfe ideas of pleafure.
“ Some of our tenets have in former times, as hath been
fhown, fubjeCted our friends to much fuffering from go¬
vernment, though to the falutary purpofes of govern¬
ment our principles are a fecurity. They inculcate
fubmifiion to the laws in all cafes wherein confcience is
not violated. But we hold, that as Chrill’s kingdom
is not of this world, it is not the bufinefs of the civil
magillrate to interfere in matters of religion ; but to
maintain the external peace and good order of the com¬
munity. We therefore think perfecution, even in the
fmallelt degree, unwarrantable. We are careful in re¬
quiring our members not to be concerned in illicit
trade, nor in any manner to defraud the revenue.
“ It is well known that the fociety, from its firft ap¬
pearance, has difufed thofe names of the months and
days which, having been given in honour of the heroes
or falfe gods of the heathens, originated in their flat¬
tery or fuperftition ; and the cultom of fpeaking to a
Angle perfon in the plural number (b), as having ari-
fen alfo from motives of adulation. Compliments, fu-
perfluity of apparel and furniture, outward Ihows of re¬
joicing and mourning, and obfervation of days and
times, we efteem to be incompatible with the fimplicity
and fincerity of a Chriftian life ; and public diverfions,
gaming, and other vain amufements ol the world, we
cannot but condemn. They are a wafte of that time
CL U A
which is given us for nobler purpofes, and divert the Quaker*,
attention of the mind from the fober duties of life, and —
from the reproofs of inftruClion, by which we are guided
to an everlafting inheritance.
“ To conclude, although we have exhibited the feve-
ral tenets which diitinguifh our religious fociety, as
objefls of our belief, yet we are fenfible that a true and
living faith is not produced in the mind of man by his
own effort ; but is the free gift of God (Eph. ii. 8.)
in Chrill Jefus, nourifhed and increafed by the progref-
five operation of his fpirit in our hearts, and our pro¬
portionate obedience (John vii. 17.). Therefore, al¬
though, for the prefervation of the teftimonies given us
to bear, and for the peace and good order of the fo¬
ciety, we deem it neceflary that thofe who are admit¬
ted into memberlhip with us, Ihould be previoufly con¬
vinced of thofe doftrines which we efteem eflential; yet
we require no formal fubfeription to any articles, either ^
as the condition of memberlhip, or to qualify for the
fervice of the church. We prefer the judging of men **
by their fruits, in a dependence on the aid of Him
who, by his prophet, hath promifed to be “ a fpirit
of judgment to him that fitteth in judgment” (Ifaiah
xxviii. 6). Without this, there is a danger of re-
civing numbers into outward communion, without
aoy addition to that fpiritual fheepfold, whereof our
blefied Lord declared himfelf to be both the door
and the fliepherd (John x 7, 11.) that is, fuch as knew
his voice, and follow him in the paths of obedience.”
Such are the doftrines of this people as we find then
Hated in a fmall pamphlet lately prefented by them¬
felves to the public ; and in the fame trad; they give
the following account of their difeipline.
“ In the pradlice of difeipline, we think it indifpen-
fable that the order recommended by Chrill himfelf be
invariably obferved: (Matth. xviii. 15. to 17.) ‘ If
thy brother lhall trefpafs againft thee, go and tell him
his fault between thee and him alone : if he {hall hear
thee, thou haft gained thy brother; but if he will not
hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in
the mouth of two or three witnefles every word may
be ellabliftied ; and if he lhall negleft to hear them, tell
it unto the church.*
“ To elfed the falutary purpofes of difeipline, meet¬
ings were appointed, at an early period of the fociety,
which, from the times of their being held, were called
quarterly-meetings. It was afterwards found expedi¬
ent to divide the diltrids of thofe meetings, and to
meet more often ; whence arofe monthly-meetings, fub-
ordinate to thofe held quarterly. At length, in 1669,
a yearly-meeting was ellablilhed, to fuperintend, afiiit,
and provide, rules for the whole; previous to which,
general meetings had been occafionally held.
“ A monthly-meeting is ufually compofed of feveral
particular congregations, fituated within a convenient
diftance of each other. Its bufinefs is to provide for
the fubfiftence of their poor, and for the education of
of their offspring ; to judge of the fincerity and fitnefs
of perfons appearing to be convinced of the religious
principles of the fociety, and defiring to be admitted
1 into
t 736 1
(b) Speaking of this cuftom, Fox fays : “ When the Lord fent me into the world, he forbad me to put eft
my hat to any ; and I was required to thee and thou all men and women.” 'Journal, p. 24.
Q_ U A [73
Quaker. into membeHliip; to excite due attention to the dif-
' charge of religious and moral duty ; and to deal with
dilorderly members. Monthly-meetings alfo grant to
fuch of their members as remove into otlier monthly-
meetings, certificates of their memberfhip and condudt ;
without which they cannot gain memberfhip in fuch
meetings. Each monthly-meeting is required to ap¬
point certain perfons under the name of overfeers, who
are to take care that the rules of our difeipline be put
in practice ; and when any cafe of complaint or dif-
orderly condudt comes to their knowledge, to fee that
private admonition, agreeable to the gofpel rule before-
mentioned, be given previoufly to its being laid before
the monthly-meeting.
“ When a cafe is introduced, it is ufual for a fmall
committee to be appointed to vifit the offender, to en¬
deavour to convince him of his error, and to induce
him to forfake and condemn it. If they fucceed, the
perfon is by minute declared to have made fatisfadlion
for the offence ; if not, he is difowned as a member of
the fociety.
“ In difpUtes between individuals, it has long been
the decided judgment of the fociety that its members
fhould not fue each other at law. It therefore enjoins
all to end their differences by fpeedy and impartial ar¬
bitration, agreeable to rules hud down. If arty refufe
to adopt this mode, or, having adopted it, to fubmit to
the award, it is the dire&ion of the yearly-meeting that
fuch be difowned.
“ To monthly-meetings alio' belongs the allowing of
marriages ; for our fociety hath always fertipled to ac¬
knowledge the exclufive authority of the priefls in the
folemnization of marriage. Thofe who intend to mar¬
ry, appear together and propofe their intention to the
monthly-meeting ; and if not attended by their parents
«r guardians, produce a written certificate of their con-
fent, figned in the prefence of witneffes. The meeting
then appoints a committee to inquire whether they are
clear'of other engagements refpefting marriage ; and
if at a fubfequent meeting, to which the parties alfo
come and declare the continuance of their intention, Uo
objections are reported, they have the meeting’s con-
fent to folemnize their intended marriage. This is
done in a public meeting for worfhip ; towards the
clofe whereof the parties itand up, and folemnly take
each otlier for hufhand and wife. A ceitificate of the
proceedings is then publicly read, and figned by the
parties, and afterwards by the relations and others as
witneffes. Of fuch certificates the monthly-meeting
keeps a record; as alfo of the births and burials of its
members. A certificate of the date, of the name of
the infant, and of its parents, figned by thofe prefent
at the birth, is the fubjeft- of one of thefe lait-men-
tioned records; and an order for the interment, coun-
terfigned by the grave-maker, of the other. The
naming of children is without ceremony. Burials are
Vol. XV. Part II.
7 ] . Q. U A
alfo cflndu&ed in a fimple manner. The body, foilovi*. Qua Ur. (
ed by the relations and friends, is fometimes, previoufly *
to interment, carried to a meeting ; and at the grave
a paufc is generally made ; on both which occafions it
frequently falls out that one or more friends prefent
have fomewhat to exprefs for the edification of thofe w ho
attend ; but no religious rile is coniidered as an effential
part of burial.
“Severalmonthly-meetingscompofe a quarterly-meef-
ing. At the quarterly-meeting are produced written
anfwers from the monthly-meetings, to certain queriei
refpe&ing the conduct of their members, and the meet¬
ing's care over them. The atcounts thus received are
digefted into one, which is feut, alfo in the form or
anfwers to queries, by reprefentatives, to the yearly-
meeting.— Appeals from the judgment of monthly-meet¬
ings arc brought to the quarterly-meetings; whoftf
buiinefs alfo it is to aflifl in any difficult cafe, or where
remiffiiefs appears in the care of the monthly-meetings
over the individuals who compofe them.
“ The yearly-meeting has th$ general fuperintendance
of the fociety in the country in which it is ettahlifhed(c);
and therefore, as the accounts which it receives dif-
cover the Hate of inferior meetings, as particular exi¬
gencies require, or as the meeting is impreffed with a
fenfe of duty, it gives forth its advice, makes fuch
regulations as appear to be requifite, or excites to the
obfervance of thofe already made; and fometimes
appoints committees to vifit thofe quarterly-meetings
which appear to be in need of immediate help. Ap¬
peals from the judgment of quarterly-meetings are
here finally determined; and a brotherly correfpon-
dence, by epiltles, is maintained with other yearly-
meetings.
“ In this plate it is proper to add, that as w'e believe
women may be rightly called to the work of the minl-
Itry, we alfo think, that to them belongs a ffiare in the
fupport of our ChrilUan difeipline ; and that fome parts
of it, wherein their own fex is concerned, devolve on
them with peculiar propriety. Accordingly they have
monthly, quarterly, and yearly-meetings of their own
fex, held at the fame time and in the fame place with
thofe of the men { but feparately, and without the
power of 'making rules: and it may be remarked, that
during the perfeedtions, which in the lalt century occa-
honed the imprifonment of fo many of the men, the care
of the poor often fell on the women, and Was by them
fatisfa&orily adminittcred.
“ In Order that thofe who are in the fiituation of mi-
nilters may have the tender fympathy and counfel of
thofe of either fex, who, by their experience in the
work of religion, are qualified for that fervice ; the
monthly-meetings are advifed to fele£f fuch, under the
denomination of riders. Thefe, and miniiters approved
by their monthly-meetings (d), have meetings peculiar
to themielves, called meetings of minillers and elders }
5 A in
(c) “ There are feven yearly meetings, viz. ill, London, to which come reprefentatives from Ireland ; 2d, New-
Efighmd; 3d, New-York ; 4th, Pennfylvania and New-Jerfey; 5th, Maryland} 6th, \ irginia ; 7th, the Carolinas
*nd Georgia.” # . . . . . ,
(d) “ Thofe who believe themfelves required to fpeak in itieetings for worfhip, are not immediately acknow¬
ledged as minillers by their monthly-meetings ; but time is taken for judgment, that the meeting may be fatif-
fied of their call and qualification. It will alfo fometimes happen, that fuch as are not approved, will obtrude
themfelves as minifiers, to the grief of their brethren } but much forbearance is tifed towards thefe, before the
^iifapprebation of the meeting is^iublidy telUfied.”
Q_U A
[ 758 1
Quaker, jn winch they have an opportunity of exciting eacli
  other to a difcharge of their feveral duties, and of ex¬
tending advice to thofe who may appear weak, without
any needlefs expofure. Thefe meetings are generally
held in the compafs of each monthly, quarterly, and
yearly-meeting. They are conducted by rules pre-
feribed by the yearly-meeting, and have no authority to
make any alteration or addition to them. The mem¬
bers of them unite with their brethren in the meetings
for difeipline, and are equally accountable to the latter
for their conduct.
“ It is to a meeting of this kind held in London,
called the fecond-day morning.meeting,that the revifal of
manuferipts concerning our princ;ples, previoufly to
publication, is intruded by the yearly-meeting held in
London ; and alfo the granting, in the intervals of the
yearly-meeting, certificates of approbation to luch mi-
nifters as are concerned to travel ia the work of the
miniilry in foreign parts. When a vifit of this kind
doth not extend beyond Great Britain, a certifi¬
cate from the monthly-meeting of which the mini-
fter is a member is fufficient; if to Ireland, the con¬
currence of the quarterly-meeting is alio required.
Regulations of fimilar tendency obtain in other yearly-
meetings.
“ The yearly-meeting held in London, in the year
1675, appointed a meeting to be held in that city, for
the purpofe of advifing and afiifting in cafes of fuffer-
ing for confcience fake, which hath continued with
great ufe to the ibciety to this day. It is compofed
of friends under the -name of correfpondents, cholen by
the feveral quarterly-meetings, and who relide in or
near the city. The fame meetings alfo appoint mem¬
bers of their own in the country as correfpondents, who
are to join their brethren in London on emergency.
The names of all thefe correfpondents, previous to their
being recorded as fuch, are fubmitted to the approba¬
tion of the yearly-meeting. Thofe of the men who are
approved minifters are alfo members of this meeting,
which is called the meeting io/r fujfertngs ; a name arifing
from its original purpofe, wliich is not yet become en¬
tirely obfelete.
“ The yearly-meeting has intrufted the meeting for
fufferings with the care of printing and diftributing
books, and with the management of its flock ; and
confidered as a ftanding committee of the yearly-
meeting, it hath a general care of whatever may arife,
during the intervals of that meeting, affe&ing the fo-
ciety, and requiring immediate attention : particularly
of thofe circumftances which may oceafion an applica¬
tion to governmeHt.
“ There is not in any of the meetings which have
been mentioned any ptefident, as we believe that Di¬
vine Wifdom alone ought to prefide ; nor hath any mem¬
ber a right to claim pre-eminence over the reil. The
office of clerk, with a few exceptions, is undertaken
voluntarily by fome member j as is alfo the keeping
v of the records. Where thefe are very voluminous,
and require a houfe for their depofite (as is the cafe
in London, where the general records of the fociety in
Great Britain are kept), a clerk is hired to have the
care of them ; but except a few clerks of this kind,
and perfons who have the care of mteting-houfes, none
receive any flipeud or gratuity for their fervices in our
religious fociety.”
CL u A
It is remarkable, that all the fettlements of the Lit- Qualify
j-opeans in America, except the Quaker fettlement of ——*"•'**
Pennfylvania, were made by force of arms, with very little
regard to any prior title in the natives. The kings of
Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, together with
the States of Holland, then the only maritime powers,
gave grants of fuch parts of America as their people
could lay hold on, ftudying only to avoid interference
with their European neighbours. But Mr Penn, being
a Quaker, did not think his power from King Cha. II.
a fufficient title to the country fince called Pennfylvania ?
He therefore afiembled the fachems or princes then in
that country, and purchafed from them the extent of
land that he wanted. The government of this province
is moftly in the hands of the Quakers, who never have
any quarrels with the natives. When they defire to
extend their fettlements, they purchafe new lands of
the fachems, never taking any thing from them by
force. How unlike is this condudl to that of the Spa¬
niards, who murdered millions of the natives of Mexico,
Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, &c. *
QUALITY is a word which, as ufed in philofophi-j^a!l^f
cal difquifitions, cannot be explained by any periphraiis., •ZC(j
That which is expreffed by it muft be brought into the .\riftotlc*
immediate view of the fenfes or intelleft, and the name
properly applied, or he wh© is a llranger to the word
will never be made to comprehend its meaning. Ari-
ftotle, who treated it as a general conception fecond in
order among the ten predicaments or categories (fee Ca¬
tegory), gives feveral characters of it; but though they
are all in fome refpefts juft, no man could from them,
without other alliftance, learn what quality is. Thus he
tells US *, TVaj^fi St ftotiTtoTmc x.txla to rot v; EnStgtlxc St *
to fActWn kxi re *r1o» rx teoix. And again, O'unx St n a»e- V ' 1
/uoix xjxlx /u.oyyt( rare oriioTnlat Ktytrxi' </{u.oiot yx$ tiigot tUfU
ou* It1‘ xkko ovStv, ti 0 r toy rtrliv.
When a man comprehends, by means of his fenfes
and intellect, what it is wliich the wbrd quality denotes,
he will indeed perceive that the firil of thefe characters
is applicable to fome qualities and not to others; that
the fecond is more applicable to quantity than to quality f
and that it is only the third which can with propriety
be confidered as the general charaCteriftic of this predi¬
cament. Thus when we have learned by our fenfe of
fight that ivhitcnefs is a quality of fnow, and bhcknef of
coal ; and by means of obfervation and refledion, that
ivifdom is a quality of one man and folly of another—we
muft admit that the feniible quality of the fnovv is con¬
tra >y to that of the coal, and the intelleClual quality of
wifdom contrary to that of folly. There is, however,
no contrariety between ivifdom and whitenefs or black-
nefsy nor between hardnef ox foftnefy and any particular
colour ■ for fenfible and intelleClual qualities can never
be compared ; and it is not eafy, if poffiblc, to make a
comparifon between qualities perceptible only by diffe¬
rent fenfes: Nay, among qualities perceptible by the
fame fenfe, we often meet with a difference where there
is no contrariety ; for though the figure of a cube is dif¬
ferent from that of a [t here^ and the
figure of a
quare
from that of a circle, the fphere is not contrary to the
cube, nor the circle to the fquare.
His lecond charaCleriftic of thisgenns is ftill lefs pro¬
per than the firft. It is indeed true that fome qualities
admit of mtenfon and remfjion ; for fnow is whiter than
paper, and one woman ia handfomer than another; but
4 cf
O U A
[ 739 1
CL u A
known t>
^uaiicies.
of the fpecle* of quality calktl Jyirewe cannot prcdi
cate either more or left. A crown-piece may have as
much of the circular quality in it as the plane of the
equator, and a muflcet-bullet as much of the fpherical
quality as the orb of the fun. It is indeed a property
of all quantity to admit of intenfion and remijfion ; and
therefore tins ought to have been given as the charac¬
ter not of the fecond but of the third category. See
Quantity. t
That it is only from a comparifon of their qualities that
Ur things are denominated like or unlike, or that one thing can.
not refemble anolh »' but in fame quality, is indeed a jufl
obfervation. We know' nothing direftly but qualities
fenlible and intelle61ual (fee Metaphysics, n° 149,
ico, 151, and 227) > and as thefe have no refernblance
to each other, we conclude that body or matter, the
fubjeft of the former, is a being unlike mind, the fub-
je& of the latter. Even of bodies themfelves we can
fay, that one is like of unlike another only by virtue ot
their qualities. A ball1 of ivory refembles a ball of fnow
in its f jure «md colour, but not in its coldnefs 01 hardnefs,
a ball of lead may refemble a ball of fnow in its figure
and coldnefis, but not in its colour; and a cube of ivory
j?efembles not a ball of lead either in figure, colour, or
coldnefs. The mind of a brute refembles that of a man
in its powers of fenfation and perception, but does not
refemble it in the powers of volition and reafoning; or
at haft, the refemblance, in this latter inftance, is very
flight. All bodies refemble one another in being folid
and extended, and all minds in being more or lefs ac¬
tive. Likencfs or unlikenefis therefore is the univerfal
charadteriltic of the category quality.
Important Ariftotle has other fpeculations refpettmg quality,
diftin&iont which are worthy of notice. He diltinguifbes between
M quality, qualities which are ejfential and thofe which aie acculen.
tali between qualities which are natural and thofe
which are acquired 1 and he fpeaks of the qualities ot
capacity and thofe of completion. Kxtmfion aud yfijwt e in
general are qualities effential to all bodies ; but a parti¬
cular extenfion, fuch as an inch or an ell, and p particu¬
lar figure, fuch as a cube or a fphere, are qualities acci¬
dental to bodies. Among the natural qualities of glafs
it is one to tranfmit objects of vifion ; but to enlarge
thefe objects is an adventitious or acquired quality, i he
fame quality may be natural in one fubftance, as attrac¬
tion in the magnet; and acquired in another, as the
fame attraction in the magnetic bar. Docility may be
called a quality natural to the mind of man, fcience an
acquired one. To underftand what he means, by quali¬
ties of capacity and completion, it may be fufficient to ob-
ferve that every piece of iron has the qualities of a ia-
2t>r in capacity, becaufe it may be converted into heel,
&nd formed into a razor: when it is fo foimed, it has,
in the language of this fage, the quality of a razor in
completion. Among the qualities of capacity and comple¬
tion, the moft important, and what may lead to intereil-
jng fpeculations, is the reafoning faculty of man.. A
capacity of reafoning is efieutiai to the human mind }
a. * 1 . I a*  .1* -.1.*  r Oil foil 11) CT 1*i
feel owrfelves inclined to regret Locke’s ignorance of
Ariltotle’s diflin&iona; but we cannot help thinking,
that had the Britiih philofopher attended to the Stagy-
rite’s account of qualities ih capacity and qualities in
completion, this perplexing queftion would never have
been Parted. It is juilly obferved in the EJfiay on Hu¬
man Underjlanding, that of real ejjtnces we know no¬
thing : but that every man feledls a certain number of
qualities which he has always perceived united in certain
beings ; and forming thefe into one complex conception,
gives to this conception a fpedfic name, which he ap¬
plies to every being in which he finds thofe qualities ^
united. This is undoubtedly the proctfsof the mind inSrrarge
forming genera and fpecies ; and as the excellent authoi ciw fe-
refufes the name of man to the changeling, it is obvious
that the complex conception, to w hich he gives that fight,
name, muit imply rationality or the aSual exertife of rea-
fon. But this limitation will exclude many beings from
the fpecies man, whom Mr Locke certainly coniidcred as
men and women. Not to mention infants and perfons
in found fieep, how fhall we clafs thofe who, after ha¬
ving lived 30 or 40 years in the full exercife of reafon,
have been fuddenly or by degrees deprived of it by fome
diforder in the brain ?
From Marlb’rough’s eyes the dreams of dotage flow;
And Swift expires a driveller and a Ihovv.
Johnson.
But were the hero and the wit in thofe deplorable cir-
cumftanccs excluded from the human fpecics, and clafled
between men and brutes ? No furely ; they were both
acknowledged to be men, becaufe they were known to
have the quality of realon in w’hat Ariftotle would have
called capacity. Their dotage and drivelling originated
from fome diforder in their bodies, probably in the re¬
gion of the brain ; and Locke himfelf contends that no
defeft in body is fufficient to degrade a perfon from the
rank of manhood. Again, lunatics have the exercife of
reafon, except at new and full moon. Are thefe un¬
happy beings fometimes men and fometimes a fpecies
by themfelves between men and brutes ?
It appears, therefore, that not the a3ual exercife of Fallacy oi
reafon, but reafon m capacity, ought to be included in
the complex conception to which we give the fpecific f1)e^;ng
name of man, as fomc of the greateft men that ever lived the human
have been during paits of their lives deprived of thefpeeks*
power of actual reafoning. This, however, it will be
faid, does not remove the difficulty ; for the occafional
exercife of reafon in lunatics, and the great exertions ot
it in fuch men as Swift and Marlborough, fhow that
they had it in capacity at all times ; whereas we have no
evidence that changelings have even a capacity ©f rea¬
foning at any time, lince they never do a rational aftion,
nor ever utter a fuitcnce to the purpofe. That we have
no dired and pofitive evidence of the minds of change¬
lings being capable of reafoning, w'ere they fupphed
with proper organs, mull be granted; but the probabi¬
lities of their being fo are many and great. We know
ZZ b, experience tha?the actual exercife of reafon may he
_ .  a(h,h u/nnld be ex- interrupted by an occafional and accidental prelime on
not, otheiwife infants and perfons afieep would be ex-
4 eluded from the human fpecies.
Overlocked Mr Locke has puzzled his readers, and perhaps lum-
by Locke, ^ wjlti a refpe&ing the fpecies of an idiot
* Book iv, or changeling, whom he pronounces to be fomething
jM' * ‘Hctw&n a man and a brute *. It is not often that we
interrupted by an occafional and accidental preflure on
the brain ; and therefore \vc cannot doubt but that if
this preflure were rendered permanent by any wrong
configuration of the flcull given to it in the womb, or
in the a& of being born into the w'orld, an infant, with
a mind capable of reafoning by means of proper organs,
c A 2 would
CL u A [ 74° j Q^XJ A
Quality would hy this accident be rendered, through the whole
ii of life, an idiot or changeling. That idiotifm is caafed
Q'|a!:S- by fuch accidents;, and is not the quality of an inferior
. mind occaiionally given to a human, body, will at lead
7 feem probable from the following confiderations.
True doc- Jt does not appear that an animal body can live and
txine* move but while it is actuated by fome mind. Whence
then does tire unborn infant derive its mind ? It irmll
be either immediately from God, or ex traduce from its
parents ; but if the mind of man be immaterial, it can¬
not be r.v traduce. Now, as idiots are very few in num¬
ber when compared with the rational part of the human
fpecies, and as God in the government of this world
a6fs not by partial but by general laws ; we muft con¬
clude that tire law which he has efhifclidled refpefting
the union of mind and matter, is, that human bodies
fhall be animated with minds endowed with a capacity
of rcafoning, and that thofe who never exert this capa¬
city are prevented by fome fuch accident as we have
afiigned.
For a further account of qualities, why they are fup-
pofed to inhere in fome fubjedt, together with the ufual
tiiftin&ion between the primary and fecondary qualities*
of matter, fee Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. i.
Chemical Qi'alitif.Sj thofe qualities principally intro¬
duced by means of chemical experiments, as fumigation,
amalgamation, cupellation, volatilization, precipitation,
&c.
Quality, is alfo ufed for a kind of title given to
-certain perfons, in regard of their territories, ligniories,
or other pretenfions.
QUANGA, See Capra.
QUANG-ping-fou, a city in China, is fituated in
the northern part of the province of Pe-tcheli, between
the provinces of Chang-tong and Ho-nan, and has nine
cities of the third clafs dependent on it; all its plains
are well watered by rivers. Among its temples, there
is one dedicated to thofe men who, as the Chinefe
pretend, difeovered the fecret of rendering themfelves
immortal.
QUANGSI, a province of China, bounded on the
north by Koe-Tcheau and Hu-Quang ; on the eaft, by
Yunan and Quantong ; on the fouth, by the fame and
Ton-quin ; and on the weft, by Yun-nan. It produces
great plenty of rice, being watered by feveral large ri¬
vers. The fouthern part is a flat country, and well cul¬
tivated ; but the northern is full of mountains covered
with trees. It contains njines of all forts ; and there
is a gold-mine lately opened. The capital town is
<Vtie-ling.
A very Angular tree, fays GroGer, grows in this
province ; inftead of pith, it contains a foft pulp, which
yields a kind of flour: the bread made of it is laid to
be exceedingly good. Bcfides paroquets, hedgehogs,
porcupines, and rhinocerofes, a prodigious number of
wild animals, curious birds, and uncommon infeds, are
found here.
This province contains 12 villages of the firft clafs,
and 80 of the fecond and third.
QUANG-tong, a province of China, bounded on
the eaft by Kiang-fi and Fokien ; on the fouth, by the
ocean ; and on the weft, by Tonqnin. This province
is diverfified by valleys and mountains ; and yields two
crops of corn in a year. It abounds in gold, jewels, filk,
|>eaiis, tin, quickfilver, fugar, brafs, iron, fteel, falt-
petre, ebony, and fevetal forts of odoriferous wood; be- Qramliy,
ftdes fruits of all forts proper to the climate. They *—v—
have a prodigious number of ducks, whofe eggs they
hatch in ovens \ and a tree, whofe wood is remarkably
hard and heavy, and thence called icon-wood. 1 he
mountains are covered with a fort of oflers which creep
along the ground, and of which they make bafkets, hur¬
dles, matts, and ropes.
. Although the climate of this, province is warm, the.
air is pure, and the people are robnft and healthy. They
are very induftnous ; and it mull be allowed that they
poftefs in an eminent degree the talc* of imitation : if
they are only fliown any of our European works, they-
execute others like tliem with the molt furpnfing exact-
nefs. This province fuffered much during the civil
wars ; but at prelent it is one of the- moil ftourilhing'
in the empire ; and, as it is at a great diftance from
court, its government is one of the moll important.
This province is divided into ten diltricts, which con¬
tain 10 cities ol the Lrll ciafs, and 8q of the fecond and
third. Canton is the capital town. r
QUANTITY, as explained by the great Englifh Quantity
lexicographer, is that property of any thing which
may Le increafed or diminiihed. This interpretation of
the word is certainly juft, and for the purpofes of com¬
mon couverfatiou it is fufikiently determinate ; but the
man of fcience may expecl to find in a work like ours
a definition of the thing iignified. This, however, can¬
not be given him. A logical definition confifts of the
genus under which the thing defined is ranked, and the
/(yeeific difference (fee Logic, n° 2c, &c.) ; but quanti¬
ty is ranked under no genus. In that ichool where
fuch definitions were moft valued, it was confidered as
one of the ten categories, or general conceptions, under
which all the objects of human apprehenfion were muf-
tered, like foldiers in an army (fee Categchcy and Phi¬
losophy, n° 22.) On this account, even Ariftotle
himlclf, who delighted in definitions, and was not eafi-
ly deterred from a favourite purfuit, could not confift- »
ently with his own rules attempt to define quantity. He Chara'^e:’
charaaerizcs it, however, in feveral parts of his works ; XifoJ
and particularly in the 15th chapter of the 4th book of 1 °UC*
his metaphyiics, where fie gives the following account
of the three firft. categories : 1 aja ,^‘v yz?, ay Mia. »' ovc- a,.
o'p.oia. y um / Tojo/wf 13-* to to*ov fv. “ Thin rs are
the fame, of which the substance is one ; fimi/ar, of
which the quality is one ; equal, of which the quan¬
tity is one. Again, he tells us*, that the chief charac- * .
teriliie of quantity is, that it may be denominated equal^(5*'
and unequal.
I hat any man can become wifer bv reading fuch de-
feriptions as thefe, none but an idolater of Ariftotle
will luppofe. 1 here is, indeed, no periphrafts by
which we can explain what is meant by quantity to
thofe who have not previoufly formed fuch a notion.—
All that can be done by making the attempt is only to-
fettle language, by Hating exadlly the cafes in which
we ufe tlris word in the greateft conformity to general
cullom ; for there is a laxnefs or carelelsnefs of expref-
lion in the language of moft men, and our notions are
frequently communicated by fpeech in a way by no
means preeife ; fo that it is often a great chance that
the notions excited in the mind of the hearer are not
exact counterparts of thofe in the mind of the
fpeaker.
The
Q_ U A [ 74* 3 Q_- U A
Quantity. The underftandinsrs of men differ in nothin* more kind, that the greatnefs af a favour u in the dired Qua-rfity *
^—V—~ remarkably than in Uieir power of abltraftion, and of compound ratio of the fervice performed and the dig- *
rapidly forming conceptions fo general and hmple as nxty of the performer, and the inverle ratio of the ^
not to be clogged with diftinguifhing c ire um fiances, tit and rank of the receiver; that the value of a cha-improperi7
which may be different in different minds while uttering ratler is iu the compound ratio of the talents and virtue, introduced
and hearing the fame words : and it is of great confe- &c»; and he has delivered a number of format propc-
quence to a man of fcientific habits, either to cultivate, fitions on the moll intereiling queitions in morals, couch-
if poflible, this talent, or to fuperfede its ufe, by ftudi- ed in this mathematical language, and even expveffed by
ouily forming to himfelf notions of the moll important algebraic formulae. _ But this is mere play, and convey*
untverjais in his own couvfe of contemplation, by care- no inftrudtion. underiland the words; they con-
ful abltnidlion of every thing extraneous. His lan- tain no abfurdity; and in as far as they ha^e a fenle, wre
guage by this means becomes doubly inflrudlive by its believe the proportions to oe true. But they give no
extreme precillon ; and he will even judge with greater greater precihon to our fentiments than the more ufual
certainty of notions intended to be communicated by expreflions would do. Ir we attend clofely to the
the more flovenly language of another perfon. meaning of any one of Lu<Ji proportions, we fnall find
We cannot fay that there is much ambiguity in the that it only expreffes fome vague and iodittin& notions
general ufe of the term quantity : But heie, as in 'all of degrees of thofc emotions, fentiments, or qualities,
other cafes, a love of refinement, of novelty, and fre- which would be juil as well conceived by means of the
quently of vanity, and the wifh of appearing ingenious expreffions of ordinary language ; and that it is only by
and original, have made men take advantage of even a ^ analogy or relemblancc that this mathematical
the fmail latitude with which the carded ufe of the language conveys any notions whatever of the fubje&s. 5
word will fumifh them, to amule themielves and the i he object of contemplation to the mathematician is The ma^
public by giving the appearance of fcience to empty aot whatever is fufceptible of greater and leis, but what
founds. "" is meafarable ; and mathematics is not the icienee °f ,emp]atJ*#
The fuSje6f Mathematics is undoubtedly employed in difeovering magnitude, in its mo ft abil ranted and general acccpta>on y quan#,
©f mathe- and tinting many relations of quantity ; and it is in this turn, but of magnitude whicli can be mealuud. it is,*.uies tnafc
nuticaliea category alone that any thing is contemplated by the indeed, the science of measvlx, antl whatever
mathematician, whether in geometry, arithmetic, or al- tscated in the way of menfuration is treated mathema-
gebra. Hence mathematics has been called tire feieftee ticaffy. Now, in the difeourie ov oidinary life and
of quantity. The limplicity of the obje& of the ma- ordinary men, many things are called quantities whicli
thematician’s contemplation, and the unparalleled di- we cannot or do not mealure. i his is the cafe in the
llindlnefs with which he can perceive its modifications, in fiances aheady given of the affetuoiis of the inind,
have enabled him to ere£l a body of fcience, eminent plealure, pain, beauty, wiidom, honour, &c. We do
not only for its certainty, but alfo for the great length fay that they ate incapable of mealuie ; but we
to wh'Ch he can carry his rcafonings without danger of have not yet been able to meafurc them, nor do we
error ; and the intimate connection which this fcience think of meafuring them when we fpeak rationally and
has with the arts of life, and the important fervices ulefully about than. We therefore do not conlider
which it has performed, have procured it a mod refpeCl- them mathematically ; nor can we inti educe mathema-
able place in the circle of the fciences. Ingenious men tical precilion into our diicuffions of theie iubjetts till
have availed thenafelves of this pre-eminence of mathe* we can, and actually do, meafure them. Pertons who
tnatics, and have endeavoured to procure refpedl for are precife in their exprellion will even avoid fuch phrafes
their difquifitiom on other fubjeas, by prefenting them on theie fubjedb as fuppole, or Itriclly exprefs, fuch
to the public as branches of mathematical fcience, and meafurement. We fhould be much emban ailed how to
therefore fufceptible of that accuracy and certainty anfwer the queftion. How much pain docs the tooth-
which are its peculiar boail. Oar moral afteftions, our ache give you juft now ; and how much is it caller lincC
lenlations, our intellectual powers, are all fufceptible of yefterday i \ et the anfv\ei (if we had a meafure^
augmentation and diminution, are conceivable as greater w ould be as eaiy as to the quettion. How many guineas
amd Ids when Hated together, and are familiarly fpoken did you win at cards i or how much land have you
of as admitting of degrees of compavifon. We are bought ? Nay, though we fay familiarly, “ I know
perfeaiy well underftood when we lay tliat one pain, well how much fuch a misfortune would afteft you,”
heat, grief, kindnefs, is greater than another; and as and are undti Hood when we fay it, it would be auk ward
this is the diftinguilhing chara&eriftic of quantity, and language to fay, “ I know well the quantity of your
es quantity is the fubiedi ot mathematical difeuffion, we gnei. It is in vain, therefoie, to expert mathematical
fuppofe that thefe fubjeds may be treated mathemati- prtcihon in our difeourfe or conceptions of quantities in
tally. Accordingly, a very celebrated and excellent the moil abltradlcd fenie. Such precHion is confined
9 T)r Fran philofopheri* has laid, among many things of the fame to quantity which may be and is mcafured (a). It is
m liutcbin- 0nV
y#«,  
(a) To talk intelligibly of the quantity of a pain, we fhould have fome ftandard by which to meafure it y
fome known degree of it fo well afeertained, that all men, when talking of it, Ihould mean the fame thing.—
And we fhould be able to compare other degrees of pain with this, fo as to perceive diilin&ly, not only whecher
they exceed or fall ihort of it, but alfo how much, or in what proportion ; whether by an half, or a fifth,, or*
tenth. Reid*
Q,U A
Meafurlng
C*})^ined,
onlytrlfUng with the imagination when we employmathe-
matical language on Aibjeila which have not this property.
It will therefore be of fome fervice In feienoe to dif-
criminate quantities in this view ; to point out what
are fufceptible of meafure, ami what are not.
What is meafuring ? It is one of thefe two things; It is
either finding out fome known magnitude of the thing
mcalured, which we can demonftrate to be equal to it;
or to find a known magnitude of it, which being ta¬
ken fo many times fhall be equal to it. The geometer
meafures the contents of a parabolic fpace when he ex¬
hibits a parallelogram of known dimenlions, and demon-
II rates that this parallelogram is equal to the parabolic
fpace. In like manner, he meafures the foil’d contents
of an infinitely extended hyperbolic fpindle, when he
exhibits a cone of known dimenfions, and demonftrates
that three of thefe cones are equal to the fpindle.
In this procefa it will be found that he adlually fub-
divides the quantity to be meafured into parts of which
it confitts, and ftates thefe parts as a (finally making up
the quantity, fpecifying each, and afiigning its bcim*
daries. He goes on with it, piece by piece, demon-
ftrating the refpe&ive equalities as he goes along, till he
has exhaufted the figure, or confidered all its parts.—
When he meafures by means of a fubmultiple, as when
he fhows the furface of a fphere to he equal to four of
its great circles, he flops, after having demonflrated the
equality of one of thefe circles to one part of the fur-
face : then he demonftrates that there are other three
parts, each of which is precifely equal to the one he
has minutely confidered. In this part of the procei#
he exprefsly afligns the whole furface into its diftincl
portions, of which he demonftrates the equality.
But there is another kind of geometrical meafme*
merit which proceeds on a very different principle.
The geometer conceives a certain individual portion
of his figure, whether line, angle, furface, or folid, as
known in refpe£l to its dtmenfions. He conceives this
to be lifted from its place; and again laid down on the
adjoining part of the figure, and that it is equal to the
part which it now covers; and therefore that this part
together with the firft is double of the firft : he lifts it
again, and lays it down on the next adjoining part,
and affirms that this, added to the two former, make
up a quantity triple of the firft. He goes on in this
way, making fimilar inferences, till he can dtmonftrate
f 74* ]
U A
that he has in this manner covered the whole figure by
and that his moveable figure will
1
Euclid’s
twenty applications, and that his moveable figure
cover no more; and he affirms that the figure is twenty
times the part employed.
This mode is precifely fimilar to the manner of prac¬
tical meafurement in common life: we apply a foot-rule
fucceffively to two lines, and find that 30 applications
exhauft the one, while it requires 35 to exhauft the
other. We fay, therefore, that the one line is 30 and
fourth pro- the other 35 feet long 5 and that thefe two lines are to
pofitioH. cad, other in the ratio of 30 to 35. Having meafured
two ftunter lines by a fimilar application of a ftiek of
an inch long 30 times to the one and 35 times to the
other, we fay that the ratio of the two firft lines is the
fame with that of the two laft. Euclid has taken this
method •! demonftrating the fourth propofition of the
firft book of his celebrated elements.
But all this procefs is a fitlion of the mind, and it is
£lie fiction of an impuffibiKty. It is even inconceivablet
that js, we eannet in imagination make ihia Qantitityi,
of one figure to another ; and we prefume to fay, that, ——v*—
if the elements of geometry cannot be demonftrated m
fome other way, the fcience has not that title to pure, ab-
ftta6l, and infallible knowledge, which is ufually allowed
it. We cannot fuppofe one of the triangles lifted and laid
on the other, without fuppofmg ft fomething different
from a triangle in abfiraQo. The individuality of fuch
a triangle coniifts folcly in its being in the preeife place
where it is, and in occupying that portion of fpace.
If wc could dillindtly conceive otherwife, we ffiould
perceive that, when we have lifted the triangle from its
place, and applied it to the other, it is gone from its
former place, and that there is no longer a triangle-
there. This is inconceivable, and Ipace has always been
acknowledged to be immoveable. There is therefore
fome logical defcdl in Euclid’s demonftration. We ap¬
prehend that he is labouring to demonftrate, or rather
illuftrate, a fimple apprehenfjon. This indeed is the
utmoil that can be dune in any demonftration (fee Me¬
taphysics, n0 82.); but the mode by which he guides
the mind to the appreheniion of the truth of his fourth
propofition is not confident either with pure mathe¬
matics or with the laws of corporeal nature. The real
procefs, as laid down by him, feems to be this. We
luppofe fomething different from the abltracl triangle ;
fome thing that, in conjundlion with other properties,
has the property of being triangular, with certain di¬
menfions of two of its fides and the included angle. It
ha* avowedly another property, not effential to, and
not contained in, the abftradl notion of a triangle, vis.
mobility. We alio fuppofe it permanent in lhape and
dimenfions, or that although, during its motion, it does
not occupy the fame fpace^ it continues, and all its parts,
to occupy an equal /pace. In fhort, our conception ia
very mixed, and does not perceptibly differ from our
conception of a triangular piece of matter, where the
triangle is not the fubjeft, but an adjumft, a quality.
And when we fuppofe the application made, we are not
in fa£l fuppofing two abftradt triangles to coincide.
This we cannot do with any thing like diftin&nefs; for
our diftinfl conception now is, not that of two triangle!
coinciding, but of one triangle being now exactly oecu.*
pied by that moveable thing which formerly occupied
the other. In Ihort, it is a vulgar meafurement, rellnCt-
ed by fuppofitions which are madmiflible in all actual
mealurementa in the prefent univerfe, in which no move¬
able material thing is known to be permanent, either
in lhape or magnitude.
This is an undeniable confequence of the principle
of univerlal gravitation, and the compreflibility of eveiy
kind of tangible matter with which we are acquainted-
Remove the brafs rule but one inch from its place *
its gravitation to the earth and to the reft of the uni-
verle is immediately changed, and its dimenfions change
of confequence. A change of temperature will produce <
a fimilar effetl; and this is attended to and confidered
in all nice menfurations, We do the heft we can to affurc
ourfelves that our rule always occupies a fenfibly equal
fpace ; and we muil be contented with chances of error
which we can neither perceive nor remove.
We might (were this a proper place) take notice of
fome other logical defedls m the reafoning of tliis cele¬
brated propofition : but they arc befide our prefent
purpofe of explaining the different modes of mathemati¬
cal
W—v—
8
The cha-
radteriftic
potion of
rnenfura-
tion.
Charadhi
of n'athe
Oiaticai
T»antity.
Q. U A [ 743 ] O. U A
eal meafarement, with the view of difeoverinc; that cir- her, the chavafters of mathematical quantity may he Quantity.
cumilance in which they all agree, and which (if the
only one) mud therefore be the charadteriflic of men-
furation.
We think that the only circumftance in which all
modes of menfuration agree, or the only notion that is
found in them all, is, that the quantity is conceived as
confiding of parts, didinguifhable from each other, and
Separated by affignable boundaries; fo that they are at
once conceived Separately and jointly. We venture to
affert that no quantity is direftly meafured which we
cannot conceive in this way, and that fuch quantities
only are the immediate objects of mathematical contem¬
plation, and fhould be didinguifiied by a generic name.
Let them be called Mathematical quantities.
Extension, Duration, Number, and Proportion,
have this chara&eriftic, and they are the only quantities
which have it. Any perfon will he convinced of the
fird affertion by attending to his own thoughts when
contemplating thefe notions. He will find that he con¬
ceives every one ©f them as made up of its own parts,
which are didinguifhable from each other, and have
afiignable boundaries, and that it is only in confequence
of involving this conception that they can be added to
or fubtra&ed from each other; that they can he multi¬
plied, divided, and conceived in any proportion to each
other.
He may perhaps find confiderable difficulty in ac¬
quiring perfe^ly didinft notions of the menfurability,
and the accuracy of the modes of menfuration. He
will find that the way in which he meafures duration is
very fimilar to that in which he meafures fpace or ex-
teniion. -He does not know, or does not attend to, any
thing which hinders the brafis foot-rule in his hand from
continuing to occupy equal fpaces during his ule of it,
in meafuring the diitance of two bodies. In like man¬
ner he feledts an event which nature or ait can repeat
continually, and in which the circumflances which con¬
tribute to its accomplifhment are invariably the fame,
or their variations and their effefls are infenfible. He
concludes that it will always occupy an equal portion
of time for its accomplilhment, or always laft an equal
time. Then, obferving that, during the event whole
duration he wifhes to rneafure, this ftandard event is ac-
complifhed 29^ times, and that it is repeated 365,
times during the accomplifhment of another event,
he affirms that the durations of thefe are in the ratio
of 29^ to 365It is thus (and with the fame logical
deleft as in the meafuring a line by a brafs rod) that
the allronomer meafures the celeftial revolutions by
means of the rotation of the earth round its axis, or
by the vibrations of a pendulum.
We are indebted for moft of the preceding obferva-
tions to Dr Reid, the celebrated author of the Inquiry
intothe Human Mind on thePrinciples of CommonSenfe,
and of the EfTays on the intelleftual and aftive Powers
of Man. He has publifhed a differtation on this fubjeft
in the 45th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
n° 489, which we recommend to our philofophical
readers as a performance eminent for precifion and
acutenefs. If we prefume to differ from him in any
trivial ctrcumflance, it is with that deference and re-
* fpeft which is due to his talents and his worth.
Dr Reid juftly obferves, that as nothing has propor¬
tion which has not cither extenfion, duration, or nuna-
reffrifted to thefe three. He calls them proper quan- v ~
titles, and all others he calls improper. Wc believe
that, in the utmofl precifion of the Englifh language,
this denomination is very appofite, and that the word
quwtitv, derived from quantum, always fuppofes mea- ^
furement: But the word is frequently ufed in cafes Other
where its original is not kept in view, and we ufe other
words as fynonymous with it, when all menfuration,
whether poffible or not, is out of our thoughts. Ac- fidered ma-
cording to praftice, therefore, the et norma thematicaU
there feems to be no impropriety in giving this name, 'y*
in our language at kali, to whatever can be conceived
as great or little. There is no impropriety in faying
that the pain occafioned by the ffone is greater than
that of the toothache ; and when we fearch for the ca-
tegory to which the affertion may be referred, we can¬
not find any other than quantity. We may be allow¬
ed therefore to fay', with almoft all our fcientific coun¬
trymen, that every thing is conceivable in refpeft of
quantity which we can think or fpeak of as greater and
lefs ; and that this notion is the charafteriific of quan¬
tity as a genus, while meafureablenefs is the charafte-
riitic of mathematical quantity as a fpecies.
But do wc not meafure many quantities, and confi-
der them mathematically, which have not this charafte-
riftic of being made up of their own diitinguifliable
partj ? What elfe is the employment of the mechani¬
cian, when fpeaking of velocities, forces, attraftions,
repulfions, magnetic influence, chemical affinity, &c.
&c. ? Are not thefe mathematical feiences ? And if the
precifion and certainty of mathematics arife from the
nature of their fpecific objeft, are not all the claims
of the mechanician and phyfical aftronomer ill-founded
pretenlions ? Thefe queffions require and deferve a feri-
ous anfwer* rr
It is moft certain that we confider the notions which VeWitr,
are expreffed by thefe terms velocity’, force, denfity, and^°rc'>»^^<*
the like, as fufceptible of meafure, and we confider them mcafured»
mathematically.
Some of thefe terms are nothing but names for rela¬
tions of meafurable quantity, and only require a little
refleftion to fhow themfelves fuch. Velocity is one
of thefe. It is only a name expreffing a relation be¬
tween the fpace deferihed by a moving body and the
time which elapfes during its defeription. Certain mo¬
derate rates of motion are familiar to us. What great¬
ly exceeds this, fuch as the flight of a bird when com¬
pared with our walking, excites our attention, and this
excefs gets a name A motion not fo rapid as we are
familiar with, or as we with, alfo gets a name becaufc,
in this the excefs or defeft may intereft us. We vvifli
for the flight cf the hawk ; we chide the tardy pace of
our meffenger : but it is fcicntiric curiofity which firft
confiders this relation as a ftptr atc objeft of contempla¬
tion, and the philoCopher mult have a name for it. He
has not formed a new one, but makes ufe of a word of
common language, whofe natural meaning is the combi¬
nation of a great fpace with a fliort time. Having
once appropriated it, in his fcientific vocabulary, to this
very general ufe, it lofes with him its true fignification.
Tardity would have done juft as well, though its true
meaning is diametrically oppofite; and there is no great¬
er impropriety in faying the tardity of a cannon bullet
than in faying the velocity of the hour-hand of a watch.
Velocity
U A t 744-
Quantity. Velocity is a quality or afFedion of motion, the notion
* q£ which includes the notions of Ipace. and duration
(two mathematical quantities), and no other. It does
not therefore exprefs a mathematical quantity itfelf, but
a relation, a combination of two mathematical quanti¬
ties of different kinds; and as it is meafurable in the
quantities fo combined, itsmeafure mud be a unit of its
own kind, that is, an unit of fpace as combined with an
unit of time.
Density is another word of the fame kind, expref-
fing a combination of fpace with number. Denfa arboret
means trees Handing at a fmall diftance from each other;
and the word is ufed in the fame fenfe when we fay that
quickfilver is denfer than water. The expreflion al¬
ways fuggefts to the reflecting mind the notions of par¬
ticles and their diitances. We are indeed fo habituated
to complicated views of things, that we can fee remote
conneftions with aftonifnlng rapidity; and a very few
circumftances are fufheient for leading forward the mind
in a train of invedigation. Common difeourfe is a mod
wonderful initance of this. It is in this way that we
fay, that we found by weighing them that inflammable
air had not the fixth part of the denlity of common air.
Suppofing all matter to con lid of equal atoms equally
heavy, and knowing that the weight of a bladder of air
is the fum of the weights of all the atoms, and alfo
knowing that the vicinity of the atoms is in a certain
proportion of the number contained in a given bulk, we
affirm that common air is more than fix times denfer
than inflammable air ; but this rapid decifion is entirely
the effedt of ihabit, which makes us familiar with cer¬
tain groups of conceptions, and we indantaneoufly di-
itinguifh them from others, and thus think and difeourfe
rationally. The Latin language employs the word fre¬
quent to exprefs both the combination of fpace and num¬
ber, and that of time and number.
There are perhaps a few more words which exprefs
combinations of mathematical quantities of different
kinds; and the correfponding ideas or notions are there¬
fore proper and immediate fubjetls of mathematical dif-
cuffion : But there are many words which are expref-
five of things, or at lead of notions, to which this way
of confidering them will not apply. All thole affec¬
tions or qualities of external bodies, by which they are
conceived to adt on each other, are of this kind : Im-
rtJUSIVE FORCE, WEIGHT, CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRI¬
FUGAL FORCE, MAGNK FICAL, ELECTRICAL, CHEMI¬
CAL ATTRACTIONS AND RE P ULSION S } ill fllOl't, all that
we confider as the immediate caufes of natural pheno¬
mena. Thefe we familiarly rueafuro, and confickr ma¬
thematically.
Forces men- What was laid on this fubjedl in the article Physics
lured in the will give us clear conceptions of this procefs of the
phenome- mind. Thefe forces or caufes are not immediate ob-
lld’ jedls of contemplation, and are known only by and in
the phenomena which we confider as their effedis. The
phenomenon is not only the indication of tlic agency
of any caufe, and the charadlerHbc of its kind, but the
meaiure of its degree. The neceflary circumilances in
this train of human thought are, l il, The notion of the
force as fometking fufceptible of augmentation and di¬
minution. ad, The notion of an infeparable connection
of the force with the effedt produced, and of every de¬
gree of the one with a correfponding degree of the other.
From thefe is formed the notion that the phenomenon
1
Q^U A
or efledt is the proper meafure of the- force or caufe, Q«angty,
All this is dridtly logical. —
But when we are confidering thefe fubjedts mathe¬
matically, the immediate objedts of our contemplation
are not the forces which we are thus treating. It is
not their relations which we perceive, and which we
combine with fuch complication of circumdances and
certainty of inference as are unknown in all other feien-
■ces : by no means ; they are the phenomena only, which
are fubjedls of purely mathematical difeuffion. They
are motions, which involve only the notions of fpace
and time; and when we have finiffied an accurate ma¬
thematical invedigation, and make our affirmation con¬
cerning the forces, we are certain of its truth, becaufe
we fuppofe the •"orces to have the proportions and rela¬
tions, and no other, which we obferve in the pheno¬
mena. Thus, after having demondrated, by the geo¬
metrical comparifon of the lines and angles and fur-
faces of an ellipfe, that the momentary defledfion of
the moon from the tangent of her orbit is the 3600th
part of the fimultaneous Uefleclion of a done from the
tangent of its parabolic path, Newton affirms, that
the force by which a particle of the moon is retained
in her orbit is the 3600th part of the weight of a par¬
ticle of the done ; and having farther ffiown, from fadb
and obfervation, that thefe momentary deflections are
inverfely as the fquares of the didances from the centre
of the earth, he affirms, that all this is produced by a
force which varies its intenfity in this manner.
Now all this uivedigatiow proceeds on the two fuppo-
fitions mentioned above, and the mcafures of the forces
are in fact the meafures of the phenomena. The whole
of phyficai adronomy, and indeed the whole of mecha¬
nical philofophy, might be taught and undei*dood,
without ever introducing the word force, or the notion
which it is fuppofed to exprefs: for our mathematical
reafonings are really about the phenomena, which arc
fubjedfs purely mathematical.
The precilion, therefore, that we prefume to affirm
to attend thefe invedigations, arifes entirely from the
meafurable nature of the quantities which are the real
objcdls of our contemplation, and the fuitablenefs and
propriety of the mcafures which we adopt in our com*
parifons.
Since, then, the phenomena are the immediate fub¬
jedts of our difeuffion, and the operating powers are on-
lv inferences from the phenomena conlidered as effedts,
the quantity afcribtd to them mutt alio be an inference
from the quantity of the effedt, or ol fume eitcumdaiiee
iu the effict. The meaiure, therefore, ol the cauie, or
natural power or force, cannot be one of its own parts;
for the whole and the part are equally .unperceived by
us. Our meafure, therefore, mud be a meafure of fome
intereding part, or of the only interelting part of the
phenomenon- It is therefore in a manner arbitrary, and
depends chiefly on the intcred we take in the pheno¬
menon. It mud, however, be fettled with preeifion,
fo that all men in ufing it may mean the fame thing.
It mud be fettled, therefore, by the defeription of that
part or circumdance of the phenomenon which is eha-
vadleridie of the natural power. This deieription is
the definition of the meafure. T,
Thus Newton aflumes as his meafure of the centri- VfeafjfM
petal force, the momentary deviation from Uniform of ceHtri-
re&ilincal motion. Others, and foructimes Newton PeUl
^ himfelf,
Q_ u A
C 745 ]
Qtfifltity,
T4
Requifites
of fuch
•JHeafurcs.
»5
Controver-
fy between
the Cartefi-
ansand
l.eibnitzi-
ans on this
(fubjedf.
himfelf, aflumes the momentaiy change of velocity,
which again is meafured by twice this deviation. Thele
meafures, being thus felefted, are always proper in a
mathematical fenfe ; and if Itriftly adhered to, can never
lead us into any paralogifm. They may, however, be
phyfically wrong: there may not be that indiffoluble
connexion between the phenomenon and the fuppofed
caufe. But this is no mathematical error, nor does it in¬
validate any of our mathematical inferences.: it only
makes them ufelefs for explaining the phenomenon by
the principle which we adopted; but it prepares a mo¬
dification of the phenomenon for fome more fortunate
application of phyfical principles.
All that can be defired in the definitions or deferip-
tions of thefe meafures is, that they may not deviate
from the ordinary ufe of the terms, becaufe this would
always create confufion, and occafion miltakes. Dr
Reid has given an example of an impropriety of this
kind, which has been the fubjetf of much debate among
the writers on natural philofophy. We mean the mea-
fure of the force inherent in a body in motion. Def-
cartes, and all the writers of his time, afiumed the ve¬
locity produced in a body as the meafure of the force
which produces it; and obferving that a body, in con-
fequence of its being in motion, produces changes in
the ftate or motion of other bodies, and that thefe
changes are in the proportion of the velocity of the
changing body, they afierted that there is in a moving
body avis insita, an inherent force, and that
this is proportional to its velocity; faying that its force is
twice or thrice as great, when it moves twice or thrice
as fail at one time as at another. But Leibnitz ob-
ferved, that a body which moves twice as fail, rifes
four times as high, againft the uniform adlion of gra¬
vity ; that it penetrates four times as deep into a piece
of uniform clay ; that it bends four times as many
fprings, or a fpring four times as Itrong, to the fame
degree ; and produces a great many effe&s which are
four times greater than thofe produced by a body which
has half the initial velocity. If the velocity be triple,
quadruple, &c. the effects are nine times, 16 times,
&c. greater ; and, in fhort, are proportional, not to the
velocity, but to its fquare. This obfervation had been
made before by Dr Hooke, who has enumerated a
prodigious variety of important cafes in which this pro¬
portion of effed! is obferved. Leibnitz, therefore, af¬
firmed, that the force inherent in a moving body is pro¬
portional to the fquare of the velocity.
It is evident that a body, moving with the fame ve¬
locity, has the fame inherent force, whether this be em¬
ployed to move another body, to bend fprings, to rife in
oppofition to gravity, or to penetrate a mafs of foft mat¬
ter. Therefore thefe meafures, which are fo widely dif¬
ferent, while each is agreeable to a numerous clafs of
fa&s, are not meafures of this fomething inherent in the
moving body which we call its force, but are the mea¬
fures of its exertions when modified according to the
circumltances of the cafe; or, to fpeak Hill more cau-
tioufly and fecurely, they are the meafures of certain
claffes of phenomena confequent on the adtion of a mo¬
ving body. It is in vain, therefore, to attempt to fup-
port either of them by a demonllration. The meafurc
itfelf is nothing but a definition. The Cartefian calls
that a double force which produces a double velocity
in the body on which it adts. The Leibnitzian calls
Vol. XV. Part II.
<LU a
that a quadruple force which makes a quadruple pen«^ Quantity,
tration. The reafonings of both in the demonilration ” v 1
of a propofition in dynamics may be the fame, as alio
the refult, though expreffed in different numbers.
But the two meaiures are far from being equally
proper : for the Leibnitzian meafure obliges us to do
continual violence to the common ufe of words. When
two bodies moving in oppofite diredlions meet, ffrike
each other, and itop, all men will fay that their forces
are equal, becaufe they have the beft tell of equality
which we can devife. Or when two bodies in motion
ftrike the parts of a machine, fuch as the oppofite arms
of a lever, and are thus brought completely to reft, we
and all men will pronounce their mutual energies by the
intervention of the machine to be equal. Now, in all
thefe cafes, it is well known that a perfedt equality is
found in the produdls of the quantities of matter and
velocity. Thus a ball of two pounds, moving with the
velocity of four feet in a fecond, will ftop a ball of eight
pounds moving with the velocity of one foot per fe¬
cond. But the followers of Leibnitz fay, that the
force of the firft ball is four times that of the fecond.
All parties are agreed in calling gravity a uniform
or invariable accelerating force; and the definition
which they give of fuch a force is, that it always pro¬
duces the fame acceleration, that is, equal accelerations
in equal times, and therefore produces augmentations of
velocity proportionable to the times in which they are
produced. The only effedl aferibed to this force, and
confequently the only thing which indicates, charadte-
rifes, and meafures it, is the augmentation of velocity.
What is this velocity, confidered not merely as a ma¬
thematical term, but as a phenomenon, as an event, d
produdfion by the operation of a natural caufe ? It
cannot be conceived any other way than as a determi¬
nation to move on for ever at a certain rate, if nothing
(hall change it. We cannot conceive this very clearly.
We feel ourfelves forced to animate, as it were, the
body, and give it not only a will and intention to move
in this manner, but a real exertion of fome faculty ia
confequence of this determination of mind. We are con-
feious ot fuch a train of operations in ourfelves ; and the
laft ftep of this tiain is the exertion or energy of fome
natural faculty, which we, in the utmoft propriety of
langdage, call force. By fuch analogical conception,
we fuppofe a fomething, an energy, inherent in the mo¬
ving body ; and its only office is the produdlion and
continuation of this motion, as in our own cafe. Sci¬
entific curiofity was among our lateft wants, and lan¬
guage was formed long before its appearance : as we
formed analogical conceptions, we contented ourfelves
with the words already familiar to us, and to this fome¬
thing we gave the name Force, which expreffed that
energy in ourfelves which bears fome refemblance (in
office at leaft) to the determination of a body to move
on at a certain rate. This fort of allegory pervades the
whole of our conceptions of natural operations, and we
can hardly think or fpeak of any operation without a Ian*
guage, which fuppoies the animation of matter. And, in
the prefent cafe, there are fo many points of refemblance
between the effedts of our exertions and the operations
of nature, that the language is moft expreffive, and has
the ftrongeft appearance of propriety. By exerting
our force, we not only move and keep in motion, but
we move other bodies. Juft fo a ball not only moves,
5 B but
Quantity, but
—y—&c.
16
Vis miita.
tr A , [
puts other bodies in motion, or penetrates them,
—This is the origin of that conception which fo
forcibly obtrudes itfelf into our thoughts, that there is
inherent in a moving body a force by which it produces
changes in other bodies. No fuch thing appears in the
fame body if it be not in motion. We therefore con¬
clude, that it is- the production of the moving force,
whatever that has been. If fo, it mull be conceived
as proportional to its producing caufe. Now this forced
thus produced or exerted in the moving body, is-only
another way of conceiving tlrat determination which we
call velocity, when it is conceived as a natural-event.
We can form no other notion of it. The vis infita, the
determination to move ht a certain rate, and the velo¬
city, are one and the fame tiling, coniidered in different
relations.
Therefore the vis injita corpori moventi, the determi¬
nation to move at a certain rate, and the velocity, fhould
have one and the fame meafure, or any one of them may
be taken for the meafure of the other. The velocity
being an object of perception, is therefore a proper
mealure of the inherent force ; and the propriety is
more evident by the perfeft agreement of this ufe of the
words with common language. For we conceive and
exprefs the adlion of gravity as uniform, when we think
and fay that its effe6ls-are proportional to the times of
its action. Now all agree, that the velocity produced
by gravity is proportional to the time of its action;
And thus the meafure of force, in reference to its pro¬
ducing caufe, perfectly agrees with its meafure, indepen¬
dent of this confideration^
But this agreement is totally loft in the Leibnitzian
doftrinc ; for the body which has fallen four times as
far, and has fuftained the atftion of gravity twice as long,
is faid to have four times the force.
The quaintnefs and continual paradox of expreflion
which this meafure of inherent force leads us into,
would have quickly exploded it, had it not been that
its chief abettors were leagued in a keen and acrimo¬
nious warfare with the Britifh mathematicians who fup-
ported the claim of Sir Ifaac Newton to the invention
of fluxions. They rejoiced to find in the elegant wri¬
tings of Huyghens a phyflcal principle of great extent,
fuch as this is, which could be fet in comparifon with
fome of the wonderful difeoveries in Newton’s Princi-
pia. The faft, that in the mutual adlions of bodies on
each other the produ&s of the mafles and the fquares
of the velocities remain always the lame (which they
Confervatio call the confervatio virium vivarum), is of almoft uni-
vn-ium V1- verfal extent; and the knowledge of it enabled them
va. am. rea(jy ancj elegant folutions of the moft abftrufe
and intricate problem, by which they acquired a great
and deferved celebrity. Dr Robert Hooke, whofe
obfervation hardly any tiring efcaped, was the firlt (long
• Micogra. before Huyghens) who remarked*, that in all the cafes
vis re. of the gradual produ&ion and extinction of motion,
'^c^tThig the fenfxble phenomenon is proportional to the fquare
of the produced or extinguilhed velocity.
John Bernoulli brought all thefe facts together, and
fyftematized them according to the principle advanced
by Huyghens. in his treatife on the centre of ofcillation.
He and Daniel Bernoulli gave moft beautiful fpecimens’
of the prodigious ufe of this principle for the folution
of difficult phyfical problems in their diflertations on
the motion and impulfe of fluids, and on the comma-
17
Polthu-
jnous
W oiks.
746 ] Q_ U A
nication of motion. It was however very early objected Quantity,
to them (we think by Marquis Poleni), that in the col- \r~—
liflon of bodies perfectly hard there was no fuch con/er-
vntio virium vivarum ; and that, in this cafe, the forces
muft be acknowledged to be proportional to the velo¬
cities. The objections-were unanfwerable.—But John
Bernoulli evaded their force, by affirming that tlrere
were and could be no bodies perfectly hard. This was
the origin of another celebrated doctrine, on which
Leibnitz greatly plumed himfelf, the Law of Con-
tinuity, via. that nothing is obferved to change ab-j-'j.yjjy C0 *
ruptly, or prr faltum. But no one will pretend to fay
that a perfectly hard body is an inconceivable thing; on
the contrary, all will allow that foftnefs and compref-
fibility are adjunct ideas, and not in the leaft neceflary
to the conception of a particle of matter, nay totally
incompatible with our notion of an ultimate atom.
Sir Ifaac Newton never could be provoked to en¬
gage in this- difpute. He always confidered it as a
wilful abufe of words, and unworthy of his attention; .
lie guarded againft all poffibility of cavil, by giving
the moft precife and perfpicuous definitions of thofe
meafures of forces, and all other quantities which ho
had occafion to confider, and by carefully adhering to
them. And in one propofidon of about 20 lines, viz* Great fupe-
the 39th of the ift book of the Principia, he explain-
ed every phenomenon adduced in fupport of the Leib- Newl01'* -
nitzian do&rine, fliowing them to be immediate confe-
quences of the action of a force meafured by the velo¬
city which it produces or extinguilhes. There it ap¬
pears that the heights to which bodies will rife in op*
polition to the uniform acStion of gravity are as the
fquares of the initial velocities; So are the depths
to which they will penetrate uniformly refilling matter:
So is the number of equal fprings which they will bend
to the fame degree, &c. See. See. We have had fre¬
quent occafion to mention this propofition as the moft
extenfively ufeful of all Newton’s difeoveries. It is
this which gives the immediate application of mecha¬
nical principles to the explanation of natural phenome^
na. It is inceflantly employed in every problem by the
very perfons who hold by the other meafure of forces*
although fuch conducl is virtually giving up that mea*-
fure. They all adopt, in every inveftigation, the two
theorems f t — vy and fs — vv; both of which fuppofe
an accelerating force / proportional to the velocity •o
which it produces by -its uniform a&ion during the
time t, and the theorem^/szzv3, is the 39th 1. Princip;
and is the co*\farvatio virium vivarum.
This famous difpute (the only one in the circle of
mathematical fcience) has led us fomewhat afide. But
we have little more t© remark with refpeil to meafu-
rable quantity. We cannot fay what varieties of quan*
tity are fufceptible of ftri£l meafure, or that it is im-
poffible to give accurate mealures of every thing fufeep*
tible of augmentation and dimipution. We affirm,
however, with confidence, that pain, pleafure, joy, &cj
are not made up of their own parts, which can be coni,
templated ieparately : but they may chance to be af*
fociated by nature with fomething that is meafurable ;
and we may one day be able to affign their degrees
with as much precifion as we now afeertain the degrees'
of warmth by the expanfion of the fluid in the ther*
inoiueten There is one fenfe in which they may all
he
Quantity be meafured,
It ,
jQaarel
CL U A
viz. numerically, as Newton
Hadley'
dcnfity, vis matrix, &c. We can conceive the pain of
each of a dozen men to be the fame. I hen it is evi¬
dent that the pain of eight of thefe men is to that of
the remaining four as two to one ; but from fuch men
furation we do not forefee any benefit likely to aide.
Quantity, in grammar, an affection of a fyllable,
v hereby its meafure, or the time wherein it is pronoun¬
ced,- is afcertained; or that which determines the fyl-
table to be long or {hort.
Quantity is" alfo the objeft of profody, and diitin- -
guifhes verfe from profe; and the economy and arrange¬
ment of quantities, that is, the diflribution of long and
fhort fyllables, makes what we call the number. See
Poetry, Part III.
The quantities are ufed to be diftinguifhed, among
grammarians, by the characters , fhort, as pei ; and ,
Jong, as ros. There is alfo a common, variable, or du¬
bious quantity ; that is, fyllables that are one time ta¬
ken for fhort ones, and at another time for long ones ;
es the firft fyllable in Atlas, patres, See.
QUARANTINE, is a trial which (hips mud un¬
dergo when fufpeCted of a peftilential infection. . It
may be ordered by the king, with advice of the privy-
council, at fuch times, and under fuch regulations, as
he judges proper. Ships ordered on quarantine muft
repair to the place appointed, and mull continue there
during the time preferibed (generally fix rveeks) ; and
mull have no intercourfe with the Ihore, except for
neceffary provifions, which are conveyed with every
pofiible precaution. When the time is expired, and
the goods opened and expofed to the air as directed,
if there be no appearance of infe&ion they are admit¬
ted to port.
Ships infeCled with the peftilence muft proceed to
St Helen’s Pool in the. Scilly iflands, and give notice
of their fituation to the cuftomhoufe officers, and wait
till the king’s pleafure be known.
Perfons giving falfe information to avoid peiform
ing quarantine, or refufing to go to the place appointed,
or efcaping, alfo officers appointed to fee quarantine
performed, deferting their office, negle&ing their duty,
or giving a falfe certificate, fuffer death as felons.
Goods from Turkey, or the Levant, may not be land¬
ed without licenfe from the king, or certificate that
they have been landed and aired at feme foieign port.
See Plague. ^ ,
QUARLES (Francis), the fon of James Quarles
clerk to the board of green cloth and purveyor to
queen Elifabeth, was born in 1592. He was educated
at Cambridge; became a member of Lincoln s inn ; and
was for fome time cup-bearer. to the Queen ot Bohe¬
mia, and chronologer to the city of London. It was
probably on the ruin of her affairs that he went to Ire¬
land as fecretary to archbifhop Uffierj but the troubles
in that kingdom forcing him to return, and not find-
ino- affairs more at peace in England, fome difquiets
helmet with were thought to have haftened his death,
which happened in 1644. His works both in profe
and verfe are numerous, and were formerly in great
efteem, particularly his Divine Emblems: but the ob-
folete quaintnefs of his ftyle has caufed them to fall into
negleft, excepting among particular claffes of readers-
' X t C 1 _ A. ^  1. L LnnViOOr
pieti Beau- t( memory of Quarles, fays a late author, has been
t!ei r’1 1 n branded with mofe than common abufe, and he feems to
T^tryJ “ have been cenfured merely from the want of being read.
r 747 i qua.
meafures If his poetry failed to gain him friends and readers, his Quarries,
piety ffiould at lead have fecured him peace and good- *
will. He too often, no doubt, miftook the enthu-
fiafm of devotion for the infpiration of fancy ; to mix
the waters of Jordan and Helicon in the fame cup,
was referved for the hand of Milton ; and for him, and
him only, to find the bays of Mount Olivet equally
verdant with thofe of Parnaffus. Yet, as the effufions
of a real poetical mind, however thwarted by unto-
wardnefs of fubjefl, will be feldom rendered totally
• abortive, we find in Quarles original imageiy, ftriking
fentiment, fertility of expreffion, and happy combina¬
tions ; together with a compreffion of ftyle that me¬
rits the obfervation of the writers of verfe. Grofs de¬
ficiencies of judgment, and the infelicity of his fubjefts,
concurred in ruining him. Perhaps no circumftance
whatever can give a more complete' idea of Quarles’s
degradation than a late edition of his Emblems ; the
following paffage is extrafled '•from the preface : 4 Mr
Francis Quarles, the author of the Emblems that go
under his name, was a man of the moft exemplary piety,
and had a deep infight into the mylleries of our holy
religion. But, for all that, the book itfelf is written
in fo old a language, that many parts of it are fcarce
intelligible in the prefent age ; many of his phrafes are
fo affe&ed, that no perfon, who has any talle for read¬
ing, can perufe them with the leaft degree of pleafure;
many of his expreffions are harffi, and fometimes whole
lines are included in a parenthefis, by which the mind
of the reader is diverted from the principal objeft. His
Latin mottos under each cut can be of no fervice to an
ordinary reader, becaufe he (capnot underftand them.
In order, therefore, to accommodate the public with an
edition of Quarles’s Emblems properly modemifed, this
work was undertaken.’ Such an exhibition of Quarles
is chaining Columbus to an oar, or making John Duke,
of Marlborough a train-band corporal.”
QUARRIES, a name commonly given to a moft
extraordinary cavern under the city of Paris, the exitl-
ence of which is known to few even of the inhabitants,
and many of thofe who have heard of it confider the
whole as an idle ftory. Mr Thomas White, however,
member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh,
&c. who vifited it in 1784, puts the matter beyond a
doubt; having, with many others, obtained leave (which
is very cautioufly granted) to iiifpeft it, haying guides
and torches with them. He gives the following account
of it in the fecond volume of the Manchefter Tranfac-
tions. “ At the entrance by the Obfervatoire Royal, the
path is narrow for a confiderable way ; but foon we en¬
tered large and fpacious ftreets, all marked with names,
the fame as in the city ; different advertifements and
bills were found, as we proceeded, palled on the walls,
fo that it had every appearance of a large town fwal-
lowed up in the earth.
“ The general height of the roof is about 9 or 10
feet; but in fome parts not lefs than 30 and even 40. In
many places there is a liquor continually dropping from
it, which congeals immediately, and forms a fpecies of
tranfparent Hone, but not fo fine and clear as rockcry-
ftal. As we continued-our peregrination, we thought
ourfelves in no fmall danger from the roof, which we
found but indifferently propped in fome places with
wood much decayed. Under the houfes, and many of
the ftreets, however, it Deemed to be tolerably fecured
by immenfe ftones fet in mortar; in other parts, where
/ ✓ c B 2 there
CL U A
Quarue!. there are only fields or gardens above, it was totally
unfupported for a confiderable fpace, the roof being
perfeftly level, or a plane piece of rock. After traver-
fing about two miles, we again defeended about 20
fteps, and here found fome workmen in a very cold and
damp place, propping up a mod dangerous part, which
they were fearful would give way every moment. The
path here is not more than three feet in width, and
the roof fo low, that we were obliged to Hoop confi-
derably.
“ On walking fome little diftance farther, we entered
into a kind of faloon cut out of the rock, and fafd to
be exactly under the Eglife de St Jacques. This was
illuminated with great tafte, occaiioned an agreeable
furprife, and made us all ample amends for the danger and
difficulty we had juft before gone through. At one end
was a reprefentation in miniarure of fome of the principal
forts in the Indies, with the fortifications, draw-bridges,
&c. Cannons were planted with a couple of foldiers
to each ready to fire. Centinels were placed in diffe¬
rent parts of the garrifon, particularly before the go¬
vernor’s houfe ; and a regiment of armed men was
drawn up in another place with their general in the
front. The (whole was made up of a kind of clav
which the place affords, was ingenioufiy contrived, and
the light that was thrown upon it gave it a very pretty
effeft.
“ On the other fide of this hall was a long table fet
out with cold tongues, bread, and butter, and fome
of the beft Byrgundy I every drank. Now every thing
was hilarity and mirth ; our fears were entirely difpell-
ed, and the danger we dreaded the moment before was
now no longer thought of. In ihort, we were all in
good Ipints again, and proceeded on our journey about
two miles farther, when our guides judged it prudent
for us to afeend, as we were then got to the fteps which
lead up to the town. We here found ourfelves fafe at the
Val de Grace, near to the Englifh Benediftine convent,
without the leaft accident having happened to any one
of the party. We imagined we had walked about two
French leagues, and were abfent from the furface of
tlie earth betwixt four and five hours.
“ There were formerly feveral openings into the quar¬
ries, but the two I have mentioned, viz. the Objervatory
and the Val de Grace, are, I believe, the only ones left;
and thefe the infpedlors keep conllantly locked, and
rarely open them, except to ftrangers particularly in¬
troduced, and to workmen who are always employed
in fome part by the king. 1 he police thought it a ne-
ceffary precaution to fecure all the entrances into this
cavern, from its having been formerly inhabited by a fa¬
mous gang of robbers, who infefted the country for
many miles round the city of Paris.
“ As to the origin of this quarry, I could not, on the
ftridleft inquiry, learn any thing fatisfadtory ; and the
only account I know publiffiedis the following contain¬
ed in the 7 ab/eaux de Paris, muvelle edition, tom pre¬
mier, chapitre ^me, page I 2me.
1'or the firft building of Paris it was neceffary to
get the Hone in the environs ; and the confumption of it
was very confiderable. As Paris was enlarged, the
fuburbs were infenfibly built on the ancient quarries,
fo that all that you lee without is effentially wanting
m the earth tor the foundation of the city : hence
proceed the frightful cavities which are at this time
Q_ u A
found under the houfes in feveral quarters. They ftand Quarry,
upon abyffes. It would not [require a very violent
ffiock to throw back the ftones to the place from
whence they have been raifed with fo much difficulty.
Eight men being fwallowed up in a gulph 150 feet
deep, and fome other lefs known accidents, excited at
length the vigilance of the police and the government,
and, in fadt, the buildings of feveral quarters have been
privately propped up ; and by this means a fupport
given to thefe obfeure fubterraneous places which they
before wanted.
“ A11 the fuburbs eff St James’s, Harp-ftreet, and
even the ftreet of d ournon, ftand upon the ancient
quarries; and pillars have been erefted to fupport the
weight of the houfes. What a fubjeft for refleftions,
in confidering this great city fonned and fupported by
means abfolutely contrary! Thefe towers, thefe fteeples,
the arcked roofs of thefe temples, are fo many figns to*
tell the eye that what we now fee in the air is wanting •
under our feet.”
QUARRY, a place under ground, out of which are
* got marble, freeftone, flate, limeftone, or other matters
proper for building. See Strata.
Some limeftone quarries in Fife are highly worthy
the attention of the curious, on account of an amazing
mixture of fea-bodies found in them. One of this kind
was opened about the year 1759, at a farm called En-
d“rteel, in the neighbourhood of Kirkaldy, belonging to
General St Clair.
The flakes of the ftone, which are of unequal thlck-
nefs, moft of them from eight to ten inches, lie hori¬
zontally, dipping towards the fea. Each of thefe
flakes, when broken, prefents to our view an amazing
colle&ion of petrified fea bodies, as the bones of fillies,
ftalks of fea-weed, vaft quantities of (hells, fuch as
are commonly found on thofe coafts, befides feveral
others of very uncommon figures. In fome places
the fhells are fo numerous, that little elfe is to be feen
but prodigious clufters or concretions of them. In
the uppermoft ftratum the ffiells are fo entire, that the
outer cruft or plate may be feraped off with the finger ;
and the ftalks of the fea-weed have a darkiffi colour,
not that gloffy whitenefs which they have in the heart
ol the quarry. The fmallell rays or veins of the Ihells
are deeply indented on the ftoue, like the impreffion
ol a feal upon wax. In ffiort, no fpot at the bottom
of the ocean could exhibit a greater quantity of fea-
bodies than are to be found in this folid rock ; for we
have the fkeletons of feveral fifties, the antenna or
feelers of lobfters, the roots and ftalks of fea-weeds,
with the very capfu/a which contain the feed. The
place where all thefe curiofities are found is on an
eminence about an Englifh mile from the fea ; and as
the ground is pretty fteep the whole way, it may be
200 feet higher at leaft.
There are two or three things to be remarked here.
1. I hat among all the bodies we have mentioned,
there are none but what are fpecifically heavier than
water. T his holds fo conftantly true, that the fea- *
weed, which floats in water when the plant is entire,
has been ftripped of the broad leaves, which make it
buoyant, before it has been lodged here. 2. The ffiells
have been all empty; for the double ones, as thofe of
the flat kind, are always found Angle, or with one fide
only. 3. The rock feems to have been gradually de-
ferted
[ 748 1
Q^U A
ls 749 1
Q_ u A
fcrted by the fea, and for a long time, wafted with the
tides; for the upper furface is all eaten, and hollowed
in many places like an honey-comb, juft as we obferve
in flat rocks expofed every tide to the accefs and recels
of the waters. See the article Sea.
Quarry, or Quarr'd. among glaziers, a pane of
glafs cut in a diamond form.
Quarries are of two kinds, fquare and long ; each of
which are of different lizes, expreffed by the number
of the pieces that make a foot of glats, viz. eighths,
tenths, eighteenths, and twentieths: but all the fizes
are cut to the fame angles, the acute angle in the
fquare quarrels being 77° I9 > and 67° 21' in the long
ones.
Qjjarry, among hunters, is fometimes ufed for a
part of the entrails of the beaft taken, given by way of
reward to the hounds.
Quarry, in falconry, is the game which the hawk
is in purfuit of, or has killed.
QUARTAN, a meafure containing the fourth part
of lome other meafure.
Quartan, afpecies of intermitting fever. See Me¬
dicine, ng 153, 158, and 159.
QUARTATION, is an operation by which the
quantity of one thing is made equal to a fourth part
of the quantity of another thing. Thus when gold
allayed with frlver is to be parted, we are obliged to
facilitate the action of the aquafortis, by reducing the
quantity of the former of thefe metals to one fourth
part of the whole mafs; which is done by fuftieiently
increafmg the quantity of the fdver, if it be neceffary.
This Operation is called quart j/iont and is preparatory to
the parting; and even many authors extend this name to
the operation of parting. See the article Parting.
QUARTER, the fourth pail of any thing, the
fractional expreffion for which is
Quarter, in weights, is generally ufed for the fourth
part of an hundred weight avoirdupois, or 28 lb.
Ufed as the name of a dry meafure, quarter is the
fourth part ©f a ton in weight, or eight buftels.
Quarter, a term in the manege. To work from
quarter to quarter, is to ride a horfe three times in upon
the firft of the four lines of a fquare ; then changing
your hand, to ride him three times upon the fecond:
and fo to the third and fourth ; always changing hands,
and obferving the fame order.
Quarters, with refpeCf to the parts of a horfe, is
ufed in various fenfes: thus the ftoulders and fore-legs
are called One fore-quarters, and the hips and hinder-legs
the bind quarters. 1 he quarters of a horfe s foot are
the fides of the coffin, comprehending between the toe
and the heel: the inner quarters are thofe oppolite to
one another, facing from one foot to the other; and
thefe are always weaker than the outftde quarters, which
lie on the external Tides of the coffin. Falje quarters,
are a cleft in the horn of a horfe’s hoof, extending from
the coronet to the ftoe. A horfe is faid to be quarter-
7 cajl, when for any diforder in the coffin we are obliged
to cut one of the quarters of the hoof.
Quarter, in aftronomy, the fourth part of the
moon’s period: thus, from the new moon to the qua¬
drature is the firft quarter; from this to full moon, the
jecond quarter,' &c.
Quarter, in heraldry, is applied to the parts or
members of the firft divifion of a coat that is quarter- Quarter,
ed, or divided into four quarters.
Franc Qiiarter, in heraldry, is a quarter fingle or
alone; which is to poffefs one fourth part of the field.
It makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a coat.
Quarter of a Ship, that part of the fhip’s fide which
lies towards the ftern ; or which is comprehended be¬
tween the aftmoft end of the main chains and the fides
of the ftern, where it is terminated by the quarter-
pieces.
Although the lines by which the quarter and bow
of a ftip, with refped to her length, are only imagi¬
nary, yet experience appears fufficiently to have afeer-
tained their limits: fo that if we were to divide the
ftip’s fides into five equal portions, the names of each
fpace would be readily enough expreffed. Thus the
firft, from the ftern, would be the quarter; the fecond,
abaft the midftips; the third, the midftips; the fourth,
before the midftips; and the filth, the bow. Whether
thefe divifions, which in reality are fomewhat arbitrary,
are altogether impioper, may be readily difeovered by
referring to the mutual fituationor approach of two ad¬
jacent veffels. "I he enemy boarded us on the laiboard
tide ! Whereabouts ? Abaft the raidftips, before the
midftips, &c.
Plate CCGCXXVII. n° 1. reprefents a geometrical
elevation of a quarter of a 74 gun ftip. A the keel, with
a the falfe keel beneath it. B the ftern-poft. DD the
quarter-gallery, with its balluftrades and windows. EE
the quarter-pieces, which limit and form the outlines of
the ftern. F the taffarel, or upper pieces of the ftem.
FG the profile of the ftern, with its galleries. H the
gun-ports of the lower-deck; h the gun-ports of the
upper and quarter-deck. I the after-part of the nuzen-
channel. K the wing-tranfom. KG the lower counter.
LB the ftation of the deck-tranfom. LQ^the after¬
part of the main-wale. DR the after-part of the
channel-wale, parallel to the main-wale; . SU the fteer-
rail, parallel to both wales. T t the rudder. A t F
the rake of the ftern. P i i the drift-rails. TU the
after-part of the load •water line ; k k l the curve of the
fevend decks correfponding to thofe reprefented in the
head. See the article Head.
As the marks, by which veffels of different con-
ftrudtions are diftinguilhed from each other, are gene¬
rally more confpicuous on the ftern or quarter than any
other part, we have reprefented fome of the quarters,
. which affume the moft different ftapes, and form the
greateft contrail with each other. Ng 2. ftows the
ftern and quarter of a Dutch flight. Nu 3. the ftern
and quarter of a cat. N° 4. is the ftern and quarter
of a common gallev. N° 5. exhibits the quarter of a
firft-rate galley, otherwufe called a gaileoJJ'e. N° 6. the
quarter of a Dutch dogger, or galliot. N° 7. repre-
fents the ftern and quarter of a Hoop of war.
The quarters of all other iftips have a near affinity to
thofe above exhibited. Thus all ftips of the line, and
Eaft-Indiamen, are formed with a quarter little differing
from the principal figure in this plate. Xebecs have
quarters nearly refembling thofe of galeaffes, only fome¬
what higher. Hagboats and pinks approach the figure
of cats, the former being a little broader in the ftern,
and the latter a little narrower; and the Herns and
quarters of cats Item to be derived from thole of fly¬
boats*
Q. u A [75
Charter, boats. The fterns of Dutch doggers and galliotis arc
indeed lingular, and like thofe of no other modern veffel:
they have n/verthelefs a great refemblance to tlie (hips
of the ancient Grecians, as reprefented in medals and
other monuments of antiquity.
On the Quarter^ may be denned an arch of the
horizon^ contained between the line prolonged from
the fhip’s Item and any diltant object, as land, (hips,
&c. Thus if the {hip’s keel lies on an call and welt
line, the Item being weltward, any diftant objedt per¬
ceived on the north-weft or fouth-weft, is faid to be
on the larboard or {larboard quarter.
Qr/ARTER-Bil/y a roll, or lift, .containing the dif¬
ferent ftations, to which all the officers and crew of
the {hip are quartered in the time of battle, and the
names of all the perfons appointed to thofe ftations.
See Quarters.
Qijartrr-Maftery is an officer, generally a lieute¬
nant, whofe principal bufinefs is to look after the
quarters of the foldiers, their clothing, bread, am¬
munition, firing, &c. Every regiment of foot and ar¬
tillery has a quarter-mafter, and every troop of horfe
one, who are only warrant-officers, except in the
Blues.
§>varter-Mafter-Generaly is a confiderable officer
in the army ; and ftiould be a man of great judgment
and experience, and well {killed in geography. His
duty is to mark the marches and encampments of an
army : he {hould know the country perfedtly well,
with its rivers, plains, marffies, woods, mountains, de¬
files, paflages, &c. even to the fmalleft brook. Prior
to a march, he receives the order and route from the
commanding general, and appoints a place for the
quarter-mafters of the army to meet him next morning,
with whom he marches to the next camp ; where being
come, and having viewed the ground, he marks out to
the regimental quarter-mafters the ground allowed each
regiment for their camp : he choofes -the head-quarters,
and appoints the villages for the generals of the army’s
quarters : he appoints a proper place for the encamp¬
ment of the train of artillery: he condudls foraging
parties, as likewife the troops to cover them againft
aiTaults, and has a {hare in regulating the winter-quarters
and cantonments.
Quarter Netting, a fort of net-work, extended along
the rails on the upper part of a {hip’s quarter. In a
{hip of war thefe are always double, being fupported
by iron cranes, placed at proper diftances. The inter¬
val is fometimes filled with cork, or old fails ; but
chiefly with the hammocks of the failors, fo as to form a
parapet to prevent the execution of the enemy’s fmall
arms in battle.
QrrARTER-Sefions, a general court held quarterly by
the juftices of peace of each county. This court is
appointed by ftat. 2 Hen. V. c. 4. to be in the firft
week after Michaelmas-day ; the firft week after the
Epiphany; the firft week after tlie clofe of Eafter ; and
in the week after the tranfiation of JSaint Thomas a
Becket, or the 7th of July. This Co tut is held before
two or more juftices of the peace, one of whom mull
be of the quorum. The jurifdkftion of this court by
34 Ed. III. c. 1. extends to the trying and determining
all felonies and trelpafies whatfoever, though they
feldom,' if ever, try any greater offence than imall fe-
'Blac'kjlcne
Comment.
vol iv.
p. 271.
o ] U A
Ionics within the benefit of clergy, their commiffion Quarter,
providing, that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they
{hall not proceed to judgment, but in the prefence of ■—■v—■<
one of the juftices of the courts of king’s bench or
common pleas, or one of the judges of affize. And
therefore murderers and other capitali felons are ufu-
ally remitted for a more folemn trial to the affizes.
They cannot alfo try any new-created offence, without
exprefs power given them by the ftatute which creates
it. But there are many offences, and particular mat¬
ters, which by particular ftatutes belong properly to
this jurifdi&ion, and ought to be pijofecuted in this
court ; as, the fmaller mifdemeanors againft the public
or commonwealth, not amounting to felony, and cfpe-
cially offences relating to the game, highways, alehoufes,
baftard children, the fettlement and provifion for the
poor, vagrants, fervants wages, apprentices, and popifh
recufants. Some of thefe are proceeded upon by in-
diftment, and others in a'fummary way by motion and
order thereupon ; which order may, for the moft pare,
unlefs guarded agaieft by particular ftatutes, be remo¬
ved into the court of king’s bench, by writ of certiorari
facias, and be there either quafhed or confirmed. The
records or rolls of the feffions are committed to the cuf-
tody of a fpecial officer, denominated the cuftos rotulo-
rum. In moft corporation towns there are quarter-fef-
fions kept before juftices of their own, within their re-
fpettive limits, which have exactly the fame authority
as the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in
very few inftances : one of the moft confiderable of
which is the matter of appeals from orders of removal
of the poor, which, though they be from the orders
of corporation juftices, mull be to the feffions of the
county, by 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 30. In both corpo¬
rations and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a
fpeciaKor petty fellion, by a few jullices, for difpatch- . •
ing fmaller bufinefs in the neighbourhood between
the times of the general feffions, as for licenfing ale¬
houfes, paffing the accounts of parifti-officers, and the
like.
Qr/ARTFR-Stafy a long ftaff borne by forefters, park-
keepers, &c. as a badge of their office, and occaiitfn-
ally ufed as a weapon.
QUARTERS, a name given at fea to the feveral
ftations where the officers and crew of a {hip of war
are pofted in adlion. See Naval Tactics.
The number of men appointed to manage the ar¬
tillery is always in proportion to the nature of the
guns, and the number and condition of the fhip’s
crew. They are, in general, as follow, when the
fhip is well manned, fo as to fight both fides at once
occafionally :
No. of men. Pounder.
To a 9
6 .
4
3
Pounda
To a42
32
24
j8
I 2
l5
l3
1 x
9
7
No. of men.
6
5
4
3
This number, to which is often added a boy to
bring powder to every gun, may be oceafionally redu¬
ced, and the guns neverthelefs well managed. The
number of men appointed to the fmall arms, on board
his Majefty’s {hips and {loops of war, by order of the
admiralty, are,
5 \ Rate
A [ ;
No. rf men to the faiall arms.
150
1 20
IOO
80
70
60
Q. u
Rate of the fhip.
lil
ad
3d of 80 guns
— of 7 c guns
4th of 60 guns
4th of 50 guns
5th - - 5°
6th* - - 40
Sloops of war - 30
The lieutenants are ufually (lationed to command the
different batteries, and direbt their efforts againll the
enemy. The mafter fuperintends the movements of
the {hip, and whatever relates to the fails. The boat-
fwain, and a fufficient number of men, is ftationed to
repair the damaged rigging ; and the gunner and car¬
penter, wherever neceffary, according to them refpe&ive
offices.
The marines are generally quartered on the poop
and forecaftle, or gang-way, under the dire&ion of
their officers ; although, on fome occafions, they af-
fifl at the great guns, particularly in diftant cannon¬
ading.
Quarters, at a fiege, the encampment upon one
of the moil principal paffages round a place beheged,
to prevent relief and convoys.
Head Quarters of an Hrmy, the place where tire
commander in chief has his quarters. The quarters of
generals of horfe are, if poffible, in villages behind the
right and left wings, and the generals of foot are of¬
ten in the fame place ; but the commander in chief
ffiould be near the centre of the army.
Quarters of Refrejhmenty the place or places where
troops that have been much haraffed are put to recover
themfelves during fome part of the campaign.
Intrenched Quarters, a place fortified with a ditch
and parapet to fecure a body of troops.
Winter Quarters, fometimes means the fpace of
time included between leaving the camp and taking the
field ; but more properly the places where the troops
are quartered during the winter.
The firft bufinefs, after the army is in winter-
quarters, is to form the chain of troops to cover the
quarters well : which is done either behind a river, un¬
der cover of a range of Itrong pofts, or under the pro¬
tection of fortified towns. Huflars are very ufeful on
this fervice.
It ffiould be obferved, as an invariable maxim, in
winter-quarters, that your regiments be difpofed in
brigades, to be always under the eye of a general offi¬
cer ; and,, if poffible, let the regiments be fo diftri-
buted, as to be each under the command of its own
shief.
QUARTERING, in heraldry, is dividing a coat
into four or more quarters, or quarterings, by patt¬
ing, couping, &c. that is, by perpendicular and hori¬
zontal lines, &C.
QUAR i'O-DECiMANS, an ancient fed in the Chrif-
tian church, who taught that Ealler flvould always be
celebrated according to the cufiom of the Jews, on the
fourteenth day of the moon in the month of March,
whenfoever that day fell out. And hence they derived
their name quarto de imani, q. d. Fourteenthers. The
Aitatics.were mightily attached to this opinion, pre-
SI 1 O-U A
tending that it was built on the authority of St John,
who was their apoftlc ; and pope Vidor could never r
bring them to obedience in this article, though he w'as
upon the point of excommunicating them : but it is-
more probable he contented himfelf with menaces. See
Easter.
QUARTZ, a genus of filiceous earths very com¬
mon in Europe. According to Kirwan, the quartz are
in general the purelt of the filiceous kind, though moft
of them contain a fliiffit mixture of other earths : the
moil obvious diftindion among them arifes from their
opacity or tranfparency. Cronftedt gives the following
charaderiftics of it: 1. It is generally cracked through¬
out, even in the rock itfelf, whereby, as well as by its-
own nature, it breaks into irregular and (harp fragments.
2. It cannot be eafily made red hot, without cracking
ft ill more. 3. It never decays in the air. 4. Melted
with fixed alkali in a due proportion, it gives a more
folid and fixed glafs than any of the other filiccous
{tones. 5. When there has been no interruption in¬
ks natural accretion, it always cryllallizes into hexa¬
gonal priims pointed at both ends. 6. It is met with
in clefts, fiflures, and fmall veins in rocks ; it feldom
forms large veins, and ftill more rarely whole moun--
tains, without a mixture of heterogeneous fubilances. It
is found,
1. Pure, of feveral varieties, as, (1.) Solid, or having
no vifible particles, and called fat quartz. This is ei¬
ther tranfparent, white, blue, or violet-coloured. 1 he
firft kind is met with in the copper-mines in the north¬
ern part of Norway and Siberia, and has no regular
form, but is as clear as the fineft. cryftallized quartz, or
rock cryftal. (2.) Grained quartz, of a white or pale
green colour, found in various places in Sweden. (3.) i he
fparry quartz, which is the fcarceft; of the whole, and
ought not to be confounded with the white felt-fpar,
becaufe it is of a fmoother appearance, and breaks in¬
to larger and more irregular planes. It is. found of a
whitiih yellow, from the gold mines in Hungary ; or
white, from the ifland of Uto. Brunnich tells us, that
the Hungarian gold and filver mines near Hodentch,
which have veins frequently fome fathoms wide, afford
a kind of lamellated and porous quartz. It is met with
«f white, yellow, and blue colours, and it is fometimes
finely cryllallized in pyramidical figures.
2. Cryjiaihzedquartz, or rockcryjlal. See Crystal. -
3. Impure quartz.- Of this there are two kinds,
(1.) Mixed with iron, in form of a black calx. It is
black, glofty, and contains a great quantity of iron. It
is found in Sweden. (2.) Mixed with copper, and of a
red colour, found in the fame country.
Cronftedt obferves, that quartz in general, and efpe-
cially its cryftals, are very commonly fuppofed, when
yet in their foft and diflolved Hate, to have included
within them fome vegetables/ for inltance grafs and
mofs. “ This (fays he) I cannot absolutely deny ;
but it deferves carefully to be examined if that which is
fhown as a grafs be not an afbeftos, or a. ftriated cockle j
and the mofs only branched varieties filled with earth,
which, by their being ramofe, bear a vegetable appear¬
ance. It is very common in agates,, and makes them
of lefs value than they ofcherwife would be. This is 1
moft generally the cafe with thofe ftones which are
fhown as including vegetables j and, for my own part, I>
have t
U A L • 75* 3 Q_ U A
Qnartz have never been fo fortunate as to meet with any
'I others.”
<<^ar1, M. Marrellan remaiks, that quartz is one of the prin¬
cipal kinds of Hone which contain metals. Some of
the Hungarian veins confill entirely of it, and the gold
is fo minutely difperfed, that it cannot be difcerned by
the bell; microfcopes before it is. feparated by pounding
and wafhing. The width of the veins, fome of which
are half a fathom, and fome ftill more, repay the trou¬
ble and expences, which the fmall quantity of gold
would not otherwife counterbalance. Nature has not
anywhere produced mountains of pure quartz ; for
though fome rocks in Sweden are ranked among the
quartzes, they are undoubtedly mixed with heteroge¬
neous matters. Near Lauterberg upon the Hartz are
veins of this Itone from one to three fathoms wide, con-
fifting of a loofe fand, in which they fiud the copper
ore in nefts. In the Danifh ifle of Anhalt we meet
with triangular quartz pebbles. There are likewife
cryflals of quartz having water inclofed in them ; fome
fine pieces of this kind are to be met with in the Im¬
perial cabinet at Vienna, &c.
Rock cryflals are generally found upon or among
quartz, and are to be met with in all parts of the world.
The greatefl number are furnifhed to the European
countries from Mount Saint Gothard in Switzerland.—
Here large pieces, weighing from 5 to 800 pounds,
were found at Grimfelberg ; one of izco pounds was
found fome years ago at Fifbach in the Wallais ; and a
piece fix feet long, four broad, and equally thick, was
found in the ifland of Madagafcar, a place where thefe
natural productions are of the moll extraordinary lize
and perfection.
When great quantities of quartz are continually agi¬
tated by the fea or river water, they are fometimes re¬
duced to fuch very minute parts as to be eafily carried
away, fufpended in the water ; and there are fands of fo
minute a fize as to meafure lefs than the two or three
hundredth part of an inch. Thefe are called quick-
fands. Immenfe tra£ls of land confifl only of loofe
lands, particularly along the fea-fhore in many parts of
Europe. Some fuppofe that fea-water has the power
of producing this fand out of its own fubftance ; and
their furfaces, in general, are fo polifired, as to fhow
that they could not be reduced in fize by rubbing againft
each other; but we know not as yet that fuch a pro-
duClion has ever been demonilrated. When fand is
about as big as peas, it is called gravel; and when it
is free from faline and heterogeneous particles, it is em¬
ployed in making mortar, and other economical pur-
pofes. That which is very pure ferves for making flint-
glafs, with red calces of lead, and the proper alkaline
flux ; but when mixed with ferruginous black fand, the
glafs aflumes a greenifh black colour. M This (fays M.
Magellan) I have feen among the various fpecimens of
glafs made by Mr E. Delaval, F. R. S. who produced
a very fine tranfparent and colourlefs glafs out of the
fame fand with which he had made fome of that black
glafs, and this only by feparating from it all the ferru¬
ginous mixture.”
QUASHING, in law, the overthrowing and an¬
nulling a thing.
QUASTcontract, in the civil law, an aft with¬
out the drift form of a contraft, but yet having the
force thereof. In a contraft there mud be the mutual
con Pent of both parties but in a quaft-contraft one party
may be bound or obligated to the other, without having Qnafi
given hss confent to the aft whereby he is obliged. For H
example : I have done your bufinefs, in your abfence,
without your procuration, and it has fucceeded to your ' * ‘
advantage. I have then an aftion againd you for the re¬
covery of what I have difburfed, and you an aftion
againd me to make me give an account of my admini-
dration, which amounts to a qusji^ontradi.
Asr-Crime, or Qua/i-de/icl, in the civil law, the
aftion of a perfon who does damage, or evil, involun¬
tarily. The reparation of qua/i-crimes confids in ma-
king good the damages, with intered.
QUASS, a fermented liquor drunk in Ruflia. See
Peasant.
QUASSIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 14th order,
Gruina/es. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there are five
petals; the neftarium is pentaphyllous ; there are from
two to five feed-cafes danding afunder, and monofper-
mous. There are three fpecies, the rmara, ftmaruba,
and excelfa or polygama.
The qualfia amara grows to the height of feveral Woodvilh't
feet, and fends off many drong branches. The wood Medical B*.
is of a white colour and light ; the bark is thin and vo1, u‘
grey : the leaves are placed alternately on the branches,P' 2lS'
and confid of two pair of oppofite pinnae, with an odd
one at the end : all the leafets are of an elliptical fhape,
entire, veined, fmooth, pointed, feflile, on the upper
pagina of a deep green colour, on the under paler : the
common footdalk is articulated, and winged, or edged,
on each fide with a leafy membrane, which gradually
expands towards the bafe of the pinna: : the flowers are
all hermaphrodite, of a bright red colour, and terminate
the branches in long fpikes: the brafteae or floral leaves
are lance-ftiaped or linear, coloured, and placed alternate¬
ly upon the peduncles : the calyx is fmall, perfident,
and five-toothed: the corolla confids of five lance-
fhaped equal petals, at the bafe of which is placed
the neftary, or five roundifh, coloured, feales: the fila¬
ments are ten, flender, fomewhat longer than the co¬
rolla, and crowned with fimple antheras, placed tranf-
verfely : the receptacle is flelhy and orbicular : the ger-
men is ovate, divided into five parts, and fupports a
flender flyle, longer than the filaments, and terminated
by a tapering digma: the capfules are five, two-celled,
and contain globular feeds. It is a native of South Ame¬
rica, particularly of Surinam, and alfo of fome of the
Wed Indian iflands. The root, bark, and wood, of
this tree have all places in the materia medica. The
wood is mod generally ufed, and is faid to be a tonic,
domachic, antifeptic, and febrifuge.
Thequaflia fimaiuba is common in all the woodlands Dr Wright'»
in Jamaica. It grows to a great height and confi-
derable thicknefs. The trunks of the old trees are black
and a little furrowed. Thofe of the young trees are
fmooth and gray, with here and there a broad yellow
fpot. The infide bark of the trunk and branches is
white, fibrous, and tough. It tades flightly bitter. On
cutting or dripping ofl’ this bark, no milky juice iffues,
as has been mentioned by various authors. The wood
is hard, and ufeful for buildings. It fplits freely, and
makes excellent daves for fugar hogfheads.^ It has no
fenfible bitter tade. The branches are alternate and
fpreading. The leaves are numerous and alternate.
On the upper fide, they are fmooth, fhining, and of a
6 deep
U A C 753 1
Qi&i. deep green colour : on the under fide they are white, as flooring.
*—  The flowers appear about the beginning of April.
They are of a yellow colour, and placed on fpikes beau¬
tifully branched.
The fruit is of that kind called a drupa, and is ripe
towards the end of May. It is of an oval fliape, is
black, fmooth, and fliining. The pulp is flefhy and
foft; the tafte a naufeous fweet. The nut is flattened,
and on one fide winged. The kernel is fmall, flat, and
tailes fweet. The natural number of thefe drupae is
flve on each common receptacle ; but, for the moll part,
there are only two or three; the reft abort by various
accidents. The roots are thick, and run fuperflcially
under the furfaee of the ground to a conftderable di«
ftance. The bark is rough, fcaly, and waited. The
iniide when frefh is a full yellow, but when dry paler.
It has but little fmell. The tafte is bitter, but not
very difagreeable. This is the true cortex ftmarubas of
the fhops. This tree is known in Jamaica by the names
of mountain dnmfon, bitter damfon, and Jlave-wood. The
fhops are fupplied with this bark from Guiana ; but now
we may have it from our own iflands at a moderate ex¬
pence. On examining the frudfification, Dr Wright
found this tree to be a fpecies of quaflia. Under that
name he fent it to Europe, and Linnaeus adopted it into
his fyftem. There are male flowers on one tree and
female flowers on another ; and this is invariably the caie
in Jamaica.
Moft authors who have written on the flmaruba
agree, that in fluxes it reftores the loft tone of the in-
teftines, allays their fpafmodic motions, promotes the
fecretions by urine and perfpiration, removes that low-
nefs of fpirits attending dyfenteries, and difpofes the
patient to fleep ; the gripes and tenefmus are taken off,
and the ftools are changed to their natural colour and
confidence. In a moderate dofe, it occafions no difturb-
ance or uneafinefs ; but in a large doze it produces fick-
nefs at ftomach and vomiting. Negroes are lefs affe&ed
by it than white people. Dr Cullen, however, fays,
Materij “ can Perce,ve nothing in this bark but that of a
Medea, fimple bitter ; the virtues aferibed to it in dyfentery
'v Lii. p. 75. have not been confirmed by my experience, or that of
the praftitioners in this country; and leaving what
others are faid to have experienced to be further ex-
1 amined and confidered by praftitioners, I can only at
prefent fay, that my account of the effedt of bitters will
perhaps explain the virtues aferibed to fimaruba. In
dyfentery I have found an infufion of chamomile flowers
a more ufeful remedy.” The quaflia excelfa or poly-
gama was named by Sir Jofeph Banks, Dr Solander, and
Dr Wright, pricrunia amara, {{n't Pricrania Amara.)
It is ranked, however, by Mr John Lindfay, in a paper
in the third volume of the Edinburgh Tranfadfions,
under quaffia^ who gives the following defeription of
it. “ It is very common in the woodlands of Jamaica,
is beautiful, tall, and ftately, fome of them being 100
feet long, and ten feet in circumference eight feet
above the ground. The trunk is ftraight, fmooth, and
tapering, fending off its branches towards the top.
The outfide bark is pretty fmooth, of a light gray or
afh colour, from various lichens. The bark of tl>€
roots is of a yellow call, fomewhatlike the cortex fima¬
ruba. The inner bark is tough, and compofed of fine
flaxy fibres. The wood is of a yellow colour, tough,
but not very hard. It takes a good polifli, and is ufed
Vol. XV. Part II.
U E
The leaves are fub-altemate ; the fmall
leaves are in pairs, fiom five to eight, Handing oppofite
to each other on fliort footftalks, and ending with an
odd one. They are of an oblong oval lhape, and
pointed ; the ribs reddifh, and the young leaves are co¬
vered with a fine brownifh down. The flowers come
out in bunches or chillers from the lower part of the laft
fhoot before the leaves, and Itand on round footftalks.
The flowers are fmall, of a yellowilh green colour,
with a very fmall calyx. The male or barren tree has
flowers nearly fimilar to the hennaphrodite, but in it
there are only the rudiments of a ftyle.
“ The fruit is a fmooth black drupa, round-lhaped,
and of the lize of a pea. There is but little pulp, and
the nut covers a round kernel. Thefe drupa: are gene¬
rally three, fometimes two, and often only one, at¬
tached lidewife to a roundifh flelhy receptacle. It
flowers in October and November, and its fruit is ripe
in December and January. Except the pulp of tlie.
fruit, every other part of this tree has an intenfely bit¬
ter tafte. In tafte and virtues it is nearly equal to the
quaflia of Surinam, and I am credibly informed is fold
in London for the quallia amara ; and it may be fafely
ufed in all cafes where that drug has been thought pro¬
per, whether as an antifeptic, or in cafes of weaknefs
in the ftomach and bowels. It may either be given
alone, or joined with the Jefuit’s bark. The happieit
effects refult fiom the ufe of this medicine in obftinate
remitting fevers from marfti miafmata, in agues which
had refilled the ufc of Jefuit’s bark, and in dyfenteries
of long Handing. It is in daily pradlice in droplies
from debility, either in Ample infnlions or tindture
by itfelf, or joined with aromatics and chalybeates.
Dr Drummond, an eminent phyfician in Jamaica, pre-
feribes it with great fuccefs in the above cafes, as well
as in amenorrhaea, chlorofis, dyfpepfia, and in that
fpecies of pica called dirt eating, fo fatal to a number of
negroes.
“ The bark of the quaflia polygama, but efpecially
the wood, is intenfely bitter. They may both be ufed
in various forms. In certain cafes of dropfy, aromatics
and preparations are joined to it, alfo in amenorrhsea
and chlorofis ; and in worm fevers, the cabbage-bark, or
other vegetable anthelmintics.”
QUATUORVIR, in antiquity, formerly written
IIII. Via, a Roman magillrate, who had three col¬
leagues joined with him in the fame adminillration, and
had the care of conducing and fettling the colonies
fent into the provinces. There were alfo quatuorviri
appointed to infpedl and take care of repairs, See.
QUAVER, in mufic, a meafure of time equal to half
a crotchet, or an eighth part of a femibreve.
QUAY. See Key.
QUEBEC, a handfome and large town of Ame¬
rica, and capital of Canada. The firll place taken no¬
tice of upon landing here is a fquare of an irregular
figure, with well-built houfes on each fide ; on the back
of which is a rock •; on the left it is bounded by a fmall
church ; and on the right are two rows of houfes, pa¬
rallel to each other. There is another between the
church and the harbour; as alfo another long row on
the fide of the bay. This may be looked upon as a
kind of fuburb ; and between this and the great ftreet
is a very fteep afeent, in which they have made Heps
for the foot-paffengers to go up. This may be called
5 C the
Quaflia
11
Quebec.
CL U E [ 754 1 Q. U E
Quebec the Upper Town, wherein is ihe bifhop’s palace; and but with the addition of dowager. See Royai-Fu- Queen
|| between two large fquares is a fort where the gover- tnily. ||
Queen. nor lodges. The Recolets have handfome houfes over- Qvf.en Charlotte's Sound, is fituated at the northern Queenbo--
againit it, and on the right is the cathedral church : extremity of the fouthern ifland of New Zealand, near rougk- f
over-againft this is the Jefuits college, and between Cook’s Strait, lying in 41. 6. of fouth latitude, and ' ^ ^
them are well-built houfes; from the fort runs two 174. 19. of call longitude. The climate of this found
flreets, which are croffed by a third, and between thefe is much more mild than at Dufky Bay ; and though
is a church and a convent. In the fecond fquare are there is not fueh plenty of wild fowl and ifh, the de-
two defeents to the river of St Charles. The Hotel fed! is fulliciently compenfated by abundance of excel-
Dieu is in the midway ; and from thence are fmall lent vegetables. The hills about the found conhfl
houfes, which reach to the houfe of the intendant. On mollly of an argillaceous ftone of a greenilh grey, or
the other fide of the Jefuits college, where the church bluilh or yellowilh brown colour. A green talkous
ftands, is a pretty long llreet in which is a nunnery, or nephritic (by the jewellers called jadde) is likewifs
Almoft all the houfes are built of ftone, and there are very common, together with horn-ftone, ihingle, feveral
about 7000 inhabitants ; the fort is a handfome build- forts of flinty ftones and pebbles, feme loofe pieces of
ing, but not quite finifhed. Quebec is not regularly bafakes, ftrata of a compadt mica or glimmer, with par-
fortifled : but it cannot be eafily taken ; for the harbour tides of quartz. Hence, Mr Forrefter thinks, there
is flanked with two baftions, which at high tides are is reafon to believe that this part of New Zealand con-
almoft level with the water. A little above one of the tains iron-ore, and perhaps feveral other metallic fub-
baftions is a demi-baftion, partly taken out of the rock; fiances. The country is not fo fteep as at Dufky Bay,
and above it, on the fide of the gallery of the fort, is and the hills near the fea are generally inferior in
a battery of 2 5 pieces of cannon : Hill above this is a height, but covered with forefts equally intricate and
fquare fort called the citadel; and the ways from one impenetrable. Captain Cook fowed the feeds of many*
fortification to another are difficult to pafs. To the vegetables in this place, that have ufeful and nutritive
left of the harbour, on the fide of the road, there are roots. He fowed alfo corn of feveral forts, beans, kid-
large batteries of cannon, and feme mortars ; befides ney-beans, and peafe. The dogs here are of the long-
thefe, there are feveral other fortifications not very eafy haired fort, with pricked ears, and refemble the common
to be deferibed. In 1711 the Britilh fitted out a fleet (hepherd’s cur, but they are very ftupid animals. They
with a defign to conquer Canada, which failed on ac- are fed with fifh, and even dogs flefti, and perhaps hu-
count of the raffinefs of the admiral ; who, contrary to man flefh, which the natives alfo eat. Captains Cook-
the advice of his pilot, went too near the Seven ifles, and Furneaux left on thefe iflands a boar and two fows,
and fo loft his largeft (hips, and 3000 of his beft fol- with a pair of goats, male and female, with fome geefe*
diers. It is about 300 miles north-weft of Bolton in in order to benefit the natives and future generations
Ncw-England, On October 18. 1759, it was taken of navigators. They left likewife among them a num-
by the Britilh under the command of General Wolfe, ber of brafs medals guilt, on one fide of which was
who loft his life in the battle, after he had the fatis- the head of his prefent majefty, with the inferiptioa
fa&ion to know that our troops were vi&orious. Ad- George III. King of Great Britain, France, and Ire-
miral Saunders commanded a fquadron of men of war, land, &c. On the reverfc, a reprefentation of two men.
and did immenfe fervice in reducing this place ; there of war, with the names Refolution and Adventure over
being not a man in the navy but what was adlive on them ; and the exergue, failed from England March
this occafion, not excepting the failors belonging to mdcclxxii.
the tranfport velfels. After this valuable acquifition, Quhen-GoU, is a royal duty or revenue belonging
all Canada came under the jurifdi£tion of the crown of to every queen of England during her marriage to the
Great Britain. W. Long. 69. 48. N. Lat. 46. 55. king, payable by perfons in this kingdom and Ireland,
QUEDA, a kingdom of Alia, in the peninfula be- on divers grants of the king by wray of fine or oblation,
yond the Ganges, and near the ftrait of Malacca. The &c. being one full tenth part above the entire fines, on
king is tributary to Siam. The principal town is of pardons, contracts, or agreements, which becomes a real
the fame name, and faid to contain about 8000 inhabi- debt t® the queen, by the name of aurum regina, upon
tants ; and is fubjeA to the Dutch. It has a harbour, the party’s bare agreement with the king for his fine,
and is 3co miles north of Malacca. E. Long. 100. 5. and recording the fame.
N. Lat. 7. 5. Queen's-County, a divifion of the province of Lein-
QUEDLINGBURG, a town of Germany, in the Her in Ireland ; fo called from the popiih Queen Mary,
circle of Upper Saxony, and on the confines of the in wdiofe reign it was firft made a county by the earl
duchy of Brunfwick. Here is a famous abbey, whofe of Suflex, then lord-deputy. It is bounded on the
abbefs is a princefs of the empire, and who fends de- fouth by Kilkenny and Catherlogh ; by King’s coun-
pur.es to the diets. Her contingent is one horfeman ty on the. north and weft ; part of Kildare and Cather-
and ten footmen. The inhabitants of the town live by logh on the eaft ; and part of Tipperary on the weft. .
brewing, hulbandry, and feeding of cattle. It is 10 Its greateft length from north to fouth is 35 miles, and
miles fouth-eaft of Halberftadt, and 3 2 weft of Bern- its breadth near as much ; but it is unequal both wrays.
berg. E. Long. 11. 34. N. Lat. 52. 1. This county was anciently full of bogs and woods,
QUEEN, a woman who holds a crown fingly. though now pretty well inclofed, cultivated, and inha-
The title of queen is alfo given by way of courtefy bited. The baronies contained in it are feven ; and it
to her that is married to a king, wdio is called by way fends eight members to parliament. ^
of diftindtion queen-confort} the former being termed QuEEN-Bee. See Bee, n° 3, &c.
queen-regent. The widow of a king is alfo called queen, QUEENBOROUGH, a town of the ifle of Shep*
8 pey
'Queens-
terry
II
Quercus.
Crnjie
China,
Q. U E [755
pey in Kent, which fends two members to parliament,
though confilling only of about i oo low brick houfes,
and fcarce 350 inhabitants. The chief employment of
the people here is oyfter drudging ; oyfters being very
plentiful, and of a fine flavour. E. Long. o. 50. N.
Lat. 51. 25.
QUEENS-ferry, a town of Scotland, in the fhire
of Lothian, feated on the fouth fide of the river Forth,
9 miles weft of Edinburgh.
QUEI-ling-fou, the capital of the province of
General i)f-Quangfi in China, has its name from a flower called
fcription of queiy which grows on a tree refembling a laurel; it ex¬
hales fo fweet and agreeable an odour, that the whole
country around is perfumed with it. It is fituated bn
the banks of a river, which throws itfelf into the Fa-
ho; but it flows with fuch rapidity, and amidft fo nar¬
row valleys, that it is neither navigable nor of any uti¬
lity to commerce. This city is large, and the whole
of it is built almoft after the model of our ancient for-
trefles ; but it is much inferior to the greater part of the
capitals of the other provinces. A great number of
birds are found in the territories belonging to it, the
colours of which are fo bright and variegated, that the
artifts of this country, in order to add to the luftre
of their filks, interweave with them fome of their fea¬
thers, which have a fplendor and beauty that cannot be
imitated. Quei-ling has under its jurifdi&ion two ci¬
ties of the fecond clafs and feven of the third.
Quei, in natural hiftory, is a name given by the Chi-
nefe to a peculiar earth found in many parts of the eaft.
It is of the nature of an indurated clay, and in fome de¬
gree approaches to the talks, as our fteatites and the ga-
la&ites do. It is very white and abfterfive, ufed by
the women of China to take off fpots from the flcin,
and render it foft and fmooth, as the Italian ladies ufe
talk of Venice. They fometimes ufe the fine powder
of this ftone dry, rubbing it on the hands and face
after waftting ; fometimes they mix it in pomatum.
QUERCI, a province of Guienne in France ; boun-
dedon the north by Limofin, on the eaft by Rouergue
and Auvergne, on the fouth by Upper Languedoc,
and on the weft by Agenois and Perigord. It is di¬
vided into Upper and Lower; and is fertile in corn,
wine, and fruits. Cahors is the capital town.
QUERCUS, the oak-tree : A genus of the poly-
andna order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 50th or¬
der, Amentacez. The calyx is nearly quinquefid ; there
is no corolla; the ftamina are from five to ten in num¬
ber. The female calyx is monophyllous, very entire,
and fcabrous. There is no corolla ; the ftyles are from
two to five ; and there is an ovate feed. See Oak.
Species. 1. The robur, or common Englilh oak,
grows from about 60 or 70 to 100 feet high, with a
prodigious large trunk, and monftrous fpreading head ;
oblong leaves, broadeft towards the top, the edges
acutely finuated, having the angles obtufe. There is
a variety, having the leaves finely ftriped with white.
This fpecies grows in great abundance all over Eng¬
land, in woods, forefts, and hedge-rows ; is naturally
of an amazing large growth ; there being accounts of
fome above 100 feet ftature, with wonderful large
trunks and fpreading heads; and is fuppofed to con¬
tinue its growth many centuries.
1
r. The
grows 50
Q^U E
pnnus, or chefnut-leaved American oak, Qnercus,
or 60 feet high ; having large oblong-oval
fmooth leaves pointed both ways, the edges finuated-
ferrated, with the finufes uniformly round.
3. The phellos, or willow-leaved American oak,
grows 40 or 50 feet high, having long narrow fmooth
entire leaves, like thofe of the willow. There is a va¬
riety called the dwarf willow-leaved oak.
4. The alba, or white Virginian oak, grows 30 or
40 feet high, having a whitifli bark, with long ob-
liquely-pinnatifid light-green leaves, the finufes and
angles obtufe.
5. The nigra, or black Virginian oak, grows 30
or 40 feet high, having a dark-coloured bark, large
wedge-ftiaped flightly-trilobated leaves.
6. The rubra, or red Virginian oak, grows about
tfo feet high, having a dark-greyifh bark, long obtufely
finuated leaves, with the finufes terminated by briftly
points, and have fometimes red fpotted veins, but ge¬
nerally dyeing in autumn to a reddifh colour, remain¬
ing on the trees late in the feafon.
7. The efculus of Pliny, or cut-leaved Italian oak,
grows about 30 feet high, having a purplifh bark, ob¬
long deeply-finuated fmooth leaves, and long flender
clofe-fitting acorns in very large cups.
8. iEgilops, or large prickly-cupped Spaniih oak,
grows 70 or 80 feet high or more, with a very large
trunk, and widely-fpreading head, having a whitifli
bark, large oblong-oval deeply-ferrated fmooth leaves,
the ferratures bowed backward, and large acorns placed
in Angularly large prickly cups. This is a noble fpecies,
almoft equal in growth to our common Englifh oak.
9. Cerris, or fmaller prickly-cupped Spanifti oak,
grows 30 or 40 feet high, and has oblong lyre-fliaped
pinnatifid tranfverfely-jrgged leaves, downy underneath,
and fmall acorns placed in prickly cups.
10. The ilex, or common evergeen oak, grows 40
or 50 feet high, having a fmooth bark, oval and ob¬
long undivided ferrated petiolated leaves, downy and
vvhitilh underneath. The varieties are, broad-leaved,
narrow-leaved, and fometimes both forts and other dif¬
ferent ftiaped leaves on the fame tree, alfo fometimes
with fawed and prickly leaves.
11. The gramuntia, or Montpelier holly-leaved ever¬
green oak, grows 40 or 50 feet high; and has oblong-
oval, clofe-fitting finuated fpinous leaves, downy under¬
neath, bearing a refemblance to the leaves of holly.
12. The fuber, or cork-tree, grows 30 or 40 feet
high, having a thick, rough, fungous, cleft bark, and
oblong-oval undivided ferrated leaves, downy under¬
neath. This fpecies fumifties that ufeful material cork ;
it being the bark of the tree, which becoming of a
thick fungous nature, under which, at the fame time,
is formed a new bark, and the old being detached for
ufe, the tree ftill lives, and the fucceeding young bark
becomes alfo of the fame thick fpongy nature in fix or
feven years, fit for barking, having likewife another
frefh bark fonning under it, becoming cork like the
others in the like period of time ; and in this manner
thefe trees wonderfully furnilh the cork for our ufe,
and of which is made the corks for bottles, bungs for
barrels, and numerous other ufeful articles. The tree
grows in great plenty in Spain and Portugal, and from
thefe countries we receive the cork. The Spaniards
5 G 2 bum
CL u E [7
fnirn it, to make that kind of light black we call Spa-
nifh black, ufed by painters. Cups made of cork are
faid to be good for he&ical perfons to drink out of.
The Egyptians made coffins of cork ; which being li¬
ned with a refinous compolition, preferved dead bodies
uncorrupted. The Spaniards line Hone-walls with it,
which not only renders them very warm, but correfts
the moifture of the air.
13. The coccifera, fcarlet, or kermes oak, grows
but 14 or 15 feet high, branching all the way, and of
bufhy growth ; with large oval, undivided, indented,
fpinous leaves ; and producing fmall glandular excref-
cences, called kermes or fcarlet grain, ufed by the
dyers. The fmall fcarlet glands found in this tree, is
the effeft of certain infefts depofiting their eggs betwixt
the bark of the branches and leaves, caufing an extrava-
fation of thefap,and forming the excrefeence or fubllance
in queilion, which being dried is the kennes or fcarlet
paftel.
14. The Molucca, Moluccan oak, commonly called
American live oak, grows about 40 feet high, having
oval, fpear-fhaped, fmooth, entire leaves, and fmall ob¬
long eatable acorns.
All the above 14 fpecies of quercus produce flowers
annually in the fpring, about April or May, of a yel-
lowilh colour, but make no ornamental appearance,
and are males and females feparated in the fame tree ;
the males being in loofe amentums, and the females
fitting clofe to the buds in thick leathery hemifpherical
calyxes, fucceeded by the fruit or acorns, which are oval
nuts fixed by their bafe into rough permanent cups, and
moftly fit quite clofe, and fame on fliort footllalks, ripen¬
ing in autumn ; which in the common Englifh oak is
in great abundance, and often in tolerable plenty on
fame of the other forts : thofe of all the kinds ferve
for propagating their refpective fpecies ; they are alio
excellent food for fwine and deer, the common oak in
particular.
Ufes, See. Oak-trees, of all the above forts, may be
employed in gardening to diverfify large ornamental
plantations in out-grounds, and in forming clumps in
fpacious lawns, parks, and other extenfive opens; the
evergreen kinds in particular have great merit for all or¬
namental purpofes in gardens. But all the larger grow¬
ing kinds, both deciduous and evergreens, demand ef-
teem principally as firll-rate foreft-trees for their timber.
The Englilh oak, however, claims precedence as a tim¬
ber-tree, for its prodigious height and bulk, and fupe-
rior worth of its wood. Every poffeflbr of confiderable
eftates ought therefore to be particularly alfiduous in
railing woods of them, which is effected by fowing the
acorns either in a nurfery and the plants tranfplanted
where they are to remain, or fowed at once in the places
where they are always to Hand. All the forts will
profper in any middling foil and open fituation, though
in a loamy foil they are generally more profperous :
however, there are but few foils in which oaks will not
grow ; they will even thrive tolerably in gravelly, fan-
dy, and clayey land, as may be obferved in many parts
of this country of the common oak.
The oak is of the utmoll importance to Britain, and
its cultivation deferves the utmolf attention. Much, there¬
fore, to the honour of the members of the London Society
for encouraging Arts Manufactures, and Commerce, they
have excited particular attention to it; and many
56 i K
excellent obfervations, drawn from pra£lice, will be Qjereua,
found in their Tranfaftions. -y—J
The propagation of the ilriped-leaved varieties of
the common oak, and any particular variety of the
other fpecies, mud be effected by grafting, as they
will not continue the fame from feed : the grafting may
be performed upon any kind of oakling-ftocks raifed
from the acorns, and train them for llandards like the
others.
The oak is remarkable for its flownefs of growth,
bulk, and longevity. It has been remarked that the
trunk has attained to the fize only of 14 inches in dia¬
meter, and of fome to 20, in the fpace of fourfeore years.
As to bulk, we have an account of an oak belonging
to Lord Powis, growing in Broomfield wood, near
Ludlow in Shropfhire, in the year 1764, the trunk of
which meafured 68 feet in girth, 23 in length, and
which, reckoning 90 feet for the larger branches, con¬
tained in the whole 1455 feet of timber, round mea-
fure, or 29 loads and five feet, at 50 feet to a load.
The Greendale oak, Sec. we have already mention¬
ed (fee Oak). In the opinion of many, the Cow-
therp oak near Wetherby in Yorklhire is the father of
the foreft. Dr Hunter, in his edition of Evelyn, has
given an engraving of it. Within three feet ol the fur-
face he fays it meafures 16 yards, and clofe to the
ground 26. In 1776, though in a ruinous condition,
it was 87 feet high, and its principal limb extended 16
yards from the bole. The foliage was very thin. If
this meafurement were taken as the dimenlion of the
realfern, the fize of this tree would be enormous ; but,
like moil very large trees, its ftem is fhort, fpreading
wide at the bafe, the roots riling above the ground like
buttreffes to the trunk, which is fimilar not to a cylin¬
der but to the frullum of a cone. Mr Marlham lays,
“ I found it in 1768, at four feet, 40 feet 6 inches ;
at five feet, 36 feet 6 inches ; and at fix feet, 32 feet 1
inch.” In the principal dimenfions then, the fze of
the fern, it is exceeded by the Bentley oak; of which
the fame writer gives the following account: “ In 1759
the oak in Holt-Forell, near Bentley, was at 7 feet 34
feet. There is a large excrefeence at 7 and 6 feet that
would render the meafure unfair. In 1 778, this tree
was increafed half an inch in 19 years. It does not ap¬
pear to be hollow, but by the trifling increafe I conclude
it not found.” Thefe dimenfions, however, are exceed¬
ed by thofe of the Boddington oak. It grows in a
piece of rich grafs land, called the Old Orchard Ground,
belonging to Boddington Manor-Farm, lying near the
turnpike-road between Cheltenham and Tewkfbury, in
the Vale of Gloucclter. The ftem is remarkably col-
lefted at the root, the fides of its trunk being much
more upright than thofe of large trees in general ; and
yet its circumference at the ground is about 20 paces :
meafuring with a two-foot rule, it is more than 18
yards. At three feet high it is 42 feet, and where
fmalleft, /. e. from five to fix feet high, it is 36 feet.
At fix feet it fwtlls out larger, and forms an enormous
head, which has been furnifhed with huge, and probably
extenfive, arms. But time and the fury of the wind
have robbed it of much of js grandeur; and the great-
eft extent of arm in 1783 was eight yards from the
ftem.
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for May 1794 we
have an account of an oak tree growing in Penfhurft
CL U E
QtiercBs pavk in Kent, together with an engraving.
'—--v  the Bear or Bare oak, from being fuppoi'ed to refembk
that which Camden thought gave name to he county
of Berkfnire. The tradition at PenOiurfl is that it is
the very tree planted on the day that the celebrated Sir
Philip Sydney was born. “ Some late writers (fays
Mr Rawlet) have quellioned this, and think that to have
been a different tree, which was cut dovyn fome years
ago, and was indeed much larger than this. I remem¬
ber being once in the hollow of the prefent oak with the
late Sir John Cullum ; and his opinion then was, that
its antiquity was greater than the period afiigned. Lut,
I affure you, the tradition of this place is conftant for
this tree ; and, in confirmation of it, an old lady of 94
> Cars of age, now living, has told me, tiiat ail the te¬
nants ufed to furniffi themfelves with boughs from this
tree, to flick in their hats, whenever they went to meet
the earls of Leicefler. as was always the cuilom to do
at the end of the park when they came to refide at their
feat here. This fine old oak {lands upon a plain about
500 yards from their venerable manfion, near a large
piece of water called l.ancut-well. Ben Jonfon and
Waller have particularly noticed it ; and, from the di-
ftinguifhed owners of this place, it may be truly faid to
(land on clafiie ground. Within the hollow of it there
is a feat, and it is capable of containing five or fix per-
fons with eafe. The bark round the entrance was fo
much grown up, that it has lately been cut away to fa¬
cilitate the accefs. The dimenfions of the tree are
thefe :
Feet.
35
27
24
73
6
Girth clofe to the ground
Ditto one foot from ditto
Ditto five feet from ditto
Height taken by fhadow
Girth of loweft, but not largeft, limb
With refpedt to longevity, Linnaeus gives account of
an oak 260 years old: but we have had traditions
of fome in England (how far to be depended upon we
know7 not) that have attained to more than double that
.age. Mr Marfham, in a letter to Thomas Beevor, Efq;
Bath Papers, Vol. I. p. 79, makes fome very ingenious
calculations on the age of trees, and concludes from the
increafe of the Bentley oak, &c. that the Fortworth
chefnut is 110 years old.
Beiides the grand purpofes to which the timber .is
applied in navigation and archite&ure, and the bark in
tannin^ of leather, there are other ufes of lefs confe-
quence, to which the different parts of this tree have
been referred. The Highlanders ufe the bark to dye
their yarn of a brown colour, or, mixed with coppeias,
of a black colour. They call the oak the k ng oj all the
trees in the forejl; and the herdfman would think him-
felf and his flock unfortunate if he had not a fluff of it.
The acorns are a good food to fatten fvvine and tur¬
keys ; and, after the fevere winter of the year i7°9>
the poor people in France were milerably conflrained
to eat them themfelves. There are, however, acorns
produced from another fp<.cies of oak, which are eaten
to this day in Spain and Greece, with as much plea-
fure as chcfnuts, wdthout the dreadful compulfion of
hunger.
Quercus Marina, the Sea Oak, in botany, the name
of one of the broad-leaved dichot mous La-fucufes. It
is not agreed, among the late botaniffs, what was the
[ 757 J CL U E
It is called fea oak of Theophraffus; and the mofl ancient bota-
niffs, Clufxus and Caefalpinus, fuppofe it to have been a
fpecies of the fhrubby coralline ; but that feems by no ^
means to have been the cafe, fince Theophrallus fays his
fea oak had a long, thick, and flefhy leaf ; whence we
may much more naturally conclude it to have been of
the fucus clafs.
QUERIA, in botany : A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 2 2d order, Ca-
ryophillei. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there is no co¬
rolla ; the capfule is undocular, and trivabed, with one
feed. There are two fpecies, viz hifpanica and cana-
deniis.
QUESNE (Abraham du), marquis of Quefne, ad¬
miral of the naval forces of France, and one of the
greateft men of the lull age, was born in Normandy in
1610. He contributed to the defeating of the naval
power of Spain before Gattari; was dangeroufly wound¬
ed before Barcelona in 1642, and on other occalions :
he went into the fervice of the Swedes, and became
vice-admiral; gave the Danes an entire defeat, killed
their admiral, and took his fhip. Fie was recalled into
France in 1647, and commanded the Iquadron font to
Naples. The fea-affairs of France being much fallen,,
he fitted out divers (hips for the relief of the royal army
that blocked up Bourdeaux ; which was the principal
caufe of the furrender of the town. He was very for¬
tunate in the laft wars of Sicily, where he beat tlic
Dutch thrice, and De Ruytcr was killed. He alfo obli¬
ged the Algerines to fue for peace from France in a
very humble manner. In Hurt, Alia, Africa, and Eu¬
rope, felt the effefts of his valour. He was a Proteff-
ant; yet the king bellowed on him the land of Bou-
chet, and to immortalize his memory gave it the name
of that great man. He died in 1688.
QUESTION, in logic, a propofxtion flated by way
of interrogation.
Question, or Torture. See Rack.
QUESTOR, or Quaestor, in Roman antiquity,
an officer who had the management of the public trea-
fure.
The queftorfhip was the firft office any perfon could
bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to fit in
the fenate.
At firll there were only two ; but afterwards two
others were created, to take care of the payment of
the armies abroad, of felling the plunder, booty, &c.
for which purpofe they generally accompanied the con-
fuls in their expeditious; on which account they were
called eregriniy as the fii ff and principal tw7o were called
urbanu
The number of queftors was afterwards greatly in-
creafed. They had the keeping of the decrees of the
fenate ; and hence came the two officers of quejtor pnn-
cijm, or augujhy fometimes called candidalu* pnnciftst
whole office relembled in moll refpedls that of our ic*
cretaries of ftate ; and the quejlor pulatu, anfwering in a
great meaiure to our lord-chancollor.
QUEU l£, in heraldry, fignifies the tail of a beaff *
thusT it a lion be borne with a forked tail, he is blazoned
double-queued.
QUEVEDO de Villegas (Francifco), a celebra¬
ted Spanilh poet, born at Madrid in 1570. He was
deicendcd from a noble family, and v\ as made a knight,
©F
Querla
II
Qucvedo.
Inc’ies.
6
6
Q_ u T
C 758 1
On:ck, 0f gt James ; but was thrown Into prlfon by order of
Quicklime. count Olivarez, whofe adminiftration he'fatirizcd in
his verfes, and was not fet at liberty till after that mi-
nifter’s difgrace. Quevedo wrote fome heroic, lyric,
and facetious poems. He alfo compofed feveral trea¬
ties on religious fubjefts, and has tranflated fome au¬
thors into Spanifh. He died in 1645. The moft known
of his works are, 1. The Spaniih Parnaflus. 2. The
. Adventurer Bufcon. 3. Vifions of Hell Reformed, &c.
Quevedo was one of the greatell fcholars and moll emi¬
nent poets of his time. His youth was fpent in the
fervice of his country in Italy, where he diftinguilhed
• himfelf with the utmoft fagacity and prudence. His
moral difcourfes prove his found doftritte and religious
fentiments, while his literary pieces difplay his infinite
judgment and refined taftc. His great knowledge of
Hebrew is apparent from the report of the hillorian
Mariana to the king, requefting that Quevedo might
revife the new edition of the Bible of Anas Montanus.
His tranflations of Epiftetus and Phocylides, with his
imitations of Anacreon, and other Greek authors, Ihow
how well he was verfed in that language : that he was
a Latin fcholar, his conftant correfpondence, from the
age of twenty, with Lipfius, Chifflet, and Scioppius.
will fufliciently illuftratc. As a poet, he excelled both
in the ferious and burlefque llyle, and was Angularly
happy in that particular turn we have fince admired in
Butler and Swift. His library, which confifted of about
five thoufand volumes, was reduced at his death to
about two thoufand, and is preferved in the convent of
St Martin at Madrid.
QUICK, or ghncKSFT Hedge, among gardeners, de¬
note all live hedges, of whatever lort of plants they are
compofed, to diilinguilh them from dead hedges ; but
in a more drift fenfe of the word, it is reftrained to
thofe planted with the hawthorn, under which name
thofe young plants or fets are fold by the nurfery-
gardeners who raife them for fale. See the article
Hedges.
QUICKLIME, a general name for all calcareous
fubdances when deprived of their fixed air ; fuch as
chalk, limedone, oyder-(hells, &c. calcined. See Che¬
mistry, n0 511, 748, 837, and 914.
Quicklime has the following properties. 1. It is en¬
tirely foluble in water, with which it unites fo rapidly
as to occafion confiderable heat. When expofed to air,
it imbibes moidure from thence. When united with as
/nuch water as is fufficient to make it a fluid pade, it is
called Jlahed lime. Water faturated with quicklime is
called lime-ivater. According to Brandt, lime-wrater
contains about one part of quicklime to 700 or 800
parts of water. Slaked lime, or lime-water, being ex¬
pofed to the atmofphere, attraft from thence particles
of fixable air which float in it, by which means the
-quicklime is rendered mild, infoluble in water, and there¬
fore appears on the furface of the lime-water, or of the
flaked lime where this combination happens, in the
date of mild or combined calcareous earth, convertible
by a fecond calcination into quicklime, and is called
cream of lime.
If the earth diffolved in lime-water be precipitated
from thence by any fubdance containing fixable air, as
by mild alkalis or magnefia, it will unite with this air,
become mild, and refume its former weight and proper¬
ties which it poflefled before calcination. But if it be
Q^U 1
precipitated from the water by means of fome fubdance Quicklime,
which does not contain fixable air, but which is more
drongly difpofed than the earth to unite with the wa¬
ter, for indance, fpirit of wine, the earth thus precipi¬
tated will be in the date of quicklime, that is, cauilic,
and foluble in water.
2. Quicklime unites with acids without effervefcence,
which is nothing elfe than an extrication of the fixable
air, of which quicklime has been already deprived. It
neverthelefs faturates as much acid as it would have
done if it had not been calcined.
3. Quicklime is more powerfully difpofed to unite
with fixable air than fixed or volatile alkalis, or mag¬
nefia. Hence, when treated with thefe fubdances, it
takes from them their fixable air, and is itfelf render¬
ed mild, and redored to its original weight and pro¬
perties. Thus two drams of chalk, having been by
calcination reduced to one dram and eight grains of
quicklime, were thrown into a filtrated folution of an
ounce of mild fixed alkali in two ounces of wrater, and
digeded during fome time; by which the calcareous
earth became mild, and weighed one dram and 58 gr.
By means of magnefia, the calcareous earth maybe pre¬
cipitated from lime-water ; and this earth is found to
be mild, and to have deprived the magnefia of its fix-
able air. By depriving alkalis of their fixable air,
quicklime renders them more caudic and folvent, for
the fame reafon that itfelf is by this privation of air
rendered more caudic and powerfully folvent. This in-
creafe of caullicity and dilfolving power is confident
with a general rule, namely, that the more (irnple or lefs
compounded any body is, that is, the lefs its general
tendency to union is fatisfied, the more difpofed it is to
unite with or diflblve other fubdances.
4. Quicklime has a difpofition to unite with fulphur,
with which it forms a hepar of fulphur, fimilar to that
made by fulphur united with an alkali, and, like this,
foluble in water. It is alfo difpefed to unite with oife
and with animal and vegetable matters, with refpeft to
wdiich it difeovers a caudic and corrofive property.
5. Quicklime mixed with fand forms a mafs which
hardens, and is ufed as a cement or mortar.
All thefe properties of quicklime have been the ob-
jefts of conlideration to the chemids and philolophers 4
who have, as ufual, been divided in their opinions on
the fubjeft. The evident refemblance of the aftion of
quicklime to fire, has given occafion for one party to
derive all the aftive properties of this fubdance from
fire; while, on the other hand, its want of heat, and in¬
capacity of fetting bodies on fire, unlefs by an acceflion
o( water, were objeftions altogether infurmountable.
On the other hand, thofe who denied the materiality of
fire, and affirmed that it confids only in a motion me¬
chanically produced among the particles of bodies, were
altogether at a lofs to (how a reafon why this motion,
or any thing refembling it, (hould continue perhaps for
months after the exciting caufe is taken away. To re¬
move this difficulty, fome have had recourfe to the ac¬
tion of a latent acid communicated to the quicklime by
the fire; and which one chemid (Mr Meyer) has di-
dinguidred by the name of aetdum yingue. But on this
hypothefis it may be remarked in the fird place, that
the aftion of acids is as difficult to be explained as that
of fire ; and, in the fecond place, that as all fubdances,
by calcination into quicklime, lofe confiderably of their
weight,
Q_ u I
r 759 1
Q^U I
Quicklime. weigKt, It feems very Improbable that they (hould ac-
—  quire an acid or any other fubftance which could in-
creafe their weight. Befides, from the experiments of
Dr Black, it appears that the diminution of weight in
calcareous fubllances is owing to their parting with a
quantity of fixed air, the weight of which is much
more Confiderable than that of any moifture or fatty
matter they contain. The lofs of this fixed air is now
' alfo univerfally allowed to be the reafon of the caufti-
city of the quicklime, as its fuperior attraction for fixed
air is looked upon to be the reafon why it renders fixed
and volatile alkalis cauftic like itfelf. The only queftion
therefore can be, By what means are the calcareous
earths deprived of their fixed air ? To this queftion the
anfwer is evident, namely, that the aCtion of the fire ex¬
pels the fixed air; and if this is the cafe, it is evident,
that to this aCtion of fire, continued, the cauftic pro¬
perties of the lime are owing.
We come now to the difcufiion of the queftion.
Whether quicklime is to be confidered as a pure earth,
or a combination of it with fomething elfe ?—Molt of
the chemifts, fince the difcovery of fixed air, have been:
inclined to think that quicklime is a pure earth uncom-
bxned with any thing elfe, and that it approaches more
nearly to the Hate of elementary earth than any other.
But this opinion feems not to have a folid foundation ;
for there are other earths, fuch as the bafts of alum,
which, as far as they can be examined by us, are equally
pure with quicklime, and yet difcover not the fmallelt
caufticity, even after the moft violent calcination. Be¬
fides, from the property which ^quicklime has of depri¬
ving alkaline falts of their fixed air, we may learn, that
there exifts in it, when kept by itfelfy a certain prin¬
ciple which prevents it from abforbing again the fixed
air, with which it was- once fo clofely united, except in
certain circumftances. It is well known, that fixed al¬
kalis, as well as thofe which are volatile, will abforb fix¬
ed xair from the common atmofphere; and hence, tho’
they are prepared in the moft cauftic ftate, they will in
a very Ihort time become mild by an expofure to the
atmofphere ; nay, it requires no fmall degree of care to
prevent the atmofphere from havung as much accefs to
them as is neceflary to change them from a cauftic to a
mild ftate. Now, as thefe fubftances thus attradl the
fixed air from the atmofphere,. it thence appears that
the atmofphere parts very readily with the fixed air
which it contains. The quicklime, however, though
it has a greater attraction for fixed air than the alkalis,
yet does not become near fo foon mild from expofure
to the air as the alkalis which have lefs attra&ion than
itfelf. Hence the neceftary inference muft be, that
quicklime, after being once calcined, inftead ol attract¬
ing, repels fixed air, unlefs it is placed in certain cir¬
cumftances, wherein the repelling power is deftroyed,
and the attractive power again manifefts itfelf. Now
it is manifeft, that the power which originally repelled
the fixed air was the aCtion of fire ; and consequently,
while the quicklime refutes to attraCt fixed air, we muft:
conclude that it is the fame aCtion which prevents the
union. Quicklime therefore is not a pure earth, but a
combination of a pure earth with fire ; juft as chalk,
or limeftone uncalcined, is not a pure earth, but a com¬
bination of a pure earth with fixed air. In all che¬
mical trials, then, where quicklime is ufed, the double
elective attraction will manifeft itfelf as much as in a
combination of different falls, metals, and acids. Thus Qjlckhme*
when water is poured on quicklime, the attraction be-
tween that element and earth is ftronger than the at¬
traction between earth and fire. The confequence is,
that the water expels the fire, juft as vitriolic acid pour¬
ed upon fea-falt expels the marine acid. The fire,
then, having nothing with which it can form a chemi¬
cal combination, becomes fenlible to the touch, firft
making the lime very hot, and then gradually diflipa- -
ting in the atmofphere. However, as the water com¬
bines with the earth but in very fmall quantity, it can
only expel the fire from that quantity with which it
does combine ; and confequently the lime ft:ll retains
its cauftic quality, though in a degree fomewhat milder
than what it was originally. We muft alfo confider,
that water itfelf has a confiderable attraction for fire as
well as for earth; and the confequence of this muft be,
that part of the lime will be difiblved in the water, if
more of that element is added than what the earth can
abforb without lofing the form of a dry powder. Hence
the origin of lime-water, which is only a fmall quantity
of lime in its cauftic ftate diffolved in a large quantity
of water. This diffolution is owing to the double at¬
traction of fire to earth and water ; for as long as the
water can admit the calcined earth to that intimate
union with itfelf which is called a chemical combination^ •
the earth muft ftill retain all the caufticity which the
fire gives it* and diffolve in the water. When the
earth is in too. large quantity to be thus combined with
the water, the latter is only abforbed'into the pores of
the earth, where by its bulk it fplits the ftone or cal¬
cined matter all to pieces, and reduces it to an impal¬
pable powder, expelling a proportionable quantity of
fire from thofe pores which it now occupies. The
water, however, is capable of radically diffolving but a
very' fmall portion of calcined earth : and therefore the
fame quantity of quicklime will ferve for preparing
lime-water a great number of times over ; but at laft a
large quantity is left, which feems to be quite inert*
and has. loft the pioperties of quicklime. Thofe who
have tried the experiment of lixiviating lime with frefli
quantities of water till it ceafes to be foluble, have
fixed the proportion of foluble matter in the lime at
about one-third of the whole; but from Dr Black’s
experiments it appears that quicklime may all be dif¬
folved in water at once, provided the water is in fuffi-
cient quantity. Its inactivity, therefore, alter repeated
affufions of water, muft be owing to fome change pro¬
duced by the water ; but whether this is owing to an
abforption of all the fire it contained by the great
quantity of water, or to a fupply of fixed air given by
the water, has not yet been determined by any experi¬
ment.
If, inftcad of pouring cold water upon quicklime,
we pour that which is already heated, the abforption is
much lefs complete ; becaufe the water, having already
a fuperfluous quantity of heat, is refilled by that which
is contained in the quicklime in a latent ftate ; and
hence it is a general obfervation, that hot water is lefs
proper for flaking lime than cold. But if we pour on
any acid upon quicklime which contains a great quan¬
tity of fire in a latent ftate, and has likewife a violent
attraction for the earth, a much greater degree of heat
is produced than with fimple water. With the vitrio¬
lic acid, indeed, this is not fo well perceived, if the com¬
mon '■
*
u i r 760 i u 1
are made ufe of; becaufe their matter juft mentioned makes it an excellent whitener Qnickfilvsr*
CL
Quicklime, mon calcareous earths
w—v  infolubility in this acid diminiihes its effeft : but if, in-
ftead of thefe earths, we take magnefia newly calcined,
the heat is fo great, that the aqueous vapour, not ha¬
ving time to evaporate flowly, is driven off with a con-
liderable explolion. If the common calcareous earths,
well calcined, are diffolved in the nitrous acid, a moft
violent degree of heat is produced ; more indeed than
in any other cafe where a liquid is concerned: for the
nitrous acid itfelf contains a great deal of latent heat;
the quicklime does the fame; and by the intimate union
of the earth with the acid, all this latent heat, at leaft a
great part of it, both in the quicklime and fpirit of
nitre, is difplactd, and attacks the aqueous fluid, as be¬
ing neareft to it; from whence it is diffipated in the
air, or abforbed by the neighbouring fubitances. The
fame thing happens, only in a lefs degree, when the
marine acid is employed!
When quicklime is mixed with a folution of mild al¬
kali, a double decompolition, and two new compoii-
tions, take place. The quicklime may be confidered
as a combination of earth and fire, while the alkali in
the prefent cafe afts as a combination of fait and air.
Thefe two fubilances, therefore, are no fooner put in¬
to fuch circumftances as enable them to a<ft on each
other, than the quicklime attrafts the air from the al¬
kali, and gives its own fire in exchange, which the
alkali takes up, and thus is rendered cauftic, while the
quicklime becomes mild. Neverthelefs, though the al¬
kali here feems to have the greater attraction for fire,
and the quicklime for air ; yet it appears that the al¬
kali is by no means capable of keeping the fire which
it has imbibed for any length of time : for no fooner
is it expofed to the attion of the air, than it parts
with the fire which it had imbibed, regains its air, and
becomes mild. This, however, in all probability is
owing to its extreme folubility in water while in a
cauftic ftate ; for quicklime itfelf, when diffolved in
water, very eafily regains its fixed air, nay, even more
than it contains in a natural Hate. See the article
Salt.
On the whole, then, the properties of quicklime may
be explained in a very cafy manner on Dr Black's prin¬
ciple of latent heat. That heat confifts in a latent
itate in quicklime, as well as in vapour, we have in-
conteftable proofs ; becaufe, in all cafes where quick¬
lime changes its nature and becomes more mild, a de¬
gree of heat is produced, and which is always propor¬
tionable to the change made on the quicklime. In the
making of quicklime, therefore, the air is expelled, and
a proportional quantity of fire enters ; in diffolving it
in an acid, flaking, &c. an acid, air, or water, expels
part of the heat, which then becomes fenfible. By long
expofure to the air, the heat gradually evaporates; the
fixed air refumes its place ; and the quicklime being
thus increafed in bulk, embraces thofe bodies very
clofely which lie nearell to it ; infomuch that, when
mixed with fand and Hones, it will harden with them
almoH into the folidity of a rock (fee Cement and
Mortar). When mixed with animal or vegetable
jubilances, it deltroys or decompounds them, both by
the action of its internal heat, and by its attraftion for
-I certain acid contained in the animal fubHances, and
*an oily matter in the vegetables ; and hence its proper-
y of burning cloth, though its attraction for the oily
when properly applied. See Bleaching.
QUICKSILVER, or mercury, one of the per¬
fect metals, and fo fufible that it cannot be reduced to
a folid Hate but by the molt intenfe degree of cold,
fcarcely, if at all, under 40° below o of Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer. See Congelation. For the method of
extracting quickfilver from its ore, &c. fee Metal¬
lurgy, p. 454? and 475. For the various preparations,
&c. from it, fee Chemistry Index at mercury and
quickJUver, and Pharmacy Index at mercury andqutek-
jtlver. And for its ufe in medicine, fee Medicine,
n° 350, and Mercury.
It is found, f. Native, as in the mines of India, Friuli,
Lower Aultria, Deux Fonts, &c. flowing through beds
of Hone, and collecting in the clifts or cavities of rocks.
In thefe mines, however, Mr Kir wan is of opinion that
it is mixed with fome other metal, as the globules into
which it is divided are not perfectly fpherical. In
Sweden and Germany it has been found united to filver
in form of a bard and fomewhat brittle amalgam. It
has alfo been obferved vifibly diffufed through maffes
of clay or Hone, of a white, red, or blue colour, and very
heavy in Spain and Idria ; and in Sicily in beds of chalk.
Mines of quickfilver, however, are very rare, info-
much that, according to the calculations of Hoffman,
there is 50 times more gold got every year out of the
mines than mercury and its ores. But Dr Lewis, in
his notes upon Newmann, fays, that Cramer fufpeCts
that Hoffman only meant five times inflead of 50;
but neither the Latin nor the Engliih edition of this
author expreffes any fuch thought ; on the contrary,
he adopts the fame opinion ; and only adds, that mer¬
cury is much more frequently met with than is com¬
monly believed ; but being fo volatile in the fire, it
often flies off in the roafting of ores, and efcapes the
attention of metaflurgilts.
According to Newmann, the mines of Idria have pro¬
duced at the rate of 231,778 pounds weight of mer¬
cury per annum ; but thofe of Almaden in Spain pro¬
duce much more. The chemiits of Dijon inform us,
that their annual produce is five or fix thoufand quin¬
tals, or between five and fix hundred thoufand pounds
weight. In the year 1717 there were upwards of
2,500,000 pounds of quickfilver fent from them to
Mexico, for the amalgamation of the gold and filver
ores of that country.
At Guacanvelica in Brafil the annual produce of the
mines, according to Bomare, amounts to one million of
pounds, which are carried overland to Lima, thence to
Arica, and laflly to Potofi for the fame purpofe.
Befides thefe mines there are others in Brafil near
Villa-Rica, where fuch a quantity ot cinnabar and na¬
tive running mercury are found near the furface of the
earth, that the black flaves often colledt it in good
quantities, and fell it for a trifling price to the apothe¬
caries ; but none ot thefe mints have ever been worked
or taken notice ot by the owners. Gold naturally
amalgamated with mercury is likewife met with in the
neighbourhood of that place ; and it is faid that al-
molt all the gold mines of that country are worked out
by limply walhing them out with running water, after
reducing into powder the hard ores, which are fome-
times imbedded in quartzofe and rocky matrices.
In the duchy of Deux Fonts and in the Lower Au-
7 ftria
U I
[ 761 ] Q. U i
. , M ii f . , Mu'ftnfe or flonv tells us, we obtain a metal which can be formed into
^uUc. ftri» th. quicklllver «»w» fr0“ vf*, fm!xed ti,h rings and other utenfik. But here the mercm7 it en-
filver. matnce, and is probably, fays Mi Ku » f , • j , diffipated by the repeated fufions, and nothing
-v— feme other metal, as its globules are -t^rMyJphe- Jd U leftP WaUerius, after mentlon-
ncal. Ihe mines of briuh are dlffufed in? ftrong foap-leys, or cauftlc lixivium, and fome other
ft rata. The metal is hkevvife found vifiWy diftuled jngltr g p J > quickfllver, tella us, that by
through maffes of clay or very heavy one, mqean3 a certa;n gradatory water, the compofition of
red, or blue colour"; of which laft hmd are ^ ^ , 1 , j r /1„rpn VAlere- he
Quh-k-
mvcr.
©f Spain, fome of Idria, and of Sicily _ -
found fluid quicklilvcr, as well as native cmnabar and
mineral ethiops, near the lake of Travale in the due ly
of Sienna; but the quantity was fo fmall as not to be
worth the expence of working. On the other hand,
the following mines afford profits to the owners after
clearing all expenceS, viz. thofe at Kremmtz in Hun-
eary; at Horowitz in Bohemia; Z«rge mSaxony ;
Wolffteim, Stahlberg, and Moefchfeld in the Palatinate.
Mercury is alfo brought from Japan in the Bait Indies;
but the greatefl part of what is fold In Europe as Japan
cinnabar is faid to be manufactured in Holland.
Lemery, Pomet, and others, lay down fome external
marks by which we may diftinguilh thofe places where
there are mines of quickfilver, viz. thick vapours like
clouds arifing in the months of April and May ; the
plants being much larger and greener than in other
places : the trees feldom bearing flowers or fruit, and
putting forth their leaves more (lowly than m other
places ; but, according to Neumann, thefe marks are far
from being certain. They are not met with in all
places where there is quickfilver, and are obferved in
places where there is none. Abundance of thefe clouc y
exhalations are met with in the Hartz foreft in Ger¬
many, though no mercury has ever been found there ,
to which we may add, that though vaft quantities ot
mercurial ores are found at Almaden in Spain, none
of the above-mentioned indications are there to be
met with. , .
Native mercury was formerly fought from the mines
of Idria with great avidity by the alchemifts for the
purpofe of making gold; and others have (bowed as
ridiculous an attachment to the Hungarian cmnabar,
fuppofing it to be impregnated with gold ; nay, we are
informed by Neumann, that not only the cinnabar, an¬
timony,and copper of Hungary,but even the vine trees of
that country were thought to be impregnated wit ic
precious metal. Not many years ago a French chemiit
advertifed that he had obtained a confiderable quan¬
tity of gold from the afhes of vine twigs and Items, as
well as of the garden foil where they grew ; but the
falfehood of thefe aflertions was demonftrated by the
count de Lauragais to the fatisfaftion of the Royal
Academy of Sciences. . r . f .
The reduction of mercury into a foltd date, io that
it mieht be employed like filver, was another favourite
alchemical purfuit. But all procefles and operations
of this kind, fays Neumann, if they have mercury
in them, are no other than hard amalgams. v\ hen
melted lead or tin are juft becoming confiftent a ter
fufion, if a ftick be thruft into the metal, and the hole
filled with quickfilver, as foon as the whole is cold,
the mercury is found {olid. Macquer informs us, that
mercury becomes equally folid by being expofed to the
fumes of lead. Maurice Hoffman, as quoted by Neu¬
mann, even gives a procefs for reducing mercury, thus
coagulated, to a ftatc of malleability, viz. by repeatedly
melting and quenching it in linfeed oil. I bus, he
Voo, XV. Part II.
means a     i .
which he learned from Creuling de Aureo Vellere, he
could make a coagulum of mercury whenever he plea-
fed, of fuch confiftency that great part of it would re¬
fill cupellation ; but what this gradatory water was, he
has not thought proper to lay before the public.
2. Native precipitate per ft, in which the metal is
mineralized by aerial acid. This was lately found in
Idria, in hard compafl maffes of a browmfh red co¬
lour and granular texture, mixed with fome globules
of native mercury. An hundred parts of it afford pi
of running mercury. . .
Various little globules of mercury were contained m
this ore, which are rendered very vifible by being heat¬
ed, but are foon reabforbed by cooling. On expofmg
it to the fire in an iron fpoon, the red colour foou be¬
came more vivid, but turned yellowifh on cooling.
Diftilled in a pneumonic apparatus, a quantity of de-
phlogifticated air was produced, though lefs by one
fourth than what fhould have been produced by an
equal quantity of cinnabar. On diftilhng an ounce of
this ore in a glafs retort, a little yellow powder was left,
which weighed a fourth part of a grain, and flamed
the bottom of the retort in a manner fimilar to what is
done by the calx of filver to white glafs in fimilar cir-
cumftances. On cupelling this powder with 144 grams
of lead wrapped up in paper, the increafed weight of
the lead over that of the teft of companfon (bowed that
the calx was reduced into its metallic ftate of filver and
mixed with that of lead. #
5. Mineralifed by the vitriolic and marine acids. 1 his
kind of ore was firft difeovered in the year 1776, at
Obermofchal in the duchy of Deux Fonts. It has a
fpar-Hke appearance, and is either bright and white, or
yellow or black, and mixed with cinnabar in a ftony ma¬
trix. The native marine fait of mercury is in the ftate
of corrofive fublimate. . .-r j
4 Native cinnabar, in which the metal is minerahied
by fulphur. This is of different fhades from a yellow¬
ifh to a deep red; and is found either pure.in hard
friable maffts, either ftiapelefs or cryflallized m cubes,
and fometimes tranfparent, or intermixed with clay or
done, or interfperfed through the ores of other metals,
particularly thofe of filver, copper, or martial pyrites.
Its texture is either radiated, flriated, fcaly, or granu¬
lar. An hundred parts of cinnabar contain about 80
of mercury and 20 of fulphur; but artificial cinnabar
contains a little more fulphur, and hence its colour is
darker. Its fpecific gravity is about 7.000; it lublimes
in clofe veffels, and is decompofed and volatilized m
©pen ones. It is found in the duchy of Deux Pouts, in
the Palatinate, in Hungary, Friuli, and Almaden m
Spain, and in South America, efpecially at Guancavehca
in Peru. It is fometimes compa6l,and foraetimes found in
tranfparent, ruby-coloured cryftals, and often in a kind
of feales or flattened lamina:. It is called native ver¬
milion, and cinnabar in flowers, when it is in the form
of a very bright red powder. It is alfo found in dif¬
ferent earths, in felenite mixed with iron, with pyrites,
5 D
Q;A«-
lif’er.
Q. U I F 7*2
and with falphur. Mr Fourcroy enumerates the fol*
lowing varieties : i. Transparent cinnabar, red and cry-
flalliz.ed in very diort triangular prifmn, terminated by
triangular pyramids. 2. Tranfparent red cinnabar, in
odtohedral cryftais, conlifling of two triangular pyra¬
mids united at their bales and truncated. 3. Solid com-
padt cinnabar, of a brown or bright red ; it is fome-
times foliated. 4. Red cinnabar diftributed in ftri*,
on a ftony matrix, or on folid cinnabar. It is fome-
times compofed of needles like 'cobalt. 5. Cinnabar in
flowers, or native vermilion. It is of a bright red co¬
lour, ar.d lattin appearance, adhering to different ma¬
trices, in form of a very fine powder. It is fometunes
cryflallized in very fmall needles, and then greatly re-
iembles the foregoing.
I he finer coloured ores cf mercury are never work¬
ed for extracting the metal, but ufed entirely as pig¬
ments ; but they have been very injudicioufly preferred
for medicinal ufes to the more pure factitious cinna¬
bars ; for we feldom meet with any native cinnabar that
has not fome earthy or ftony matter intermixed with it,
nor with two pieces that perfectly agree. There arc
three varieties principally diftinguiftied in the ftiops ;
viz. I. Cinnabar in mafies weighing from one to fix
ounces or more. 2. In grains, prepared by breaking
the worfe coloured malfes, and picking out the bell co¬
loured bits. 3. Wafhed cinnabar, prepared by wafhing
over the lighter impurities that are to be found in it.
No native cinnabar Ihould ever be employed in medi¬
cine without being previoufly purified by fublimation.
Neumann informs 113 that he never met with any native
cinnabar which did not leave a grey afh or fand,
amounting, among different parcels, from one ninth to
one fifth of the mineral employed. The refiduum had
no gold in it, though the colour of its folution and
precipitate gave feme expedation of it at firft fight.
Neumann 11 murks, that though vitriolic acid forms
with mercury a lively yellow' concrete, viz. turbith mi¬
neral, and with tlic inflammable principle a yellow fill-
phur; and though fulphur itfelf forms with mercury
a beautiful red cinnabar; yet the fame vitriolic acid
deftroys the red colour entirely, rendering it as wrhite
as milk. This change is not immediately produced on
common cinnabar by the vitriolic acid ; but, on being
digefted over a ftrong land heat in a glafs cup, it foon
becomes as white as cream ; and the vitriolic acid takes
the form of a ftrong fulphureous and volatile vapour,
very fuffocating and corrofive ; emitting very piercing
fume* for fome time, which turned the paper that eo"'-
vered it black, and deftroyed its texture.
5. Black ore of mercury, in which the metal is mi¬
neralized by fulphur and copper. This is of a black-
fth grey colour, a glafty texture, brittle, heavy, and
decrepitating ftrongly wlien heated. It is found at Muf-
chel Lan&erg. An ore of this kind is alfo found in
the duchy of Deux Fonts. In the fulp'liur of Idria a
black cinnabar is likewife faid to be found, which re¬
tains its colour in fublimation; but this is not yet fufti-
vient.y confirmed, though it is too bold an affection
f J* Writer that no fuch cinnabar has ever
been found He addfe, that a certain learned man
tnought he had difeovered fome near the copper ores
at Lauterberg; but that it proved to be a red copper
Wiuch is itill tv be met wdth in that place.
I U I
6, Pyritous mercurial ore was brought From Daq,
phiny by Mr Montiguy in 1768. It is grey, whi-
tifb, and friable. An hundred parts yielded one of
mercury, one half of filver, the remainder beiim- iron, •
cobalt, fulphur, and arfenic.
7* An ore of mercury', in which the metal is mine¬
ralized with iron by lulphur, is mentioned by Sir Tor-
bern Bergman in his ikiigraphia, fe&. 177. He fays
that it is doubtful whether this does not belong to the
fpecies of cinnabar, as the iron is perhaps only mechani¬
cally diffufed thereon. Mr Mongcz informs us, that
there are but few inftances of cinnabar in which iron
is not found in its calcined form, though, in the a<ffc of
the ore being reduced, it paffes to its metallic ftate, and
becomes capable of being a&ed upon by the loadftone.
Another pyritous ore of cinnabar was found at Me.
nidot, near St Lo in Lower Normandy. It confifted
of differently fized grains of a red brown colour: they
had a vitriolic tafte and fulphureous fmell. Pyritous ores
of this kind are likewife found at Almaden in Spain,
and at Stahlberg in the Palatinate. The cinnabaric
pytites of this lalt place are of a dodecaedral form.
8. Mr Gellert informs us, that an ore of quickfilver
is met with in Idria, where the mercury lies in an earth
or ftone, as if it were in a dead form ; and has the ap¬
pearance of a red-brown iron-itone, but much heavier.
It contains from three quarters to feven-eighthsj of the
pureft mercury, leaving after diftiilation a very black
ftrong earth, giving alfo fome marks of cinnabar.
I" or, as we do not know the ultimate divifibility of
mercury, we cannot juftly determine the point of its
fluidity, although its globules may be no more difccr-
nihle.
t he Fiver-ore, which is moft common in Idria, and
has its name from its colour, refembles an indurated
iron-clay ; but its weight difeovers it to have metallic
contents. An hundred weight of it fometimes yields
80 pounds of quickfilver.
The brurul-er%y or burning ore of the Germans, like-
wife belongs to this fpecies. It • may be lighted at a
candle, and yields from 9 to 50 pounds of metal in the
100.
Dr Gmelin informs us, that cinnabar mixed with
{liver,
arfenic or realgar is faid to be found in Japan ; and
that at Morsfield the cinnabar and white calx of arfe¬
nic prefent themfelves in the fame rock.
10. Bekdcs the ores already mentioned, we fome-
times meet with quickfilver natively amalgamated with
geld, filver, and other metals. This is taken notice
ol by- Bergman ; and from the authorities of Monet and
Prof. Gmelin, Mr Kirwan informs us, that in Sweden
and Germany this metal has been found united to filver
in an hard and brittle amalgam. M. de L’llle had a fpe-
cimen of this ore from Germany; which, as M. Mon¬
ger informs us, is imbedded in a quartzofe mafs, and
mixed with cinnabar. A fpecimen brought from the
mine called Carolina, in a cryftalline form, was depo-
fited in the roy-al cabinet at the king’s garden at Paris.
M. de L’ifle likewife informs us, that a fpecimen of
native gold was brought from Hungary, which, ac¬
cording to Cronftedt, was probably an amalgam of
mercury and gold. It is compofed of quadrangular
prifms, of a greyifti yellow- colour, and brittle texture^
Neumann likewife obferves, that fometimes a mineral*
containing'
CL u i
[ 7C3 ]
containing gold or filvtr, h met witk nmong mercurial
ores, though very rarely.
Thefe natural amalgams account for the great fpeci-
fie gravity of fome kinds of quickfilver. 'riiis may
proceed from a natural mixture of gold, though, ac¬
cording to Boerhaave, it may alfo arife from its being
rediililled a great number of times. By a fimilar mode
of reafoaing we may conclude, that the fmalleft fpe-
cific gravities of quickfilvtr proceed from ita amalga¬
mation with filver, lead, and other metals or femime-
tala, which in fpite of repeated diftiilations may lUll
preferve their union with it; for Dr Boerhaave informs
us that he could not, by any number of diftillatior.s,
free mercury perfectly either from tin or lead.
M. Magellan, in his notes on Cronttedt’s Mineralogy,
fajrs, " That mercury is many times found amalgamated
with lead, is eafdy evinced by the procefs of M. Grolfe
mentioned by Macquer in his elements of Chemiitry,
where the method of extrafting mercury from fome
folutions of lead is deferibed; but the fame Macquer,
in his Chemical Dictionary, pofuively affirms, that,
though Beecher and Kunckel have both given other
procdTe# for extracting mercury from lead, and though
the method pointed out by M. Grofle is eafier than the
others, neverthelcfs it does not fucceed if the lead be
quite pure without any amalgamation with mercury.
And Boerhaave has exprefsiy made the fame aflertioii,
complaining of thofe authors who affirm the contrary.”
Dr Black, however, feems to be of a different opinion ;
and, in hie public courfe of leisures, teaches that, “ by
fome proceffcs of the more difficult kind, mercury may
be extra&ed from leadthough he cautions us, at
the fame time, not to infer from this, or any other che¬
mical procefs, the poffibility of the tranfmutation of
metals.
Mercury is not in any way altered by the a&ion of
light. Its dilatation by heat is extremely regular, as
has lately been ffiown, in a very great variety of expe¬
riments, by Dr Adair Crawford; for which reafon it is
ufed as the meafurc of heat, and thermometers are ufu-
aliy filled with this metal. When oppofed to the heat
of about 6oo° of Fahrenheit, it boils and is difperfed in
an invilible fume; which, however, has been obferved to
have the elafticity of the Ream of water, and to burll
un iron box in which it was attempted to continc it.
If it be made to boil in a clofe vcffel fitted with a pro¬
per apparatus, it will all come over in its proper form,
and leave any fixed matter it might contain in the re-
tort. This afford# an eafy method of purifying it from
the bafe metals with which it is frequently adulterated;
though even in this way it is ncceffary to raife the fire
cautioufiy, or a part of the fixed metal will be carried
up along with the mercury. And even with all the
'tare that can be taken, it has been found impolfible,
aa has been already laid, to free it perfectly from a mix¬
ture of the bafe metale by any number of diltillations.
By a very great number of ditlillations, however, it
was faid that fome change might be made upon this
metal; and that it became not only purer, but fpecifi-
cally heavierx by fuch an opt ration. Boerhaave, after
making it undergo this operation 511 times, found fome
difference; but three years after, in a Memoir inferted
in the Philofophieal rI ran factions for 1736, he acknow¬
ledged, that, on repeating the operation 77 times, its
(L u 1
fpecific gravity, a» ffiown by Dr Gravefande’a nice hy-
drojiatic balance, appeared to be no more than 13-500
to diitilled water.
u Boerhaave died (fays Mr Magellan In his Notes
on Cronffedt’# Mineralogy) two years after, on the 23d
of September 1738 ; and left his papers to his two ne¬
phews, Herman, who died the 7th of October 1753,
and Kaw, who died five years after. On their deaths
the-manuferqna fell into the hands of Charles Frederick
Knife phyfician to the Emperor of Ruffia. This gen.
tleman publiffied a ffi.ort extrad from Boerhaave’s Dia¬
ry in the ninth volume of the AW Ccmmentarii of the
Imperial Academy of Petcrlburg, of which the follow¬
ing are the refuks.
The fpecific gravity of the pureff gold to that of
19,024
i3o7<>
13*590
13.550
13,520
13,50c*
* 3 • 5 5 ^
13,500
Quick-
tdver.
diftilled water is
That of mercury diffilled once in a retort
Diftilled 1009 times
Once from its amalgam with gold
750 times from the fame amalgam
877 time# from the fame
Once from its amalgam with filvtr
217 times from the fame amalgam
“ It is evident, therefore, by thefe fads, that mercury
docs not acauire any additional increafc to its fpecific
gravity Uy the mere repetition of Ijmple diftiilations-
nor by it# amalgamations with gold or filver, provided
it be afterwards properly feparuted by fire.”
It is certain, however, that there are very confider-
able differences in the fpecific gravity of different tpeci-
mens of quicktilver; and authors have by no mtana
agreed iu fixing the Itandard.— Bergman ftates it at
14.UO; and Mufchenbroek all'erts that fuch was the
Ipecific gravity of Boerhaave’s quicktilvcr that had beers
diftilled 511 times; but fome modern authors, among
whom is M. Fourcroy, ftate the fpecific gravity of tin*
metal at no more tlian 13.000. Modern experiments,
however, Ihow that it is generally about 13.500 or
13.600. “ Thu (lays Mr Magellan) l am informed
was the mean fpeeific gravity found by the late Lord
Cavendiffi, alter the repeated and nice trials he made
upon 50 different fpecimens of quicklilver, on which ho
employed all his induilry and attention to determine
this point.
“ The hydroftatical experiments I lately undertook
of this kind upon ten different fpecimens of mercury,
two of which were revived from natural and artificial
cinnabar by the operator of Mr Kirwau, confirmed me
in the fame opinion.
“ The temperature of the atmofphere was nearly the
mean, viz. at the 50th degree of Fahrenheit’s thermo,
meter; and the leales employed were fo nice, that they
turned with the hundredth part of a grain when loaded
with four pounds weight.—The method made ufe of to
afeertaita thefe fpecific gravities is the eafieft of all. A
phial of white glafs with a ground ftopple was counter¬
balanced with lead or other matter in a nice pair of
feales. 7'he fubftance to be tried was introduced into
the phial and weighed together, and the weight we fup-
pofc = a. The remaining fpace of the phial being
then filled with diitilled water, we fuppofe the weight
now to be h. Lallly, the phial was filled with di¬
itilled water, and the weight fuppofed =: r. It is evi-
5 I) a dent,
a.
U I
C 764 1
Qnick- dent, that l — a = d, the quantity-of water in the fe-
lliver- cond operation ; c — d = e, the water whufe bulk is
a '
equal to that of the fubftance; and that -is the fpecific
gravity fought for.—Particular care was taken that no
bubble of air remained in the intide. For this purpofe
a very fmall groove was made with a file on the infide
of the glafs (topper ; and this was introduced iidewife
without admitting any air, leaving the fuperfluous wa¬
ter to rufh out.
“ The greateft fpecific gravity of any of thofe fpe-
cimens was 13.620, and the lead I3.450, ^ he heavieft
■was neither of the two that had been did filed from cin¬
nabar, but a common quickfilver bought at Apotheca¬
ries Hall, London ; and the lighted was taken from a
barometer of the bed and deared kind made by one of
the mod reputed indrument-makeis in England.
“ The mod. obvious caufe of this difference of fpeci¬
fic gravity in quickfilver feems to be its mixture or
amalgamation with other metals. Certainly, when uni¬
ted to gold, its gravity mud of courfe be fpecifically
augmented: on the contrary, it mud be leffened when
united with any other metal, platina only excepted;
and the fame mud be the cafe whether water or any
other moidure is mixed with it; for in fuch a cafe the
metal will be found heavier after evaportion. A fimple
“boiling of the quickfiiver over the fire in an open veffel
will completely free it from this mixture; and no care¬
ful maker of experiments (hould negleft the preparation
before he undertakes to employ mercury in any proccfs,
or for any purpofe of the philofophic kind. The boil¬
ing mud be continued for 20 or 30 minutes in order to
expel the whole moidure.
Another caufe by which the fpecific gravity of quick¬
filver becomes fubjedt to alteration is the difference of
temperature of the atmofphere at the time of making
the experiment. Nor is it quickfilver alone, but every
other fubdanee whofe fpecific gravity is affe&ed by this
caufe in a greater or leffer degree ; infomuch that Mr
Magellan does not hefitate to pronounce the labours of
all thofe who have undertaken to compofe tables of fpe¬
cific gravities, without regard to this circumftance, to
be, if not entirely ufelefs, at lead incapable of afford¬
ing proper fatisfaftion in the nice inquiries that depend
on this knowledge.
In Eifenchmid’s table of fpecific gravities it is affert-
ed, that a cubic inch of mercury in fummer weighs fe-
ven ounces, one gros, 66 grains; but in winter it weighs
20 grains more : the whole weight then being feven
ounces, two gros, 14 grains (allowing 72 grains to the
gros). This, however, leaves the matter almod in as
great uncertainty as before ; the fummer and winter
temperature being widely different in different places,
and very often even in the fame place. Unlefs there¬
fore the temperature ol the air is attended to at every
experiment in taking the fpecific gravity of any fwb-
ffaoce whatever, there can be no certainty of the refult.
Quickfilver always feels cold when touched in the
common temperature of the atmofphere. Our fenfa-
tions, according to Fourcroy, deceive us in this cafe,
for a thermometer dipped in quickfilver always (hows
the common temperature. “ The great continuity of
contaft between the live (kin and numerous metallic
particles in an equal fpace, and which are proportional
to its great fpecific gravity, neceffarily produces a drong-
U I
er fenfation of its own temperature, this being always
much lefs than that of a living body; and the multipli¬
city of thefe points of conta& being all at once applied
to this organ of fenfation, mud be more powerfully felt
than whenever we touch any other matter that is light¬
er in itfelf, or of a lefs denfity.,,
Notwithdanding this apparent coldnefs, however,
quicklilver, when expofed to the fame degree of heat,
and in the fame circumdances with various other fub-
ftances, foon becomes hotter to the touch than any of
them. “ The fundamental principle of this (fays Mr
Magellan) confids in the fmall quantity of fpecific fire,
or the lefs capacity which mercury is endowed with of
receiving heat. This is fuch, that, compared with the
capacity of water for the fame purpofe, it is in the ra¬
tio of 0.033 to IOO> as appears by the table of the
quantities of fpecific fire contained in various bodies.—
This table, publilhed in Magellan’s Effay on Elemen¬
tary' Fire, was grounded upon various important expe¬
riments and obfervations made by Mr Kirwan, in con-
fequence of the new Theory of Fire difeovered by
X)r Crawford. Hence it follows, that if equal quan¬
tities of heat be communicated to equal quantities of
water and mercury, the latter will have a tempera¬
ture 30 times greater than that of the water ; that
is to fay, in the inverfe ratio of their refpeftive capaci¬
ties, or as 1 to 30 (^0.033: i.oco), in the fame
manner as it mud happen, when equal meafures of corn
or of any fluid are thrown into veffels whofe bottoms
are as 30 to 1 ; for then their heights mud neceffarily
be in their inverfe ratio, viz. of I to 30, &c» See
Chemistry, n° 1225, &c.
Qmckiilver does not appear to diffolve in water; but
Fourcroy remarks, that phyficians are in the practice of
fufpending a bag full of it in vermifuge ptifans during
their ebullition, and that experience has evinced the
good effects of it. Lemery afferts, that in this procefs
there is no lofs of weight; but this is denied by others.
Fourcroy afferts, that this metal, rubbed between the
fingers, emits a perceptible odour, though Magellan
fays he tried the experiment many times without fuc-
cefs.
Fourcroy likewife afferts, that mercury when pure
emits a phofphoric light by agitation, patticularly in
hot feafons. This phenomenon has certainly been ob-
ferved in the mercury of the barometer^; but its appear¬
ance on other occafions relts entirely on the authority
of Mr Fourcroy. Even in the barometer it does not-
take place, unlefs the Torricellian vacuum be not per-
fetUy made in the fpace at the top of the tube. Phials
of glafs nearly exhauded of air, and containing fome
quickfilver hermetically fealed up, will, on being (haken,
produce as much light in the dark as is fufficieat to (how
the hour on the dial-plate of a watch. But if a per-
fe£ vacuum be produced by nicely boiling the quickfil¬
ver within the glafs, no appearance of this kind is to be
perceived. The phenomenon is certainly of the elec¬
trical kind; and its not appearing in the perfeft vacuum
is owing to the difficulty there is in fetting in motion
any large quantity of ele&ric matter by itlelf, whicl*
indeed can fcarce be done without producing very vio¬
lent effe&s. See EiECTRiciTr-Index.
Mercury unites with all the metals and femimetals,
excepting iron and regulUs of antimony. Thefe com¬
pounds are called amalgams s and Mr Machy has ob-
r ferved.
Quick-
lilver.
Quick-
filver.
Q_ U I
[ 765. ]
Q^U I
fen’ed, that in forming them a certain degree of cold is
produced. He made the experiment by covering the
ball of a thermometer with tin-foil, and then dipping it
into quickfilver ; upon which that in the thermometer
fell fome degrees : which agrees perfeftly well with the
dodtrine of latent heat firft difeovered by Dr Black, as
it (hows that in this, as well as other cafes, where a
body paffes from a folid into a fluid ft ate, a degree of
«old is produced.—The following obfervations on the
amalgams of mercury' with different metals are extraft-
ed from the Memoirs of the Academicians of Dijon.
1. The amalgam of gold and mercury cryftallizes in¬
to quadrangular pyramids. Six ounces of mercury are
retained by one of gold in this cryftallization ; but that
with filver retains a third part more of quickfilver.
2. The amalgam with filver is likewife fufceptible of
cryftallization, and affumes the form of a tree ; every
ounce of filver retaining eight of merenry. 1 his amal¬
gam, by means of the nitrous acid, well freed from the
vitriolic by folution of filver in the fame, forms that cu¬
rious kind of vegetation mentioned in the article Che¬
mistry, n° 754, called Arbor Diana, cr Arbor Pbi/o-
fophorum.—The following is recommended by Mr Ma¬
gellan as the fhorteft procefs :
“ Diffolve 228 grains of filver, and half as much
quickfilver, in pure nitrous acid. Add to the lolution,
when made, five ounces (of 576 grains each) of di-
ftilled water. Put this folution into a ipherical veffel
of white glafs, at the bottom of which muft already be
put 432 grains of an amalgam of filver of the confili¬
enee of butter: let the veftel be kept in a quiet place,
free from any fhaking or external agitation ; and at the
end of fome few hours the figure of a bufti or tree of
filver will be formed within the water of the glafs vef¬
fel. The metals contained in the folution and in the
amalgam attract each other, and a number of fmall tetra¬
hedral cryftals are formed, which lay hold at one ano¬
ther’s end, and form the appearance of a vegetation.
3. Copper is amalgamated with mercury with great
difficulty, and only by mixing blue vitriol with mer¬
cury and water in an iron retort over the fire. The acid
then attacks the veffel, and the copper is precipitated in
a metallic ftate, which, by llirring it with an hot iron
fpatula, unites to the mercury, but does not cryftallize.
4. Two ounces of melted lead poured on a pound of
mercury produce a half fluid amalgam, wfiich being de¬
canted gives fome cryftals like thofe of filver. One
ounce of thefe cryftals retains an ounce and an lialf of
mercury. # . .
5. The amalgam of tin cryftallizes into thin mining
lamellse, wfith polygonous cavities between one another.
Two ounces of tin retain fix of mercury in this cry¬
ftallization.
6. Mercury amalgamates with bifmuth by means of
heat, and produces cryftals of an odtohedral form, and
lamellated triangles and hexagons. T hey are black on
the upper furface, and ftiining underneath. In this
cryftallization the bifmuth retains double its weight of
mercury.
7. Zinc, in fufion, poured upon mercury, produces
a crackling noife refembling' that produced by a hot
body thrown into boiling water- It cryftallizes very
well into lamellated hexagonal' figures, leaving cavities
among themfelves. One ounce of zinc retains two and
an half of mercury in this cryftallization.
8. Quiclflver does not amalgamate with arfenic, ex¬
cept by heat, and then only in very fmall quantity. This
metal anfwers very important purpofes both in medi-
cine and the arts. Though it has no perceptible tafte,
it produces very remarkable effedls on the ftomach and
inteftines of animals, as well as on the furface of the
Ikin. Infers and worms are extremely fenfible of this
effe£l, and the metal, almoll in any ftate, is exceeding¬
ly pernicious to them. Phyficians, therefore, employ
it as an excellent vermifuge (fee Medicine, p. 341.),
and it is likewife one of the mod powerful remedies in
the materia medica for many obftinate diforders befides
thofe of the venereal kind, in which its efficacy has long
been celebrated. “ Even the moft virulent product of
mercury (fays Mr Magellan), known by the name of
fublimate corrofive, which is the moft violent poifon, is
often taken internally in very minute dofes, under the
direction of fkilful phyficians, and produces the moft
happy effects in a great variety of cafes even of the
moft defperate kind. This is a faift which I have ex¬
perienced myfelf, in a dreadful fcorbutic complaint
which I fuffered for above four years, with reftlefs and
violent pains in the eyes and head. None of the moil
able phyiicians in London and Paris I confuked afford¬
ed me any effectual relief, till I had the good fortune
to confult Mr Sacre furgeon-oculill at Antwerp. His
prefeription confifted of three grains of fublimate dif-
folved in a pint of common proof fpirit. The dofe
confifted in taking every morning two fpoonfuls of it
in a pint of new milk. In lefs than two months I be¬
gan to feel relief; and in three months time was com¬
pletely cured. The firft methodical praftice of this re¬
medy was communicated to the celebrated Van Swieten,
firft phyfician to the Emperor’s court, by the late Dr
A. R. Sanches, then chief phyfician to the court of
Peterlburg, as appears by the laft volume of the Com¬
mentaries of the fame Van Swieten, publiihed in 1772-
This volume was publifhed after the author’s death } but
he had enjoyed during his life the glory of being the
author of this wonderful remedy, which continues to
bear his name among the ignorant and inaccurate phyfi¬
cians of our times.”
But whatever ufes this fait may be put to when ta¬
ken in fmall quantities, it is certainly not lefs violent
than aifenic itfelf, if taken in a large dofe ; and the
danger is the greater, on account of the difficult folu¬
tion of the fait, which requires for this purpofe 19
times its weight of water. Alkaline falls, however,
prove a very effeftual antidote, and will inftantly re¬
lieve the fymptoms ; .but, on account of the infolubili-
ty of the poifonous fait, the diforders occafioned by it
foon return, and require a repetition of the fame reme¬
dy. In cafes where alkaline falls are not immediately
at hand, foap diffolved in water will anfwer the fame
purpofe ; or if this alfo fhould not be inftantly procure-
able, chalk, lime, fpirit of hartffiorn, or magnefia al¬
ba, might be. ufed with good eftett.
Quickfilver is employed in Chili and Peru to extraft
gold and lilver, when native, from the earthy matters
with which they are mixed. The principle on which
this method is founded is the llrong mutual attraction
betwixt mercury and the precious metals. By reafon
of this the fmallett particles either of gold or filver
form an amalgam with the mercury, part of which is
itrained oft, aud the remainder either feparated by di-»
(ri
Quiclc-
filver.
u i r 766
Quicli- filiation In iron retorts, or by a kind of diftiUation per
uefeenfum ; putting it in a kind of metallic fieve over a
vc^el of water» t0 rect,*ve tl,e mercury, which is driven
r'U ‘ . down by a fire lighted in a vefiel above the amalgam.
1 he amalgam with gold ferves alfo to gild copper or
fdver, fo that they appear as if made of iblid gold.—
For this purpofe the pieces are to be well cleaned, and
then dipped in a weak aquafortis ; then in a nitrous fo-
lution of quickfilver, which covers them with a kind
tof filvering. After this the amalgam of gold is very
equally fpread over them ; which being done, the piece is
expofed to a heat fufficient to volatilize the quicklrlver,
and the gold is then left llrongly adhering to the metal.
The only ufe to which the amalgam of mercury with
lead has hitherto been applied, is the luting glafs veffels
in which fpecimens of natural hiltory are to be preferved
in fpirit of wine. For this it is more proper than any
other fubftance, having an excellent effect in prevent¬
ing evaporation. Tire amalgam of tin is commonly
employed in making looking-glaffes or mirrors. The
•thin Iheet of tin is laid down on a large flat table of
ffone ; a proper quantity of mercury, in which fome
tin lias already been drflolved to prevent it from de-
itroying the tin flreet, is rubbed over with a bunch of
cloth like a fiat bung, and the glafs carefully Aided up¬
on it from one end to the other, in fuch a manner that
the dirty crult of the quickfilver is driven oft before its
edge ; and the glafs is then loaded with weights all
over : by inclining gradually the ffone table, the fuper-
fluous mercury is difchargtd ; and in a few hours botlr
cohere together. This amalgam is ufed for exciting
the ele&ricity of glafs globes in the common electrical
machines, but is laid to be interior in ffrength to that
made with zinc.
Quickfrlver heated by itfelf, with accefs of air, is by
degrees converted into a red powder, improperly called
Ahrcunus precipitutus per fe. It coniiffs of the calx
•of the metal united with the bafrs of dephlogifficated or
pure air, which may be expelled from it again by a ffrong
heat; and this was the firfl method1 by which Dr Prieit-
ley obtained this kind of air.
Mercury is not altered by the contadl of air: It is
only obferved, that it becomes tarnifhed by the particles
of duff which the air depolits ; and from that circum-
ftance mercury has been called the loaditone of duff.-—
Though all bodies have this property, it feems more re¬
markable in mercury than any other, on account of its
great fplendour ; but it is not in the leaff changed by
this circumffance, nothing more being neceffary to le-
ilore it to its original brilliancy than filtration through
a piece off fliamoy leather.
The volatility of mercury prevents it from uniting
with earths in the way of fulion ; though M. Fourcroy
is of opinion that its red calx, or precipitate per fs,
might perhaps fix in glaffes, and colour them, as is ob¬
ferved in the calx of arfenic.
QUICK-matom, among artillery men, a kind of
combuftible preparation formed of three cotton ffrands
drawn into length, and dipped in a boiling compofi-
tion of white-wine vinegar, faltpetre, and mealed pow-
der. After this immerfion it is taken out hot, and
laid in a trough where fome mealed powder, moiiten-
ed w ith fpirits of wine, is thoroughly incorporated in¬
to the twiffs ot the cotton, by rolling it about there¬
in. Thus prepared, they are taken° out feparatcly,
] U 1
and drawn through mealed powder; then hung upon Qu!4
a line and dried, by which they arc fit for immediate II
fervice. Quietiftr.
QUID pro opo, in law’, ?. ef. “ what for what,” v
denotes the giving one thing of value for another ; or
the mutual confidcration and performance of both parties
to a contradU
Qu 1 o pro quo, or Qut prG quo, is alfo ufed in phyfic
to exprefs a miitake in the phyf-cian’s bill, where quid
is wrote for quo, i. e. one thing for another; or of the
apothecary in reading quid for yr//),and giving the patient
the wrong medicine. Hence the term is in the gene¬
ral extended to all blunders or miftakes committed in
medicine, either in the preieriptiou, the preparation,
or application of remedies.
QUIDDITY, quidditas, a barbarous term ufed
in the fchools for ejj'encc. The name is derived hence,
that it is by the effencc of a thing that it is tale quid,
fuch a quid, or thing, and not another. Hence what
is effential to a thing is faid to be quiddative.
QUIETIST8, a religious fetd, famous towards
the dole of the laff century. They w ere fo called from
a kind of abfolute reff and ina&ion, which they fuppo-
fed the foul to he in when arrived at that flate of per¬
fection which they called the unitive life; in which
ftate they imagined the foul wholly employed in
contemplating its God, to whofe influence it was en¬
tirely fubmifiive ; fo that he could turn and drive it
where and how he would. In this ftate, the foul no
longer needs prayers, hymns, See. being laid, as it were,
in the boiom and between the arms of its God, in w hom
it is in a manner fwallowed up.
Molinos, a Spanilh prieff, is the reputed author of
Quietifm ; though the Illuminati in Spain had certain¬
ly taught foinething like it before. The fentiments of*
Molinos were contained in a book which he publifhed
at Rome in the year 1681, under the title of the Spi~
ritual Guide ; for w'hich he was caff into prifon in
1685, and where he publicly renounced the errors of
which he was accused. This folemn recantation, how¬
ever, was followed by a feutence of perpetual imprtfon-
ment, and he died in prifon in the year 1696. Moli¬
nos had numerous difciples in Italy, Spain, France, and
the Netherlands. One of the principal patrons and •
propagators of Quietifm in France was Marie 13ouvi-*
eres de la Mothe Guyon, a woman of fafhion, remark*
able for goodnefs of heart and regularity of manners;
but of au unfettled temper, and fubject to be drawn
away by the feduftion of a w’arm and unbridled fancy.
She derived all ideas of religion from the feelings of
her owm heart, and deferibed its nature to others as
(he felt it herfelf. Accordingly, her religious fenti¬
ments made a great noife in the year 1687 ; and they
were declared unfound, after accurate inveffigation, by
feveral men of eminent piety and learning, and profei-
iedly confuted, in the year 1697, by the celebrated
Boffuet, Hence urofe a controvcrfy of greater mo¬
ment between the prelate laff mentioned and Fenelon
archbifhop of Cambray, who feemed difpofed to favour
the fyffem of Guyon, and who in 1697 publilhed a
book containing feveral of her tenets. Fenelon’s hook,
by means of Boffuet, was condemned in the year 1699,
by Innocent XII. and the fentence of condemutv- *
tion was read by Fenelon himfelf at Cambray, who ex¬
horted the people to refpeft and obey the papal decree.
Not-
ct U I t 7
Hntwhhftamling thia feeminpr ncqoitfwncf, the arch-
0 bifl\op pcrAfled tvT the end of fra days in the femiments,
I which, in obedience to the order of the pope, he re¬
traced and condemned in a public manner.
A feft fimilar to this had appeared at Mount Athos
in Theffaly, near the end of the 14th century, called //e-
fychajlsy meaning the fame with Qnictilh. They were
a branch of tlie m) flics, or thofe more perfeC monks,
who, by long and intenfc contemplation’, endeavoured
to arrive at a tranquillity of mind free from every de¬
gree of tumult and perturbation. In confonnity to an
ancient opinion of their principal doctors (who thought
there was a celellial light concealed in the deeptft re¬
tirements of the mind), they ufed to fit every day, du¬
ring a certain fpace of time, in a folitary corner, with
their eyes eagerly and immoveably fixed upon the middle
regions of the belly or navel ; and beaded, that while
they remained in this pofture, they found, in effeC, a
divine light beaming forth from their foul, which dif-
fufed through their hearts inexprefiible fenfations of
pleafure and delight. To fuch as inquired what kind
of light this was, they replied, by way of illullration,
that it was the glory of God, the fame celeftial radi¬
ance that furrounded Chrid during his transfiguration
on the Mount. Barlaam, a monk of Calabria, from
whom the Barlaamites derived their denomination, dri¬
ed the monks who adhered to this inftitution Mujfal'i-
ans and Euchitss ; and he gave them alfo the new name
. cf Umbilicani. Gregory Palamas, archbifhop of Thef-
falonica, defended their caufe againd Barlaam, who
was condemned in a council held at Condantinople in
the year 1341.—See Fenelvnt Max. des Saints.
The Mahometans feem to be no drangers to quie-
tifm. They expound a paflage in the 17th chapter of
the Koran, viz. “ O thou foul which art at reft, re¬
turn unto thy Lord, &c.” of a foul which, having, by
purfuing the concatenation of natural eaufes, railed it-
felf to the knowledge of that being which produced
them, and exids of neceflity, reds fully contented, and
acquiefces in the knowledge, &c. of him, and in the
contemplation of his perfection.
QUILLE T (Claude), an eminent Latin poet of
the 17th century, was born at Chinon, in Touraine,
and praftifed phyfic there with reputation : but ha¬
ving declared againd the pretended poffeffion of the
nuns of Loudun, in a manufeript treatife, the original
of which \yas depofited in the library of the Sorbonne, he
was obliged to retire into Italy', where he became fe-
cretary to the marfhal d’Edrees, the French ambadador
at Rome. In 165 ? Quillet having publlrtied in Holland
a Latin poem, entitled CaHipxJia, under the name of
Galvidius Laitmy he there inferted fome verfes againd
the cardinal Mazarine and his family ; but that cardi¬
nal making liim fome gentle reproaches, he retrenched
what related to the cardinal in another edition, and
dedicated it to him, Mazarine having, before it was
printed, given him an abbey. He died in 1661, aged
59, after having given Menage all his writings, and
500 crowns to pay the expence of priuting them ;
but the abbe took the money and papers, and pub-
lifhed none of them. His Callipxd'ia, or the avt of
getting beautiful children, has been tranflated into En-
glifh verfe. % /
QUILLS, ihe large feathers taken out of the end
67 1. u i
of the wing of a gpufe, crow, fcc. They are denoml- v QJ*-
nated from the order in which they are fixed in the Qlllt*>r ul>^
win/ ; the fecond and third quills being the bed for
writing, as they have the larged and rounded barrels.
Crow-quills are chiefly ufed for drawing. In order to
harden a quill that is foft, thruft the barrel into hot
alhes, dining it till it is foft, and then taking it out,
prefs it almod flat upon your knee with the back of a
penknife, ahd afterwards reduce it to a roundnefs with
your fingers. If you have a number to harden, fet
water and alum over the fire, and while it is Ixuling put
in a handful of quills, the barrels only, for a minute, aud
then lay them by.
QUIN (James), a celebrated performer on the En-
glifh itage, was born at London in 1693. He was in¬
tended for the bar ; but preferring Shakefpeare to the
datutes at large, he on the death of his father, when
it was neceffary for him to do fomething for himfelf,
appeared on the dage at l>rury-lane. In I7a°» he
fird difplayed his comic powers in the character of
Falilaff, and foon after appeared to as great advantage
in Sir John Brute ; but it was upon Booth’s quitting
the llage that Quin appeared to full advantage, in
the part of Cato. He continued a favourite perform¬
er until the year 174#, when, on fome difgud be--
tween him and Mr Rich the manager, he retired to
Bath, and only came up annually to aCt for the be¬
nefit of his friCnd Ryan ; until the loft of two front
teeth fpoiled his utterance for the dage. While Mr
Quin continued upon the dage, he condantly kept
company with the greated geniufes of the age. He
was well known to Pope and Swift; and the earl of
Chederfield frequently invited him to his table : but
there was none for whom he entertained a higher
tdeem than for the ingenious Mr Thomfon, to whom
he made himfelf known by an acl of generality that
does the greated honour to his charaCtev; and for
an account of which fee our life of Thomson, Mr
Quin’s judgment in the Englilh language recom¬
mended him to his royal highnefs Frederick prince ot
Wales, who appointed him to indrucl his children in
fpeaking and reading with a graceful propriety; and
Quin being informed of the elegant manner in which
his prefent majefty delivered his fird gracious fpeech
from the throne, he cried out in a kind of eedafy,
“ Ay—I taught the boy to fpeak !” Nor did his ina-
jedy forget his old tutor; for, foon after his aceedion
to the throne, he gave orders, without any application
being made to him, that a genteel peniion ihould he
paid to Mr l^uin during his life. Mr Quin, indeed,
was not in ablolute need of this royal benetaCfion ; for
as he was never married, and had none hut didant re¬
lations, he funk 2000 1. which was half his fortune, in
an annuity, for which he obtained 200 I. a-year; and
with about 2000 1. more in the funds, lived in a decent
manner during the latter part of his life at Bath, from
whence he carried on a regular correfpondence with Mr
Garrick, and generally paid a viiit to hia friends in the
metropolis once a year, when he condautly palfed a
week or two at Mr Garrick’s villa at Hampton. He
died of a fever in 1766.
QUINARIUS, was a fmall Roman coin equal’to
half Tlte denarius, and confequently worth about three,
pence three farthings of our money. See Money.
* It-
■ Quinque
remis.
Q_ U I [ 768 ]
Quinaut J{, was called (juinariuS) becaufe it contained the value of of rowers
five affes, in the fame manner as the denarius was na¬
med from its containing ten.
QUINAUT (Philip), a celebrated French poet,
born of a good family at Paris in 1635. He cultivated
poetry from his Infancy, and 16 dramatic pieces of his
were a&ed between the year 1653 and 1666. In the
mean time, Quinaut was not fo much devoted to poetry
but that he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law;
and made his fortune by marrying the widow of a rich
merchant to whom he had been ufeful in his profeffion.
Quinaut afterwards turned his attention to the com-
poTing of operas, which were fet to mufic by the fa¬
mous Lully ; and Lully was charmed with a poet whofe
verfes were not too nervous to yield to the capricious
airs of mufic. He died in 1688, after having enjoyed
a handfome penfion from Louis XIV. for many years :
and we are told he was extremely penitent in his laft ill-
nefs for all thofe of his compofitions which tended to
infpire love and pleafure.
QUINCE, in botany. See Cydonia.
QUINCUNX, in Roman antiquity, denotes any
thing that confifts of five-twelfths of another; but par¬
ticularly of the as.
Qu incunx Order, in gardening, is a plantation of
Quintilia*
mis.
trees, difpofed originally in a fquare conlifting of five
trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle ;
which difpofition, repeated again and agtiin, forms a re¬
gular grove, wood, or wildernefs.
QUINDECAGON, in geometry', a plain figure with
15 fides and 15 angles.
QUINDECEMVTRI, in Roman antiquity, a col¬
lege of 15 magiltrates, whofe bufinefs it was to prefide
over the facrifices. They were alfo the interpreters of
the Sybil’s books ; which, however, they never confult-
ed but by an exprefs order of the fenate.
QUINQUAGENARIUS, in Roman antiquity,
an oificer who had the command of 50 men.
QUINQUAGESIMA Sunday, Shrove Sunday, fo
called as being about the 50th day before Ealter.
QUINQUATRIA, or Quinquatrus, was a fe-
ftival kept at Rome in honour of Minerva, which be¬
gan on the 18th of March, or as others will have it on
the 19th, and lafted five days. On the firft day they
offered facrifices and oblations without the effufion of
blood; the fecond, third, and fourth, were fpent in
fhows of gladiators ; and on the fifth day they went in
proceffion through the city. Scholars had a vacation
during the folemnity, and prefented their mailers at
this time with a gift or fee, called Minerval. Boys
and girls ufed now to pray to the goddefs Minerva for
wifdom and learning, of which fhe had the patronage.
Plays were a&ed, and difputations held, at this feaft,
on fubjedls of polite literature. The quinquatria were
fo called, becaufe they lafted for five days. There
feems to be a ftrong refemblance betwixt this feftival
and the panathenaea of the Greeks.
QUINQUENNALIS, in Roman antiquity, a ma-
giftratc in the colonies and municipal cities of that
QL u 1
the latter had feveral tires of them, from two Quinqae-
or three up to 20, 30, or even 40 ; for fucha veflelwe V1“
have an account of in the time of Philopater, which re¬
quired no lefs than 4000 men to row it.
Meibom has taken off from the imaginary improba¬
bility of there ever having been fuch a veffel, by redu¬
cing the enormous height fuppofed neceffary for fuch a
number of rows of oars and men to work them, by
finding a better way of placing the men than others
had thought of. The quinqueremes of the ancients
had 420 me* in each; 300 of which were rowers, and
the reft foldiers. The Roman fleet at Mefiina confifted
of 330 of thefe fhips; and the Carthaginian, at Lily-
boeum, of 350 of the fame fize. Each veffel was 150
feet long. Thus 13(4,000 men were contained in the
one, and 1 50,000 in the other, with the apparatus and
provifions neceftary for fuch expeditions as they were in¬
tended for. This gives fo grand an idea of the ancient
naval armaments, that fome have queftioned the truth
of the hiftory : but we find it related by Polybius, an
hiftorian too authentic to be queftioned, and who ex-
preffes his wonder at it while he relates it.
QUINQUEVIRI, in Roman antiquity, an order of
five priefts, peculiarly appointed for the facrifices to the
dead, or celebrating the rites of Erebus.
QUINQUINA. See Cinchona.
QUINSY, or Quinzy. See Medicine, n° 177—
i83*
QUINTEN, a town of France, in Bretagne, with
the title of a duchy, and a handfome caftle. It is feated
in a valley near the river Guy, and near a large foreft:
of the fame name, eight miles fouth of St Brieux, and
200 weft of Paris. W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 48. 26.
QUINTESSENCE, in chemiftry, a preparation
confilling of the eflential oil of fome vegetable fubftance,
mixed and incorporated with fpirit of wine.
Quintessence, ini alchemy, is a myfterious term,
fignuying the fifth or laft and higheft elfence of power
in a natural body.
QUINTILE, in aftronomy, an afpeft of the planets
when they are 72 degrees diftant from one another, or
a fifth part of the zodiac.
QUINTILIANUS (Marcus Fabius), a celebrated
Latin orator, and the moft judicious critic of his time,
was a native of Calagurris, or Calahorra, in Spain; and
was the difciple of Domitius Afer, who died in the year
59. He taught rhetoric at Rome for 20 years with
great applaufe : and not only laid down rules for fpeak-
ing, but exhibited his eloquence at the bar. Some
authors imagine, but with little foundation, that he ar¬
rived to the confuhhip ; but it is more certain that he
was preceptor to the grandfons of the emperor Domi-
tian’s filler. There is ftill extant his excellent work,
intitled, Injlitutiones Oratori<ty which is a treatife of rhe¬
toric in 12 books ; where his precepts, judgment, and
tafte, are juftly admired. Thefe inftitutions were found
entire by Poggius, in an old tower of the abbey of St
Gal, and not in a grocer’s fhop in Germany as fome
authors have imagined. There is alfo attributed to
* See Pa.
{yctxfa
empire, who hud much the fame office as the sedile at Quintilian a dialogue De caujis corrupt* eloquenti* ; but
Rome. it 13 more commonly aferibed to Tacitus. The bell edi-
QUINQUEREMIS, in the naval archite&ure of tions of Quintilian’s works are thofe of Mr Obreight,
the ancients, a name given to a galley which had five publifiied at Straftmrg in 2 vols 4to,Jn 1698, and of
rows of oars. They divided their veffels in general into M. Capperonier, in folio. There is an Engliih ti anfia-
mnocrota and tolycrota*. The former had only one tire tion by Mr Guthrie, .
2 Qum*
Q_ u i
L 7C9 ]
Qiiintu*
Qu intilians Quintilian had a fon of the fame name, on whom he
beftovvs great praifes. This fon ought not to be con¬
founded with Quintilian the father, or rather the grand¬
father, of him who is the fubjeft of this article, and who
wrote 145 declamations. Ugoliil of Parma publilhed
the firft 136 in the 15th century; the nine others were
publifhed in 1563 by-Peter Ayrault, and afterwards by
Peter Pithou in 1580. There have alfo been 19 other
declamations printed under the name of Quintilian the
Orator ; but, in the opinion of Vofiius, they were
written neither by that orator nor his grandfather.
QUINTILIANS, a fed! of ancient heretics, thus
called from their prophetefs Quintilia. In this fe& the
women were admitted to perform the facerdotal and
epifcopal fun&ions. They attributed extraordinary gifts
to Eve for having firft eaten of the tree* of knowledge ;
told great things of Mary the lifter of Mofes, as ha¬
ving been a prophetefs, See. They added, that Philip
the deacon had four daughters, who were all prophe-
tefies, and were of their fe6I. In thefe aflemblies it was
ufual to fee the virgins entering in white robes, perfona-
ting propheteftes.
QUINTIN matsys, alfo called the Farrier of Ant-
rverp, famous for being transformed, by the force of
love, from a blackfmith to a painter. He had followed
the trade of a blackfmith and farrier near twenty years;
when falling in love with a painter’s daughter who was
very handfome, and dill iked nothing but his trade, he
-quitted it, and betook himfelf to painting, in which
he made a very uncommon progrefs. He was a dili¬
gent and careful imitator of ordinary life, and fucceed-
ed better in reprefenting the defetts than the beauties
of nature. Some hiltorical performances of this mafter
deferve commendation, particularly a Defcent from the
Crpfs, in the Cathedral at Antwerp: but his bell known
picture is that of the two Mifers in the gallery at Wind-
for. He died in 1529.
CL u 1
concerning his perfon or country. His poem was firft
made known by Cardinal Beft'arion, who discovered it
in St Nicolas’s church, near Otranto in Calabria; from
whence the author was named {Quintus Calaber. It
was firll publifhaj at Venice by Aldus, but it is not
faid in what year.
QUINTUS Curtius. See Curtius.
QUINZY, Quinsey, or Angina Pedor'u. See
Medicine, ^403.
QUIRE of Paper, the quantity of 24 or 25
(beets.
QUIRINALIA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated
among the Romans in honour of Romulus.
QUIRITES, in Roman antiquity. In confcqucnce
of the agreement entered into by Romulus and Tati us
king of the Sabines, Rome was to retain its name,
taken from Romulus; and the people were to be called
{Quintet, from Cures, the principal town of the Sabines,
a name ufed in all public addrefles to the Roman people.
 Dion. Hal. lays, that each particular citizen was
to be called Romanusy and the collective body of them
{Quiritrs ; yet it appears by this ancient form of words
ufed at funerals, Ollus {Quirts letlto datui ejlt that each
private citizen was alfo called {Quirit.
The origin of the word {Quiritcs, which was at firft
peculiar to the Sabines, and became, in Romulus’s
time, the general name of the inhabitants of Rome,
has been much fought for ; and the moft probable ac¬
count antiquity gives us of it, is this : The word
{Quirity according to Plutarch and fome others, fig-
nified, in the Sabine language, both “ a dart,” and
“ a warlike deity armed with a dart.” It is uncertain
whether the god gave name to the dart, or the dart to
the god. But be that as it will, this {Quirit, or ^u/W-
mitx was eitlier Mars or fome other god of w’ar; and
the worihip of IQuiris continued in Rome all Romulus’s
reign : but after his death he was honoured with the
QUINTINIE (John de la), a celebrated French name {Quirinus. and took the place of the god {Quins.
gardener, bom at PoiClicrs in 1626. He was brought
tip to the law ; and acquitted himfelf fo well at the bar
as to acquire the elleem of the chief magiftrate. M. Tam-
boneau, prefident of the chamber of accounts, engaged
him to undertake the preceptorfhip of his only fon,
which Quintinie executed entirely to his fatisfadlion ;
applying his leifure hours to the ftudy of writers on
agriculture, ancient and modem, to which he had a
ftrong inclination. He gained new lights by attending
his pupil to Italy ; for all the gardens about Rome be-
ing open to him, he failed not to add practice to his
theory. On his return to Paris, M. Tamboneau gave
up the management of his garden entirely to him ; and
Quintinie applied fo clofely to it, that he became fa¬
mous all over France. Louis XIV. ere£led a new of¬
fice purpofely for him, that of director of the royal fruit
and kitchen gardens; and thefe gardens, while he lived,
w’ere the admiration of the curious. He lived to a good
old age, though we learn not the time of his death ;
his Directions for the Management of Fruit and Kitch¬
en Gardens are efteemed all over Europe.
QUIN PUS calaber, a Greek poet, wdio wrote a
large Supplement to Homer’s Iliad, in 14 books, in
which a relation is given of the Trojan war from the
death of HeClor to the deftruCtion of Troy. It is con-
je&ured, from his ftyle and manner, that he lived in the
fifth century. Nothing certain can be colleCled dtliei
Vol. XV. Part II.
QUIRK, in a general fenfe, denotes a fubtilty or
artful diftinClion.
Quirk, in building, a piece of ground taken out of
any regular ground-plot, or floor : thus, if the ground-
plot w-ere oblong or fquare, a piece taken out of a cor¬
ner to make a court or yard, &c. is called a quirk.
QUISQUALIS, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
31ft order, VeprecuU. The calyx is quinquefid and
filiform ; the petals five ; the fruit is a quinqueangular
plum. There is only one fpecies, viz. Indica.
QUITO, a town of South America, in Peru (fee
Peru, p. 213.), Rated between two chains of high
mountains called Cordillera de lot Andes, on much
higher ground than the reft of habitable Peru. It is
300 yards higher than the level of the fea according
to the exa&eit obfervations. The town is 1600 yards
long and 1200 broad, and is the feat of a bifhop. It
contains about 35,000 inhabitants, one third of whom
are originally Spaniards. Among the inhabitants are
fome perfons of high rank and diftiu&ion, defeended
either from tltc original conquerors, or perfons w'ho at
different times came from Spain invefled with fome lu¬
crative poft. The number of thefe, however, is but
fmall. The commonalty, befides Spaniards, confjft of
Meftizos, Indians, and Negroes; but the lafl are not
5 E proportionally
CL u 0 c
proportionally numerous. Merchandijet and commo-
dities of all forts are extremely dear, partly on account
of the difficulty of bringing them. . #
There are feveral religious communities at
and two coUeges or univerfities governed by Jefuits and
Dominicans. . , ^ f .
The principal courts held at Quito are that of the
royal audience, which confirts of the prelident, who is
governor of the province with regard to law ah airs ;
four auditors, who are at the fame time civil and cri¬
minal judges; a royal fifeal, who, befides the caufes
brought before the audience, takes cognizance of every
thing relating to the revenue ; and an officer ilyled the
protetlor of the Indians, who folicits for them,-and when
they are injured pleads in their defence. Ihe next is
the treafury, the chief officers of which are an account-
ant, atreafurer, and a royal fifeal. The tribunal of
the Croifade, which has a commiflary, who is generally
fome dignitary of the church, and a treafurer. 1 here
is alfo a treafury for the effefts of perfons deceafed : an
inflitution eftabliffied all over the Indies, for receiving
the goods of thofe whofe lawful heirs are in Spain, in
order to fecure them from thofe accidents to which
they might be liable in private hands. There is hke-
wife a commiffary of the inquifition, with an alguaz.il-
• j r mow, hv the inouihtion at JLi-
Qacin#
770 1 o. ^ ^
ftened on the deck clofe to the breach of the carnage
of a gun, to keep it firm up to the Ihip’s fide. Cantic ..
quoins are ffiort three legged quoins put between calks VJOt‘cn^
to keep them Heady.
Quoins, in architecture, denote the corners 01 brick
or ftoiie walls. The word is particularly ufed for the
Hones in the corners of brick buildings. When thefe
Hand out beyond the brick-work, their edges being
chamfred off, they are called rujiie quoins.
QUOTIDIAN, any thing which happens every
dayL Hence, when the paroxyfms of an ague recur
every day, it is called a quotidian ague. See Medicine*
n° 161—164.
QUOTIDIANA deceptiva. See Medicine*
QUOAD hoc, is a term ufed in the pleadings and
arguments of lawyers; being as much as to fay, As to
this thing the law is fo and Co.
QUORUM, a word frequently mentioned in our ita-
tutes, and in commiffions both of juffices of the peace
and others. It is thus called from the words ot the
commilfion, quorum A. B. unum ejfe volumus. I* or an
example, where a commiffion is direfted to feven per.
fons, or to any three of them, whereof A. B. and C. D»
are to be two ; in this cafe, they are faid to be or the
wife a commiffary of the inquifition »ith an algna • wiiout them:
major and familiara, appointed by the mqmhuon at L - d PUOmm is one without
ml The corporation confifts of a correg.dor, two ^ • <1flirac clfa caonot pro-
auu iauiuuaA»> — j *
ma. The corporation confiHs of a corregidor, two
ordinary alcaldes, chofen annually, and regidores. The
latter fuperintend the eleftion of the alcaldes, which
is attended with no finall diffurbance, the people be¬
ing divided into two parties, the Creoles and Euro*
^QUITTER-bone, in farriery. See there, f xl. 4.
QTJIT-rent {quietus redditusy i. e. “ quiet rent, )
is acertain fmall rent payable by the tenants of manors,
in token of fubjeftion, and by which the tenant goes
quiet and free. In ancient records it is called white rent,
becaufe paid in filver money, to diHinguiffi it from rent-
corn, &e. , „. * c
QUOIN, or Coin, on board a Hup, a wedge ta-
fo a juHice of the peace and quorum is one without
whom the reit of the juilices in fome cafes cannot pro-
CC QUOTIENT, in arithmetic, the number rcfulting,
from the divifiou of a greater number by a fmaller j
and which ffiows how often the fmaller is contained in
the gi eater, or how often the divifor is contained m
the dividend. The word is formed from the Eatm
quoties; q. d. How often is fuch a number contained m
fuch another ? . f/> •
In diviiion, as the divifor is to the dividend, io is
unity to the quotient.—Thus the quotient ot 12 divi¬
ded by 3 is 4; which is thus difpofed, 3) 12 (4 tIu0-
tient. See Arithmetic*
R.
Ror r, a liquid confonant, being the 17th letter Ou
’ our alphabet. Its found is formed by a guttural
extrufion of the breath vibrated through the mouth,
with a fort of quivering motion of the tongue drawn
from the teeth, and canulated with the t.p a little ele¬
vated towards the palate. In Greek words it is fre¬
quently afpirated with an h after it, as m rhapjody, rke-
toriy^c. otherwife it is always followed by a vowel at
the beginning of words and fyliables. y. ^ r
In the notes of the ancients, R. or RO. figmfies
Roma ; R. C. Romano civitas ; R. G. C. rei gerend*
caufa ; R. F. E. D. refie faftum et diSum } R. G. I*.
regisjilius} R. P. ret pub lie a, or Romani principes ; and
R. R. R. F. F. F. res Romanes ruet ferroy Jamcy Jlam-
Ufed as a numeral, R_anciently ftoodJor S° t and
with a daffi over it, thus R, for 80,000; but the Gr
r, with a fmall mark over it, figniSed lOOV wi^ the
fame mark under it, it denoted 1000 X too, thus P
ficuified 100,000. la tire Hebrew numeration a de-
noted 2-0 : and with two horizontal points over it
1000 X 200 ; thus -1 = 200,000. f
In the prefcriptions of phyficians, R or B Hands ror
"TaaCI™* of Lower Hungary, capital of Ja-
verin with a caHle and a biffiop’s fee. It is a Hrong
frontier bulwark againH the Turks, and has two bridge^
one over a double ditch, and another that leads towa
Alba Regalis. The furroundmg country is plam^and
ma.
R A B C 771 ] R A B
RaSac there is nothing that feem» to command it but a fmall
II . hill at feme diltance, which is undermined and may be
Ra betting. tlown Up, It was taken by Amurath III. with the
lofs of 20,000 men ; but was furprifed foon after by
Count Palfi, who killed all the Turks that were found
therein. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers
Rab and Rabnit*, not far from the Danube, 32 miles
welt of Gran, and 55 fouth-ealt of Vienna. E. Long.
17. 25. N. Lat. 47. 48.
RABAC, a Imall port on the Arabian coafl of the
Red Sea, in N. Lat. 22° 35' 407 by Mr Bruce’s ac¬
count. The entry to the harbour is from the E. N. E.
and is about a quarter of a mile broad. The port ex¬
tends about two miles in length to the eallward. The
mountains are about three leagues to the north, and the
town about four miles north by eaft from the entrance
to the harbour. The water is gcod, and all Ihips may
be fupplied here from the wells which are in the neigh¬
bourhood of the town. The country is bare and un¬
cultivated ; but from the appearance of it, and the
frelhnefs of the water, Mr Bruce fuppofes that it fome-
times rains among the mountains here, which is the
more probable as it is conliderably within the tropic.
RABAT, a large and handfome fea-port town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Fez and province of Treme-
fen. It has fine mofques and handfome palaces, and is
feated at the mouth of the river Burrigrig, almoft in the
mid-way between Fez and Tangier. W. Long. e. 28.
N. Lat. 34. 40.
Rabat, together with SaHee, which is oppofite to it,
W'as formerly famous for fitting out piratical veflels;
but the late emperor Sidi Mahomet fubdued them both,
and annexed them to the empire ; fince which time the
harbour of Rablit has been fo filled with the fand waih-
ed in by the fea as to render it unfit to carry on fuch
piracies in future.
The town of Rabat, whofe walls inclofe a large fpace
of ground, is defended on the fea-fide by three forts to¬
lerably well fioilhed, which were ere&ed fome little time
ago by an Englilh renegade, and furnilhed with guns
from Gibraltar. The houfes in general are good, and
many of the inhabitants are wealthy. The Jews, who
are very numerous in this place, are generally in better
circumilances than thofe of Larache or Tangier, and
their women are extremely beautiful.
The callle, which is very extenlive, contains a flrong
building, formerly ufed by the late emperor as his prin¬
cipal treafury, and a noble terrace, which commands an
f xtenfive profpeft of the town of Sallee, the ocean, and
all the neighbouring country. There are alfo the ruins
of another calUe, which is laid to have been built by
Jacob Almonzor, one of their former emperors, and of
which at prefent very little remains but its walls, con¬
taining within them fome very ftrong magazines for
powder and naval llores. On the outfide of thefe walls
is a very high and fquare tower, handfomely built of
Cut ftone, and called the tower of S/afin. From the
workmanlhip of this tower, contralled with the other
buildings, a very accurate idea may be formed how great¬
ly the Moors have degenerated from their former fplen-
4our and talle for atchitefture.
RABBET ITNG, in carpentry, the planning or cut¬
ting of channels or grooves in boards, 5cc.
In (hip-carpcntiy, it fignifies the letting in of the
planks of the l>*p into the keel; which, in the rake and
run of a (hip, L hollowed away, that the planks may
join the clofer. v A . "
RABBI, or Rabbins, a title which the Pharifees a
and doftors of the law among the Jews aflumed, and 1 '
literally fignifies majlers or excellents.
There were feveral gradations before they arrived at
the dignity of a rabbin ; which was not conferred till
they had acquired the profoundell knowledge of the
law and the traditions. It does not, however, appear
that there was any fixed age or previous examination
neceflary ; but when a man had diltinguifhed himfelf by
his Ikill in the written and oral law, and pafled through
the fubordinate degrees, he was fainted a rabbin by the
public voice.
Among the modem Jews, for near 700 years pafl:,
the learned men retain no other title than that of rabbi,
or rabbins ; they have great refpedd paid them, have the
firft places or feats in their fynagogues, determine all
mafters of controverfy, and frequently pronounce upon
civil affairs ; they have even power fo excommunicate
the difobedient.
RABBINISTS, among the modern Jews, an appel¬
lation given to the do&rine of the rabbins concerning
traditions, in oppofition to the Caraites ; who rejeCl all
traditions. See Caraite.
RABELAIS (Francis), a French writer famous foe
his facetioufnefs, wtis born at Chinon in Touraine about
the year 1483. He was firil a Francifcan’friar ; but
quitting his religious habit ftudied phyfic at Montpelier,
where he took his do& r’s degree. It is faid, that the
chancellor du Pratt ha°ing abolifhed the privileges of
the faculty of phyfic atv Montpelier by a decree of the
parliament, Rabelais h ad the addrefs to make him re¬
voke what he had done ; and that thofe who were made
do&ors of that univerfity wore Rabelais’s robe, which
is there held in great veneration. Some time after, he
came to Rome, in quality of phyfician in ordinary to
Cardinal John du Bellay archbifhop of Paris, Rabelais is
faid to have ufed the freedom to jeer Pope Paul III. to
his face. He had quitted his religious connexions for
the fake of leading a life more agreeable to his tafte ;
but renewed them on a fecond journey to Rome, when
he obtained, in 1536, a brief to qualify him for hold¬
ing ecclefiailical benefices ; and, by the interefl of his
friend Cardinal John du Bellay, he was received as a fe-
cular canon .in the abbey of St Maur near Paris. His
profound knowledge in phyfic rendered him doubly ufe-
xul; he being as ready, and at lealt as well qualified, to
preferibe for the body as for the foul: but as he was a
man of wit and humour, many ridiculous things are laid
to his charge, of which he was quite innocent. He
publilhed feveral things ; but his chief performance is
a ftrange incoherent romance, called the Hijiory of Gar-
gantua and Pantagrud, being a fatire upon priells, popes,
fools, and knaves of all kinds. This work contains a
wild, irregular profufion of wit, learning, obfeenity,
low conceits, and arrant nonfenfe ; hence the fhrewd-
nefs of his fatire, in fome places where he is to be un-
derftood, gains him credit for thofe where no mean¬
ing is difcoverablc. Some allufions may undoubtedly
have been fo temporary and local as to be now quite
loft: but it is too much to conclude thus in favour of
every unintelligible rhapfody ; for we are not without
Englifti writers of great talents, whofe fportive geniufes
have betrayed them into puerilities, no lefs incoherent at
j E 2 the
R A B
Rabbit, the times of writing than thofe
"v above two centuries after. He died about 1553*
RABBIT, in zoology. See Lepus.
The buck rabbits, like our boar oats, will kill the
young ones if they can-get at them; and the does in the
warrens prevent this, by covering their flocks, or nefls,
•with gravel or earth, which they clofe fo artificially up
with the hinder part of their bodies, that it is hard to
■find them out. They never fuckle their young ones at
any other time than early in the morning and late at
night; and always, for eight or ten days, clofe up the
hole at the mouth of the neft, in this careful manner
when they go out. After this they begin to leave a
fmall opening, which they increafe by degrees ; till at
length, when they are about three weeks old, the mouth
of the hole is left wholly open that they may go out ;
for they are at that time grown big enough to take care
of themfelves, and to feed on grafs.
People who keep rabbits tame for profit, breed them
in hutches; but thefe mull be kept very neat and clean,
clfe they will be always fubjecl to difeafes. Care muft
be taken alfo to keep the bucks and does apart till the
latter have juft kindled ; then they are to be turned to
the bucks again, and to remain with them till they fhun
and run from them.
The general dire&ion for the chooftng of tame rab¬
bits is, to pick the largeft and faireft ; but the breeder
ftiould remember that the fkins of the filver-haired ones
fell better than any other. The food of the tame rab¬
bits may be colevvort and cabbage-leaves, car/ots, parf-
neps, apple-rinds, green corn, and vetches, in the time
of the year; alfo vine-leaves, grafs, fruits, oats, and
<Jatmeal, milk-thiftles, fow-thiftles, and the like : but
with thefe moift foods they muft always Jiave a pro¬
portionable quantity of the dry foods, as hay, bread,
oats, bran, and the like, otherwife they will grow pot¬
bellied, and die. Bran and grains mixed together have
been alfo found to be very good food. In winter they
will eat hay, oats, and chaff, and thefe may be given
them three times a-day; but when they eat green
things, it muft be obferved that they are not to drink
at all, for it would throw them into a dropfy. At all
other times a very little drink ferves their turn, but
that muft always be frefli. When any green herbs or
grafs are cut for their food, care muft be taken that
there be no hemlock among it; for though they will eat
this greedily among other things when offered to them,
yet it is hidden poifon to them.
Rabbits are fubjeft to two principal infirmities.
Firft, the rot, which is caufed by giving them too
large a quantity of greens, or from giving them frefh
gathered with the dew or rain hanging in drops upon
them. It is over-moifture that always caufes this dif-
eafe. The greens therefore are always to be given dry;
and a fufficient quantity of hay, or other dry food, in¬
termixed with them, to take up the abundant moifture
Of their juices. On this account the very bell food that
can be given them, is the fhorteft and fweeteft hay that
Oan be got, of which one load will ferve 200 couples a
year ; and out of this flock of 200, 200 may be eat in
the family, 200 fold to the markets, and a fufticient
number kept in cafe of accidents.
The other general difeafe of thefe creatures is a fort
of madneis: this may be known by their wallowing
and tumbling about with their heels upwards, and hop-
[ 772. I R A B
of Rabelais appear ping in an odd manner into their boxes. This diitem*
per is fuppofed to be owing to the ranknefs of their -“'-v—
feeding; and the general cure is the keeping them low,
and giving them the prickly herb called tare-thtjlle to
eat.
The general computation of males and females is,
that one buck-rabbit will ferve for mile does : fonie al¬
low 10 to one buck; but thofe who go beyond this
always fuffer for it in their breed.
The wild rabbits are either to be taken by fmall cur-
dogs, or by fpaniels bred up to the fport ; and the
places of hunting thofe who ftraggle from their burrows,
is under clofe hedges or bufhes, or among corn-fields
and freih paftures. The owners uie to courfe them
with fmall greyhounds ; and though they are feldom
killed this way, yet they are driven back to their bur¬
rows, and are prevented from being a prey to others.
The common method is by nets called purje nits, and
ferrets. The ferret is fent into the hole to fetch them
out; and the purfe-net being fpread over the hole, takes
them as they come out. ' The ferrets mouths muft be
muffled, and then the rabbit gets no harm. For the
more certain taking of them, it may not be improper to
pitch up a hay-net or two, at a fmall ditlance from the
burrows that are intended to be hunted : thus very few
of the number that are attempted will elcape.
Some who have not ferrets fmokc the rabbits out of
their holes with burning brimftone and orpiment. This
certainly brings them out into the nets: but then it is
a very troublefome and offenfive method; and is very
detrimental to the place, as no rabbit will for a long
time afterwards com^ near the burrows which have
been fumed with thofe flunking ingredients.
The tefticle of a rabbit is a very good objedl for ex¬
amining the ftnifiture of this part of generation in ani¬
mals. The whole fubftance of the teilicle in this ani¬
mal is made up of veffels, which lie in round folds in
the manner of the fmaller inteflines: but then both ends
of each roll meet at their infertion, which feems to be
made into the duSus nervofus ; and every one of thefe
little rolls is curioufly embroidered with other veffels,
which, from their red colour, appear to be arteries and
veins. The feveral little rolls lie in ranges, difpofed
with an uniformity which is very agreeable to the eye. .
Every one of thefe rolls is not a Angle and entire tube,
but each confifts of feveral tubes, befide the veins and
arteries which embroider it. This is beft diftinguiftied
by the cutting one of the rolls tranfveriely, and then
examining the cut end with a glafs, which will appear
to be made up of the cut and open ends of four, live, or
more parallel tubes, which together form the roh, or
Angle tube, as it appears to the eye, being all wrapped
up in one common and very thin membrane. T. hefe
are fo tender that they cannot be explicated and viewed
diftindl, as De Graaf tells us thofe of the tellicles of a
xut and of fome other animals may. 1 hefe, however,
as well as the others, are only made up of a congeries
of veffels, and the liquors, which are their contents,
without any intermediate fubftance, or any thing of that
parenchyma which many authors have talked of. 1 he
tefticlesof a bull have thegreateft appearance of aflefhy
texture of thofe of any known animal; yet even theie
afford no particle of parenchyma, or flefli, when exami¬
ned by glafles in any fort of preparation, whether boil¬
ed, xaw, foaked in fpirits, or in whatever other Hate.
The
RAC [ 773 ] RAC
Habirius The tefticles of various animals are very varioufly com-
«. pofed, but all in this general manner of veflels varioufly
  rolled and folded together: and even the human tefticles
are of the fame fort; being compofed folely of rolls of
vtfiels, without any intermediate fubllance, be it called
by whatever name, but only confiding of veflels and
their liquors.
RABIRIUS (C.) a Roman knight, who lent an im-
menfe fum of money to Ptolemy Auletes king of Egypt.
The monarch afterwards not only refufed to repay him,
but even confined him, and endangered his life. Rabi-
rius efcaped from Egypt with difficulty ; but at his re¬
turn to Rome he was accufed by the fenate of having
lent money to an African prince for unlawful purpofes.
He v'as ably defended by Cicero, and acquitted with
difficulty.—There was a Latin port of the fame name
in the age of Auguftus. He wrote a poem on the
victory which the emperor had gained over Antony at
Attium. Seneca has compared him to Virgil for ele¬
gance and inajefty ; but Quintilian is not fo favourable
to his poetry.-- And there was an architeft in the reign
of Domitian, called Rabirius. He built a celebrated
palace for the emperor, of which the ruins are dill feen
at Rome.
RACCOON. See Ursus.
RACE, in general, fignifies running with others in
©rder to obtain a prize, either on foot, or by riding on
horfeback, in chariots, &c.
The race was one of the exercifes among the an¬
cient Grecian games, which was performed in a courfe
containing 125 paces; and thofe who contended in thefe
foot-races were frequently clothed in armour. Chariot
and horfe races alfo made a part of thefe ancient games.
Races were known in England in very early times.
Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry IL
mentions the great delight that the citizens of London
took in the diverfion. But by his wards, ir appears
not to have been defigned for the purpofea of gaming,
but merely to have fprung from a generous emulation
of ffiowing a fuperior Hull in he rfemanffiip.
Races appear to have been in vogue in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, and to have been carried to fuch ex¬
cels as to injure the fortunes of die nobility. The fa¬
mous George earl of Cumberland is recorded to have
Waded more of his edate than any of his ancedors;
and chiefly by his Extreme love to horfe-races, tiltings,
and other expenfive diverfions. It is probable that the
parfimonious queen did not approve of it; for races are
not among the diverfions exhibited at Kennelworth by
her favourite Leiceder. In the following reign, were
places allotted for the fport:.Croydon in the fouth, and
Garterly in Yorklhirc, were celebrated courfes. Cam¬
den alfo fays, that in 1607 there were races near York,
and the prize was a little golden bell. See Racing.
Race, in genealogy, a lineage or extraftion conti¬
nued from father to fon. See Descent.
RACINE (John), of the French academy, trea-
furer of France in the generality of Moulins, and fe-
cretaiy to his majedy, was born at Ferre-Milon in
1639. He had a fine genius for the Belles Lettres, and
became one of the fird poets of the age. He produced
feis Thebnide when but very young ; and afterwards
other pieces, which met with great fuccefs, though
they appeared when Corneille was in his higheft repu¬
tation. In hie career, however, he did not faif to meet
with all that oppofition which envy and cabal are ever
ready to fet up againd a fuperior genius. It was part¬
ly owing to a chagrin from this circumdance that he
took a refolution to quit the theatre for ever ; although
his genius was dill in full vigour, being not more than
38 years of age. But he had alfo imbibed in his in¬
fancy a deep fenfe of religion ; and this, though it had
been fmothered for a while by his connexions with the
theatre, and particularly with the famous aXrefs Champ'*
melle, whom he greatly loved, and by whom he had a
fon, now at length broke out, and bore down all be¬
fore it. In the fird place, he refolved not only to write
no more plays, but to do a rigorous penance for thofe
he had written ; and he aftually formed a defign of be¬
coming a Carthufian friar. His religious direXor, how¬
ever, a good deal wifer than he, advifed him to think
more moderately, and to take meafures more fuitable
to his charaXer. He put him upon marrying, and
fettling in the world : with which propofal this humble
and traXable penitent complied ; and immediately took
to wife the daughter of a treafurer of France for
Amiens, by whom he had feven children.
He had been admitted a member of the French
academy in 1673, in the room of La Mothe le Vayer
deceafed ; but fpoiled the fpeech he had made upon
that occafion by pronouncing it with too much timidity.
In 1677, he was nominated with Boileau, with whom
he was ever in ftn’X friendlhip, to write the hiltory of
Louis XIV. ; and the public expeXed great things
from two writers of their dillinXion, but were difap-
pointed. Boileau and Racine, after having for fome
time laboured at this work, perceived that it was en¬
tirely oppofite to their genius.
He fpeut the latter years of his life in compofing a
hiftory of the houfc of Port-Royal, the place of his
education ; which, however, though finely drawn up,
as many have aflerted, has not been publiffied. Too
great fenfibility, fay his friends, but more properly an
impotence of fpirit, ffiortened the days of this poet.—
Though he had converfed mucli with the court, he had
not learned the wifdom, which is ufually learned there,
of difguifing his real fentiments. Having drawn up a
well-reafoned and well-written memorial upon the mife-
rics of the people, and the means of relieving them, he
one day lent it to Madam de Maintenon to readwhen
the king coming in, and demanding what and whofe it
was, commended the zeal of Racine, hut difapproved
of his meddling with things that did not concern him :
and faid with an angry tone, “ Becaufe he knows how
to make good verfes, does he think he knows every
thing ? And would he be a minifter qf Rate, becaufe
he is a great poet ?•” Thefe words hurt Racine great¬
ly : he conceived dreadful ideas of the king’s dilplea-
fure ; and his chagrin and fears brought on a fever, of
which he died the 22d of April 1699.
The king, who was fenfible of his gre;.t merit, and
always loved him, fent often to him in his illnefs ; and
finding after his death that he had more glory than
riches,, fettled a handfome penfion upon his family.-—
There is nothing in the French language written with
more wit and elegance than his pieces in profe. Bc-
fides his plays, feveral of his letters have been publifhed ;
he ulfo wrote fpiritual fongs, epigrams, &c. Racifie’e
works.
Racine.
RAC r 774 1 RAC
Racing, work) wew printed Amjlerdnnt 10 *732? tn * y°i*
■“' v- J j 7ma| anct the next year a pompous edition was print,
ed in 2 vols quarto.
RACING, the riding heats for a plate, or other
premium. See Plate. The amufement of horfe-'
racing, which is now fo common, was not unknown
among the great nations of antiquity, nor wholly un-
pra&ifed by our anceftors in Britain, as we have al¬
ready mentioned in the article Race. In I599» P1’*'*
vate matches between gentlemen, who were their own
jockies and riders, were very common ; and, in the reign
of James I. public races were eftablifhed at various pla¬
ces, when the difeipline, and mode of preparing the
horfes for running, &c. were much the fame as they are
now. The moft celebrated races of that time were call¬
ed bell-courfes, the prize of the conqueror being a bell:
hence, perhaps, the phrafe of bearing the bell, when ap¬
plied to excellence, is derived. In the latter end of
Charles I.’s reign, races were performed in Hyde-Park.
Newmarket was alfo a place for the fame purpofe,
though it was firft ufed for hunting. Racing was re-
vived foon after the Reiteration, and much encouraged
by Charles II. who appointed races for his own amufe¬
ment at Datchet Mead, when he refided at Windfor.
Newmarket, however, now became the principal place.
The king attended in perfon, ellablifhed a houfe for
his own accommodation, and kept and entered horfes in
his own name. Inftead of bells, he gave a filver bowl
or cup value too guineas ; on which prize the exploits
and pedigree of the fuccefsful horfe were generally en¬
graved. Inftead of the cup or bowl, the royal gift is
now a hundred guineas, William III. not only added
to the plates, but even founded an academy for riding;
and Queen Anne continued the bounty of her ancef¬
tors, adding feveral plates herielf. George I. towards
the end of his reign, difeontinued the plates, and gave
in their room a hundred guineas. An adt was pafted in
the 13th year of the reign of George II. for fup-
prefling races by poneys and other fmall and weak
horfes, &c. by which all matches for any prize under
the value of 501. are prohibited, under a penalty of
2001. to be paid by the owner of each horfe running,
and 100 1. by fuch as advertife the plate ; and by which
each horfe entered to run, if five years old, i > obliged
to carry ten ftones ; if fix, eleven ; and if feven, twelve.
It is alfo ordained, that no perfon (hall run any horfe
at a courfe, unlefs it be his own, nor enter more than
one horfe. for the fame plate, upon pain of forfeiting
the horfes ; and alfo every horfe-race muft be begun and
ended in the fame day. Horfes may run for the value
of 50 1. with any weight, and at any place. 13 Geo. II.
cap. 19. 18 George II. cap. 34. Pennant’s Britifti
Zoology, vol. i. p. 6, &c. Berenger’s Hiftory and
Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. i. p. 185, &c. At New¬
market there are two courfes, the long and the round :
the firft is exaftly four miles and about 380 yards, i, e.
7420 yards. The fecond is 6640 yards. Childers,
the fwifteft horfe ever known, has run the firft courfe
in feven minutes and a half, and the fecond in fix mi¬
nutes forty feconds; which is at the rate of more than
forty-nine feet in a fecond. But all other horfes take
up at leaft feven minutes and fifty feconds in completing
the firft and longeft courfe, and feven minutes only in
the (horteft, which is at the rati of more than forty,
feven feet in a fecond. And it is commonly fuppofed
that thefe courfets cover, at every bound, a fpar:«» of Rachitis,
ground in length about twenty-four Euglifh feet," Race- Rack,
horfes have been for fome time an object of taxation. ——
RACHITIS, the Rickets, SeeMEDiciNE, n°347,
RACK (Edmund), a perfon well known in the li¬
terary. world by his attachment to, and promotion of,
agricultural knowledge : he was a native of Norfolk, a
Quaker. His education was common, and he was ap¬
prenticed originally to a (hopkeeper: his ibciety was
feleft in this fituation, and by improving himfelf in
learning, his converfation was enjoyed by a refpe&able
acquaintance. He wrote many eftays, poems, and let¬
ters, and fome few controverfial trafts. At length he
fettled, about his 40th year, at Bath in 1775, and was
foon introduced to the molt eminent literati of that
place, among whom Dr Wilfon and Mrs Macaulay
highly efteemed him for his integrity and abilities. In
1777 he publifhed Mentor's Letters, a moral work,
which has run through many editions. But this year
he gained great celebrity by his plan of an agricultural
fociety, which was foon adopted by four counties. He
ft ill further advanced his fame by his papers in the Far¬
mer’s Magazine, and his communications in the Bath So¬
ciety’s papers ; a work remarkable for its ingenuity and
fpirit. His laft engagement was in the Hiilory of So-
merfetfiiire, where the topographical parochial furveys
were his. This work, in 3 vols 410, was publKhed in
1791, by his colleague the Reverend Mr CoUinfon.—
Mr Rack died of an afthma in February 1787,
aged 5 a.
Rack, an engine of torture, furnifhed with pulleys,
cords, &c. for extorting confefiion from criminals.-—
The trial by rack is utterly unknown to the law of
England; though once, when the dukes of Exeter
and Suffolk, and other minifters of Henry VI. had laid
a defign to introduce the civil law into this kingdom as
the rule of government j for a beginning thereof they
eredfted a rack for torture, which was called in derifion
the duke of Exeter’s daughter, and Itill remains in the
Tower of London, where it was occationally ufed as
an engine of ftate, not of law, more than once in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. But when, upon the affaf-
fination orViUiera duk- of Buckingham, by Felton, it
.was propoftd in the privy council to put the aiTafiin to
the rack, in order to difeover his acccompliccs} tire
judges, being confulted, declared un*nimoufly, to their
own honour and the honour of the Engliih law, that
no fuch proceeding was allowable by the laws of Eng¬
land. It feems aftonifning that this ufage of adminr-
ftering the torture (hould be faid to arifefrom a tender-
nefs to the lives of men; and yet this is the reafon
given for its introdudlion in the civil law, and its fub-
fequent adoption by the French and other foreign na¬
tions, viz. becaufe the laws cannot endure that any man
(hould (lie upon the evidence of a falfe, or even a finglc
witnefs, and therefore contrived this method that inno¬
cence fhould manifeft itfelf by a ftout denial, or guilt
by a plain confelfton : thus rating a man’s virtue by the
hardinefs of his conftitution, and his guilt by the fenli-
bility of his nerves. The Marquis Beccaria, in an ex-
quiiite piece of raillery, has propofed this problem, with
a gravity and precifion that are truly mathematical:
The force of the mufcles and the (enfibility of the
nerves of an innocent perfon being given ; it is requi¬
red to find the degree of pain necdla,ry to make him
confefs
Rack
II
JU^cHffe.
RAT)
corjfcrs lumfelf guilty of a given crime,” See dcr ef
Faithy iNtiTjisirioN, and Torture.
Rack, a fpirituous liquor made by the Tartars of
Tongufia. I'his kind of rack is made of mare’s milk,
which is left to be four, and afterwards diitilled twice
or thrice between two earthen pots clofely flopped;
whence the liquor runs through a fmall wooden pipe.
This liquor is more intoxicating than brandy diililled
from wine.
Rack, or Arack. See Arack.
To Rack (Vinest £sV. To draw them off from their
lees, after having flood long enough to ebb and fettle.
Hence rack-vintage is frequently ufed for the fecond
voyage our wine-merchants ufe to make into France
for racked wines.
RACKOON, in zoology, a fpecies of Ursus.
RACONI, a populous town of Italy, in Piedmont,
fcated in a pleafant plain, on the road from Savillan to
Turin, on the rivers Grana and Macra. It belongs to
the prince of Carignan, who has a handfome caflle here.
It is fix miles from Savillan, and fix from Carignan.
E. Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 44. 39.
RADCLIFFE (Dr John)) an Englifh phyfician of
great eminence in his time, born at Wakefield in
Yorkfhire in 1650. He was educated at Oxford, and
enrolled himfelf upon the phyfical line; hut it was re¬
markable that he recommended himfelf more hy his
ready wit and vivacity, than by any extraordinary ac-
quifitions in learning. He began to pra&ife at Oxford
in 1675; but never paid any regard to eflablifhed rules,
which he cenfured whenever he thought fit, with great
freedom and acrimony ; and as this drew all the old
pra&itioners upon him, he lived in a continual flate of
hollility with them. Neverthelefs, his reputation in-
creafed with his experience; fo that, before he had been
two years in bufinefs, his pradlice was very extenfive
among perfons of high rank. In 1684 he removed to
London, and fettled in Bow-ftreet, Covent Garden,
where in lefs than a year he got into prime bufinefs. —
In 1687 the princefs Anne of Denmark made him
her phyfician : yet when her hufkand and fhe joined the
prince of Orange, Radcliffe, either not cheofing To de¬
clare himfelf, or unwilling to favour the meafures then
in agitation, excufed himfelf from attending them, on
the plea of the multitude of his patients. Neverthelefs,
he was often fent for to King William and other great
perfonages, though he did not incline to be a courtier.
He incurred fome cenfure for his treatment of Q^Mary,
t 775 1
RAF
RADIALIS, the name of two mufcles in the arm.
See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
RADIAN F, in optics, is any point of a vifible ob-.
je£l from whence rays proceed.
RADIATED flowers, in botany, are fuch as
have fevenil femifloicules fet round a difk, in form of
a radiant flar; thofe which have no fuch rays arc called
difeous flonvers.
RADIATION, the a£l of a body emitting or dif*
fufing rays of light all round as from a centre.
RADICAL, in general, fomething that fervei a$ a
bafis or foundation. Hence phyficians talk much of
a radical moiflure. In grammar, we give the appella¬
tion radical to primitives, in contradiftin£tion to com¬
pounds and derivatives. Algebvaifts alfo fpeak of the
radical fign of quantities, which is the character expref*
fing their roots.
RADICLE, that part of the feeds of all plants
which upon vegetating becomes their root, and is dif-
coverable by the microlcope. See Plant.
RADISH, in botany. See Raphanus.
RADIUS, in geometry, the femidiameter of a circle,
or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumfe¬
rence.
In trigonometry, the radius is termed the whole fine,
or fine of 90°. See Sink.
Radius, in anatomy, the exterior hone of the arm,
defeending along with the ulna from the elbow to the
wrifl.
RADNOR, the vounty-town of Radnorihire, in
South Wales. It is a poor little place, diltant from
London about 150 miles. It is fituated near the fpriug-
head of the river Somergil, in a fruitful valley at the
bottom of a hill, where there are (beep grazing in abun¬
dance. It is a very ancient borough-town, whofe ju-
rifdi&ion extends near 12 miles round about : the go¬
vernment of it is veiled in a bailiff and 25 burgelfes.
Though it Is the county-town, the affixes are held at
Prefteign : it has one privilege, however, that is very ex¬
traordinary, bclides that of fending one member to par¬
liament ; and that is, it keeps a court of pleas for all
adlions, without being limited to any particular fum.
It was formerly fenced with a wall and a ftrong caftle ;
but both were in a great meafure demolifhed hy Owen
Glendower, when he affumed the title of Prince of
Wales, upon the depolition of King Richard II. W.
Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 52. 10.
RADNORSHIRE, a county of South Wales, is
Rsdislil
II
Raft.
who died of the fmall-pox ; and foon after loft his place bounded on the north by Montgomery’(hire ; on the
about the princefs Anne, by his attachment to his bottle.
Fie alfo totally loft the favour of K. W illiam by his un-
couvtly freedom; for, in r 699, when the king Ihowed
him his fwollen asikles, while the reft of his body was
emaciated, and alked him what he thought of them ?
“ Why truly I would not have your majefty’s two legs
for your three kingdoms,” replied Radcliffe. He con¬
tinued increafing in bufinefs and infolence as long as he
lived, continually at war with his brethren the phyfi¬
cians ; who conlidered him in no other light than that
of an aft^ive ingenious empiric, whom conftant pra£lice
had at \ ngth brought to fome degree of fkill in his
profefli0/;* He died in 17145 and if he never attempt¬
ed to wr'te any thing himfelf, has perpetuated his me¬
mory by founding a fine library at Oxford, to preferve
the writings of other men.
eaft by Shropftiire and Herefordlhire; on the fouth and
fouth-weft by Brecknockftiire; and on the weft by Car-
diganfhire ; extending 37) miles in length and 25 in
breadth. This county is divided into fix hundreds, in
which arc contained three market-towns, 52 parifhes,
about 316 houfes, and 18,96' inhabitants It is feat-
cd in the diocefe of Hereford, and fends two member#
to parliament, one for the county and one for the town
of Radnor. The air of this county is in winter cold
and piercing. The foil in general is but indifferent ;
yet fome places produce corn, particularly the eaftern
and fouthern parts ; but in the northern and wellern,
which are mountainous, the land is chiefly flocked with
horned cattle, fheep, and goats.
RADIX. See Root.
RAFT, a fort of float, formed by an aflemblage of
variuus
RAG [ r.
K> fters various planks or pieces of timber, faftened together
it fide by fide, fo as to be conveyed more commodiouny
lUgl‘k- to any fhort dillance in a harbour or road than if they
were feparate. The timber and plank with which
merchant-fhips are laden, in the diiferent parts of tlie
Baltic Sea, are attached together in this manner, in or¬
der to float them off to the (hipping,
RAFTERS, in building, are pieces of timber which,
(landing by pairs on the reafon or railing piece, meet
in an angle at the top, and form the roof of a building.
See Architecture.
Rowley RAGG, a genus offtones, belonging to
the iiliceous clafs. It is of a dufky or dark grey co¬
lour, with many fmall (hining cryftals, having a granular
texture, and acquiring an ochry cruft by expofure to
the air. The fpecific gravity is 2748. It becomes
magnetic by being heated in an open fire. In a firong
fire it melts without addition, but with more difficulty
than bafalteg. It was analyfed by Dr Withering, who
found that 100 parts of it contain 47.5 of filiceous
caith, 32.5 of argil, and 20 of iron.
RAGMAN'S roll, Rt&ius Ragimund’s roll, fo
called from one Ragimund a legate in Scotland, who
calling before him all the benehced -clergymen in that
kingdom, caufed them on oath to give in the true va¬
lue their benefices ; according to which they were
afterwards taxed by the court ol Rome", and this roll,
among other records, being taken from the Scots by
Edward I. was redelivered to them in the beginning of
the reign of Edward III.
RAGOUT, or Ragoo, a fauce, or feafoning, in¬
tended to roufe the appetite wffien loft or languifhing.
This term is alfo ufed for any high-feafoned diftr pre¬
pared of flefh, fifh, greens, or the like : by dewing diem
with bacon, fait, pepper, cloves, and the like ingredients.
We have ragouts of celery, of endive, afparagus, cock’s
combs, giblets, craw-fifti, &c.
The ancients had a ragout called gariiv}, made of
the putrified guts of a certain fifh kept till it diflblved
into a mere fames, which was thought fuch a dainty,
that, according to Pliny, its price equalled that of the
richeft perfumes.
RAGSTONE, a genus of ftones belonging to the
clafs of filiceous earths. It is of a grey colour; the
texture obfeurely laminar, or rather fibrous ; but the
laminae or fibres confift of a congeries ol grains of a
quartzy appearance, coarfe and rough. The fpecific
gravity is 2729; it effervefees with acids, and ilnkes
fire with fteel. Mr Kirwan found it to contain a portion
of mild calareous earth, and a fmall proportion of iron.
It is ufed as a whetftone for coarfe cutting tools. It is
found about Newcaftle, and many other parts of Eng¬
land, where there are large rocks of it in the hills.
RAGULED, or Ragged, in heraldry, jagged or
knotted. This term is applied to a erofs formed of the
trunks of two trees without their branches, of which
they (how only the Humps. Rag tiled differs from indent¬
ed, in that the latter is regular, the former not.
RAGUSA, an ancient town of Sicily, in the Yal-
di-Noto, near the river Maulo, 12 miles north of .Mo-
dica. E. Long. 14. 59. N. Lat. 37. o.
Ragusa, a city of Dalmatia, and capital of Ragu-
jfen. It is about two miles in circumference, is pretty
well built, and ftrong by fituation, having an inaccef-
fible mountain on the land-ftde, and on the fide of the
6 1 RAJ
fea a ftrong fort. It has an archbifliop’s fee and a re- Rifcufefl,
public, and has a doge like that of Venice, but he con- R^a~ ,
tinues a month only in his office. It carries on a con-
fiderable trade writh the Turks, and is 60 miles north-
weft of Scutari, and no north of Brindift. E. Long.
18. 10. N. Eat. 42. 50.
RAGUSEN, a territory of Europe in Dalmatia,
lying along the coaft of the gulph of Venice, about 5^
miles in length, and 20 in breadth. It is a republic
under the prote&ion of the Turks and Venetians. Ra-
gufa is the capital town.
RAJA, the title of the Indian black princes, the re¬
mains of thofe who ruled there before the Moguls.
Some of the rajas are faid to preferve their independen¬
cy, efpecially in the mountainous parts ; but mod of
them pay an annual tribute to the Mogul. The Indi¬
ans call them rat ; the Perfians, ralan, in the plural;
and our travellers rajas, or ragios*
Raja, the Ray-Fi/b, in ichthyology; a genus be¬
longing to the order of Chondropterygia. There are
five" fpiracula below towards the peak ; the body com-
preffed ; and the mouth is fituated under the head. The
mod remarkable fpecies are,
1. The batis, or Ikate: this fpecies is the thinned
in proportion to its bulk of any of the genus, and ali'p
the larged, feme weighing near 200 pounds. The
nofe, though not long, is (harp pointed ; above the eyes
is a fet of (hurt fpincs: the upper part is of a pale
brown, fometimes ftreaked with black : the lower part
is white, marked with great numbers of minute black
fpots. The jaws are covered with fmall granula¬
ted but (harp-pointed teeth. The tail is of a mode¬
rate length : near the end are two fins: along the top
of it is one row of fpines, and on the edges are irregu¬
larly difperfed a few others, which makes us imagine
with Mr Ray, that in this refpe& thefe fifh vary, fome
having one, others more orders of fpines on the tail.
It is remarked, that in the males of this fpecies the
fins are full of fpines. Skates generate in March and
April; at which time they fwim near the furfaee
of the w’ater, feveral of the males purfuing one female.
They adhere fo fad together in coition, that the fifher-
men frequently draw up both together, though only
one has taken the bait. The females begin to call their
purfes, as the fiffiermen call them (the bags in which
the young are included) in May, and continue doing it
till September. In Oftober they are exceedingly poor
and thin ; but in November they begin to improve, and
giow gradually better till May, when they are in the
higheft perfeflion. The males go fooner out of feafon
than the females.
2. The oxyrinchus, or fharp-nofed ray, in length near
feven feet, and breadth five feet two inches; when juft
brought on (bore, it makes a remarkable fnorting noife.
The nofe is very long, narrow, and (harp-pointed, not
unlike the end of a (pontoon. The body is fmooth,
and very thin in proportion to the iize; the uppet pait
aih-coloured, fpotted with numerous white fpots, and
a few black ones. The tail is thick } towards the
end are two fmall fins; on each fide is a row of fmall
fpines, with another row in the middle, which runs
dome way up the back. The lower part of the hih
is quite white. The mouth is very large, and furmmed
with numbers of fmall (harp teeth bending inwards.
This fifh has been fuppofed to be the lot of the ancif
entsj
RAJ L 777 ] RAJ
Raja. ents ; which was certainly fome enormous fpecies of
w —» 11 ray, though we cannot pretend to determine the par¬
ticular kind. Oppian ftyles it, the broidejl ammi<r fijhes :
he adds an account of its fondnefs of human flefh, and
the method it takes df deftroying men, by over-laying
and keeping them down by its vail weight till they are
drowned. Phile (De propriet. anim. p. 85.^ gives
much the fame relation. We are inclined to give them
credit, fince a modern writer, of undoubted autho-
rity *, gives the very- fame account of a filh found in
Voyage, the South Seas, the terror of thole employed in thg
L. 13a. pcarl.fifhery. It is a fpecies of ray, called there man¬
ta, or the quilt, from its furrounding and wrapping
up the unhappy divers till they are fuffocated; there¬
fore the negroes never go down without a fharp knife
to defend themfelves againll the affaults of this terrible
enemy.
3. The afpera, or rough ray, is found in Loch-
v Broom in Scotland. The length from the nofe to the
tip of the tail is two feet nine. The tail is almoll of
the fame length with the body. The nofe is very (hort.
Before each eye is a large hooked fpine; and behind
each another, befet with leffer. The upper part of the
foody is of a cinereous brown mixed with white, and
fpotted with black ; and entirely covered with fmall
fpines. On the tail are three rows of great fpines: all
the reft of the tail is irregularly befet with lefter. The
fins and under fide of the body are equally rough with
the upper. The teeth are flat and rhomboidal.
4. The fullonica, or fuller, derives its Latin name
from the inftrument fullers make ufe of in fmoothing
cloth, the back being rough and fpiney. The nofe is
fhort and fharp. At the corner of each eye are a few
fpines. The membrane of nidlitation is fringed. Teeth
fmall and fharp. On the upper part of the pe&oral fins
are three rows of fpines pointing towards the back,
crooked like thofe on a fuller’s inftrument. On the tail
are three rows of ftrong fpines: the middle row reaches
up part of the back. The tail is flender, and rather
longer than the body. The colour of the upper part
of the body is cinereous, marked ufually with numerous
black fpots : the lower part is white. This, as well as
moft other fpecies of rays, vary a little in colour, ac¬
cording to age. This grows to a fize equal to the fkate.
It is common at Scarborough, where it is called the
•white bans, or gullet.
5. The fhagreen ray increafes to the fize of the fkate;
is fond of launces or fand-eels, which it takes generally
as a bait. The form is narrower than that of the com¬
mon kinds ; the nofe long and very fharp ; pupil of the
eye fapphirine; on the nofe are two fhort rows of fpines;
on the corner of the eyes another of a femicircular form;
on the tail are two rows, continued a little up the back,
fmall, flender, and very fharp : along the fides of the
tail is a row of minute fpines, intermixed with innume¬
rable little fpiculae. The' upper part of the body is of
a cinereous brown, covered clofely with fhagreen-like
tubercles, rcfembling the (kin of the dog-fifh: the under
fide of the body is white ; from the nofe to the begin¬
ning of the peftoral fins is a tuberculated fpace. The
teeth flender, and fharp as needles.
6. The torpedo, cramp-fifh, or eledlric ray, is fre¬
quently taken in Torbay : has been once caught off’
Pembroke, and fometimes near Waterford in Ireland.
It is generally taken, like other flat fifh, with the trawl;
but there is an inftance of its taking the bait. It com*
Vol. XV. Part II.
monly lies in water of about 40 fathoms depth ; and in Rajs,
company with the congenerous rays. The torpedo ""' v -■
brings forth its young at the autumnal equinox, as af¬
firmed by Ariftotle. A gentleman of La Rochelle, on
difledling certain females of this fpecies, the 10th of
September, found in the matrices feveral of the fmtufes
quite formed, and nine eggs in no ftate of forwardnefs:
fuperfoetation feems therefore to be a property of this fifh.
The food of the torpedo is fifh ; a furmullet and a plaife
have been found in the ftomach of two of them. The fur-
mullet is a fifh of that fwiftnefs, that it was impoflibk*
for the torpedo to take it by purfuit. It is probable,
therefore, that by their ele&ric ftroke they ftupify their
prey ; yet the crab and fea-lcech will venture to annoy
them. They will live 24 hours out of the fea; and but
very little longer if placed in frefh water. They inha¬
bit fandy places; and will bury thcmfelves fuperficially ,
in it, by flinging the fand over, by a quick flapping of
all the extremities. It is in this fituation that the tor¬
pedo gives his moft forcible fhock, which throws down
the aftoniflied paflenger who inadvertently treads upon
him. iu our feas it grows to a great fize, and above
80 pounds weight. The tail is thick and round ; the
caudal fin broad and abrupt. The head and body,
which are indiftindl, are nearly round; attenuating to
extreme thinnefs on the edges; below the body, the
ventral fins form on each fide a quarter of a circle. The
two dorfal fins are placed on a trunk of the tail. The
eyes are fmall, placed near each other : behind each is a
round fpiracle, with fix fmall cutaneous rags on their in¬
ner circumference. Mouth fmall; teeth minute, fpicu-
lar. Five openings to the gills,, as in others of this ge¬
nus. The fkin everywhere fmooth ; cinereous brown
above, white beneath. See further the article Elec-
tricitv, n° 258 — 261.
7. The clavata, or thornback, is eallly diftinguifhed
from the others by the rows of ftrong fharp fpines dif-
pofed along the back and tail. In a large one feen by
Mr Pennant, were three rows on the back, and five on
the tail, all inclining towards its end. On the nofe,
and on the inner fide of the forehead, near the eyes,
were a few fpines, and others were fcattered without
any order on the upper part of the pe&oral fins. The
mouth was fmall, and filled with granulated teeth : The
upper part of the body was of a pale afh colour, mark¬
ed with fhort ftreaks of black, and the fkin rough, with
fmall tubercles like fliagreen. The belly white, crofted
with a ftrong femilunar cartilage beneath the fkin : in
general, the lower part was fmooth, having only a few
fpines on each fide. The young fifh have very few fpines
on them; and their backs are often fpotted with white,
and each fpot is encircled with black. This fpecies
frequents our fandy fhores; are very voracious, and feed
Ton all forts of flat fifh; are particularly fond of herrings
and fand eels ; and fometimes eat cruftaceous animals,
fuch as crabs. Thefe fometimes weigh 14 or jy pounds,
but with us feldom exceed that weight. They begin
to generate in June, and bring forth their young in Ju¬
ly and Auguft, which (as well as thofe of the fleate) be¬
fore they are old enough to breed, are called maids. The
thornback begins to be in feafon in November, and con¬
tinues fo later than the fkate, but the young of both are
good at all times of the year.
8. The paftinaca, or tting ray, does not grow to the
bulk of the others: The body is quite fmooth, of fhape
ahnoft round, and is of a much greater thicknefs and
5 F more
RAT r 77
more elevated form in the middle than any other rays,
but grows thin towards the edges. The nofe is very
fharp pointed, but ihort; the mouth fmall, and filled
with granulated teeth. The irides are of a gold colour:
behind each eye the orifice is very large. * he tail is
■very thick at the beginning: the fpme is placed about
a third the length of the former from the body; is about
five inches long, flat on the top and bottom, very hard,
fharp pointed, and the two Tides thin, and clofely
and (harply bearded the whole way. The tail extends
four inches beyond the end of this fpine, and grows very
(lender at the extremity. Thefe fifh are obferved to fhed
their fpine, and renew them annually ; fometimes the
new fpine appears before the old one drops off; and the
Corniih call this fpecies cardinal triloft, or three-tailed,
when fo circumftanced. The colour of the upper part
of the body -is a dirty yellow, the middle part of an ob-
feure blue : the lower fide white, the tail and fpine duf-
ky. The weapon with which nature has aimed this
fifh,'hath fupplied the ancients with many tremendous
fables relating to it. Pliny, ihlian, and Oppian,
have given it a venom that affects even the inanimate
creation: trees that are ftruck by it inflantly lofe their
verdure and perifh, and rocks themfelves are incapable
of refilling the potent poifon. The enchantrefs Circe
armed her°fon with a fpear headed with the fpine of the
trygon, as the mofl irrefiftible weapon {he could furnifh
him’ with ; and with which he afterwards committed
parricide, unintentionally, on his father Ulyffes. 1 hat
fpears and darts might, in very early times, have been
headed with this bone inftead of iron, we have no kind
of doubt; that of another fpecies of this fifh being {till
ufed to point the arrows of fome of the South Ameri¬
can Indians, and is, from its hardnefs, fliarpnefs, and
beards, a mofl dreadful weapon. But in refpeit to its
venomous qualities, there is not the lealt credit to be
given to the opinion, though it was believed (as tar as
it affedted the animal world) by Rondeletius, Aldro-
vand, and others, and even to this day by the fifhermen
in feveral parts of the kingdom. It is in tadl the wea¬
pon of offence belonging to the fifh, capable of giving
a very bad wound, and which is attended with danger¬
ous fymptoms when it falls on a tendinous part or on a
perfon in a bad habit of body. As to any fifh having
a fpine charged with adlual poifon, it feems very du¬
bious, though the report is fandlified by the name of
Linnaeus. He inflanccs the paflinaca, the torpedo, and
the tetrodon lineatus. The firfl is incapable of convey¬
ing a greater injury than what refults from the mere
wound ; the fecond, from its eledtric effluvia ; and the
third, by imparting a pungent pain like the fling of
nettles, occafioned by the minute fpines on its abdomen.
RAIANIA, in botany : A genus of the hexandria
order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the lith order, Sa-
mentaceee. The male calyx is fexpartite; there is no
corolla. The female calyx as in the male, without any
corolla; there are three flyles; the fruit is roundifh with
an oblique wing, inferior. There are three fpecies,
the haflata, cordata, and quinquefolia.
RAIETEA, one of the South Sea iflands, named
alfo Ulietea.
RAIL, in ornithology. See Raelus.
RAILLERY, according to Dr Johnfon, means
flight fatire, or fatirical merriment ; and a beautiful wri¬
ter of the lall century compares it to a light which
8] R A I
dazzles, and which does not burn. It is fometimes in- Ralrr.
nocent and pleafant, and it fhould always be fo, but it *—v—
is mofl frequently offenfive. Raillery is of various
kinds; there is a ferious, fevere, and good-humoured
raillery ; and there is a kind which perplexes, a kind
which offends, and a kind which pleafes.
To rally well, it is abfolutely neceffary that kindnefs
run through all you fay ; and you mufl ever preferve
the charadler of a friend to fupport your pretenfions to
be free with a man. Allufions to pafl follies, hints to
revive what a man has a mind to forget for ever, fhould
never be introduced as the fubje&s of raillery. This is
not to thrufl with the flcill of fencers, but to cut with
the barbarity of butchers. But it is below the chara&er
of men of humanity and good-breeding to be capable
of mirth, while there is any in the company in pain and
diforder.
RAIN, the defeent of water from the atmofphere
in the form of drops of a conliderable fize. By this
circumflance it is diftinguifhed from dew and fog: in
the former of which the drops are fo fmall that they
are quite invifible ; and in the latter, though their fize
is larger, they feem to have very little more fpecific
gravity than the atmofphere itfelf, and may therefore
be reckoned hollow fpherules rather than drops.
It is univerfally agreed, that rain is produced by the
water previoufly abforbed by the heat of the fun, or
otherwife, from the terraqueous globe, into the atmo¬
fphere ; but very great difficulties occur when we begin
to explain why the water, once fo clofely united with
the atmofphere, begins to feparate from it. We cannot
aferibe this feparation to cold, fince rain often takes
place in very warm weather; and though we fhould
fuppofe the condenfation owing to the fuperior cold of
the higher regions, yet there is a remarkable fail which
wall not allow us to have recourfe to this fuppofition.
It is certain that the drops of vain increafe in fize con-
fiderably as they defeend. On the top of a hill, for in-
flance, they will be fmall and inconfiderable, forming
only a drizzling fhower ; but at the bottom of the fame
hill the drops will be exceflively large, defeending in
an impetuous rain ; which {hows that the atmofphere _
is difpofed to condenfe the vapours, and a£lually does
fo, as well where it is warm as where it is cold.
For fome time the fuppolitions concerning the caufe
of rain were exceedingly infufficient and unfatisfac-
tory. It was imagined, that when various conge¬
ries of clouds were driven together by the agitation
of the winds, they mixed, and run into one body, by
which means they were condenfed into water. The
coldnefs of the upper parts of the air alfo was thought
to be a great means of collecting and condenfing the
clouds into water ; which, being heavier than the air,
mull neceffarily fall down through it in the form of
rain. The reafon why it falls in drops, and not in
large quantities, was faid to be the refiilance oi the air;
whereby being broken, and divided into fmaller and
fmaller parts, it at lafl arrives to us in fmall drops. But
this hypothefis is entirely contrary to almofl all the
phenomena : for the weather, when coldell, that is, in
the time of fevere fiofl, is generally the moll ferene;
the mofl violent rains alfo happen where there is little
or no cold to condenfe the clouds ; and the drops of
rain, inftead of being divided into fmaller and Imaller
ones as they approach the earth, are plainly increafed
in lizc as they defeend.
R A 1 [7!
Rain, Dr Dcrham accounted for the precipitation of the
drops of rain from the veficulae being full of air, and
meeting with an air colder than they contained, the
air they contained was of conftquence contradled into
a fmaller fpace ; and confequently the watery (hell ren¬
dered thicker, and thus fpecifically heavier, than the
common atmofphere. But it has been fhown, that
the veficulae, if fuch they are, of vapour, are not fill¬
ed with air, but with fire, or heat ; and confequent¬
ly, till they part with this latent heat, the vapour can-
See Che- not be condenfed Now, cold is not always fulficient
'niJlry^ to effeft this, fince in the mod fevere frolls the air is
414’ C* very often ferene, and parts with little or none of its va¬
pour for a very confiderable time. Neither can we admit
the winds to have any confiderable agency in this mat¬
ter, fince we find that blowing upon vapour is fo far
from condenfing it, that it unites it more clofely with
the air, and wind is found to be a great promoter of
evaporation.
According to Rohault, the great caufe of rain is the
heat of the air ; which, after continuing for fome time
near the earth, is raifed on high by a wind, and there
thawing the fnowy villi or flocks of half-frozen veli-
culx, reduces them to drops ; which, coalefcing, de-
fcend. Here, however, we ought to be informed by
what means thefe veficulae are fufpended in their half-
frozen flate ; fince the thawing of them can make but
little difference in their fpecific gravity, and it is cer¬
tain that they afcended through the air not in a fro¬
zen but in an aqueous {late.
Dr Clarke and others afcribe this defcent of the rain
rather to an alteration of the atmofphere than of the
veficulae ; and fuppofe it to arife from a diminution of
the elaftic force of the air. This elafticity, which,
they fay, depends chiefly or wkolly upon terrene ex¬
halations, being weakened, the atmofphere finks un¬
der its burden, and the clouds fall. Now, the little
veficles being once upon the defcent, will continue there¬
in, notwithllanding the increafe of refiitance they
every moment meet with. For, as they all tend to the
centre of the earth, the farther they fall, the more
coalitions they will make ; and the more coalitions,
the more matter will there be under the fame fur-
face ; the furface increafing only as the fquares, but
the folidity as the cubes ; and the more matter under
the fame furface, the lefs veliftance will there be to the
fame matter. Thus, if the cold, wind, &c. a6t early
enough to precipitate the afeending veficles before they
are arrived at any confiderable height, the coalitions
being but few, the drops will be proportionably fmall ;
and thus is formed a dew. If the vapours be more co¬
pious, and rife a little higher, we have a miff or fog.
A little higher ftill, and they produce a fmall tain ; if
they neither meet with cold nor wind, they form a
heavy thick dark (ky. This hypothefis is equally un-
fatisfadlory with the others ; for, granting that the de¬
fcent and condenfation of the vapours are owing to a di¬
minution of the atmofphere’s elafticity, by what is this
diminution occafioned ? 1 o fay that it is owing to ter¬
rene exhalations, is only folving one difficulty by ano¬
ther ; fince we are totally unacquainted both with the
nature and operation of thefe exhalations. Beiidee,
let us fuppofe the ciufe to be what it will, it it ads
equally and at once upon all the vapour in the air, then
all that vapour muft be precipitated at once ; and thus,
9 ] R A . 1
inftead of gentle fliowers continuing for a confiderable ^ain-
length of time, we fhould have the moft violent water- ~ ^ ’
fpouts, continuing only for a few minutes, or perhaps
feconds, which, inftead of refrefhing the earth, would
drown and lay wafte every thing before them.
Since philofophers have admitted the eledric fluid
to fuch a large {hare in the operations of nature, al-
moft all the natural phenomena have been accounted - *
for by the adion of that fluid ; and raiir, among others,
has been reckoned an effed of eledricity. But this
word, unlefs it is explained, makes us no vvifer than
we were before ; the phenomena of artificial eledricity *
having been explained on principles which could fcarce
apply in any degree to the eledricity of nature : and
therefore all the folution we can obtain of the natural
appearances of which wre fpeak, comes to this, that rain
is occafioned by a moderate cledrification, hail and fnow
by one more violent, and thunder by the moft violent
of all ; but in what manner this elcdrification is occa¬
fioned, hath not yet been explained. Throughout the
various parts of this work where eledricity hath been
occafionally mentioned, the principles of artificial elec¬
tricity |j, laid down in the treatile appropriated to that || See FJtt*
fubjed, have been applied to the folution of the pheno-^
mena of nature ; thofe which are neceffary to be attend- 1 *
ed to here are the following :
1. The eledric fluid and folar light are the fame
fubftance in two different modifications.
2. Eledricity is the motion of the fluid wdien running,
or attempting to run, in a continued ftream from one
place to another : heat is when the fluid has no ten¬
dency but to vibrate outwards and inwards to and from
a centre ; or at leaft when its ftreams converge to a
point or focus.
3. The fluid ading as eledricity, like water, or any
other fluid, always tends to the place where there is
leaft refiftance.
On thefe three principles may the phenomena of at-
mofpherical eledricity, and the defcent of rain by its
means, be explained as follows :
1. The light or heat of the fun, ading in that pe¬
culiar manner which we call heat) unites itlelf with
the moifture of the earth, and forms it into vapour,
which thus becomes fpecifically lighter than air, and
of confequence afeenda in the atmoiphere to a certain
height.
2. Belxdes the quantity of light which is thus uni¬
ted to the water, and forms it into vapour, a very con¬
fiderable quantity enters the earth, where it aifumes
the nature of eledric fluid.
3. As the earth is always full of that fluid, every
quantity which enters muft difplace an equal quantity
which is already there.
4. This quantity which is difplaced muft efcape ei¬
ther at a diftance from the place where the other en¬
ters, or very near it.
5. At w hatever place a quantity of eledric matter
efcapes, it muft eledrily the air above that place
where it has efcaped ; and as a confiderable quantity
of light muft always be refleded from the earth into
the atmofphere, where it does not combine with the^
aqueous vapour, we have thence another Vurce ol
eledricity to the air; as this quantity muft undoubt¬
edly affume the adion of eledric fluid, qlpecially af¬
ter the adion of the fun has ceafed. Hence the rea-
5 F 2 foa ,
R A I [ ?8o J R A 1
Rain. Ton why in ferene weather the atmofpherical elearicity
 is always ftrongeft, and rather more fo in the night than
in the day. t *
6. From thefc confiderations, we fee an evident rea-
fon why there mud commonly be a difference between
the ele&ricity of the earth and that of the atmo-
fphere, excepting when an earthquake is about to en-
fue. The confcquence of this mud be, that as the
action of the folar light continues to bring down the
eleftric matter, and the earth continues to difeharge an
equal quantity of it into the atmofphere, fome part of
the atmofphere mud at lad become overloaded with it,
and attempt to throw it back into the earth. This
attempt wall be vain, until a vent is found for the elec¬
tricity at fome other place ; and as foon as this hap¬
pens, the electrified atmofphere begins to throw off its
luperfluous eleCtricity, and the earth to receive it. As
the atmofphere itfelf is a bad conductor, and the more
fo the drier it is, the eleCtric matter attacks the fmall
aqueous particles which are detained in it by means of
the latent heat. Thefe being unable to bear the im¬
petus of the fluid, throw out their latent heat, which
eaflly efcapes, and thus makes a kind of vacuum in
the eleftrified part of the atmofphere. The confe-
quences of this are, that the aqueous particles being
driven together in large quantity, at lad become vi-
fible, and the jky is covered with clouds ; at the fame
time a wind blows againd thefe clouds, and, if there is
no refidance in the atmofphere, will drive them away.
7. But if the atmofphere all round the cloud is ex¬
ceedingly ele&rified, and the earth is in no condition
to receive the fuperfluous fluid excepting in that place
which is dire&ly under the cloud, then the whole elec¬
tricity of the atmofphere for_a vad way round will tend
to that part only, and the cloud will be electrified to
an extreme degree. A wind will now blow againd the
cloud from all quarters, more and more of the vapour
will be extricated from the air by the eleCfric matter,
and the cloud will become darker and thicker, at the
fame time that it is in a manner dationary, as being a£-
ed upon by oppofltc winds ; though its flze is enlarged
with great rapidity by the continual fupplies of vapour
brought by the winds.
8. The vapours which were formerly fufpended in-
vifibly by means of the latent heat are now fufpended
vifrbly by the eleddric fluid, which will not let them
fall to the earth, until it is in a condition to re¬
ceive the tlc&rie matter defeending with tire rain.—
It is eafy to fee, however, that thus every thing is
prepared for a violent dorm of thunder and lightning
as well as rain. The furface of the earth becomes
eleftrified from the atmofphere : but when this has corn-
tinned for fome time, a zone of earth confiderably be¬
low the furface acquires an eleftricity oppolite to that
of the clouds and atmofphere ; of confequence the elec¬
tricity in the cloud being violently pred’ed on all lides,
will at lad burd out towards that zone where the re-
iidance is lead, as explained under the article Light¬
ning.—The vapours now having lod that which fup-
ported them, will fall down in rain, if there is not a
fufficient quantity of elecbric matter to keep them in
the fame date in which they were before: but if this
happens to be the cafe, the cloud will indantly be
charged again,- while little or no rain will fall; and
hence very violent: thunder fometimes takes place with¬
out any rain at all, or fuch as is quite inconfiderable in Rain,
quantity. w-y*.
9. When the eleftricity is lefs violent, the rain will
defeend in vad quantity, efpecially after every flafh of
lightning; and great quantities of ele&ric matter will
thus be conveyed to the earth, infomuch that fometimes
the drops have been obferved to fhine as if they were
on fire, which has given occafion to the reports of fiery
rain having fallen on certain occafions. If the quantity
of eledtric matter is fmaller, fo that the rain can con¬
vey it all gradually to the ground, there will be rain
without any thunder ; and the greater the quantity of
eledlricity the more violent will be the rain.
From this account of the caufes of rain, we may
fee the reafon why in warm climates the rains are
exceffive, and for the mod part accompanied with thun¬
der ; for there the eleftricity of the atmofphere is im-
menfely greater than it is with us. We may alfo fee
why in certain places, according to the fituation of
mountains, feas, &c. the rains will be greater than in
others, and likewile why fome parts of the world are
exempted from rain altogether ; but as a particular dif-
cuflion of thefe would neceffarily include an explana¬
tion of the caufes and phenomena of Thunder, we
(hall for this reafon refer the whole to be treated of un¬
der that article.
Whether this theory be juft, however, it would be too
affuming in us to fay. It may admit of difpute, for we mud
grant that in the very bed fydems, though an occurs
rence fo frequent, the theory of rain is but very imper¬
fectly underdood. Dr James Hutton, Fellow of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, whofe fpeculations are
always ingenious, though generally extraordinary, and
much out of the common way, gives us a new theory
of rain in the fird volume of the TranfaCtions of that
fociety. It is well known that atmofpheric air is ca¬
pable of diffolving, with a certain degree of heat, a gi¬
ven quantity of water. The Do&or afeertains the ra¬
tio of the diffolving power of air, in relation to water,
in different degrees of heat ; and (hows, that by mixing
a portion of tranfparent humid warm air with a portion
of cold air, the mixture becomes opake, and part of tha
water will be precipitated ; or, in other words, the va¬
pour will be condenfed into rain. The ratio which he
dates, however, does not appear to us to be fuppoi ted
by experience. Whether the eledfrieity of the air
changes in confequence of its depofiting the water dif-
folved in it, or the change is a caufe of this depofition,
mud remain uncertain ; but, in either view, there mud
be an agent different from heat and cold, lince the
changes in thefe refpedts do not in other operations
change the date of eledlricity. Dr Hutton fuppofes
that heat and folution do not increafe by equal incre¬
ments ; but that, in reality, if heat be fuppofed to in¬
creafe by equal increments along a draight line, folution
will be expreffed by ordinates to a curve whole convex *
iide is turned towards that line. That the power of
folution is not increafed in the fame ratio with heat, is,
however, hypothetical, except when we rife pretty high
in the feale, when its proportional increafe is a little
doubtful; and it is not, in this paper, fupported by ex¬
periment. '1 he condenlation oi the breath in air is not
an obfervation in point, except in air already faturateti
with vapour. It can amount, in any view, to no more
than this, that to render it viiible, the heat mud be di-
minifhed
R A. I [ 781 ] R A I
ain. minifhed in a greater proportion than can be compen-
v fated by the power of folution in the body of air, in
which the portion expired is at firft immerfed. To ex¬
plain rain from this caufe, we muft always fuppofe a
conftant diminution of heat to take place at the mo¬
ment of the condenfation of the vapour ; but we actu¬
ally find that the change from a Hate of vapour to the
fluid ftate is attended with heat ; fo that rain muft at
once oppofe its own caufe, and continued rains would
be impoffible, without calling in the aid of other caufes.
From his own fyftem, Dr Hutton endeavours to ex¬
plain the regular and irregular feafons of rain, either
refpeCting the generality of its appearance, or the re-v
gularity of its return. And to obviate the apparent ex¬
ceptions of the theory, from the generality of rain,
he explains the proportional quantities of rain, and
adds a comparative eftimate of climates, in relation to
rain, with the meteorological obfervations made in our
own climate. As his principle is at leaft infufficient,
and we think erroneous, it would be ufelefs, even were
this a proper place for it, to purfue thefe various bran¬
ches, which muft partake of the errors of the fyftem.
In thefe branches we ought to obferve, that there are
feveral juft obfervations, mixed with errors, becaufe eva¬
poration and condenfation muft at laft be the great ba¬
lls of every theory : the miftakes arife from not being
aware of all the caufes, and mifreprefenting the opera¬
tion of thofe which do exift.
In a work entitled Thoughts on Meteoroicgy, Vo¬
lume II. M. de Luc conliders very particularly the
grand phenomenon of rain, and the numerous circum-
Itances conne&ed with it. He examines the feveral hy-
pothefes with confiderable care ; but thinks them, even if
admiflible, utterly infuflicient to account for the forma¬
tion of rain. The grand queftion in this inquiry is,
What becomes of the water that rifes in vapour into the
atmofphere ? or what ftate it fubfilts in there, between
the time of its evaporation and its falling down again
in rain ? If it continues in the ftate of watery vapour,
or fuch as is the immediate produCt of evaporation, it
muft poflefs the diftinClive characters efl'ential to that
fluid : it muft make the hygrometer move towards hu¬
midity, in proportion as the vapour is moie or Ids
abundant in the air : on a diminution of heat, the hu¬
midity, as ftiown by the hygrometer, muftincreafe; and
on an increafe of the heat the humidity muft diminifti;
and the introduction of other hygrofcopic fubftances,
drier than the air, muft have the fame effeCl as an aug¬
mentation of heat. Thefe are the properties of watery
vapour, on every hypothefis of evaporation ; and there¬
fore all the water that exifts in the atmofphere without
poflefiing thefe properties, is no longer vapour, but
muft have changed its nature. M. de Luc fliows, that
the water which forms rain, though it has ever been
confidtred and reafoned upon as producing humidity,
does not poflefs thefe properties, and muft therefore
have paired into another ftate. See a full account of his
reafoning, and the fteps by which he proceeded, in the
article Meteorology, n° 7, &c. Ashe thinks that the*
vapour pafies into an invifible ftate in the interval be¬
tween evappration and its.falling again in rain, and that
in that ftate it is not fenfible to the hygrometer, he
cotiiiders the.laws of hygrology as infufficient for ex¬
plaining the formation of rain ; but he does not pre¬
tend to have difeovered the immediate caufe of the for-
S
mation of clouds and rain. If it is not in the imme¬
diate produCI of evaporation that rain has its fource »
if the vapours change their nature in the atmofphere*
fo as no longer to be fenlible to the hygrometer, or to
the eye ; if they do not become vapour again till clouds
appear; and if, when the clouds are formed, no altera¬
tion is perceived in the quality of the air—we muft ac¬
knowledge it to be very probable, that the interme¬
diate ftate of vapour is no other than air—and that the
clouds do not proceed from any diftinCl fluid contained
in the atmofphere, but from a decompofition of a part
of the air itfelf, perfectly fimilar to the reft.
It appears, to us at leaft, that M. de Luc’s mode of
reafoning on this fubjeCt agrees better with the phe¬
nomena than Dr Hutton’s. The DoCtor, however, .
thinks differently, and publifhed anfwers to the objec¬
tions of M. de Luc with regard to his theory of rain ; :
to which M. de Luc replied in a letter which was
printed in the Appendix to the 81ft volume of the -
Monthly Review : but it would extend our article be¬
yond its due bounds, to give a view of this controver-
fy. See Vapour, Water, Weather, and Wind.
As to the general quantity of rain that falls, and its
proportion in feveral places at the fame time, and in
the fame place at feveral times, we have many obferva¬
tions, journals, &c. in the Memoirs of the French A-
cademy, the Philofophical TranfaClions, &c. Upon
meafuring, then, the rain falling yearly, its depth, at
a medium, and its proportion in feveral places, is found
as in the following table: Inches.
At Townley, in Lancafhire, obferved by Mr
Tow nicy - - - 42X
Upminfter, in Effex, by Dr Derham '94:
Zurich, in Swifferland, by Dr Scheucbzer 32^
Pifa, in Italy, by Dr Mich. Ang. Tilli - 43J
Paris, in France, by M. de la Hire - 1 q
Lille, in Flanders, by M. de Vauban - 24
At Upminfter.
1700 19 Inch..03
1701 18 .69
1702 20 .38
1703 23 .99
1704 15 .80
1705 16 .93
At Paris.
21 Inch. .37
2 7 .77
H .45
18 .51
21 .20
14 *82
Fi'om the Meteorological Journal of the Royal Socie¬
ty, kept by order of the prefident and council, it ap¬
pears that the whole quantity of rain at London, in
each of the -years fpecified below, was as follows,
viz. Inches.
1774
177 i
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
26
24
20
25
20
26
n
3*8
C83
3H
371
772
785
3I3
The quantity of r^in in the four following years at Lon¬
don was,
In 1789
1790
1791
1792
Inches.
2 1
16
1 5
J9
.976
.052
.310
.489
Prr
Rain.
\
R A 1
TV.un,
[ 782 ] R A I
Proportion of the Rain of the federal Seafons to one another.
!Depth at
17081 fiu.
I Inch.
Jan. 6 .41
Feb. I 3 .28
Mar. 12 .65
April I .25
May ! 3 -33
June 4 .90
Hall''
Year
Depth at Depthatl
U.mtinf.
Inch.
2 .88
o .46
2 .03
o .96
2 .02
2 .32
|Deprhat De pthat
Zurich.]] 1708 I'ifa. Upminf
Inch.
Inch
I .64P July
1 .65pAug
1 .51 ] Sept
o .oc
2 .37
7 .21
4 .6<;|0a. 5 .33
1 .91 Nov. o .13
e oi Dec.1 o .00
  1
Half
21 .82 10 .67,17 -3l ycar H -94
Inch.
1 .11
2 .94
I .46
O .23
o .86
1 .97
Depth; t
Zurich.
Inch.
3 S0
3 -1?
3 -02
2 .44
o .62
2 .62
8 -sips -35
See Fhilofophical Tranfaftions abridged, vol. iv. p. ii.
p. 81, See. and alfo Meteorological Journal of the Royal
Society, publilhed annually in the Philofophical Tranf-
a£tions.
As to' the ufe of rain, we may obferve, that it moi-
ftens and foftens the earth, and thus fits it for affording
nourifhment to plants ; by falling on high mountains, it
carries down with it many particles of loofe earth, which
ferve to fertilize the furrounding valleys, and purifies
the air from noxious exhalations, which tend in their
return to the earth to meliorate the foil; it moderates
the heat of the air; and is one means of fupplying foun¬
tains and rivers. However, vehement rains in many
countries arc found to be attended with barrennefs and
poornefs of the lands, and mifearriage of the crops in the
lucceeding year : and the reafon is plain ; for thefe ex-
ceffive ftorms wafh away the fine mould into the rivers,
which carry it into the fta, and it is a long time before
the .land recovers itfelf again. The remedy to the fa¬
mine, which fome countries are fubjeft to from this fort
of mifehief, is the planting large orchards and groves
of fuch trees as bear efculent fruit ; for it is an old ob-
fervation, that in years, when grain fucceeds worft,
thefe trees produce moft fruit of all. It may partly be
owing to the thorough moillening of the earth, as deep
as their roots go by thefe rains, and partly to theiv
trunks flopping part of the light mould carried down
by the rains, and by this means furnifhing themfelves
with a coat of new earth.
Pr(.ternatural Rains. We have numerous accounts,
iu the hiflorians of our own as well as other countries,
of preternatural rains ; fuch as the raining of Hones, of
dull, of blood, nay, and of living animals, as young frogs,
and the like. We are not to doubt the truth of what
thofe who are authors of veracity and credit relate to
us of this kind, fo far as to fuppofe that the falling of
Hones and duH never happened ; the whole miflake is,
the fuppofing them to have fallen from the clouds : but
as to the blood and frogs, it is very certain that they
never fell at all, but the opinion has be«m a mere decep¬
tion of the eyes. Men are extremely fond of the mar¬
vellous in their relations ; but the judicious reader is to
examine Hridily whatever is reported of this kind, and
is not to luffer himfelt to be deceived.
There are two natural methods by which quantities
of Hones and dull may fall in certain places, without
their having been generated in the clouds or fallen as
rain. I he one is t>y means of hurricanes : the wind
which we frequently fee tearing off the tiles of houfes,
and carrying them to confiderable dillanccs, being equal¬
ly able to take up a quantity of Hones, and drop them
.Again at fome other place. But the other, which is much
the moH powerful, and probably the moH ufual way,
is for the eruptions of volcanoes and burning mountains'"
to tofs up, as they frequently do, a vaH quantity of
Hones, afhes, and cinders, to an immenfe height in the
air: and thefe, being hurried away by the hurricanes
and impetuous winds which ufually accompany thofe
eruptions, and being in themfelves much lighter than
common Hones, as being half calcined, may eafily be
thus carried to vaH diHanees; and there falling in pla¬
ces where the inhabitants know nothing of the occaiion,
they cannot but be fuppofed by the vulgar to fall on
them from the clouds. It is well known, that, in the
great eruptions of ./Etna andVefuvius, (bowers of afhes,
dull, and finall cinders, have been feen to obfeure the
air, and overfpread the furface of the fea for a great
way, and cover the decks of fhips ; and this at fuch a
diHance, as it fliould appear fcarce conceivable that they
fhould have been carried to : and probably, if the ac¬
counts of all the (bowers cf thefe fubHances mentioned
by authors be colledled, they will all be found to have
fallen within fuch dillances of volcanoes ; and if com¬
pared as to the time of their falling, will be found to
correfpond in that alfo with the eruptions of thofe
mountains. We have known inHancesof the afhes from
Vefuvius having been carried thirty, nay, forty leagues,
and peculiar accidents may have carried them yet far¬
ther. It is not to be fuppofed that thefe fhowers of
Hones and duH fall for a continuance in the manner of
fhowers of rain, or that the fragments or pieces are as
frequent as drops of water ; it is fufficient that a num¬
ber of Hones, or a quantity of duH, fall at onee on a
place, where the inhabitants can have no knowledge of
the part from whence they came, and the vulgar will
not doubt their dropping from the clouds. Nay, in
the canton of Berne in Swifferland, the inhabitants ac¬
counted it a miracle that it rained earth and fulphur up¬
on them at a time that a fmall volcano terrified them ;
and even while the wind was fo boillerous, and hurri¬
canes fo frequent, that they law almoH every moment
the duH, fand, and little Hones torn up from the furface
of the earth in whirlwinds, and carried to a confiderable
height in the air, they never confidered that both the
fulphur thrown up by the volcano, and the duft, &c.
carried from their feet muH fall foon after fomewhere.
It is very certain that in fome of the terrible llorms of
large hail, where the hail-Hones have been of many
inches round, on breaking them there have been
found what people have called Jlones in their middle; but
thefe obfervefs needed only to have waited the d’ffolving
of one of thefe hail-Hones, to have feen the Hone in its
centre difunite alfo, it being only formed of the parti¬
cles of loofe earthy matter, which the water, exhaled by
the fun’s heat, had taken up in extremely fmall mole¬
cular with it; and this only having ferved to give an
opake hue to the inner part of the congelation, to which
the freezing of the water alone gave the apparent hard-
nefs of Hone.
The raining of blood has been ever accounted a more
terrible fight and a more fatal omen than the other pre¬
ternatural rains already mentioned. It is very certain
that nature forms blood nowhere but in the veffels of
animals; and therefore fhowers of it from the clouds are
by no means to be credited. Thofe who luppofe that
what has been taken for blood has been actually feen
falling through the air, have had recourfe to flying in-
fedts for its origin, and fuppofe it the eggs or dung of
6 certain
F*in.
—v—
-J
R A I
Ram. certain butterflies difcharged from them as they were
high UP in the air. But it feems a very wild conjec¬
ture, as we know of no butterfly whofe excrements or
eggs are of fuch a colour, or whofe abode is fo high,
or their flocks fo numerous, as to be the occaflon of
this.
It is nioft probable that thefe bloody waters were
never feen falling ; but that people feeing the (landing
waters Wood-coloured, were afl'ured, from their not
knowing how it (hould elfe happen, that it had rained
blood into them. A very memorable inftance of this
there was at the Plague in the year 1670. Swammer¬
dam, who relates it, tells us, that one morning the
whole town was in an uproar on finding their lakes and
ditches full of blood, as they thought; and having been
certainly full of water the night before, they agreed it
mud have rained blood in the night: but a certain phy-
fician went down to one of the canals, and taking home
a quantity of this blood-coloured water, he examined it
by the microfcope, and found that the water was water
dill, and had not at all changed its colour ; but that it
was full of prodigious fwarms of fmall red animals, all
alive, and very niatble in their motions, whofe colour
and prodigious number gave a red tinge to the whole
body of the water they lived in, on a lefs accurate ini
fpeftion. The certainty that this was the cafe, did not
however perfuade the Plollanders to part with the mi¬
racle : they prudently concluded, that the hidden ap¬
pearance of fuch a number of animals was as great a
prodigy as the raining of blood would have been ; and
are afl'ured to this day, that this portent foretold the
feene of war and deflxudlion which Touis XIV. after¬
wards brought into that country, which had before en¬
joyed 40 years uninterrupted peace.
The animals which thus colour the water of lakes and
ponds are the pulices arborefeentes of Swammerdam, or
the water-fleas with branched horns. Thefe creatures
are of a reddifh-yellow or flame colour : they live about
the fldes of ditches, under weeds, and among the mud ;
and are therefore the lefs viflble, except at a certain
time, which is in the end or beginning of June : it is at
this time that thefe little animals leave their recefles to
float loofe about the water, to meet for the propagation
of their fpecies, and by that means become vilible in
the colour they give the water. This is vifible, more
or lefs, in one part or other of aimoft all (landing wa¬
ters at this feafon ; and it is always at this feafon that
the bloody waters have alarmed the ignorant. See Pu-
LEX Monorulus.
The raining of fro^s is a thing not lefs wonderful in
the accounts of authors who love the marvellous, than
thofe of blood or Hones ; and this is fuppofed to liap-
pen fo often, that there are multitudes who pretend to
have been eye-witnefles of it. Thefe rains of frogs al¬
ways happen after very dry feafons, and are much more
frequent in the hotter countries than in the cold ones.
In Italy they are very frequent ; and it is not uncommon
to fee the (Ireets of Rome fwarming both with young
frogs and toads in an inftant in a (bower of rain ; they
hopping everywhere between the people’s legs as they
walk, though there was not the leaft appearance of
them before. Nay, they have been feen to fall through
the air down upon the pavements. This ftems a (Irong
circumllance in favour of their being rained down from
the clouds ; but, when (tri6lly examined, it comes to
nothing : for thefe frogs that are feen to fail, are always
R A I
found dead, lamed, or bruifed by the fall, and never hop
about as the reft; and they are never feen to fall, except
clofe under the walls of houfes, from the roofs and gutter
of which they have accidentally flipped down. Some
people, who love to add to ftrange things yet ftranger,
affirm that they have had the young frogs fall into their
hats in the midft of an open field ; but this is idle, and
wholly falfe.
Others, who cannot agree to their falling from the
clouds, have tried to folve the difficulty of their fud-
den appearance, by fuppofing them hatched out of the
egg, or fpawn, by thefe rains. Nay, fome have fuppo¬
fed them made immediately out of the dud ; but there
are unanfwerable arguments againft all thefe fuppofi-
tions. Equivocal generation, or the fpontaneous pro-
dudion of animals out of dull, is now wholly exploded.
The fall from the clouds muft deftroy and kill thefe
tender and (oft-bodied animals : and they cannot be at
tin's time hatched immediately out of eggs ; becaufe the
young frog does not make its appearance from the egg
in form, but has its hinder legs enveloped in a (kin, and
is what we call a tadpole ,■ and the young frogs are at
leaft 100 times larger at the time of their appearance,
than the egg from which they (hould be hatched.
It is beyond a doubt, that the frogs which make their
appearance at this time, were hatched and in being long
beioie ; but that the dry feafons had injured them, and
kept them fluggifhly in holes or coverts ; and that all the
rain does, is the enlivening them, giving them new fpirits,
and calling them forth to ftek new habitations, and en¬
joy the element they were dellined in great part to live
in. Theophraltus, the greateft of all the naturalifts of
antiquity, has affirmed the fame thing. We find that
the error of fuppofing thefe creatures to fall from the
clouds was as early as that author’s time ; and alfo that
the truth, in regard to their appearance, was as early
known ; though, in the ages fince, authors have taken
care-to conceal the truth, and to hand down to us the
error. We find this venerable fage, in a fragment of
his on the generation of animals which appear on a fud-
den, bantering the opinion, and afferting that they were
hatched and living long before. The world owes, how¬
ever, to the accurate Signior Redi the great proof of
this truth, which Theophraftus only has affirmed : for
this gentleman, difledling fome of thefe new-appearinf
frogs; found in their ftomachs herbs and other half-di-
geited food ; and, openly (bowing this to his credulous
countrymen, afleed them whether they thought that na¬
ture, which engendered, according to their opinion,
thele animals in the clouds, had alio been fo provident
as to engender grais there for their food and nourifii-
ment ?
To the raining of frogs we ought to add the raining
of gra/sbop, ers and /ocnjTs, which have fometimes ap¬
peared in prodigious numbers, and devoured the fruits
of the eaith. There has not been the leaft pretence for
the iuppoling that thefe animals defeended from the
clouds, but that they appeared on a hidden in prodigi¬
ous numbers. The naturalift, who knows the manv ac¬
cidents attending the -eggs of thefe and other the like
animals, cannot but know that fome feafons will prove
particularly favourable to the hatching them, and the
prodigious number of eggs that many ini'ccls lay could
not but every year bring us fuch abundance of the young,
were they not liable to many accidents, and had not pro¬
vident nature taken care, as in many plants, to continue
the
C 783 1
R A I [
Rai:*'. tlic fpccics by n very numerous ftoclc of fc.dS) of which
perhaps not one in yoo need take root in order to con¬
tinue an equal number of plants. As it is thus alfo in
regard to infers, it cannot but happen, that if a favour¬
able feafon encourage the hatching of all thofe eggs, a
very fmall number of which alone were neceffary to
continue the fpecies, we muft, in fuch feafons, have a
proportionate abundance of them. There appeared a-
fcout 50 years ago, in London, fitch a prodigious fwarm
of the little beetle we Call the lady-cow, that the very
ports in the ftreets were everywhere covered with them.
But thanks to the progrefs of philofophy among us, we
had no body to artert that it rained cow-ladies, but con¬
tented ourfelves with faying that it had been a favour¬
able feafon for their eggs. The prodigious number of
a fort of grub which did vaft mifehief about the fame
period among the corn and grafs by eating off their
roots, might alfo have been fuppofed to proceed from
its having rained grubs by people fond of making every
thing a prodigy; but our knowledge in natural hiftory
artured us, that thefe were only the hexapode worms of
the common hedge-beetle called the cock-chafer.
The raining of fjhes has been a prodigy alfo much
talked of in France, where the ftreets of a town at fome
vliftance from Paris, after a terrible hurricane in the
night, which tore up trees, blew down houfes, &c. were
found in a manner covered with fifties of various fixes.
Nobody here made any doubt of thefe having fallen from
the clouds ; nor did the abfurdity of fifti, of five or fix
inches long, being generated in the air, at all ftartle the
people, or ftiake their belief in the miracle, till they
found, upon inquiry, that a very well-ftocked fifti-pond,
which flood on an eminence in the neighbourhood, had
been blown dry by the hurricane, and only the great fifti
left at the bottom of it, all the fmaller fry having been
tofled into their ftreets.
Upon the whole, all the fuppofed marvellous rains
have been owing to fubftances naturally produced on the
earth, and either never having been in the air at all, or
only carried thither by accident.
In Silefia, after a great dearth of wheat in that coun¬
try, there happened a violent ftorm of wind and rain,
and the earth was afterwards covered, in many places,
with fmail round feeds. The vulgar cried out that Pro¬
vidence had fent them food, and that it had rained mil¬
let : but thefe were, in reality, only the feed* of a fpe¬
cies of veronica, or fpeed-wcll, very common in that
country ; and whole feeds being juft ripe at that time,
the wind had dillodged them from their capfules, and
fcattered them about. In our own country, we have
hiftories of rains of this marvellous kind, but all fabu¬
lous. It was once faid to rain wheat in Wiltftiire ; and
the people were all alarmed at it as a miracle, till Mr
Cole Ihowed them, that what they took for wheat was
only the feeds or kernels of the berries of ivy, which be¬
ing then fully ripe, the wind had diflodged from the
fides of houfes, and trunks of trees, on which the ivy
that produced them crept.
And we even once had a raining of fifties near the
coaft of Kent in a terrible hurricane, with thunder and
lightning. The people who faw fmall fprats ftrewed
all about afterwards, would have it that they had fallen
from the clouds ; but thofe who confidered how far the
Jiigh winds have been known to cany the fea-u ater, did
•:84 ] R A I
not wonder that they ftiould be able to carry fmall fifti
with it fo fmall a part of the way.
In the Philofophical Tranfa eft ions for 1782 we have
the following account of a preternatural kind of rain
by Count de Gioeni: “ The morning of the 24th in-
ftant there appeared here a moft Angular phenomenon.
Every place expofed to the air was found wet with
a coloured Cretaceous grey water, which, after evapoxa-
ting and filtrating away, left every place covered with
it to the height of two or three lines ; and all the iron¬
work that was torched by it became rufty.
“ The public, inclined to the marvellous, fancied va¬
rious caufes of this rain, and began to fear for the ani¬
mals and vegetables.
“ In places where rain-water was ufed, they abftain-
ed from it: fome fufpe&ing vitriolic principles to be
mixed with it, and others predi&ing fome epidemical
diforder.
“ Thofe who had obferved the explofions of Etna 20
days and more before, were inclined to believe it origi¬
nated from one of them.
“ The (bower extended from N.^N. E. to S.3S.W.
over the fields, about 70 miles in a right line from the
vertex of Etna.
« There is nothing new in volcanos having thrown
up fand, and alfo ftones, by the violent exjaanfive force
generated within them, which fand has been carried by
the wind to diftant regions.
“ But the colour andfubtilty of the matter occafion-
ed doubts concerning its origin ; which increafed from
the remarkable circumftande of the water in which it
came incorporated ; for which reafons fome other prin¬
ciple or origin was fufpe&ed.
“ It became, therefore, neceflary by all means to af-
certain the nature of this matter, in order to be con¬
vinced of its origin, aftd of the effe&s it might produce.
This could not be done without the help of a chemical
analyfis. To do this then with certainty, I endeavour¬
ed to collect this rain from places where it was moft
probable no heterogeneous matter would be mixed with
it. I therefore chofe the plant called hr often capitata,
which having large and turned-up leaves, they contain¬
ed enough of this coloured water : many of thefe I
emptied into a veflel, and left the contents to fettle till
the water became clear.
“ This being feparated into another veflel, I tried it
with vegetable alkaline liquors and mineral acids ; but
could obferve no decompoiition by either. I then eva¬
porated the water in order to reunite the fubftances that
might be in folution ; and touching it again with the
aforefaid liquors, it fliowed a flight effervefcence with
the acids. When tried with the fyrup of violets, this
became a pale green j fo that I was perfuaded it con¬
tained a calcareous fait. With the deco&idn of galls no
Rain.
precipitation was produced.
«< The matter being afterwards dried in the (hade, it
appeared a very fubtile fine earth, of a cretaceous co¬
lour, but inert, from having been diluted by the rain.
“ I next thought of calcining it with a (low fire,
and it aflumed the colour of a brick. A portion of
this being put into a crucible, I applied to it a ftronger
heat; by which it loft almoft all its acquired colour.
Again, I expofed a portion of this for a longer time to
a very violent heat (from which a vitrification might be
expe&ed);
R a I [ 785 1 RAT
Rain, fxpe£ed) ; it remained, however, quite foft, and was
Rainbow. eafjjy bruifed, but returned to its original dufley co-
' lour.
“ From the moil accurate obfervations of the fmoke
from the three calcinations, I could not difeover either
colour or fmell that indicated any arfenical or fulphure-
ous mixture.
“ Having therefore calcined this matter in three por¬
tions, with three different degrees of fire, I prefented
a good magnet to each : it did not a6t either on the
firff or fecond ; a flight attra&ion was vifible in many
places on the third : this perfuaded me, that this earth
contains a martial principle in a metallic form, and not
in a vitriolic fubflance.
“ The nature of thefe fubftances then being difeover-
ed, their volcanic origin appears ; for iron, the more it
is expofed to violent calcination, the more it is divided
by the lofs of its phlogiftic principle; which cannot
naturally happen but in the great chimney of a volcano.
Calcareous fait, being a marine fait combined with a
calcareous fubflance by means of violent heat, cannot be
otherwife compofed than in a volcano.
“ As to their dreaded effe£ls on animals and vege¬
tables, every one knows the advantageous ufe, in medi¬
cine, both of the one and the other, and this in the
fame form as they are thus prepared in the great labo¬
ratory of nature.
“ Vegetables, even in flower, do not appear in the
leaft macerated, which has formerly happened from on¬
ly fhowers of fand.
“ How this volcanic produ&ion came to be mixed
with water may be conceived in various ways.
“ ALtna, about its middle regions, is generally fur-
rounded with clouds that do not always rife above its
fummit, which is 2900 paces above the level of the fea.
This matter being thrown out, and defeending upon
the clouds below it, may happen to mix and fall in rain
with them in the ufual way. It may alfo be conje&u-
red, that the thick fmoke which the volcanic matter
contained might, by its rarefaction, be carried in the
atmofphere by the winds over that tra& of country ;
and then cooling fo as to condenfe and become fpecifi-
cally heavier than the air, might defeend in that colour¬
ed rain.
“ I mufl, however, leave to philofophers (to whom
the knowledge of natural agents belongs) the examina¬
tion and explanation of fuch phenomena, confining my-
felf to obfervation and chemical experiments.,>
Rain, a well built and fortified town of Bavaria, one
of the keys of this electorate, on the Lech, 20 miles
weft of Ingolftadt. N. Lat. 48. 51. E. Long. 11,
12.
R.us’-BirJ. See Cuculus, n° 8.
RAINBOW. See Optics, Part IT. Se<£t. i. $ 1.
In the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1793, we have
ihe following account of two rainbows feen by the Rev.
Mr Sturges.
“ On the evening of the 9th of July 1792, between
feven and eight o’clock, at Alverftoke, near Gofport,
-on the fea-coaft of Hampfhire, there came up, in the
fouth-eaft, a cloud with a thunder-fhower; while the
fun flione bright, low in the horizon to the north-
weft.
JPlate “ In this fhower two primary rainbows appeared,
ccccxxvn, an(j AC, not concentric, but touching each other
Vol.XV. Part IL
at A, in the fouth part of the horizon ; with a fecon- Rainbow,
dary bow to each, DE and DF (the laft very faint, but
difeernible), which touched likewife at D. Both the
primary were very vivid for a confiderable time, and at
different times nearly equally fo ; but the bow AB was
moft permanent, was a larger fegment of a circle, and at
laft, after the other had vanifbed, became ahnoft a femi-
circle ; the fun being near fitting. It was a perfect
calm, and the fea was as fmooth as glafs.
“ If I might venture to offer a folution of this ap¬
pearance, it would be as follows. I confider the bow
AB as the true ir.ie, produced by the fun itfelf; and
the other, AC, as produced by the refle&ion of the fun
from the fea, which, in its perfeftly fmooth ftate, adled
as a fpeculum. The direction of the fea, between the
Hie of Wight and the land, was to the north-weft in a
line with the fun, as it was then fituated. The image
refle&ed from the water, having its rays iffuing from
a point lower tlum the real fun, and in a line coming
from beneath the horizon, would confequently form a
how higher than the true one AB. And the (bores,
by which that narrow part of the fea is bounded, would
before the fun’s adlual fetting intercept its rays from
the furface of the water, and caufe the bow AC, which
I fuppofe to be produced by the refledion, to difappear
before the other.”
The marine or fea how is a phenomenon which may
be frequently obferved in a much agitated fea, and is
occaftoned by the wind fweeping part of the waves, and
carrying them aloft; which when they fall down are
refracted by the fun’s rays, which paint the colours of
the bow juft as in a common (bower. Thefe bows are
often feen when a vcffel is failing with conlidcrable
force, and dafhing the waves around her, which are
raifed partly by the action of the (hip and partly by
the force of the wind, and, falling down, they form a
rainbow ; and they are alfo often occafioned by the
dafhing of the waves againll the rooks on (bore.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, it is obfened
by F. Bourzes, that the colours of the marine rain¬
bow are lefs lively, lefs diitind, and of (horter con¬
tinuance, than thole of the common how ; that there
are fcarce above two colours diftinguifliable, a dark yel¬
low on the fide next the fun, and a pale green on the
oppofite (ide. But they are more numerous, tliere be¬
ing fometimes 20 or 30 feen together.
To this clafs of bows may be referred a kind of white
or colourltfs rainbows,which Mentzelius and others affirm
to have feen at noon-day. M. Marlotte, in his fourth
Efai de Phyfiquc, fays, thefe bows air formed in mills,
as the others are in (bowers; and adds, that he has feen
feveral both after fun-fifing and in the night. The
"'ant of colours he attributes to the fmallnefs of the va¬
pours which compofe the mill; but perhaps it is rather
from the exceeding tenuity of the little veficul* of the
vapour, which being only little watery pellicles bloat¬
ed with air, the rays of light undergo but little refrac¬
tion in pafling out of air into them ; too little to fepa-
rate the differently coloured rays, &c. Hence the raj u
are reflected from them, compounded as they came, that
is, white. Robault mentions # coloured rainbows on * 7V*i7, ft
the grafs ; formed by the refradlions of the fun’s rays
in the morning dew. Rainbows have been alfo produ¬
ced by the reileclion of the fun from a river; and in
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, Vol. L. p. 294. we
5 G have
R A I C 786 1 .. R A I
liitc art account a. rainbow, • Inch mud have been %
1, v formed by the exhalations frdtn the city of London,
when the fun had been fet 20 minutes, and confequent-
]y the centre of the bow was above the hoi iron. The
colours were the fame as in the common rainbow, but
fainter.
It has often been made a fubjeft of inquiry among the
curious how there came to be no rainbow before the
Hood, which is thought by fome to have been the cafe
from its being made a ftgn of the covenant which the Dei¬
ty was pleafed to make with man after that event. Mr
Whitehurft, in his Inquiry into the Original State and
Formation of the Earth, p. 17 3, &c. endeavours to efta-
blifh it as a matter of great probability at lead, that the
antediluvian atmofphere was fo uniformly temperate as
sever to be fubjeft to dorms, tempeds, or rain, and of
courfe it could never exhibit a rainbow. For our own
part, we cannot fee how the earth at that period coidd do
without rain any more than at prefent; and it appears
to us from Scripture equally probable that the rainbow
was feen before the flood as after it. It was then, how¬
ever, made a token of a certain covenant; and it would
nhqueftionably do equally well for that purpofe if it had
cxided before as if it had not.
Lunar Rainbow. The moon fometimes alfo exhi¬
bits the phenomenon of an iris or rainbow by the re-
fradlion of her rays in drops of rain in the night-time.
This phenomenon is very rare. In the Philofophical
Tranfndions for 1783, however, we have an account of
three feen in one year, and all in the fame place, com¬
municated in two letters by Marmaduke Tundall, Efq.
The fird was feen 27th February 1782, at Greta
Bridge, Yorkfhire, between feven and eight at night,
and appeared “ in tolerably diftindl colours, fimilar to a
folar out, but mwre'faint: the orange colour feemed to
predominate. It happened at full moon ; at which time
alone they are faid to have been always feen. Though
Aridotle is faid to have obferved two, and fame others
have been feen by SueUius, &c. I can only find two de-
feribed with any accuracy ; viz. one by Plot, in his Hi-
dory of Oxfordfhire, feen by him -in 1675, though
without colours ; the other feen by a Derbylhire gen¬
tleman at Glapwell, near Cheftetfield, deferibed by Tho-
Tefby, and inferted in NJ 331. of the Philofophical Tranf-
aclions : this was about Chridmas, 1710, and faid to
have had all the colours, of the Iris Solaris. The night
was windy ; and though there was then a drizzling rain
and dark cloud, in which the rainbow was reflefted, it
proved afterwards a light frod.”
Two others were afterwards feen by Mr Tundall ;
one on July the 30th, about t 1 o’clock, which laded
about a quarter of an hour, without colours. The other,
which appeared on Friday Oftober 18. was “ perhaps
the mod extraordinary one of the kind ever feen. It
was fird vifible about nine o’clock, and continued, tho’
with very different degrees of brilliancy, till pad two.
At fird, though a drongly marked bow, it was without
colours; but afterwards they were veiy confpicuous
and vivid in the fame form as in the folar, though faint¬
er ; the red, green, and purple, were mod didinguifh-
able. About twelve it was the mod fplendid in ap¬
pearance ; its arc was confiderably a fmaller fegment of
a circle than a folar ; its fouth-ead limb fird began to
fail, and a confiderable time before its final extindlion :
the wind was very high, nearly due wed, mod part of
the time, accompanied with a drizzling rain. It is a IDinfaw,
lingular circumdance, that three of thefe phenomena Ra!flng’-
diould have been feen in fo fhort a time in one place, as
they have been efteemed everfince the time of Ariftotle,
who is faid to have been the fird obferver of them,
and faw only two in 50 years, and lince by Plot and
Thorelby, almod the only two Englifh authors who
have fpoke of them, to be exceeding rare. They feem
evidently to be occalioned by a refraftion in a cloud or
turbid atmofphere, and in general are indications of
dormy and rainy weather : fo bad a feafon as the late
fummer having, I believe, feldom occurred in England.
Thorefby, indeed, fays, the one he obferved was fuc-
ceeded by feveral days of fine ferene weather. One
particular, rather fingular, in the fecond, viz. of July
the 30th, was its being fix days after the full of the
moon; and the lad, though of fo long a duration, was
three days before the full: that of the 27th of Febru¬
ary was exactly at the full, which ufed to be judged the
only time they could be feen, though in the Encyclo¬
pedia there is an account that Weidlcr obferved one iu
1719, in the fird quarter of the moon, with faint co¬
lours, and in very calm weather. No lunar iris, I ever
heard or read of, laded near fo long as that on the 18th
indant, either with or without colours.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for Auguft 1788 wc
have an account of a lunar rainbow by a correfpondent
who faw it. “ On Sunday evening the r 7th of Au¬
guft. (fays he), after two days, on both of which, par¬
ticularly the former, there had been a great deal of'
rain, together with lightning and thunder, juft as the
clocks were ftriking nine, 23 hours after full moon,-
looking through my window, I was ftruck with the ap¬
pearance of fomething in the fky, which feemed like a
rainbow. Having never feen a rainbow by night, I
thought it a very extraordinary phenomenon, and ha-
ftened to a place where there were no buildings to ob-
drutl my view of the hemifphere : here I found that
the phenomenon was no other than a lunar rainbow ;
the moon was truly ‘ walking in brightnefs,’ brilliant
as die could be ; not a cloud was to be feen near her
and over-againft her, toward the north-weft, or perhaps
rathet more to the north, was a rainbow, a vaft arch,
perfett in all its parts, not interrupted or broken as-
rainbows frequently are, but unremittedly vifible from
one horizon to the other. In order to give fome idea
of its extent, it is neceffary to fay, that as I dood to¬
ward the weftern extremity of the parifh of Stoke
Newington, it feemed to take its rife from the weft of
Hampdead, and to the end, perhaps, in the river Lea,
the ealiern boundary of Tottenham; its colour was
white, cloudy, or greyifh, but a part of its weftern leg
feemed to exhibit tints of a faint fickly green. I con¬
tinued viewing it for fome time, till it began to rain ;
and at length the rain increafing, and the fky growing
more hazy, I returned home about a quarter or 20 mi¬
nutes pad nine, and in ten minutes came out again ; but
by that time all was over, the moon was darkened by
ebuds, and the rainbow of courfe vanifhed.”
Marine Rainbow, or Sea-bow. Seethe article Rain¬
bow.
RAiNBow-Stone. See Moon-Stone.
RAISINS, grapes prepared by differing them to
remain on the vine till they are perfectly ripe, and theiv
drying them in the fun, or by tire heat of an oven.
7 The.
R A L f 7
Raifiu The diffci’cnee between r&Ifms dried in the fun and
II thole dried in ovens, is very obvious : the former are
Ra'eigh. ancj pleafant, but the latter have a latent acidity
' with the fweetnele that tenders them much Ids agree¬
able.
The Common way of drying grapes for raifins, is to
tie two or three bunches of them together while yet on
the vine, and dip them into a hot lixivium of wood-
ufhes, with a little of the oil of olives in it. This dif-
pofes them to fhrink and wrinkle ; and after this they
are left on the vine three or four days feparated on
iticks in an horizontal fit nation, and then dried in the
hm at leifure, after being cut from the tree. The findt
and bdl raiiins are thofe called in fome places Dnmaf-
cus and Jube r a Jins ; which are diltinguilhed from the
•others by their fize and figure : they are fiat and
wrinkled on the furface, loft and juicy within, and near
an inch long ; and, when frdh and growing on the
bunch, are of the fize and fiiape of a large olive.
The raifins of the fun, and jar-raifins, are all dried
by the heat of the fun ; and thde are the forts ufed in
medicine. However, all the kinds have much the fame
virtues : they are all nutritive and baliamic; they are
rdlovved to be attenuant, are faid to be good in nephri¬
tic complaints, and are an ingredient in pedoral decoc¬
tions : in which cafes, as alfo in all others where altrin-
gency is not required of them, they Ihould have the
itones cardully taken out.
R.AisiN-l'Vtne. See Wine.
RAKKATH (anc. geog.), a town of Upper Ga¬
lilee, thought to be Tiberias, (Talmud) : but this is
denied by Reland, who fays that Rakkath was a town
-of the tribe of Naphthali.
RAKE is a well known inftrument w-ith teeth, by
which the ground is divided. See Agriculture,
P-3i8-
Rake alfo means a loofe, diforderly, Vicious, and
thoughtlefs fellow.
Rake of a Ship, is all that part of her hull which
hangs over both ends of her keel. That which is be¬
fore is called the fore rake, or rake forward, and that
part which is at the fetting on of the itern-polt is call¬
ed the rake-aft, or afterward.
RALEIGH (Sir Walter), fourth fon of Walter
Raleigh, Efq; of Fardel, in the parilh of Cornwood in
Uevonlhire, was born in 1552 at Hayes, in the parilh
of Budley, a farm belonging to his father. About the
year 1568, he was fent to Oriel college in Oxford,
where he continued but a Ihert time ; for in the follow¬
ing year he embarked for France, being one of the
hundred volunteers, commanded by Henry Champer-
non, who, with other Englilh troops, were fent by
■queen Elifabeth to afiiit the queen of Navarre in de¬
fending the Proteftants. In this fervice he continued
for five or fix years ; after which he returned to Lon¬
don, and probably refided in the Middle Temple. But
his entcrpriling genius would not fuffer him to remain
long in a Hate of inactivity. In 1577 or 1578, he
embarked for the Low Countries with, the troops fent
by the queen to aflilt the Dutch againft the Spaniards,
and probably lhared die glory of the decilrve victory
over Don John of Auftria in 1578. On his return to
England, a new enterprife engaged his attention. His
half-brother. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, having obtained a
patent to plant and inhabit fome parts of North Ame-
17 ] R A
rica, Mr Raleigh embarked in this adventure ; but, Raleftl*.
meeting with a Spanilh fleet, after a frnart engagement —"V"—
they returned, without fuccefs, in 1579.
The following year, the king of Spain, in conjunc¬
tion with the pope, having projected a total conqueil
‘of the Englifh dominions, fent troops to Ireland to af-
lifl the Defmonds in the Mwnfter rebellion. Raleigh
obtained a captain's commiflton under Lord Grey of
Wilton, then deputy of Ireland, and embarked for that
kingdom ; where, by his conduct and refolution, he was
principally inllrumental in putting an end to tire rebel¬
lious attempt. He returned to England; and attract¬
ed the notice of queen Elifabeth, owing, as ve arc
told in Naunton’s bragmenta Regalia, to the following
accidental piece of gallantry. Tire queen, as fire was
one day taking a walk, being flopped by a fylajby place
in the road, our gallant young foldier took off his new
plufh mantle, arid fpread it on the ground. Her ma-
jefty trod gently over the fair foot-cloth, furprifed and
plcafed with the adventure. He was a handfome mau>
arrd remarkable for his gentility of addrefs.
The queen admitted him to her court, and employed
him firit as an attendant on the French ambafiador Si¬
nner on his return home, and afterward to cfcort the
duke of Anjou to Antwerp. During this excurfion he
became perfonally known to the prince of Orange j
from whom, at his return, he brought fpecial acknow¬
ledgments to the queen, who now frequently converfed
with him. But the inaClive life of a com tier did not
fuit the enterprifing fpirit of Mr Raleigh. In the year
1583, he embarked with his brother, Sir Humphrey
Gilbert, on a fecond expedition to Newfoundland, in a
fhip called the Raleigh, which he built at his own ex¬
pence ; but was obliged to return on account of an in-
fetlious dillemper on board. He was, however, fo
little affeded by tins difappointment, that he now laid
before the queen and council a propofal for exploring
the continent of North America; and in 1584 obtained
a patent empowering him to poffefs fuch countries as he
fhould difeover in that part of the globe. Accordingly
Mr Raleigh fitted out two fhips at his own expence,
which failed iu the month of April, and returned to
England about the middle of September, reporting that
they had difeovered and taken poficfiion of a fine conn-,
try called Windangocoa, to which the queen gave the
name of Virginia. About this time he was eletfed
knight of the {hire for the county of Devon, and foon
after received the honour of knighthood ; and to en¬
able him to cairy on his deligns abroad, the queen
granted him a patent for licenfing the venders of wine
throughout the kingdom. In 1.85 he fent a fleet of
feven Ihips to Virginia, commanded by his relation Sir
Richard Greenville, who left a colony at Roanah of 107
perfons, under the government of Mr Lane; and by the
eflablifiimentof this colony he firit imported tobacco into
England. Sec Nicotian a. In the fame year Sir Wal¬
ter Raleigh obtained a grant ot 12,000 acres of the
forfeited lands in the county of Corke in Ireland.—
About the fame time he was made fenefchal of the
duchy of Cornwall, and warden ot the {tanneries; and
grew into fuch favour w th the queen, that even Lei*
cefter was jealous of his influence.
In 1587, he fent another colony of 150 men to Vir¬
ginia, with a governor, Mr John White, and 1 2 aftilt-
auts. About tins time we find our knight diitinguilh-
5 G z e«
R A L
[ ?S3 ]
R A L
Rule^h cd by the titles of Captain of the qucen*s guards, and
Lieutenant general of Cornwall. From this period to the
year i594» he was continually engaged in proje<5ting
new expeditions, fending fuccours to colonies abroad,
defending the kingdom from the infults of the Spani¬
ards, and tranfafting parliamentary bulinefs, with equal
ability and refolution. Whili-t thus employed, he was
publicly charged, in a libel written by the infamous
Jcfuit Paribus, with being an Atheiil ; a groundlefs
and ridiculous imputation. In 1594, he obtained from
the queen a grant of the manor of Sherborne in Dor-
fetihire, where he built a magnificent houfe t but Sir
Walter fell under the queen’s difpleafurc on account of
an intrigue with the daughter of Sir Nicholas Throg¬
morton, one of the maids of honour ; however, he mar¬
ried the lady, and lived with her in great conjugal har¬
mony. During his difgrace at court, he projected the
eonquell of Guiana in South America, and in 1595
failed for that country ; of which having taken poflef-
lion, after defeating the Spaniards who were fettled
there, he returned to England the fame year, and foon
after publifhed an account of his expedition. In the
following year he was one of the admirals in the fuccefs-
ful expedition againll Cadiz, under the command of
Howard and the earl of Efi'ex ; and in 1597 he failed
with the lame commanders againlt the Azores. Soon
after thefe expeditions, we find him afliduoufiy engaged
in parliamentary bufmefs, and a dillinguifhed perfonage
in jouffs and tournaments. In 1600 he was fent on a
joint embaffy with Lord Cobham to Flanders, and at
his return made governor of Jerfiey.
Queen Elifabeth died in the beginning of the year
1603 > and with her Raleigh’s glory and felicity funk,
never to rife again. Upon die acceflion of James, Sir
Walter loft his intereft at court, was ftripped of his pre-
■ferments, and accufcd of a plot againft the king. He
was arraigned at Winchefter, and, on his trial, infulted
by the moft (hocking brutality by the famous Coke,
attorney-general, whofe fophiftical vociferation influen¬
ced the jury to convidl him without the leait proof of
guilt. After a month’s imprifonment, however, in daily
expeftation of his execution, he was reprieved, and fent
to the Tower ; and his eftates were given to Car, earl of
Somerfet, the king’s favourite. During this confine¬
ment, he wrote many of his moft valuable pieces, parti-
culaily his Hiftory of the World. In March 1615, af¬
ter 16 years imprifonment, he obtained his liberty, and
immediately began to prepare for another voyage to
Guiana. In /iuguft 1616, the king granted him a very
ample commillion for that purpofe ; and in July the
year following, he failed from Plymouth : but, ftrange
as it may appear, it is moft certain that the whole
fcheme was revealed to the Spaniards by the king him-
felf, and thus neceflarily rendered abortive.
He returned to England in 1618, where he was foon
after feized, imprifoned, and beheaded ; not for any pre¬
tended mifdemeanor on the late expedition, but in con-
fequence of his former attainder. The truth of the
matter is, he was facrificed by the pufillanknous monarch
to appeafe the Spaniards ; who, whilft Raleigh lived,
thought every part of their dominions in danger. He
was executed in Old Palace Yard, and buried in St
Margaret’s adjoining, in the 66th year of his age. His
behaviour on the fcaffold was manly, uuaffedted, cheer¬
ful, and eafy. Being alked by the executioner which
'way he would lay his h<;adj hesnfwered, “ So the heart
be right, it is no matter which tvay the head lies.” He Rallu*.
was a man of admirable parts, extenfive knowledge, un- ——y—■
daunted refohition, and ftridl honour and honefty.- He
was the author of a great many works, fume of which
have not been printed.
RALLUS, the Rail, in ornithology; a genus be¬
longing to the order of gralhe. The beak is thickeft at
the bale, comprefied, equal, acute, and fomewhat lharp
on the back near the point ; the noftrils are oval; the
feet have four toes, without any web ; and the body is
comprefled. Mr Latham, in his Index Ornitholcgicus,
enumerates 24 fpecies, befides fome varieties. They
are chiefly dillinguilhed by their colour. “ Thefe birds
(fays BufFon) conftitute a large family, and their ha¬
bits are different irom thofe of the other Ihore-birds,
which refide on fands and gravel. The rails, on the
contrary, inhabit only the flimy margins of pools and
rivers, efpecially low grounds covered with flags and
other large marih plants. This mode of living is habi¬
tual and common to all the fpecies of water-rails. The
land rail frequents meadows, and from the difagreeable
cry, or rather rattling in the throat of this bird, is de¬
rived the generic name. In all the rails, the body is
{lender, and Ihrunk at the tides ; the tail extremely
ftiort; the head fmall; the bill pretty like that of the
gallinaceous kind, though much longer, and not fo
thick ; a portion of the leg above the knee is bare; the
three fore-toes without membranes, and very long : they
do not, like other birds, draw their feet under their bel¬
ly in flying, but allow them to hang down : their wings
are fmall and very concave, and their flight is ihort.—
They feem to be more diffufed than varied; and nature
has produced or tranfported them over the moft diftant
lands. Captain Cook found them at the Straits of Ma¬
gellan ; in different iflands of the fouthern hemifphere,
at Anamoka, at Tanna, and at the ifle of Norfolk. In
the Society Iflands there are two fpecies of rails ; a lit¬
tle black fpotted one, (pooa-r.ee'), and a little red-eyed
one (mai-ho). It appears that the two acolins of Fer¬
nandez, which he denominates water-quads, are of a
fpecies of rails peculiar to the great lake of Mexico.-—
11)e colins, which might be confounded with thefe, are
a kind of partridges.” The principal are,
1. The aquaticus, or water-rail, is a bird of a long
flender body, with fhort concave wings. It delights
lefs in flying than running : which it does very fwiftly
along the edges of brooks covered with bullies: as it
runs, it every now and then flirts up its tail, and in .
flying hangs down its legs; aftions it has in common*
with- the water-hen. Its weight is four ounces and a
half. The length to the end of the tail is 12 inches ;
the breadth 16. The bill is flender, fligbtly incurva-
ted, one inch three quarters-long : the upper mandible
black, edged with red ; the lower, orange-coloured :
the head, hind part of the neck, the back, and coverts
of the wings and tail, are black, edged with an olive
brown ; the throat, breaft, and upper part of the belly,.
are afti-coloured: the fides under the wings as far as
tD' rump, finely varied with black and white bars. The
tail is very ihort, confifts of 12 black feathers; the
ends of the two middle tipt with ruft colour ; the fea¬
thers immediately beneath the tail white. The legs ate
placed far behind, and are of a duiky fleih-colour. The
toes very long, and divided to their very origin ;
though the feet are not webbed, it takes the water;
will fwim on it with much eafe, but is often obferved
to
R A L [ 789 1 RAM
Kallas, to run along the furface. “Water rails (fays Buffon) are
feen near the perennial fountains during the greateft part
of the winter, yet like the land rails they have their re¬
gular migrations. They pafs Malta in the fpring and au¬
tumn. The Vifcount de Querhoent faw fome 50 leagues
off the coalts of Portugal on the 17th of April. They
were fo fatigued, that they fuffered themfelves to be
caught by the hand (a). Gmelin found thefe birds in
the countries watered by the Don-. Bclon calls them
black rails, and fays they are everywhere known, and
that the fpecies is more numerous than the red rail, or
land rail. The flefh of the water rail is not fo delicate
as that of the land rail, and has even a marfhy taile,
nearly like that of the gallinule. It continues the
whole year in England.”
2. The porzana, or gallinule, is not very frequent
in Great Britain, and is faid to be migratory. Inha¬
bits the Tides of fmail Itreams, concealing itfelf among
the bulhes. Its length is nine inches ; its breadth, 15 ;
its weight, four ounces five drachms. The head is
brown, fpottqd with black; the neck a deep olive, fpot-
ted with white: the feathers of the back are black
next their (hafts, then olive-coloured, and edged with
white ; the fcapulars are olive, finely marked with two
fm;,ll white fpots on each web : the legs of a yellowiih
green. “ Its habits (fays Buffon) wild, its intlinft llupid,
the porzana is unfufceptible of education, nor is even ca¬
pable of being tamed. We raifed one, however, which
lived a whole fummeron crumbs of bread and hemp-feed;
when by itfelf, it kept conllantly in a large bowl of water;
but if a perfon entered the clofet where it was (hut, it
ran to conceal itfelf in a fmail dark corner, without vent¬
ing cries or murmurs. In the (late of liberty, however,
it has a (harp piercing voice, much like the feream of
a young bird of prey ; and though it has no propenlity
to fociety, as foon as one cries, another repeats the
found, which is thus conveyed through all the reft, in
the diitrift. Like all the rails, it is fo obftinately averfe
to rife, that the fportfman often feizes it with his hand,
or fells it with a (lick. If it finds a bu(h in its retreat,
it climbs upon it, and from the top of its afylum be¬
holds the dogs brulhing along in fault: this habit is
common to it and to the water-rail. It dives, fwims,
and even fwims under water, when hard puflied.
“ Thefe birds difappear in the depth of winter, but re¬
turn eaily in the fpring ; and even in the month of Fe¬
bruary they are common in fome provinces of France
and Italy. Their fle(H is delicate, and much efleemed :
thofe, in particular, which are caught in the rice-fields
in Piedmont are very fat, and of an exquifite flavour.”
3. The Crex, crake, or corn-crek, has been fuppofed
by fome to be the fame with the water-rail, and that it
differs only by a change of colour at a certain feafon of
the year: this error is owing to inattention to their
charadfers and nature, both which differ entirely. The
bill of this fpecies is ihort, ftrong, and thick ; formed
exactly like that of the water-hen, and makes a generi-
cal diltindtion. It never frequents watery places ; but
is always found among corn, grafs, broom, or furze. It
quits the kingdom before winter; but the water-rail en¬
dures our (harped feafons. They agree in their aver- Ral!u«
lion to flight; and the legs, which are remarkably long 1!
for the fize of the bird, hang down whild they are on __
the wing ; they trud their fafety to their fwiftnefs on
foot, and feldom are fprung a fecond time but with
great difficulty. The land rail lays from 12 to 20 eggs,-
of a dull white colour, marked with a few yellow fpots;
notwithllanding this, they are veiy numerous in this
kingdom. Their note is very lingular ;- and like the
quail, it is decoyed into a net by the imitation of its
cry, crek crek ertk, by rubbing hard the blade of a knife
on an indented bone. Moil of the names given in dif¬
ferent languages to this bird are evidently formed to
imitate this lingular cry. Hence Turner and fome
other naturalills have fuppofed it to be the crex of the an¬
cients ; but that term appears to have been applied by
the ancients to other birds. Philus gives the crex the
epithet of or JluggiJh'ivingcd, which would
indeed fuit the land-rail. Ariilophanes reprefents it as
migrating from Libya: Aridotle fays that it is quarrel-
fome, which may have been attributed to it from the
analogy to the quail; but he adds, that the crex feeks
to dcllroy the neils of the blackbird, w hich cannot ap¬
ply to the rail, fince it never inhabits the woods. Still
lefs is the crex of Herodotus a rail, for he compares its
fize to that of the ibis, which is ten times larger. The
avofet, too, and the teal, have fometimes the cry c«xg
crex : and the bird which Belon heard repeating that
cry on the banks of the Nile is, according to his account,
alpeciesof godwit. Thus the found reprefented by the
word wx, belonging to feveral fpecies, is not fufficiently
precile to diftinguiffi the land-rail.
They are in greatell plenty in Anglefea, where they
appear about the 20th ot April, fuppofed to pafs over •
from Ireland, where they abound : at their iirll anival
it is common to (hoot feven or eight in a morning.
They are found in moft. of the Hebrides, and the Ork¬
neys. On their arrival they are very lean, weighing only
fix ounces; but before they leave this ifland, grow fo fat
as to weigh above eiglvt. The feathers on the crown of
the head and hind-part of the neck are black, edged
with bay colour: the coverts of the wings of the fame
colour, but not fpotted ; the tail is fliort, and of a deep
bay : the belly white ; the legs aih-coloured,
KAXPH (James), a late ingenious hiftorical and
political writer, was born, we know not when or w’here,
being firll known as a fchoolmailer in Philadelphia in
North America. Fie came to England about the be¬
ginning-of the reign of George L and wrote fome things
in the dramatic way, which were not received with great
applaufe : but though he did not fucceed as a poet, he
was a very ingenious profe-writer. He wrote A Hi-
(lory of England, commencing with the Stuarts, which
is much efteemed ; as were his political cflays and pam¬
phlets, fome of which were looked upon as mailer-pieces.
His lull publication, The Cafe of Authors by Profeffion,
is an excellent and entertaining performance. He died
in 1762.
RAM, in zoology. See Ovis.
Buttering Ram, in antiquity, a militaiy engine ufed
to •
(a) * I tried (fays M. de Querhoent) to raife fome : they thrived wonderfully at firll, but after a fort¬
night’s confinement their long legs grew paralytic, and the birds could only crawl on their knees ; at 1^(1 they
expired.’ Gefner fays, that having long fed one, he found it to be peeviffi and quarrelfome.”
RAM, [79
tt*m tu batter down the walla ol befieged places. See BaT'
tl TERiHQ Ram.
^a efcs. Ram^ Head, in a (hip, is a great block belonging
to the fore and main haulyards. It has three fluves in
it, in which the haulyards are put; and in a hole at the
end are reeved the ties. . '
RAMADAN, a folemn feafon of falling among the
Mahometans. See Mahometanism.
RAM AH (anc. geog.), a town of Benjamin, near
Gibea, (Judges') ; called Rama of Saul (i Sam. xxii.),
fix miles from Jerutalem to the north ; memorable fur
the llory of the Levite and his concubine : Taken and
fortified by Baafa king of Ifrael, in order to annoy the
kingdom of Judah. This Rama is mentioned Ita. x.
jer. xxxi. and Matth. ii. and is to be diltinguifhed from
Rama of Samuel, 1 Sam. xix. called alio Ramaiba, 1 Sam.
i. 19. and Ramathaim Zophim, ibid. i. I. which lay a
great way to the weft, towards Joppa, near Lydda, I
Maccab. ii. the birth-place of Samuel; adjoining to the
mountains of Ephraim, and the place of his reiidence,
1 Sam. xv. &c. (Jofephus). Called Ramula in the lower
age, (Gut. Tyrius.) There is here a convent of the ba¬
thers of the Holy Hand, inhabited only by Portuguefe,
Spaniards, and Italians.
RAMATH-mizpe, ( Jofhua xiii.) 1 Ramoth-Mafphe,
(Septuagint, Vulgate) ; Rarnotb in Gilead, or Remmath
Galatd, (Seventy); a town in that tradl of Gilead call¬
ed Mafpha, or Miee.pe, one of the cities of refuge.
RAMAZZINI (Bernardin), an Italian phylician,
horn at Carpi near Modena in 1633. He was profeflor
of phyfic in the univerfity of Modena for 18 years; and
in 1700 accepted an invitation from Padua, where he
was made 're&or of the college ; and died in 1714.
His works were colledled and publifhed* in Eondon,
1716; of which, his treatife Jdt Morbis /Irtijicum, “ Of
the peculiar maladies of artificers,” will always be
efteemed ufeful and curious.
RAMEKINS, a fortrefs of the United Netherlands,
on the iouih coalt of the ifland of Walchevin, in the
province of Zeland. One of the cautionary towns gi¬
ven to Queen Elizabeth for the repayment of the char¬
ges fhe had been at for the defence ot this republic in
its infancy. Four miles eafl ot Flu thing ; in N. Eat. 51.
34. E. Long. 4. 24.
RAMESES, (anc. geog.) ; a town built by the If-
raelites during their bondage in Egypt, and from which
the Exodus took place, and which mult have been to¬
wards and not tar from the Arabian Gulph, feeing in
the third Itation the Ifraelites arrived on its fhore.
RAMESES, king of the Lower Egypt when Ja¬
cob went thither with his family, in the 1706th year
before the Chriltian era. Ancient authors mention fe-
veral other kings of Egypt of the fame name ; and it is
thought that one of thole princes eredted in the temple
of the fun at Thebes, the magnificent obelilk which the
emperor Conilantine cauied to be removed to Alexan¬
dria in the year 334; and that prince dying, his Ion
Conftantius had the obelilk tranfpoited ftom Alexan¬
dria to Rome in 352, where it was ere&ed in the grand
Circus. Its height was 132 feet. When the Goths
lacked the city of Rome in 409, they overthrew this
obelilk, which continued buried in the land till the time
of Sixtus V. in 1587, when it was found broken in three
pieces ; which being joined together, it was fet up in
' the fquare of St John de Eateran. On the four Ikks of
3 ] R A M
this wonderful obehlk are a number of figures and hie- Ramifka.
roglyphical characters, which, accoHji-ug to the expli- ^ tlL>.‘^>
catiou ol Ammianus Marccllinus, contain the pwiifeo of ‘irn‘
Ramefes.
RAMIFICA1 ION, the production of boughs or
brandies, or of figures relemoling branches.
RAMfEEIES, a fmall village of Brabant, in the
Aullrian Low Countries, 12 miles north of Nr.mur,
and 22 fouth-eall of Brullcls. Eat. 50. 51. Long. 4.
48. Famous for the battle fought by the allies com¬
manded by the duke of Marlborough and M. D’Auver-
quirque, againll that of the two crowns, commanded by
the Duke ot Bavaria and Marlhal Villeroy, the 2 2d of
May 1706. See Britain, n'357. *
The troops deltincd to compofe the army of the al¬
lies being joined-at the camp ol Borchloon the 20th of
May, baited the 21ft. On the 2 2d the army marched
from Borchloon in four columns, and polled itlelf the
fame day, with the right towards the Mill of Quorem,
extending with the left towards Blehen: from this camp
was diicovered the army of the two crowns, which was
encamped with the left at Over-Eipen, and the light
towards the wood ol Chapiaraux, Heyliftem in their
front, and Tirlemont in their rear. It was reiolved the
fame day to march the next morning towards the plain
of Meerdorp or Mierdau, to view the poilure of the
enemies, and determine what would be the moll proper
menus of attacking them according to the movement
they Ihould make. To this end, an advanced guard of
600 horfe and all the quarter-mailers of the army were
feqt forward on the 23d at break ol day.
The fame morning about four, the army marched in
eight columns towards the aforefaid plain. The advan¬
ced guard and the quarter-mailers arrived about eight
at the height of Meerdorp or Mierdau ; from whence
the army ot the enemy was ieen in motion : a little after
it was perceived that the enemy was marching through
the plain of Mount St Andrew in four columns, of
which information was given to the duke of Marlbo¬
rough and M. DAuverquirque, who immediately re¬
paired to the faid height; and by the time thefe gene¬
rals were arrived there, the head of the enemy’s army
already appeared at the tomb of Ottomont upon the
caufeway, near, the Mehaigne : whereupon the Duke
of Marlborough and M. D’Auverquirque made the
army advance with all expedition.
The enemy, as fail as they advanced, ranged in order
of battle, w'lth their right towards the tomb of Otto¬
mont upon the Mehaigne, extending with their left to
Autr’Eglife ; having Tranquiers in front of their right,
into whifch they had thrown ieveral battalions of infan¬
try and 14 fquadrons of dragoons, who had difmounted
their horfes to fupport them. They had placed many
of their infantry and a coniiderable part of their artille¬
ry in Jthe village of Ramiilies, which fronted the right
ot their main body, as well as into the village of Ofiuz,
which fronted the left of their infantry, and into the
village of Autr’Egliie, quite on their left. The front
between the village of Ramiliies and Autr’Egliie was
covered by a finall ftream of water, which rendered the
meadows in lome places marlhes, and alfo by feveral
roads covered with hedges ; which difficulties prevent¬
ed our cavalry of the right wing from coming to
a&ion. As fall as the army of the allies anived it.
was ranged in -order of battle; with the left towards
Bonnef,
RAM [ 79J 1 R A M
Rarn'llies Sonnef, and the right towards Folz* and every tiling
r wa8 difpoled in order to attack. I’o this end, four
3 battalions were detached to attack the village of Fran-
quenies, and twelve battalions to attack the village of
Ram lilies, which were to be fupported by the whole in¬
fantry.
Our artillery began to cannonade the enemy at one ;
at about two, the attack began with the poll of Fran-
quenies, where our infantry had the good fortune to
drive the enemy from the hedges, where they were ad-
vantageoully polled, and at the fame time all the caval¬
ry of our left wing advanced to attack that of the ene¬
my’s right; foon after all was in action. Whilft the
cavalry were engaged, the village of Ramillie:? was like-
wiie attacked, and forced after a vigorous rdiilaitce.
1. ne battle lafted about two hours, and was pretty
obltinate; but to foon as our cavalry had gained ground
enough to attack the enemy in flank, they began to
give way ; at the fame time all their infantry were put
in dhorder, fo that the whole retreated in great confu-
fion. The cavalry of their left wing formed a little
upon the high ground, between Offu/. and Mount St
Andrew, to favour their retreat: but after the infantry
and cavalry of our right wing had filed off between the
bottom of the village of Ramillies and Offuz, the whole
army marched in feveral columns to attack the enemy
anew; but they gave way before we could come up
with them, and retired in great confuiion, fome towards
the defile of the Abbey De La Ramce and towards
J)ongelberge, others towards Judogne, and others again
towards Idougarde. I hey were purfued all night fo
clofely that they were obliged to abandon all their ar¬
tillery and baggage, part of which was found at Judog-
ue and at Hougarde, with their chefls of ammunition.
The enemy loft above 30,000 men, 60 cannon, 8
mortars, ftandards, colours, baggage, See. ; we about
3000. i'he reft of the campaign was fpent in the lie¬
ges of Oftend, Menin, and Aeth. In fourteen days
the Duke defeated and difperfed the heft appointed ar¬
my the French ever had, and recovered all Spaniih Bra¬
bant, the marquifate of the holy Roman empire. The
army of the enemy con filled of 76 battalions and 142
fquadrons, including the king’s houfliold troops (La
Mai fan du Roi); and the army of the allies was 74 bat¬
talions and 123 Iquadrons. Confulering the import¬
ance of the victory, the lofs of the allies was very fmall,
not above 1100 being killed, and 2600 wounded.
RAMLA, the modern name of Arimathea. See
Arimathea.
RAMMER, an inftrument ufed for driving down
ftones or piles into the ground; or for beating the earth,
in order to render it more folid for a foundation.
Rammer of a Gun, the Gun-fiick ; a rod ufed in char-
ging of a gun, to drive home the powder, as alfo the
fhot, and the wad which keeps the fhot from rolling
RAMPANT, in heraldry, a term applied to a lion,
leopard, or other beaft that fLnds on its hind legs,
.aid rears up his for<;-feet in the pofture of climbing,
ihowing only half his face, as one eye, &c. It is diffe¬
rent from fahant, in which the beaft feems fpringing
forward as if making a fally. ,
RAMPART, in fortification, is an elevation of
earth round a place capable of refilling the cannon of
an enemy; and formed into baflkms, curt ins, &c.
•RAMPHASTOS, the Toucan, in" ornithology. Ramph&f-
See Rha MPHASTOS. ' •
RAMSA\ (Allan), the Scots paftoral poet, was a **a J*1**.
barber in Edinburgh m the early part of the prefent
century. His tafte in poetry, however, has juftly rai-•
fed him to a degree of fame that may in fome meafure
be confidcred as a recompenfe for the frowns of for¬
tune. His fongs are in univerfal efteem ; as is alfo
the only dramatic performance attributed to him, viz.
Plitre and Roger, or 'The Gentle Shepherd, a Scots pa-
ftoval. He died in 1743 * an<^ " as lather to the inge¬
nious Mr Ramlay, a celebrated painter of the prefent
age, and who has likewife diftinguilhed himfelf by fome
well-written tnicls on various branches of polite litera¬
ture, particularly the Inve/ligator.
Ramsay (Andrew Michael), generally known by
the name of the Cbevaher Ramfay, was a polite Sc6t%
writer, born of a good family at Ayr in 1686. Hi*,
good parts and learning recommended him to be tutor
t» the fon of the earl of Wemyfs ; after which, concei¬
ving a difguft at the religion in which he had been edu¬
cated, he in the fame ill humour reviewed other Chri-
ilian churches ; and, finding none to his liking, relied
for a while in Deifm. While he was ih this uncertain
ftate of mind, he went to Leyden ; where, falling into
the company of one Poirct a myftic divine, he received
the infe&ion of myfticifm : which prompted him to con-
fult M. Fenelon, the celebrated archbifhop of Cambray,
who had imbibed principles of the fame nature ; and
who gained him over to the Catholic religion in 1709.
The fubfequent courf# of his life received its direftion
from his friendfhip and connexions with this prelate ;
and being appointed governor to the duke de Chateau
Thierry, and the prince de Turemie, he was made a
knight of the order of St Lazarus. He was fent for
to Rome by the chevalier de St George, to undertake
the education of his children ; but he found fo many
intrigues and diflenfions on his arrival therein *724,
that he obtained the Chevalier’s leave to return to Pa¬
ns. He difd in 1743, in the office of iutendant to the
duke of Bouillon, prince de Turenne. The moll ca¬
pital work of his writing is the Travels of Cyrus, which-
lias been feveral times printed in Englifh.
Ramsay (the Reverend James), fo juftly cele¬
brated for his philanthropy, was, on the 25th of Ju-
ty horn at Fraferfburgh, a fmall town in the
county of Aberdeen, North Britain. His defeent
was honourable, being, through his father, from the
Ram fays of Melrofe in Banffshire, and through his
mother, from the Ogilvies of Puric in Angus. His
parents were of charaders the moll refpeXable, but in
circumftaooes by no means affluent. From his earlieft
years he difeovered a ferious difpolition, and a ftrong
thirft for knowledge ; and after pafiing through the
courfe of a Scotch grammar fchool education, "lie was
inclined to purfue the lludies requilite to fit him for the
profelfion of a clergyman ; an inclination with which
the wilhes ot his mother, a woman of* eminent piety,
powerfully concurred. Several circamftances, however,
confpired to divert liim for a time from his favourite
purfuit.
He was educated in the epilcopal perfuafkm; and ha¬
ving been unhappy enough to lofe his father while yet
very young, he found, upon his advancing towards the
ftate oi manhood, that the joint fortunes of himfelf and
Ws.
RAM [7
•p.atrcfay. liig mother could not bear the cxpeiice of a regular edu¬
cation in either of the univerfities of Oxford or Cam¬
bridge, which he doubtlcfs thought abfolutely neceffary
to one who afpired to refpe£lability in the church of
[England. Yielding therefore to neceflity,^ he refolyed
to iiudy forgery and pharmacy ; and w^as with this view
bound apprentice to Dr Findlay, a phyfician(A) in Fra-
ferfbutgh. But though obhged to relinquifli for a time
his favourite ftudies, he did not think ignorance excu-
• fable in a furgeon more than in a clergyman, or conceive
that he could ever become eminent in the profeflion in
which circumftances had placed him, merely by (kill in
fetting a bone or compounding a medicine. He deter¬
mined therefore, with the full approbation of his mailer,
who very foon difeovered his talents for literature, to
make himfelf acquainted with at lead the outlines of the
liberal arts and fciences ; and with this view he repaired
in 1750 to the King’s College and univerfity of Aber¬
deen, where he obtained one of the burfaries or exhibi¬
tions which are there annually bellowed upon fuch can¬
didates for them as difplay the mod accurate knowledge
of the Latin language. The fmall fum of five pounds,
however (which none of thefe burfaries exceed), was
dill inadequate to the expence of refidence in college ;
but our voung dudent was foon to obtain a more valu¬
able exhibition, and to obtain it likewife by his own
merit.
During the long vacation he returned to his mader
Dr Findlay, and was by him intruded with a very defpe-
rate cafe in furgery, sof which his management may be
laid to have laid the foundation of his future fortunes.
A female fervant of one of the judges of the Court of
Befiion, who, when the court was not fitting, redded in
the neighbourhood of Fraferlburgh, had been fo dread¬
fully gored by a bull, that hardly any hopes were enter¬
tained of her recovery; but Mr Ramfay, to whole care
Ihe was entirely left, treated the wound with fuch lldl-
ful attention, that, contrary to general expe&ation, his
patient recovered. This attrafted the judge’s notice,
who having informed himfelf of the young man’s cir-
cumdances and chara&er, recommended him fo effec¬
tually to Sir Alexander Ramfay of Balmain, that he
prefented him with a burfary of 15 pounds a-year, which
commenced at the next fejfion or term^ in the fame col-
lege.
He now profecuted his dudies with comfort; and
though he was detained in college a year longer than is
ufual, being obliged, upon his acceptance of a fecond
burfary, to begin his courfe anew, he always confidered
this as a fortunate circumftance, bccaufe it gave him
the celebrated Dr Reid three years for his preceptor.
To that great and amiable philofopher he fo recom¬
mended himfelf by his talents, his indudry, and his vir¬
tues, that he was honoured with his friendlhip to the
day of his death. Nor was it only to his mailers that
his conduft recommended him ; Sir Alexander Ramfay,
whom he vifited during fome of the vacations, was fo
Well pleafed with his converfation, that he promifed him
92 ] RAM
another burfary, in his gift, of 25I. a-year, to com- Ramfay.
mence immediately on the expiration of that which he "■“"V'—'
enjoyed. This promife he performed in the beginning
of the year 1755 ; and at the felicitation of Dr Findlay
even paid the money per advance to enable the exhibi¬
tioner to travel for the purpofe of improving himfelf in
his profefiion.
Thus provided, Mr Ramfay went to London, and ftu-
died furgery and pharmacy under the aufpices of Dr
Macauly; in whofe family he lived for two years, careffed
and efteemed both by him and by his lady. Afterwards,
having palled the ufual examination at Surgeon’s-hall,
he ferved in his medical capacity for feveral years in the
royal navy; but how long he was continued in the llation
of a mate, or when and by whom he was firft appoint¬
ed furgeon, we have not been able to learn. We can
fay, however, upon the bell authority, that by his liu-
mane and diligent difeharge of his duty in either llation,
he endeared himielf to the feamen, and acquired the e-
fteem of his officers.
Of his humanity there is indeed one memorable in-
ilance, which mull not be omitted. WTiilfl he acted as
furgeon of the Arundel, then commanded by Captain
(now Vice-admiral Sir Charles) Middleton, a ffave-Ihip
on her paffage from Africa to the Weft Indies fell in
with the fleet to which the Arundel belonged. An
epidemical diftemper, too common in fuch veffels, had
fwept away not only a great number of the unfortunate
negroes, but alfo many of the flup’s crew, and among
others the furgeon. In this diftreffed lituation the
commander of the Guinea {hip applied to the Englifh
Commodore for medical affiftance ; but not a furgeon or
fvirgeon’s mate in the whole fleet, except Mr Ramfay,
would expofe himfclf to the contagion of fo dangerous
a diftemper. Prompted, however, by his own innate
benevolence, and fully authorized by his no lefs bene¬
volent commander, the furgeon of the Arundel, regard-
lefs of perfonal danger, and trulling in that God to
whom mercy is more acceptable than facrifice, went on
board the infe&ed fhip, vilited all the patients, and re¬
mained long enough to leave behind him written direc¬
tions for their future treatment. If a cup of cold water
given in charity be entitled to a reward, how much
more fuch an adlion as this ? But the rewards of Chri-
ftianity are not immediate. Mr Ramfay indeed efcaped
the contagion ; but on his return to his own fhip, juft
as he had got on the deck, he fell and broke his thigh¬
bone ; by which he was confined to his apartment for
ten months, and rendered in a fmall degree lame through
the remainder oi his life.
The fearlefs humanity which he difplayed on this
occafionx gained him the fnendlhip and elleem of Sir
Charles Middleton, which no future aaion of his life
had the fmalleft tendency to impair; but the fradlure
of his thigh-bone and his fubfequent lamenefs determin¬
ed him to quit the navy, and once more turn his
thoughts towards the church. Accordingly, while the
Arundel lay at St Chriftopher’s, he opened his views to
fome
(a) In the remote towns of Scotland the fame man generally adls in the triple capacity of ph^fician, fuigeon,
tnd apothecary ; and we could mention dodtors of phyfic of the firft eminence, who pradlne thus wit un 01 y
r.nd apothecary
fifties of Edinburgh
RAM
T 793 1
RAM
SUaifay. fojnc of-thc principal inhabitants of that ifland, by whom
he was fo ftrongly recommended to the bifhop of Lon¬
don, that on his coming home with Sir Charles Mid¬
dleton, who warmly joined in the recommendation, he
was admitted into orders; after which he immediate¬
ly returned to St Chriftopher’s, where he w-as prefent*
€d by the governor to two retteries, valued at #ool. a-
year.
As foon as he took pofTeflion of his livings, in 1763,
he married Mifs Rebecca Akers, the daughter of a
planter of the beft family-connettions in the Tfland, and
began to regulate his houfehold on the pious plan incul¬
cated in his is/foy on the Treatment and Converjxon of the
African Slaves in the Britijh Sugar Colonies. He fum-
moned all his owrn Haves daily to the prayers of the fa¬
mily, when he took an opportunity of pointing out to
them their duty in the plaineft terms, reproving thofe
that had done amifs, and commending fuch as had fhown
any thing like virtue ; but he confefled that his occa-
fions for reproof were more frequent than for commen¬
dation. As became his office and charatter, he incul¬
cated upon others w'hat he prattifed himfelf, and knew
to be equally the duty of all. “ On his firft fettlement
as a miniller in the Weil Indies, he made fome public
attempts to inilrutt Haves. He began to draw up fome
cafy, plain difeourfes for their inftruttion. He invited
them to attend on Sundays, at particular hours. He
appointed hours at home to inftrudt fuch fenfible Haves as
would of themfelve* attend. He repeatedly exhorted their
mailers to encourage fuch in their attendance. He re¬
commended the French cuilom, of beginning and end¬
ing work by prayer. But inconceivable is the liilleif-
nefs with which he was heard, and bitter was the cen-
fure heaped on him in return. It was quickly fuggeil-
ed, and generally believed, that he wanted to interrupt
the w'ork of Haves, to give them time, forfooth, to fay
their prayers ; that he aimed at the making of them
Chriilians, to render them incapable of being good
flaves. In one word, he flood, in opinion, a rebel con-
vitt againft the intereft and majeily of planterihip. And
as the Jews fay, that in every puniihment, with which
they have been proved, fince the bondage of Egypt,
there has been an ounce of the golden calf of Horeb ;
fo might he fay, that in every inflance of prejudice (and
they were not a few) with which, till within a year or
two of his departure from the country, he was exerci-
fed, there was an ounce of his fruitlefs attempts to im¬
prove the minds of Haves. In the bidding prayer, he
had inferted a petition for the converfion of thofe per-
fons. But it was deemed fo difagreeable a memento, that
feveral white people, on account of it, left off attending
divine fervice. He was obliged to omit the prayer en¬
tirely, to try and bring them back. In ihort, neither
were the Haves, at that time, defirous of being taught,
new were their mailers inclined to encourage them.”
That he was hurt by this neglett cannot be queilion-
ed, for he had a benevolent, warm, and irritable ;
but he ft ill retain^Omany friends amongft the moil wor-
thy members of the community : and as he was confei-
ous of having done nothing more than his duty, he con-
foled himfelf with refletting, that thofe are “ blefled
whom men revile, and perfecute, and fpeak all manner
of evil againft falfely, for the fake of the gofpel.”
Although his ferious ftudies were now theological,
he confidered himfelf as aofwerable to God, his country,
. You XV. Fait II.
and lui own family, for a proper ufe of every'branch of
knowledge which he pofleiTed. He therefore took the''
charge of fever al plantations around him in the-capaci-
ty of a medical prattitioner ; and attended them with
unremitting diligence, and with great fuccefs. Thus he
lived till the year 1777, when relinquifliing the prattic<r
of jphyfic entirely, he paid a vifit to the place of his na¬
tivity, which he had not feen fince 1755. His mother,
whofe latter days he had made comfortable by a hand-
fome annuity, had been dead for fome years ; but he re¬
warded all who had been attentive to her, or in early
life ferviceable to himfelf; and he continued the penfion
to a filler who had a numerous family, for which her
hulband was unable to provide.
After remaining three weeks in Scotland, and near
a year in England, during which time he was admitted
into the confidence of Lord George Germaine, fecre-
tary of flate for the American department, Mr Ram-
fay was appointed chaplain to Admiral Barrington,
then going out to take a command in the Weft In¬
dies. Under this gallant officer, and afterwards un¬
der Lord Rodney, he was prefent at feveral engage¬
ments, where he difplayed a fortitude and zeal for the
honour of his country which would not have difgraccd
the oldeft admiral. To the navy, indeed, he feems to
have been ftrongly attached ; and he wrote, at an early
period of his life, an T.Jfay on the Duty and Qualifications
of a Sta-officer, with mch a knowledge of the fervice
as would have done honour to the pen of the moft ex¬
perienced commander. Of the firll edition of this eftay
the profits were by its benevolent author appropriated
to the Magdalen and Britilh lying-in hofpitals, as thofe
of the fecond and third (which laft was puhlilhed about
the peried of which we now write) were to the maritime
fehool,or,in the event «t* failure, to the marine fociety.
Although .carefted by both the admirals under whom
he ferved, and having fuch influence with the latter as
to be able to render eflential fervices to the Jews and
o^Uer perfons whom he thought harlhly treated at the
capture of St Euftatius, Mr Ramlay once nnit-e quitted
the fea-fervice, and retired to his paftoral charge in the
Iftand of St Chrillopher’s. There, however, though the
former animofities againft him had entirely fubiided, and
though his friendlhip was now folicitcd by every peifon
of confequence in the iHand, lie remained but a little
w’hile. Sick of the life of a planter and of the pro-
fpett of flavery around him, he religned his livings,
bade adieu to the ifland, and returned to England with
his wife and family in the end of thfc year 1781. Im¬
mediately on his arrival, he was, through the intereft;
of his Heady friend Sir Charles Middleton, prefented to
the livings of Tellou and Nettleftead in the county of
Kent.
Here he was foon determined, by the advice of thofe
whom he moft refpetted, to publifli an Effay, which had
been written many years before, on the Treatment and
Converfion of African Slaves in the Briti/h Sugar Colo¬
nies. The controveify in which this publication invol¬
ved him, and the acrimony with which it was carried
on, are fo frefti in the memory of all our readers, that
no man who thinks of the narrow' limits within which
our biographical articles mull be confined, will blame
Vis for not entering into a detail of the particulars.—
Torrents of obloquy were poured upon the benevolent
author by writers who were unfair enough to'conceal
5 H their
T* A M [ 794 1 R A M
tiamfuy, their naincfi; and it nuift He conteffed, that his .eplies
Raii;fden’« bounded with favcafms, which the moft rational friends
1*tacIutK- to the caufe which he fupported would not have been
* y- L fyrrv to fee blotted from his pages. The provocation,
however, which he received was great; and Mr Ram-
fav. though an amiable, virtuous, and pious man, had^
a warmth of temper, which, though not defending of
praife, will be cenfured by none who refleft on the frailties
of our common nature. That the particular calumnies
propagated againft hum on this occafion were wholly
groundlefs, it is impofiihle to doubt, if we admit him
to have been pofTefled of common underftanding. When
fome years ago a floiy was circulated, of Swift’s ha¬
ving, when prebendary of Kilroot, been convi&ed be¬
fore a niagidrate of an attempt to commit a rape on
the body of one of Ins panlhioiiers, it was thought a
fuffieient confutation of the calumny to put the retail¬
er of it in inind, that the dean of St Patrick’s, though
detelted by the molt powerful faction in the kingdom,
lampooned without dread, and with great feverity, the
dean of Ferns for the very crime of which, had this
aire«dote been true, he mull have been confcious that
all Ireland knew himfelf to be guilty l Such conduct
cannot be reconciled to common fenfe. Irlad Swilt
been a ravifher, though he might have been penitent,
and reafoned in general terms againll giving way to-
fuch licentious pafiions, he would never have fatyrifed
a particular per fan for the crime of which he himfelf
flood convifted. In like manner, liad Mr Ramfay been
a tyrant to his own (laves, though he might have ar¬
gued againll flavery in the abllraft, on the broad bafo
of virtue and religion, he never could have arraigned
for fimilar cruelty a number of individuals in the very
ifland which witnefied his own enormities.
But the melancholy part of the narrative is behind.
The agitation given to his mind by thefe calumnies,
and the fatigues he underwent in his endeavours to re-
feue from niifery the moll htlplcfs portion of the human
race, contributed to fhortenalife in no common degree
ufeful. He had been for fome time afRi&ed with a pain
1b his llomach, for which he was prevailed upon, tho’
with great reluftance, to try the effcCls of air and ex-
ercife, by attempting a journey of too miles. But in
London, being feized with a violent vomiting of blood,
he was unable either to proceed or to be removed
home ; and in the heufe of Sir Charles Middleton he
ended his days, on the 2Qth of July 17R9, amidil the
groani of his family, and the tears of many friends.,—
Thus died a man, of whom it ia not too much to fay,,
tfmt “ the blcffing of many that were ready to perilh
came upon himfor whatever be the fate of the flave-
trade (fee Slavery), it is certain that his writings
have contributed much to meliorate the treatment of
flaves. He left behind him a widow and three daugh^
ters : and his works, befides thofe to which we have al¬
luded, confift: of a volume of Sea-fermonsy preached on
board his majefty’s fhip tire Prince of Wales, which
fnow him to have been a mailer of true puipit-elo-
cuence ; and a Treatfe on Signals, which was certainly
written, and we think, printed, though we know not
whether it was ever publifhed.
RAMSDEN.’s Machine for Dividing Mathema¬
tical Instruments, is a late invention,.by which
thefe divifions can be performed with exceeding great
accuracy, fuch as would formerly have been deemed in¬
credible. On difedvering the method of con&ru&’ng Ran-.fdeR’#
this machine, its inventor, Mr Ramfdcn of Piccadilly, Machine^
received 615 1. from the comn jflioners of longitude ; lrf-
engaging himfelf to inltrudl a certain number of per-
fons, not exceeding ten, iu the method of making and
ufing this machine from the z8th Oftober 177$ to
28th O&ober '777 : alio binding himfelf to divide all
©Plants and fextants by the fame engine, at the rate
of three (hillings for each o&ant, and fix (hillings for
each brafs fextant, with Nonius’s divllions to half mi¬
nutes, for as long time as the committioners fhouid
think proper to let the engine remain in his poffefhon.
Of this fum of 615 1. paid to Mr Ramfden, 300 1. was
given him as a reward for the improvement mace by
him in difeovering the engine, and the remaining 315I.
for his giving up the property of it to the commif-
fioners. The following defeription of the engine, is
that given upon oath by Mr Ramfden himfelf.
“ This engine confills of a large wheel »f bell-met.d,
fupported on a mahogany (land, having three legs,
which are flrongly connefted together by braces, fo
as to make it perfedlly Iteady. On each leg of the
(land is placed a conical friction-pulley, whereon the
dividing-wheel reds: to prevent the wheel from Hid¬
ing off the friftion-pulieys, the bell-metal centre under
it turns in a focket on the top of the (land.
“ The circumference of the wheel is ratched or cut
(by a method which will be deferibed hereafter) into
2160 teeth, in which an endlefs ferew ails. - Six re¬
volutions of the ferew will move the wheel a fpace
equal to one degree.
“ Now a circle of brafs being fixed on the ferew ar¬
bor, having its circumference divided into 6o parts,
each divilion will confequently anfwer to a motion of
the wheel of ic feconds, fix of them will be equal to
a minute, &c.
“ Several different arbors of tempered (leel a^e truly
ground into the focket in the centre of the wheel. 7 he
upper parts of the arbors that (land above the plane
are turned of various fi/.es, to fuit tae centre* of dif¬
ferent pieces.of work to be divided.
“ When any imlrument is to be divided, the centre
of it is very exactly fitted on one of thefe arbors ; and
the inftrument is fixed down to the plane of the divid¬
ing wheel, by means of ferews, which fit into hole*
made in the radii of the wheel for tliat purpofe.
“ The inftrument being thus fitted on the plane of
the wheel, the frame which carries the dividing-point
is connected at one end by finger-ferews with the frame
which carries the efl’Slefs ferew j while the other end
embraces that part of the (led arbor, which (lands
above the inftrurnent to be divided, by an angular
notch in a piece of hardened (led ; by this means both
ends of the frame are kept perfectly fteady and free
from any (hake.
« The frame carrying the dividing-point or tracer,
is made to Hide on the frame which .carries the endlefs
ferew to any diftance from the centre of the wheel as
the radius of the inftrument to be divided may require,
and may be there faftened by tightening‘-two clamps y
and the dividing-point or tracer being conneded With
the damps by the double-jointed frame, admits a free
and eafy motion towards or from the centre for cut¬
ting the divifions, without any lateral (hake.
“ From what has been laid, it appears, that an in-
2 ilrumcnt
RAM
r 705 i
RAM
^■rafdcn% frrument tKus fitted on the dividing-wheel may be
Machine. jnoveJ to any angle by the fcrew and divided circle on
W"rv~' its arbor, and that thia angle may be marked on the
limb of the inftrument with the greatell exadtnefs by
the dividing-point or tracer, which Can only move in
_ a direft line tending to the centre, and is altogether
freed from thofe inconveniences that attend cutting by
means of a Araight edge. This method of drawing
lines will alfo prevent any error that might arife from
an expanfion or contraction of the metal during the
time of dividing. ^
“ The ferew-frame is fixed on the top of a conical
.pillar, which turns freely round its axis, and alfo moves
freely towards or from the Centre of the wheel, fo
that the ferew-frame may be entirely guided by the
frame which connects it with the centre : by this means
any excentricity of the wheel and tile arbor would not
produce any .error in the dividing ; and, by a particular
contrivance (which will be deferibed hereafter), the
lerew when preffed againlt the teeth of the wheel always
moves parallel to itfelf ; fo that a line joining the centre
of the arlnir and the tracer continued, will always make
equal angles with the lerew.
Plate “ Ficrure I. reprefents a perfpedlive view of the en*
tcccxxxiu . r
gine.
Plate “ Fig. 2. is a plan, of which fig> 3. reprefents a fec-
^Cecxxxivtkm on the line nA*
« The large wheel A is 45 inches in diameter, and
has ten radii, each being fupported by edge-bars, as
reprefented in fig. 3. Thefe bars and radii are con¬
nected by the circular ring B, 24 inches in diameter
and 3 deep ; and, for greater llrength, the whole is Call
in one piece in bell-metal.
“ As the whole weight of 4he wheel A refts on its
ring li, the edge-bars are deepelt where they join it ;
and from thence their depth duninilhes, both towards
the centre and the circumference, as reprefented in
fig.-3.
“ The furface of the wheel A was worked very even
and flat, and its circumference turned true. The ring
C, of fine brafs, was fitted very exa&ly on the circum¬
ference of the wheel ; and was faflened thereon with
ferews, which, after being ferewed as tight as poflible,
were well rivetted. The face of a large chuck being
turned very true and flat in the lath, the flattened fur-
Fig. 3. face A of the wheel was faftened againfl it with hold-
falls ; and the two i'urfaces and circumference of the
ring C, a hole through the centre and the plane part
round (b) it, and the lower edge of the ring B, were
turned at the fame time.
“ D is a piece of hard bell-metal, having the hole,
which receives the fteel-arbor (d), made very flraight
and true. This bell-metal was turned very true on
yn arbor ; and the face, which rells on the wheel at (b),
was turned very flat, fo that the Heel arbor (d) might
ftand perpendicular to the plane of the wheel: this
bell-metal was failened to the wheel by fix fteel
ferews (1).
“ A brafs focket Z is faftened on the centre of the
mahogany Hand, and receives the lower part of the
bell-metal piece D, being made to totich the bell-
metal in a narrow part near the mouth, to prevent any
obliquity of the wheel from bending the arbor : good
fitting is by no means neccffary htrej fincc any, fhake
Fig. 1.
Fi
g* 4.
Fig. 4,
in this focket will produce no bad effedl, as will appear RairtTUen**
hereafter when we deferibe the cutting frame. Machine.
“ The wheel was then put on its ftand, the lower
edge of the ring B refting on the circumference of
three conical fritlion-pulleys W, to facilitate its mo¬
tion round its centre. The axis of one of thefe pulleys
is in a line joining the centre of the wheel and the
middle of the endlefs ferew, and the other two plated
fo a* to be at equal dillanCes from each other.
“ F is a block of wood ftrongly taftened to one of the
legs of the ftand $ the piece (g) is ferew ed to the upper
fide of the block, and has half holes, in which the
tranfverfe axis (h) turns: the half holes are kept toge¬
ther by the ferews (i).
“ The low'er extremity of the conical pillar P termi- Fig. r. &
nates in a cylindrical fteehpin (k), which paffeg through jr|g ^
and turns in the tranfverfe axis (h), and is confined by
a check and ferewn
“ To the upper end of the conical pillar is faftened
the frame G, in w'hich the cndlefs ferew turns : the
pivots of the ferew are formed in the manner of two
fruftums of cones joined by a cylinder, as reprefent-
ed at X. Thefe pivots are confined between half
poles, which prefs only on the conical parts, and do Fig. 5.
not touch the cylindric parts t the half holes are kept
together by ferews (a), which may be tightened at any
time, to prevent the fetew from (baking in the frame.
“ On the ferew-arbor is a fmall wheel of brafs K, ** **
having its outfide edge divided into 60 parts, and num¬
bered at every 6th divifion with 1, 2, See. to 10. The
motion of this wheel is (hown by the index (y) on the Fig. 5#
ferew-frame G.
“ H reprefents a part of the ftand, having a parallel Pig- *•
Hit in the direction towards the centre of the wheel,
large enough to receive the upper part of the conical
brafs pillar P, which carries the ferew and its frame :
and as the refiftance, when the wheel is moved by the
cndlefs ferew, is againft that fide of the (lit H which*
is towards the left hand, that fide of the (lit is faced
with brafs, and the pillar is preifed againft it by a
fteel fpring on the oppofite fide : by this means the
pillar is ftrongly fupported laterally, and yet the ferew
may be ealily prefled from or agaiuft the circumference
of the wheel, and the pillar w ill turn freely on its axi*
to take any direftion given it by the frame L.
“ At each corner of the piece I are ferews (n) of Fig* 4
tempered fteel, having poliftied conical points : two of
them turn in conical holes in the ferew-frame near (o),
and the points of the other two ferews turn in holes
in the piece Qj the ferews (p) are of fteel, which being
tightened, prevent the conical pointed ferews from un-
Uirning w'hen the frame is moved.
‘‘ L is a brafs frame, which ferves to conned the end- Ii
Itfs ferew, its frame, See. with the centre of the wheel:
each arm of this frame is terminated by a fteel ferew,
that may be pafied, through any of the holes (q) in the p;>T ^
piece Q, as the thicknefs of work to be divided on °
the wheel may require, and are faftened by the finger- p. r ^ .
nuts (r}» , ig- • 2»
“ At the other end tif this frame is a flat piece of g
tempered fteel (b), wherein is an angular notch : when
the endlefs ferew is prefled againft the teeth on the cir¬
cumference of the wheel, which may be done by turn- ^ ^ ^
ing tlie finger-fcrew.S,. to prefij againft tlic fprjng (t),
5 H 2 thi*
RAM
Ratnf !er’s this notch embraces and preflcs agalnft the ftecl arbor
^Machine. This end of the frame may be railed or depreffed
^ by moving the prifmatic Aide (u), which may be fixed
pi' 12 6at any ^eiE^t hv t^e ^our fteci-fcrews (v)-
Jg‘ 11 ’ ■ “ The bottom of this Aide has a notch (k), whofe
’S' *' ('plane is parallel to the endlefs-fcrew; and by the point of
Fig. 3. the arbor (d) reding in this notch, this end of the
Fi x ^ frame is prevented from tilting. The ferew S is pre¬
vented from unturning, by tightening the finger-
nut (w).
“ The teeth on the circumference of the wheel were
cut by the following method :
“ Having confidered what number of teeth on the
circumference would be moft convenient, which in this
• engine is 2160, or 360 multiplied by 6, I made two
ferews of the fame dimenfions, of tempered Heel, in
the manner hereafter deferibed, the interval between
the threads being fuch as I knew by calculation
would come within the limits of what might be turned
off the circumference of the wheel: one of thefe ferews,
which was intended for ratching or cutting the teeth,
was notched acrofs the threads, fo that the ferew, when
preffed againd the edge of the wheel and turned round,
cut in the manner of a faw. Then having a fegment
of a circle a little greater than 60 degrees, of about
fhe fame radius with the wheel, and the circumference
made true, from a very fine centre, I deferibed an arch
near the edge, and fet off the chord of 60 degrees on
this arch. This fegment was put in the place of the
wheel, the edge of it was ratched, and the number of
revolutions and parts of the ferew contained between
the interval of the 60 degrees were counted. The
radius was corre&ed in the proportion of 360 revolu¬
tions, which ought to have been in 60 degrees, to the
number a&ually found ; and the radius, fo corre&ed,
was taken in a pair of beam-compafies: while the
wheel was on the lath, one foot of the compafies was
put in the centre, and with the other a circle was de¬
feribed on the ring ; then half the depth of the threads
of the ferew being taken in dividers, was fet from this
circle outwards, and another circle was deferibed cut¬
ting this point; a hollow was then turned on the edge
of the wheel of the fame curvature as that of the ferew
at the bottom of the threads : the bottom of this hol¬
low was turned to the fame radius or dillance from the
centre of the wheel, as the outward of the two circles
before-mentioned.
“ The wheel was now taken off the lath ; and the
Fig- 3- bell-metal piece D was ferewed on as before dire&ed,
which after this ought not to be removed.
“ From a very exatt centre a circle was deferibed
Fig. i.a, 3 on the ring C, about of an inch within where the
bottom of the teeth would come. I bis circle was di¬
vided with the greateft exattnefs I was capable of, firft
into five parts, and each of thefe into three. Thefe
parts were then bifefted four times: (that is to fay)
fuppofing the whole circumference of the wheel to con¬
tain 2160 teeth, this being divided into five parts, each
would contain 432 teeth; which being divided into three
parts, each of them would contain 144 ; and this fpace
ram
bifc&ed four times would give 72, 36, 115, and 9: there*
fore each of the lull divifions would contain nine teeth, MachiKe*
But, as I was apprehenfive fome error might arife from ’ l-J>
quinquefe&ion and trife&ion, in order to examine the
accuracy of the divifions, I deferibed another circle on
the ring C, inch within the former, and divided it Fig. 7,
by continual bifedfions, as 2160, 1080, 540, 270, 135,
67!, and 331; and as the fixed wire (to be deferibed
prefently) crofled both the circles, I could examine
their agreement at every 135 revolutions ; (after ratch¬
ing, could examine it at every 33!) : but, not finding
any feufible difference between the two fets of divifions,
I, for ratching, made choice of the former ; and, as
the coincidence of the fixed wire with an xnterfedh’on
could be more exadfly determined than wfith a dot or
divifion, I therefore made ufe of interfedtions in both
circles before described.
“ The arms of the frame L were conncdled by a thin Fig. 7*
piece of brafs of 5 of an inch broad, having a hole in
the middle of T45 of an inch in diameter ; acrofs this
hole a iilver wire was fixed exaftly in a line to the cen¬
tre of the wheel; the coincidence of this wire with the
interfe&ions was examined by a lens rs inch focus,
fixed in a tube which was attached to one of the arms
L (a). Now a handle or winch being fixed on the
end of the ferew, the divifion marked 10 on the circle
K xvas fet to its index, and, by means of a clamp and
adjufiing ferew for that purpofe, the inteideftion mark¬
ed 1 on the circle C was fet exactly to coincide with
the fixed wire ; the ferew was then carefully prefied
againll the circumference of the wheel, by turning the
finger-ferew S ; then, removing the clamp, I turned
the ferew by its handle 9 revolutions, till the interfec-
tion marked 240 came nearly to the wire ; then, Tin-
turning the finger-ferew S, I releafed the ferew from
the wheel, and turned the wheel back till the interfec-
tion marked 2 exa£tly coincided with the wire, and,,
by means of the clamp before-mentioned, the divifion
10 on the circle being fet to its index, the ferew was
prefled againlt the edge of the wheel by the finger-
ferew S ; the clamps were removed, and the ferew turn¬
ed nine revolutions till the interfeftion marked 1 near¬
ly coincided with the fixed wire ; the ferew was re-
leafed from the wheel by unturning the finger-ltrew S
as before, the wheel was turned back till the interfec-
tion 3 coincided with the fixed wire ; the divifion 10
on the circle being fet to its index, the ferew was pref¬
led againll the wheel as before, and the ferew was turn¬
ed 9 revolutions, till the interfe&ion 2 nearly coincided
with the fixed wire, and the ferew was releafed ; and I
proceeded in this manner till the teeth were marked
round the whole circumference of the wheel. This
was repeated three times round, to make the impref-
fion ol the ferew deeper. I then ratched the wheei
round continually in the fame direction without ever
difengaging the ferew; and, in ratching the wheel
about 300 times round, the teeth were finifhed.
“ Now it is evident, if the circumference of the wheel
was even one tooth or ten minutes greater than the
ferew would require, this error would in the firft in-
4 ftance
[ 79<5 1
(a) The interfe&ions are marked for the fake of illuftratien, though properly invifible, they lying under the
brafs plate.
RAM
[ 7° 7 1
RAM
Fig. i.
Fig. i.
toamfden'i /lance be reduced to Tj^ part of a revolution, or two
Machine- pcconJs and a half j and thefe errors or inequalities ot
’ the teeth were equally diftributed round the wheel at
the dillance of nine teeth from each other. Now, as
the fcrew in ratching had continually hold of feveral
teeth at the fame time, and, thefe conftantly changing,
the above-mentioned inequalities foon corrected them-
felves, and the teeth were reduced to a perfect equality.
The piece of brafs which carries the wire was now ta¬
ken away, and the cutting fcrevv was alfo removed,
and a plain one (hereafter defcribed) put in its place :
on one end of the fcrew is a fmall brafs circle, having
its edge divided into 6o equal parts, and numbered at
every fixth divifion, as before-mentioned. On the other
end of the fcrew is a ratchet-wheel C, having 6o teeth,
5* covered by the hollowed circle (d), which carries two
clicks that catch upon the oppolite fides of the ratchet
when the fcrew is to be moved forwards. The cylin¬
der S turns on a llrong iteel arbor F, which pafles
through and is firmly fcrewed to the piece Y : this
piece, for greater firmnefs, is attached to the fcrew-
Fig. 4. frame G by the braces (v) : a fpiral groove or thread
is cut on the outfide of the cylinder S, which ferves
both for holding the firing, and alfo giving motion to
the lever J on its centre by means of a fieel tooth (n),
that works between the threads of the fpiral. To the
lever is attached a firong fteel pin (m), on which a
brafs focket (r) turns : this focket pafles through a Hit
in the piece (p), and may be tightened in any part of
the flit by the finger-nut (f) : this piece ferves t* regu¬
late the number of revolutions of the fcrew lor each
tread of the treadle R.
u T is a brafs box containing a fpiral fpring ; a
ftrong gut is fafiened and turned three or four times
round the crrcumference of this box ; the gut then
pafles feveral times round the cylinder S, and from
thence down to the treadle R. Now, when the treadle
is prefled down, the firing pulls the cylinder S round
its axis, and the clicks catching hold of the teeth on
the ratchet carry the fcrew round with it, till, by the
tooth (n) working in the fpiral groove, the lever J is
Fjg* 4* » brought near the wheel (d), and the cylinder flopped
by the ferew-head (x) linking «n the top of the lever
J ; at the fame time the fpring is wound up by the
other end of the gut paffing round the box '1'. Now,
F*g. x. -when the foot is taken off the treadle, the fpring un¬
bending itfelf pulls back the cylinder, the clicks leaving
the ratchet and fcrew at reft till the piece (t) ftrikes on
the end of the piece (p) : the number of revolutions
r* of the fcrew at each tread is limited by the number of
revolutions the cylinder is allowed to turn back before
the Hop ftrikes on the piece (p).
“ When the endlefs fertvv was moved round its axis
with a confiderable velocity, it would continue that
mot/on a little after the cylinder S was flopped : to
%• x- & 4- prevent this, the angular lever » was made ; that when
the lever J comes near to flop the fcrew (x), it, by a
fmall chamfer, preffes down the piece * of the angular
lever; this brings the other end of the fame lever
forwards, and flops the endlefs fcrew by the fteel
pin ^ ftriking upon the top of it: the foot of the le¬
ver is raifed again -by a fmall fpring prefting on the
biace (v).
“ I), two clamps, connected by the piece «, Aide
Fig. i, 6. 0Iie on each arm 0f th€ frame L, and may be fixed at
pleafure by the four finger-ferews , which prefs againft kamfilen*
fteel fprings to avoid fpoiling the arms : thr piece'(q)
is made to turn without fhakc between two conical ~ ~
pointed ferews (f), which are prevented from unturn-
ing by tightening the finger-nuts N.
“ The piece M is made to turn on the piece (q), by pig, $t
the conical pointed ferews (i) refting in the hollow cen¬
ters (e).
“ As there is frequent occafion to cut divifions on
inclined planes, for that purpoie the piece y> in which
the tracer is fixed, has a conical axis at each end,
which turn in hall holes: when the tracer is fet to any
inclination, it may be fixed there by tightening the
fteel ferews 5.
Dejir 'tttion of the Engine by which the endlefs ferrw of the
Dividing Engine was cut.
“ Fig. 9. reprefents this engine of its full dimen.
fions feen from one fide.
“ Fig. 8. the upper fide of the fame as feen from
above.
“ A reprefents a triangular bar of fteel, to which the
triangular holes in the pieces B and C are accurately
fitted, and may be fixed on any part of the bar by the
ferews D.
“ E is a piece of fteel whereon the fcrew is intended
to be cut; which, after being hardened and tempered,
has its pivots turned in the form of two fruftums of
cones, as reprefented in the drawings of the dividing
engine (fig. 5.). Thefe pivots were exa£lly fitted to
the half holes F and T, which were kept together by
the ferews Z.
“ H reprefents a fcrew of untempered fteel, having
a pivot I, which turns in the hole K. At the othev
end of the fcrew is a bellow centre, which receives the
hardened conical point of the ftecl pin M. When thia
point is fuffieiently preffed againft the fcrew, to pre¬
vent its ftiaking, the fteel pin may be fixed by tight¬
ening the ferews Y.
“ N is a cylindric nut, moveable on the fcrew H ;
which, to prevent any (hake, may be tightened by
the ferews O. This nut is connedled with the faddle-
piece P by means of the intermediate univerfal joint
W, through which the arbor of the fcrew H paffes. A
front view of this piece, with a fedlion acrofs the
fcrew arbor, is reprefented at X. This joint is connec¬
ted with the nut by means of two fteel (lips S, which
turn on pins between the cheeks T on the nut N. The
other ends of thefe flips S turn in like manner on pins
(a) . One axis of this joint turns in a hole in the cock
(b) , which is fixed to the faddle-pitce ; and the other
turns in a hole (d), made for that purpofe in the fame
piece on which the cock (b) is fixed. By this means,
when the fcrew is turned round, the faddle-piece will
Aide uniformly along the triangular bar A.
“ K is a fmall triangular bar of well-tempered fteel,
which Aides in a groove of the fame form on the
faddle-piece P. The point ol this bar or ciitter is
formed to the fhape of the thread intended to be cut
on the endle(s fcrew. When the cutter is fet to take
proper hold of the intended fcrew, it may be fixed by
tightening the fcrew (e), which prefs the two piece*
of brafs G upon it.
“ Having meafured the circumference of the divi¬
ding-wheel, I found it would require a fcrew about one
thread
HAM f 798 ] RAM
RMnfey. thread in a hundred coarfer than -the e:uide-fcrew H.
The wlieels on the guide-fcrew arbor H, and that on
the fteel E, on which the fcrew was to be cut, were
proportioned to each other to produce that effeft, by
giving the wheel L 198 teeth, and the wheel Q_
2 00. Thefe wheels communicated with each other
by means of the intermediate wheel R, which alfo fer-
ved to give the threads on the two ferews the fame di-
reftion.
“ The faddle-piece P is confined on the bar A by
mentis of the pieces (g), and may be made to Aide with
a proper degree of tightnefs by the ferews (n).”
For Ramfdcn’s equatorial or portable obfervatory, fee
Optics, n° 102. and Astronomy, n° 504. See al¬
fo a long account of an equatorial inftrument made by
Mr Ramfden by the direftion of Sir George Shuck-
burgh ia the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1793, art. x.
p. 67. In this inftrument the circle of declinations is
four feet in diameter, and may be obferved nearly to
a fecond. The glafs is placed between fix pillars, which
form the axis of the machine, and turn round by two
pivots placed on two blocks of ftone. See alfo Baro¬
meter. -•
RAMSEY, a town of Huntingdonfhire, 68 miles
■north of London, and 12 north-eafl of Huntingdon.
It is fituated as it were in an ifland, being everywhere
^ncompafied with fens, except on the weft, where it is
feparated from the terra jirma by a caufey for two
miles. The neighbouring meers of Ramfey and Whitle*
fey, which are formed by the river Nyne, abound with
fowl and fifh, efpecially eel and large pikes. It was
once famous for a very rich abbey, part of the gatehoufe
of which is ftill ftanding, and a neglected flatue of Afi-
win ; the epitaph of wkofe tomb, which is reckoned
one of the oldeft pieces of Englifh fculpture extant,
ftyles him “ kinfman of the famous King Edward, al¬
derman of all England, and the miraculous founder of
this abbey.’' It was dedicated to St Dunftan, and its
abbots were mitred, and fat in parliament; and fo
many kings of England were benefa&ors to it, that its
yearly rents, fays Camden, were 70001. The town
was then called Ramfey the Rich ; but by the diflblution
of the abbey it foon became poor, and even loll its mar¬
ket for many years, till about 185 years ago it reco¬
vered it. It is held on Sattmlay, and is reckoned one of
the mofl plentiful and cheapeft in England. In the
year 1721 a great number of Roman coins was found
here, fuppofed to have been hid by the monks on
feme incurfion of the Danes. There is a charity fchool
in the town for poor girls. W. Long. o. 19. N. Lat.
52. 26.
Ramsey, an bland of fouth Wales, on the coafl of
Pembrokdhire, about two miles in length, and a mile
and a half broad. Near it are feveral finall ones, known
by the name of the b'tfhop and hh clerks. It is four
miles weft of St David’s, and 17 north-weft of Mil¬
ford haven. It belongs to the biOnpric of St Da¬
vid’s, and was in the lall age, fays Camden, famous for
the death of one Juflinian, a tnoft holy man, who re¬
tiring hither from Bntanny, in that age rieh in faints,
and devoting himfclf entirely to God, lived r long
while in folitude, and being at laft murdered by his
fervant was enrolled among the martyrs. W. Long. 5.
2.0. N. Lat. 51. 55.
Ramsey, in die IHc »f Man, to the north, a moft
noted and fpttcious haven, in which the greateft fleet may Rami^ate
ride at anchor with fafety enough from all winds but the
north-eafl, and in that cafe they need not be embayed. Rarriu** ,
This town ftanding upon a beach ofloofe fand, or fliingle,
is in danger, if not timely prevented, of being walked
away by the fca.
RAMSGATE, a fea-port town of Kent, in the ifle
of Thanet, five miles from Margate, where a very fine
3Dier has been lately built for the fecurity of fhips that
come into the harbour, being feated near the Downs,
between the north and fouth Foreland, 1 o miles north-
eaft of Canterbury. The town is fituated in the cove
of a chalky cliff. It was formerly but an obfeure filh*
ing village, but fmee the year 1688 has been improved
and enlarged by a fuccefsful trade to Rulfia and the '
caft country. But what renders it moft w'orthy of no¬
tice, and attracts multitudes of ftrangers, is the new
harbour, which is one of the moft capacious in Eng¬
land, if not in Europe. It was begun in the year
1750, but delayed fcy various interruptions. It con-
fills of two piers ; that to the eaft is built wholly of
Purbeck ftone, and extends itfelf into the ocean near
800 feet before it forms an angle; its breadth on the
top is 26 feet, ineluding a ftrong parapet wall, which
runs along the outlide of it. The other to the weft is
conilrufted of wood as far as the low-water mark, but
the reft is of ftone. The angles, of which there are
five in each pier, confift of 160 feet each, with o&a-
grms at the end of 60 feet diameter, leaving an en¬
trance of aoo feet into the harbour, the depth of which
admits of a gradual increafe of 18 to 36 feet. E. Long.
1- 30. N. Lat. 51. 22.
R AMT RUT, a deity worihipped by the Ranazins
of Hindoftan, where he has a celebrated temple at
Onor. He is reprefented as more refembling a mon¬
key than a man.
RAMUS, in general, denotes a branch of any
thing, as of a tree, an artery, &e. In the anatomy of
plants it means the full or lateral branches, which go
oft from the petiolum, or middle rib of a leaf. The
fubdivifions of theie are called furculi ; and the final
diviiioiie into the moft minute of all, are by iome called
cap'lllamenta ; but both kinds are generally denominated
furculus.
Ramus (Peter), was one of the moft famous pro-
felTors of the 16th century. He was born in Picardy
in 151$. A tkirft for learning prompted him to go
to Paris when very young, and he was admitted a ler-
vant in the college of Navarre. Spending the day in
waiting on his mailers, and the greateft part of the
night ir ftudy, he made inch furprifing progrefs, that,
when he took his mafter of arts degree, he offered to
maintain a quite oppofite doctrine to that of Arillotle,
i bis raifed him many enemies; and the two firft
books he publifiied, Injlitutiones JJtaitilica. and Arijlo*
telicit Ammadverftunes, occailoned great dillurbanccs iu
the univerfity of Paris : and the oppofition againft him
was not a little heightened by his deferting the Romifh
religion, and profelfing that of the Reformed. Being
thus forced to retire from Paris, he vifited the univer-
fities of Germany, and received great honours where-
cver he came. He returned to France in 157and
loll his life miferably in the horrid maffacre of St Bar¬
tholomew’s day. He was a great orator, a man of uni¬
versal learning, and endowed with very fine moral quail*
Male C CCCXXXIIL
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Rams DENS Machine
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RAM r 799 1 RAN
Ramu* ties. He publifhed many book;-*, •which TeifTier enu-
merates. Ramus’s merit in his oppofition to Ariflotle,
and his firmnefs m undermining his authority, is mique-
flionably great. But it has been doubted, and with
much rtafon, whether he was equally fuccefsful in his
attempts after a new logical inftitute. We have the
following general outline of his p an in Dr Enfield’s
Hiito*y of Philofophy. “ Confidering dialedtics as the
<• t of deducing conclufions from prtmiies, he endea¬
vours to improve this art, by uniting it with that cf
rhetoric. Of the feveral branches or rhetoric, he con*
ftders invention and difpofitiou as belonging equally to
logic. Making Cicero liis chief guide, he divides his
treatife on dialectics into two parts, the firft of which
treats of the invention of arguments, the fecond of
judgments. Arguments he derives not only from what
the Ariitotelians call middle terms, but from any kind of
proportion, which, connected with another, may fervc
to prove any afleition. Of thefe lie enumerates various
kinds. Judgments he divides into axioms, or idf-evi-
dent propolitions, and dianota, or deductions by means
of a feries of arguments. Both thefe he divides into
various claffes ; and illuflrates the whole by examples
from the ancient orators and poets.
“ In the logic of Ramus, many things are borrowed
from Ariftotle, and only appear under new names ; and
many others are derived from other Grecian fources,
particularly from the dialogues of Plato, and the logic Rarf'
of the Stoics. The author has the merit of turning
the art of reafoning from the futile fpeculations of the
fchools to forenfic and common ufe; but his plan ia
defective in confining the whole dialtCfic art to the
fmgle objeCt of deputation, and in omitting many
things, which refpeCt the general culture of the un-
derftanding and the invelligation of truth. Notwith*
itanding the defeCbs of his fyiteni, we cannot, however,
fubferibe to the fevere cenfure which has been palled
upon Ramus by Lord Bacon and others ; for much
is, we think, due to him for having with fo much
firmnefs and perftverance alferted the natural free¬
dom of the human underftanding. The logic of Ra¬
mus obtained great authority in the fchools of Ger¬
many, Great Britain, Holland, and France ; and long
and violent contefts arofe between his followers and
thole of the Citagyrite, till his fame vanifhed before
that of Defcartes.”
RAN, in the old Englifli writers, means open or pu¬
blic robbery, fo inanifclt as not to be denied. Ran diettur
aperta rap'ina qu* negari non potrji. Lamb. 125. Leg-
Canut. cap. 58. Hence it is no>y corr*nonly laid of
one who takes the goods of another injarioufly and vio^
lently, that he has taken or fnatched all he could rap and.
ran.
RANA, or Ranvla. See Rakula.
END OF THE FIFTEENTH VOLUME.
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